BOOK-1 POINTERS to ANSWERS SAMPLE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

CHAPTER:3
Mahabharata is a good source to study contemporary social attitudes. Support this statement with
suitable examples.
ANS- In my opinion, Mahabharata is a good textual source to study contemporary social attitudes.
(1) The Mahabharata gives a vivid description of the social attitudes of the period, as essentially it is a
story of conflict between two sets of warring cousins and thus centres around conflict in the society.
(2) Under patrilineal succession, as it emphasised the son’s right; the sons fought to claim resources
of the father after his death.
(3) The episode of Yudhishter staking Draupadi in a game of dice gives an insight into the status of
women in a patriarchal society. Yet it was possible for a woman like Draupadi to challenge it.
(4) The Mahabharata reinforces the relationship between the caste and the occupation prescribed in
the Dharmashastras through stories. The episode of Eklavya tells about the prejudices based on caste.
(5) The episode of Hadimba’s marriage to Bheem tells us about the marriage practices that were
different from the brahmanical traditions. It gives a vivid description of the caste system and
interrelationship of the different caste groups.
(6) The Mahabharata also gives two contrasting social norms in the relationship between the mother
and son. For example (i) relationship between the Pandavas and their mother, example (ii) the
Kauravas and their mother.
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Explain the factors that should be kept in mind by the historian while handling textual traditions.
ANS- Factors to be kept in mind by the historians while handling texts as a source:
(1) Language of the text - whether it was common one’s language or the language of the priests and
the upper class.
(2) Kind of text - whether it was a mantra or stories.
(3) Author’s perspective in writing the text.
(4) The audience to whom it was written.
(5) Date of the composition or compilation of the text.
(6) The place of composition. (Page 73-74)
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Is Mahabharata a good source to study ancient values? Justify.
In my opinion yes, the Mahabharata is a good textual source to study the social
value of the ancient times.
(1) The Mahabharata gives a vivid description of the social values of the period
as essentially it is a story between two sets of warring cousins and thus
centres around conflict in the society.
(2) On patriliny succession it emphasized son’s right to claim the resources
of their father after the latter’s death.
(3) The Mahabharata reinforces the relationship between the caste and the
occupation prescribed in the Dharmashastras through stories. For example, the
story of Ekalavya.
(4) The Mahabharata gives a vivid description of the caste system and
interrelationship of the different caste group. This is evident from the story of
Hidimba’s marriage with Bhima.
 (5) The Mahabharata also provides evidence to patriarchal society, for example
Yudhishtira staking Draupadi, his wife in the game of dice.
(6) The Mahabharata also gives two contrasting social norms in the relationship
between the mother and son. For example (i) relationship between the
Pandavas and their mother, example (ii) the Kauravas and their mother.
(P 54, 55, 61, 64, 65, 68)
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State the efforts of VS Suthankar and his team for the preparation of the critical edition of the
Mahabharata. Also explain under which heads do historians classify its contents. (6+2)
-An ambitious project of scholarship began in 1919, under a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar.
A team comprising dozens of scholars initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the
Mahabharata. Initially, it meant collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety of
scripts, from different parts of the country.
-They worked out a method of comparing verses from each manuscript. They selected the verses that
appeared common to most versions and published these in several volumes, running into over 13,000
pages.
-The project took 47 years to complete. Two things became apparent: there were several common
elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all over the subcontinent.
Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been transmitted
over the centuries.
-These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices to the main text; more than half the
13,000 pages are devoted to these variations. These variations are reflective of the complex processes
that shaped social histories – through dialogues between dominant traditions and resilient local ideas
and practices.
-Our understanding of these processes is derived primarily from texts written in Sanskrit by and for
Brahmanas. When issues of social history were explored for the first time by historians in the19th and
20th c, they tended to take these texts at face value – believing that everything that was laid down
was actually practised.
-Subsequently, scholars began studying other traditions, from works in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil. These
studies indicated that the ideas contained in normative Sanskrit texts were on the whole recognised
as authoritative: they were also questioned and occasionally even rejected.
Language and content
Historians usually classify the contents of the present text as– sections that contain stories,
designated as the narrative, and sections that contain prescriptions about social norms, designated as
didactic. This division is by no means watertight – the didactic sections include stories, and the
narrative often contains a social message. (P 54 & 73)
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QUE- State any three elements that historians considered while analysing the Mahabharata.
The elements that Historians considered while analysing the Mahabharata:
1 Language in which the text was written- Pali, Prakrit, Sanskrit.
2 Kind of text- devoted to mantras meant to be learnt and chanted
3 Author of the text.
4 Audience- for whom the text is written.
5 Date and place of composition. (To be assessed as a whole) Theme 3; Pg72,73
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QUE- Which elements are considered by historians while analyzing the Mahabharatat?

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Historians and the Mahabharata
-The elements of consideration for historian while analyzing texts are follows:
1. Language of the text-whether it was ordinary people’s language or the language of the
priests/elites
2. Kind of text-whether it was a mantra or story.
3. Author’s perspective in writing the text
4. The audience to whom it was written
5. Date of the composition or compilation of the text. 6. The place of composition.
-We have been considering the Sanskrit language Mahabharata.
-The Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is simpler than that of the Vedas or of the prashastis. So it was
probably better to be understood.
Who wrote the text?
-The original story was composed by chariot-bards known as sutas who accompanied the Kshatriya
warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other
accomplishments.
-These compositions were circulated orally. Bye fifth century BCE; the Brahmanas began
committing this to writing.
-It is also possible that the upheaval occurring in social values being replaced by new norms at this
time, were reflected in Mahabharata.
-Another phase is c.200BCE and 200BCE when worship of Vishnu was growing and Krishna was
being identified with Vishnu.
-Between c.200and 400CE didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added.
-All these additions made the text, which started with less than 10,000 verses to 100,000 verses.
This work is traditionally attributed to sage Veda Vyasa.
-The text presented is classified into two sections: One that contains stories, designated as the
‘narrative ‘
-Other section, containing prescriptions about social norms, known as ‘didactic’. This section
includes stories and narratives containing social messages.
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QUE- Who were the Indian Kings of Non-Kshatriya origin?
 According to the Shastras, only Ksahtriyas were supposed to be the kings.
 But it is observed that any person who is able to muster support and resources and need not
to depend on theory of birth. For example, there are different opinions regarding the origin of
the Mauryas.
 Later Buddhist texts suggest that they were Kshatriyas while the Brahmanical texts describe
them as the rulers of ‘low’ origin.
 The immediate successors of Mauryas were Shungas and Kanvas who were Brahmans.
 The Satavahana King Gautamiputra Satakarni claimed to be a Brahman and destroyer of
Kshatriya’s pride.
 He also claimed to have ensured that there was no intermarriage amongst members of the
four varnas, but he himself entered into marriage alliance with the kin of Rudradaman.
 From this example, we can assume that integration within the framework caste was often a
complicated process.
 The Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas, whereas according to the Brahmansa, kings ought
to have been Kshatriyas.

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  They claimed to uphold the fourfold Varna order, but entered into marriage alliance with
people of other castes.
 Besides, Brahmanical texts prescribed exogamy, but the Satavahanas practiced endogamy.
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CHAPTER:4
Enlist the chief features of temple architecture in the early India.
ANS-
(1) The early forms of temples had a small square room called the ‘Garbagraha’ which housed the
image of a god or a goddess. The room had a single doorway through which the worshipper could
enter and offer worship.
(2) Gradually the structure of the temple changed, a tall structure known as the ‘Shikhara’ was built
over the central shrine.
(3) The temple walls were decorated with beautiful sculptures.
(4) Later temples became even more elaborate, they had assembly halls, huge walls, gateways and
they even had arrangements for water supply.
(6) The unique features of earliest temples were that some of them were hollowed out of rocks as
artificial caves where the worshippers performed their prayers. These later evolved into elaborately
designed temples such as the temple of Kailasanatha. (Page 105-107)
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Describe the structural and sculptural features of the Sanchi stupa. (P-96 & 99)
STRUCTURAL FEATURES:
-The stupa (heap in Sanskrit) originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda.
Gradually, it evolved into a complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda
was the harmika, a balconylike structure that represented the abode of the gods.
-Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around
the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
-Early stupas at Sanchi & Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, like a bamboo or wooden
fence, and the gateways, which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal
points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a
clockwise direction keeping the mound on the right, imitating the sun’s course through the sky.
-Later, the mound was elaborately carved with niches and sculptures as at Amaravati, and Shahji-ki-
Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).
SCULPTURAL FEATURES:
1) Stories from Jatakas on gateways of Sanchi.
2) Depiction of a rural scene-from Vessantara Jataka.
3) Story of a generous prince.
4) Buddhist symbols depicted like empty seat depicted Buddha’s meditation.
5) Stupa represented mahaparinibbana.
6) Wheel – first sermon of Buddha.
7) Tree- Bodhi tree.
8) Animals as Jatakas contain their stories. (detailed explanation)
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QUE- To what extent does the knowledge of Jatakas help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?
Explain by citing examples.
1) Stories from Jatakas on gateways of Sanchi.
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 2) Depiction of a rural scene-from Vessantara Jataka.
3) Story of a generous prince.
4) Buddhist symbols depicted like empty seat depicted Buddha’s meditation.
5) Stupa represented mahaparinibbana.
6) Wheel – first sermon of Buddha.
7) Tree- Bodhi tree.
8) Animals as Jatakas contain their stories.
i. Depiction of rural scene, with thatched huts and trees.
ii. The empty seat to indicate the meditation of the Buddha, and The Stupa was meant to represent
the mahaparinibbana.
iii. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel .it stood for the first sermon of the Buddha,
delivered at Sarnath.
iv. The shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their
own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
v. Animals like elephants, horses, monkeys and cattle, Elephants were depicted to signify strength and
wisdom.
vi. Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi- literally,
the goddess of good fortune.
vii. Any other relevant point. (P-99-103)
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What role did the Begums of Bhopal play towards conservation of the Sanchi stupa? (P- 83)
Sanchi’s preservation
i. When Sanchi was “discovered” in 1818, three of its four gateways were still standing, the fourth was
lying on the spot where it had fallen and the mound was in good condition.
ii. Nineteenth-century Europeans like the French and English sought Shahjehan Begum’s permission to
take away the eastern gateway, which was the best preserved, to be displayed in the museums in
France and England. But she refused & gave plaster cast copies to them &the original remained.
iii. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money
for the preservation of the ancient site.
iv. She funded the museum that was built there as well as the guesthouse where John Marshall lived
and wrote the volumes.
v. She also funded the publication of the volumes written by John Marshall. (P-83)
QUE- ”Amaravati was discovered before Sanchi yet it had lost its glory and was an insignificant little
mound.” In the light of the above statement justify why Sanchi survived but Amaravati did not?
Sanchi survived because:
1) It escaped the eyes of railway contractors, builders and Europeans.
2) It was discovered in 1818 after the scholars had understood the value of finds.
3) When it was discovered three of its gateways were still standing and the fourth was lying on the
spot where it had fallen and the mound was in good condition.
4) Due to the efforts of the rulers of Bhopal the mound could be preserved.
Amaravati did not survive because:
1) It was discovered in 1796 before the scholars understood the value of finds.
2) Local Raja who stumbled on the finds used the stones to build a temple.
3) Walter Elliot collected several structured panels and took them away to Madras (Elliot’s Marbles).
4) Slabs of Amravati adorned the gardens of British officials, London office, Asiatic Society of Bengal.
5) H H Cole’s plea for preservation were ignored. (P-83,98,99)
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QUE- Trace the revival and growth of Puranic Hinduism.
There were two important traditions that developed within puranic Hinduism.
1. Vaishnavism is a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity. In
the case of Vaishnavism; cults were developed around the various avatars or incarnations of Lord
Vishnu. According to Vaishnavism there are ten avatars of Vishnu.
-Avatars were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed in order to save the world
whenever the world was threatened by evil forces.
-Different avatars were popular in different parts of the country.
2. Shaivism is a tradition within which Shiva was regarded as the chief god. Shiva was symbolized by
the linga, although he was occasionally represented in the form of human figure too.
-Some of these deities were represented in sculptures. All such representations depicted a complex
set of ideas about the deities.
-To understand the meaning of these sculptures, historians have to be familiar with the Puranas.
-Puranas contained stories about gods and goddesses. They were written in simple Sanskrit and were
meant to be read aloud to everybody.
-Puranas evolved through interaction amongst people-priests, merchants, and ordinary men and
women who travelled from place to place sharing ideas and beliefs.
-For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region.
-Over centuries, his worship spread to other parts of the country as well. (P-104-105)
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QUE- Examine the main aspects of Jainism.
The message of Mahavira (Basic ideas of Jaina Philosophy) (P-88,89)
 Mahavira was preceded by 23 tirthankaras. Tirthankaras are teachers who guide men and
women across the river of existence. The main teachings of Mahavira are:
 The entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water have life.
 No-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects.
 The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
 Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.
 This can be attained only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a
necessary condition of salvation.
Jaina monks and nuns must take five vows.
 To abstain from killing
 To abstain from stealing
 To abstain from lying
 To observe celibacy
 To abstain from possessing property.
The spread of Jainism
 The teachings of Mahavira were recorded by his disciples.
 These were in the form of stories which could appeal to ordinary people.
 Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit
and Tamil and preserved in libraries attached to temples.
 Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India
 Stone sculptures connected with the Jain traditions have been recovered from several sites.
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QUE- Describe Buddha’s quest for enlightenment and his main teachings.
The Buddha and the Quest for enlightenment (The Life of Buddha) (P-89-91)
 The traumatic incidents that changed the life of the Buddha
 Buddha was one of the most influential teachers of his time.
 His message spread across the subcontinent and beyond-through central Asia to China, Korea
and Japan, and through Sri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
 Buddha was named Siddhartha at birth and was the son of the chief of Sakya clan.
 He led a sheltered upbringing in the palace detached from the harsh realities of life.
 He undertook a journey into a city which was a turning point in his life.
 He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse.
 It was at the moment that he realized that decay of human body was inevitable.
 He saw a mendicant who had come to terms with old age, disease & death and found peace.
 Soon after, Siddhartha left the palace in search of truth.
 He explored many paths including bodily mortification.
 He abandoned the extreme path and meditated for several days and finally attained
enlightenment and came to be known as Buddha or the enlightened one.
 For the rest of his life he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.
Main teachings of Buddhism
Sources: Sutta Pitaka contains the teachings of Buddha in the form of stories. Few stories describe his
miraculous powers and others suggest that Buddha tried to convince people through reasons and
persuasion rather through displays of supernatural power.
Main teachings
 The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.
 It is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
 Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
 It is by following the middle path between severe penance and self- indulgence that human
beings can rise above these worldly troubles.
 In the early forms of Buddhism whether or not God existed was irrelevant.
 Buddha regarded the social world as a creation of humans rather than divine origin and thus
advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.
 Buddhism emphasizes literally the extinguishing of the ego and desires and thus ends the
suffering of those who renounced the world.
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QUE- Describe life in a Buddhist Sangha and the spread of Buddhism.
Followers of the Buddha (The Buddhist Sangha) (P-92-94)
 Buddha’s last words to his followers were: ”Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work
out your own liberation”
 The body of disciples of the Buddha or an organization of monks is called sangha.
 Buddha founded a sangha- an organization of monks who became teachers of dhamma.
 These monks lead a simple life possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such as a
bowl to receive food once a day from the laity.
 As they lived on alms, they were known as bhikkus.
 Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be admitted.
 Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gotami was the 1st woman included as bhikkuni.

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  Many women who entered the sangha became teachers of dhamma and went on to become
theirs, or respected women who had attained liberation.
 The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups. They included kings, wealthy men
and gahapatis, and also humbler folk; workers, slaves and crafts people.
 Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their earlier social identities
on becoming bhikkus and bhikkunis.
 The Buddhist sangha which comprised of bhikkus and bhikkunis functioned on the lines of
ganas and sanghas where consensus was arrived at based on discussions.
 If discussions failed to bring about harmony, decisions were taken by a vote on that subject.
Spread of Buddhism
 Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and after his death.
 People were dissatisfied with the prevailing religions and were confused by the social
changes that were occurring.
 Buddhism emphasized on the importance of conduct and values rather than claims of
superiority based on birth.
 Emphasis was laid on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) especially for those
who were young and weaker than oneself. These ideas drew men & women to Buddhism.
The development of Mahayana Buddhism
 By the first century CE, there were changes in Buddhist ideas and practices.
 Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana.
 Buddha was regarded as a human being. The idea of Buddha as a saviour emerged.
 It was believed that he is the one who could ensure salvation.
 Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed.
 Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who helped to attain nibbana.
 Worship of images of the Buddha & Bodhisattas became an important part of this tradition.
 This new way of thinking was called Mahayana-literally; the “greater vehicle”.
 The followers of Mahayana Buddhism described the older tradition as Hinayana or the
“lesser vehicle”.
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