200 Design Background

200 Design Background
Abstract
This section contains the basic concepts which need to be part of your thinking as
you begin to design or prepare a specification for a new fired heater or retrofit. The
various design parameters are discussed in Section 210, Process and Economics
Considerations, where recommended values and rules of thumb are given.
Section 220, Combustion and Fuels, covers heating values, how to calculate the
combustion products a heater has to handle, and the effects of fuel type and quality.
The various types of Heat Transfer are described in Section 230; typical values and
methods of estimation are given. Thermal Efficiency, Section 240, includes the
effects of stack gas temperature and excess air and gives quick methods for esti-
mating efficiency. Waste Heat Recovery (Section 250) is restricted to those tech-
niques applicable to a fired heater; impacts on design and operation are included.
Emissions, Section 260, covers the major pollutants produced by a heater, how they
can be controlled, performance standards, and where to find information on regula-
tory approval. The mechanism of Draft is explained in Section 270, together with its
importance, measurement, and adjustment. Section 280, Computer Program
Abstracts, gives descriptions of two useful programs, FRNC5 and REFORM3, for
design and analysis of fired heaters.
Contents Page
210 Process and Economic Considerations 200-3

211 Heat Flux and Temperature
212 Velocity, Pressure Drop, and Flow Regime
213 Parallel Tube Passes
214 Radiant Section Tube Sizing and Layout: Example
215 Turndown
216 Thermal Efficiency
217 Natural vs Forced/Induced Draft
218 Direct vs Indirect Heating
220 Combustion and Fuels 200-13
221 Heating Value
222 Complete Combustion
Chevron Corporation 200-1 March 1989

200 Design Background Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery
223 Estimating Flue Gas Rate

224 Flame Color
225 Gas or Oil?
226 Naphtha
227 Fuel Quality
230 Heat Transfer 200-19
231 Radiation
232 Convection
233 Conduction
234 Temperature Profile Example
240 Thermal Efficiency 200-27
241 General
242 Definitions
243 Heat Content Charts
244 Approximate Thermal Efficiency
250 Waste Heat Recovery 200-31
251 The Starting Point
252 Heater Modification
253 Possible Services
254 Gas Turbine Exhaust
260 Emissions 200-33
261 Regulatory Approvals
262 Emissions Estimates
263 Gaseous Pollutants
264 NOx Reduction
270 Draft 200-36
271 Definition
272 Scale, Units, and an Example
273 Draft Calculation
274 Adjustment of Draft
280 Computer Program Abstracts 200-42
281 Process Furnace Program FRNC5
282 Steam-Hydrocarbon Reformer Furnace Program REFORM3
290 References 200-43
March 1989 200-2 Chevron Corporation

Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery 200 Design Background
210 Process and Economic Considerations

A fired heater is a process in itself. Fuel is burned, producing high-temperature flue
gas. Under the influence of draft, the flue gas passes through the radiant and convec-
tion sections and up the stack. Heat is transferred to the process coil by radiation
and convection; heat passes through the tube wall and into the process fluid by
conduction and convection. A pump or compressor forces process fluid through the
tubes. As the fluid gains heat, its physical properties change. A phase change or
chemical reaction may occur, influencing the flow behavior and heat transfer.
Thus the design or modeling of a fired heater must solve a large set of simultaneous
equations. We want to solve these equations correctly, and we want our fired heater
design to result in an economically optimum “process.”
Basically, the procedure for designing a fired heater tube coil is as follows:
• Fix the process conditions. These include process fluid flowrate, temperature
into and out of the heater, and absorbed heat duty.
• Set the average heat flux. This, together with the duty, sets the total outside
tube area required.
• Choose a tube size and layout that provides the required tube area together
with optimal flow and heat transfer conditions.
211 Heat Flux and Temperature

Heat flux is the main determinant of tube area. It has the units Btu/hr(ft2). The area
used in specification of flux is usually the outside tube area in the radiant section.
(There are exceptions; be sure to check that the flux is clearly specified as being
based either on the outside or inside areas. The difference is significant.) There are
two parameters in common use:
• Average flux
• Peak or maximum flux
Average Flux. The average flux is obtained by dividing the duty of the radiant
section by the total exposed outside tube area. This approach is valid for “well
mixed” fireboxes, where there is little variation of flue gas temperature throughout
the box. (Steam reformer heaters in hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol plants are
an important exception.)
If flux is too high in the radiant section of an existing heater, the only way to
decrease it is to reduce the firing rate.
Peak or Maximum Flux. Suppose a bank of tubes, with a center-to-center spacing
of two tube diameters, is placed one or two tube diameters away from a refractory
wall and is uniformly fired from the side opposite the wall. The side of the tube
facing the flame will receive direct radiation; the opposite side will receive
radiation reflected from the wall. The hottest point on the tube will be on the side
toward the flame, where the surface is at a right angle to the flux. The flux at this
point, called the peak or maximum flux, will be about 1.8 times the average value.

When the bank of tubes is placed in the center of the firebox and is fired uniformly
from both sides, the ratio of peak to average flux will be 1.2. The advantage of
double firing is clear: For a given peak flux, the average flux will be 50% greater
than in the case of single firing. (This subject is covered further in a later section.)
In fire tube heaters, flux varies along the length of the tube, but not around the
circumference.
Typical peak flux values are in the range 15,000 to 22,000 Btu/hr(ft2). Average flux
values are 8,000 to 15,000. Recommendations are listed in Figure 200-1.
Fig. 200-1 Recommended Design Parameters for Various Services

Average Heat Maximum Film Allowance for
Application Flux Btu/hr(ft2) Temperature °F Fouling, °F
Crude Atmospheric 12,500 850 50
Crude Vacuum 10,000 950 100
Hydrocracker Reactor(1) 15,000 900 —
Resid Hydrotreater(1) 10,000 850 —
Gas Oil Hydrotreater(1) 15,000 900 —
Light Lube Hydrocracker(1) 15,000 900 —
Light Lube Hydrofinisher(1)
Heavy Lube Hydrocracker 10,000 800 —
Heavy Lube Hydrofinisher(1) 12,000 750 —
Reboiler, Light Oil 12,000 — —
Reboiler, Heavier Oil 10,000 900 —
Delayed Coker 9,000 1,100 100
Steam Reformer Hydrogen(1) 15,000 1,700 —
Catalytic (Naphtha) Reformer 11,000 — —
Hot Oil System Heater 8,000 to 10,000 — 50
Fire tube, heating water 10,000 — —
Fire tube, heating oil 8,000 — —
Fire tube, heating amine or glycol 7,500 — —
(1) Coil is to be double fired.
Inside Film Temperature. Flux, either peak or average, is a useful variable to fix
when specifying a heater or beginning a design. Excessively high flux will cause
tube overheating and damage to refractory. But what we are really concerned about,
in most cases, is maximum inside fluid film temperature. This is the maximum
temperature that the process fluid sees.
The maximum temperature difference across the inside film is computed as the
peak flux (adjusted to the basis of the inside tube area) divided by the inside

(convective) heat transfer coefficient. This difference is added to the maximum

process bulk temperature to get the maximum film temperature. Recommended
maximum film temperatures are in Figure 200-1. Inside heat transfer coefficients
range from a minimum of 20 Btu/hr(ft2)(°F) for gases up to approximately
1000 for boiling water (steam generation). These coefficients may be computed by
Equation 200-8 in Section 232.
Fouling. For heaters with tubes known to be subject to inside fouling, the engineer
may specify a temperature allowance for fouling. This temperature difference is
added to the maximum inside film temperature to get the inside tube metal tempera-
ture. It will affect the mechanical design of tubes. Temperature allowances are in
the range 50 to 100°F. Recommendations are in Figure 200-1.
Volumetric Heat Release. This is total heat release divided by firebox volume.
Placing limits on this parameter was once thought to be a way to prevent tube over-
heating. Better ways have since been developed, and volumetric heat release is
seldom used.
Cracking and Coking. High temperature begins to decompose (crack) petroleum
hydrocarbons at about 700°F. We may heat atmospheric residuum to 800°F in a
vacuum column heater or heat vacuum residuum to 920°F in a coker heater. We
have to operate within the cracking temperature range, but we want to minimize
cracking to the extent that is economical. We do this (1) by choosing process fluid
velocities and flow regimes that will result in good heat transfer coefficients, and
(2) by minimizing process fluid residence time at high temperature. In applications
such as crude unit vacuum heaters, we recognize that some cracking will occur,
producing light gas. We design the heater, vacuum column, and overhead system to
handle this gas.
212 Velocity, Pressure Drop, and Flow Regime

The tube diameter and number of parallel passes are determined by a specification
of velocity, flow regime, or pressure drop. Higher velocity provides the following
benefits:
• It improves the inside heat transfer coefficient.
• It may result in a better flow regime for two-phase process fluids.
• It increases the shear rate at the tube wall, which may decrease the rate of coke
deposition.
On the other hand, pressure drop increases as the square of velocity for liquids in
turbulent flow, and as somewhat less than the square for compressible vapor flow.
Thus higher velocity increases operating cost (pump or compression energy) and
capital cost if a larger pump or compressor is required.
Liquid Velocity. Cold oil velocity is the velocity a stock would have if it were all
liquid at 60°F. For liquids that do not tend to coke or crack, a cold oil velocity in
the range of 3 to 7 ft/sec is acceptable. For residual stocks in crude vacuum or
delayed coker heaters, 10 ft/sec is recommended. The additional capital and

operating costs are justified by the increased resistance to tube coking. In hot oil
system heaters, where the oil is heated repeatedly over a long period of time, cold
oil velocity should be 7 to 14 ft/sec.
The cost for pumping a liquid is usually a secondary concern. The recommended
value of cold oil velocity may raise pumping cost above what might be considered
optimum. If this reduces coking, the extra cost will be more than repaid. Neverthe-
less, the pump should be specified on the basis that a layer of coke ¼-inch thick
will form.
Two-Phase Velocity. Suppose that the tube diameter of a crude unit vacuum heater
coil has been set by the liquid velocity criterion above. Through most of the coil,
the degree of vaporization will be below 5 weight percent and bulk velocity will be
in the range of 20 to 50 ft/sec. Pressure drop will be moderate, 0.1 to 0.2 psi per
foot of tube length. The flow regime discussed below should be acceptable.
In the last few tubes of the coil, after appreciable vaporization has occurred, mixed-
phase velocity will reach the range of 100 to 250 ft/sec. Pressure drop will become
excessive, 0.3 to 0.4 psi/ft, and sonic velocity may be approached. (See Section
473, “Transfer Line Sizing.”) A larger diameter should be considered for these
tubes. The benefit is that pressure drop is reduced, vaporization increases, and resi-
dence time at the highest temperatures decreases. However, you should check care-
fully to be sure that expected benefits are obtained. Where coking is the concern,
inside film temperature rather than bulk fluid temperature is the important factor. If
the larger tube cross- section results in decreased velocity and a lower inside heat
transfer coefficient, the inside film temperature will increase.
Gas Phase Velocity. When a gas is being heated (or a gas-liquid mixture with a
high volume fraction of gas), allowable pressure drop may be specified rather than
velocity. Power for compression is an important operating cost, particularly in
plants with gas recycle loops. Flow is typically turbulent and (if liquid is present) in
a dispersed (good) flow regime. Allowable pressure drop in the heater is deter-
mined by economics and the pressure drops found elsewhere in the process. We
typically use 80 psi for a hydrocraker heater operating at 2000 to 2500 psi. For
hydrotreaters at lower pressures, 50 to 60 psi is more common. In a catalytic
reformer at 150 psi, 15 psi would be specified as a total for three heaters in the
reactor loop.
Flow Regime. For two-phase mixtures, proper flow regime is important to prevent
vibration, pass stalling, and (for temperature-sensitive materials) coking. The
dispersed flow regimes, mist and froth, are considered best. Stratified flow (vapor
and liquid moving smoothly but tending to separate) is less desirable. The various
forms of slug or intermittent flow are worst and should be avoided. Check your
proposed designs or operations against the “Talmor Flow Maps,” Figures 200-2 and
200-3 Nomenclature is attached to the figures. Note: these figures are for use only
within Chevron and its subsidiaries.
Steam or Water Injection. We can increase velocity, improve flow regime, and
reduce coking tendency by injecting steam or water into process coils. Injection is
usually done only when heating residual stocks.

Fig. 200-2 Lower Boundary for Mist Flow and Upper Boundary for Intermittent Flow in Horizontal Liquid/Gas Pipes (10<ug/ul<1000)
Chevron Corporation
Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery

200-7

March 1989
Fig. 200-3 Lower Boundary for Intermittent Flow in Horizontal Liquid/Gas Pipes (0.5<ug/ul<30)
March 1989

200-8
Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery

Chevron Corporation
We commonly inject 1 pound of steam or water per barrel of hydrocarbon, and

prefer superheated steam to saturated steam, because there is less chance of water
slugs disrupting control. If you choose water, it must be steam condensate, not
boiler feedwater. If parallel passes are used in the heater, metered steam or water
must be injected into each pass after the pass control valve.
Water, if used, is injected at the convection section inlet. The crossover between
convection and radiant sections may be the preferred site for steam injection. The
reasons are: (1) steam is not usually needed in the convection section, (2) steam
adds to pressure drop, and (3) a lower pressure steam source might be used.
The disincentives for using steam or water are (1) cost, (2) the heat to vaporize
water and to heat steam is subtracted from the available heater duty, (3) pressure
drop is increased, (4) the steam must be condensed, and (5) there may be a sour
water disposal problem.
213 Parallel Tube Passes

Use a single pass whenever possible. In heaters with more than one tube pass, there
is the possibility of unequal flows in the passes. It also requires additional and
constant operator attention to maintain the balance. Unbalanced flow can lead to
overheating of tubes, coking, and “pass stalling” (a sudden decrease or loss of flow
in one pass).
To prevent unbalanced flow in multipass systems with a liquid process stream, each
pass should have at least a flowmeter, a manual control valve, an outlet temperature
measurement, and a low flow alarm. A flow controller is preferred.
For a multipass gas stream, we rely on symmetry of passes to balance flow. It
follows that the number of passes will usually be a power of 2 (2, 4, 8, etc.)
Do not split a two-phase process stream into multiple passes because you can't
ensure equal vapor/liquid ratios in the various passes. In some cases, the two-phase
stream is the result of combining a liquid and a gas stream. You can split the single-
phase streams into multiple passes, as described above, and then combine indi-
vidual liquid and vapor streams. In other cases, a stream may partially vaporize as it
passes through parallel flow control valves; this is all right.
214 Radiant Section Tube Sizing and Layout: Example

In new construction, the heater supplier usually sizes and lays out the tubes to
satisfy your specifications of duty, flux, velocity, etc. Even so, it pays to know how
specifications influence layout and to anticipate the sort of layout a supplier will
propose. Also, Company engineers must often design modifications to existing
heaters.

Example. The following example illustrates how flow velocity, flux, and multiple
pass considerations influence radiant section design.
Service Crude Unit Vacuum
Column Feed
Feed rate 100,000 BPOD
Radiant Section Duty 100 MMBH
Outlet Conditions 800°F, 20 psia
Specified Average Flux 10,000 Btu/hr(ft2)
Desired Cold Oil Velocity 10 ft/sec
Consider standard tube sizes, beginning with 4-inch tubes. Assume that the wall
thickness is that of Schedule 40 pipe. All tubes will be the same diameter.
The feed rate, at 60°F, is 6.50 ft3/sec. A 4-inch tube has an internal cross-section of
0.0884 sq ft. Use of eight parallel passes would give a flow velocity of 9.2 ft/sec,
close enough to the desired velocity.
Radiant section duty, 100 MMBH, divided by average flux, 10,000 Btu/hr (ft2),
gives 10,000 ft2 of tube surface required. A 4-inch tube has 1.178 ft2 of surface per
foot of length; therefore, the length of tube per pass is 1,061 feet. If we use 60-foot
tubes, there will be 17.7 tubes per pass.
Therefore, one solution is 4-inch tubes, 8 parallel passes, 18 radiant tubes per pass.
This is feasible; we have similar heaters. Is it optimum?
Figure 200-4 shows the results of using other tube sizes. For each size considered,
cold oil velocity dictates the number of parallel passes necessary. Average flux then
determines the number of tubes in each pass.
Fig. 200-4 Choosing Optimum Tube Size: Comparison of Various Tube Sizes for Example Given in Section 214
Velocity Number of Number of Total Number Volume of
Tube Size, in. ft/sec Passes Tubes per Pass of Tubes Tube Metal, ft3
3 9.7 13 14 182 169
3.5 9.5 10 16 160 179
4 9.2 8 18 144 190
5 9.4 5 23 115 206
6 8.1 4 24 96 223
6 10.8 3 32 96 223
8 9.4 2 37 74 259
12 8.4 1 50 50 328
Pumping cost (pressure drop) does not differ greatly from one case to another.
Installed cost of a tube coil is proportional to quantity of tube metal. A comparison
based only on volume of tube metal probably overstates the cost advantage of

smaller tubes; there are tube hanger and construction costs dependent on number of
tubes. Nevertheless, the coils of larger diameter tubes probably cost more, and
should be evaluated in a cost estimate if necessary.
It is possible, by using 12-inch tubes, to have a single pass heater; however, this is
far from optimum. The coil would be much more expensive than those made of
smaller tubes. Further, thermal cracking would increase as “residence time”
increased. Because the residence time of the process fluid (the time the process
fluid is in the tube) is roughly proportional to the number of tubes per pass, resi-
dence time in the 12-inch tubes would be about three times as long as in 3- to
4-inch diameter tubes.
For tube sizes below 4 inches, the capital cost and residence time benefits become
marginal. Eight is the largest number of parallel passes we have accepted for this
service.
Example Continued. Using 4-inch tubes, 8 parallel passes, and 18 tubes per pass
as our choice, we now look at the effect of increasing the diameter of the last two
tubes of each pass (Figure 200-5). The purpose is to decrease pressure drop,
promote vaporization, and decrease residence time at high temperature in these last
two tubes. (See the paragraph, Two-Phase Velocity, in Section 212.)
Fig. 200-5 Effect of Increasing Diameter of Last Two Tubes

Diameter of Last Two Tubes, in.
Effect On: 4 5 6
Outlet Pressure, psia 25 20 20
Pressure Drop in Last Two Tubes, psi 50 29 16
Total Pressure Drop in Radiant Section, psi 166 160 158
Vaporization at Outlet, wt % 17 20 20
Flow Velocity at Outlet, ft/sec 252 226 157
Equivalent Residence Time in Coil, sec 22 18 17
Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient in Last 606 405 292
Two Tubes, Btu/hr (ft2)(°F)
Maximum Inside Film Temperature, °F 844 853 865
Referring to Figure 200-5, with 4-inch tubes throughout, sonic velocity prevents
obtaining the desired outlet pressure of 20 psia. Using either 5- or 6-inch tubes
removes this constraint. Pressure drop in the last two tubes decreases greatly as
diameter increases, but total pressure drop decreases only a little; the stock vapor-
izes more in the earlier tubes of the coil. Vaporization does not increase further as
tube size changes from 5 to 6 inches. This is because the outlet pressure is fixed
(assumed to be limited by pressure drop in outlet manifolds and the transfer line.)
Equivalent residence time decreases moderately as we move to 5-inch tubes but
only a little as we go to 6-inch tubes. Equivalent residence time is a relative

measure of thermal cracking tendency: the time at 800°F that would produce the
same amount of cracking. It is based on bulk fluid temperature in the tubes.
Finally, we note the tube diameter effects on inside heat transfer coefficient and
inside film temperature; both are undesirable. A 21°F increase in film temperature
(the difference between the 4-inch and 6-inch diameter cases) will significantly
increase the rate of tube coking.
In summary, increasing diameter of the last two tubes will decrease pressure drop
and thermal cracking in the bulk fluid; it will decrease cracked gas production in a
crude unit. On the other hand, tube wall temperature and coking will increase. We
recommend you increase diameter to the extent needed to eliminate a sonic flow
constraint, but not further.
215 Turndown
Turndown is the ability to operate at lower than design rate. Turndown is not often a
problem on the firebox side. Fuel oil burners may be turned down to typically 33%
of design capacity, gas burners to 10%.
A heater with a single-phase process stream will have less turndown difficulty than
one with a two-phase stream. This is because low velocity in the two-phase case
may result in a poor flow regime, pulsating flow, and increased cracking and
coking. If the furnace was designed with tube velocity at the upper end of the
recommended range, turndown capability will be greater. Steam injection is often
added to the radiant coil of a heavy oil heater to raise the bulk flow velocity and
increase turndown ability.
If multiple passes are flow controlled, turndown can move the controllers out of
their optimum range, leading to pass stalling. Horizontal tubes with flow downward
through the coil are most resistant to stalling. Vertical tubes are least resistant.

Thermal Efficiency is a very important design consideration. It is discussed in
detail in Section 240.
217 Natural vs Forced/Induced Draft

Natural draft is the choice for most process heaters. Normally, forced/induced is
chosen only for use with air preheat, and any proposed addition of preheat must
justify the added expense and operating burden of forced/induced draft. Forced
draft (alone) may be required with the use of certain burners which do not
inspirate air.
The virtue of natural draft is simplicity. The disincentives for forced/induced draft
are (1) capital cost of fans, ducting, and control system; (2) operating cost of fans;
(3) potential for shutdown due to failure of fans; and (4) potential for explosion
hazard caused by failure of fans or control system.

Redundant fan drivers are not installed. However, if more than one induced draft
fan is used, electric motors can be connected to different power supplies to improve
reliability. Alternatively, one or more drivers can be steam turbines. In many cases,
a normally forced draft heater can be operated at reduced duty under natural draft.
218 Direct vs Indirect Heating

In a direct heating system, heat is transferred from flames or hot flue gas directly to
the process fluid, the two being separated by a single tube wall. If the process fluid
is temperature-sensitive, direct heating has the potential for uneven tube heating,
coking, hot spots, and tube failure. With a combustible process fluid, the result of
tube failure is uncontrolled fire in the firebox with the possibility of greater
damage, hazard to operators, etc.
In an indirect system, an intermediate heat transfer fluid carries heat from the fired
coils to the ultimate user(s). The intermediate fluid might be water, steam, a petro-
leum fraction, a synthetic material such as Dowtherm, or a liquid metal. Indirect
heating may avoid process fluid degradation. Remember though, with the indirect
method, a flammable heat transfer fluid is still a hazard if a tube ruptures.
The most common indirect heating example is a steam boiler and steam-heated
process heat exchangers. Condensing steam has a high heat transfer coefficient and
gives even heating. It is usually the economic choice if available at the temperature
level needed. A steam system at 450 psig (460°F) is fairly common; some plants
have steam at 800 psig (520°F). Carefully selected petroleum oils are suitable up to
about 650°F; synthetics go up to 750°F.
In one indirect fire tube heater design, fire tubes and process coil are within the
same cylindrical shell, and the heat transfer medium circulates by natural convec-
tion. In other systems, the transfer medium is pumped to distant services or moves
under its own vapor pressure.
Direct fired heaters are recommended for most refinery and chemical plant applica-
tions. A hot oil (indirect) system may be used for several smaller services. Indirect
fire tube heaters are recommended for most Producing applications; they are safer
than direct fired units when running unattended.
220 Combustion and Fuels

This section covers a fuel's heating value and defines complete combustion. It also
tells you how to make combustion calculations, how to read flame color, and how
the choice of fuel will affect heater design.
221 Heating Value

Knowing the heating value of a fuel tells you what fuel rate your fired heater
requires. All fuels containing hydrogen produce water vapor during combustion.
Such fuels have two “heating values” depending on the final state of the water.

The higher or gross heating value (HHV) is that obtained with the product water
present as a liquid.
The lower or net heating value (LHV) assumes the water remains in the vapor state.
The difference is the water's “latent heat of vaporization.” In actual practice, the
lower heating value is used in designing and rating process heaters because the
product water normally is not condensed on heat transfer surfaces and leaves the
stack as a vapor.
For hydrocarbon gases and mixtures of hydrocarbon gases, the lower heating value
on a volume basis (Btu/scf) is linearly related to the specific gravity of the fuel
(air=1) as shown in Figure 200-6. But on a mass basis, the net heating value (LHV)
of all hydrocarbon gases is close to 20,000 Btu/lb.
Fig. 200-6 Heating Value Versus Specific Gravity for Hydrocarbon Mixtures
Fuel oil always contains some noncombustible materials like water, ash or metals.
So the heating value of fuel oil is generally a little lower, typically around
18,000 Btu/lb. (Energy is often expressed in Btu per “equivalent fuel oil” barrels
(EFO). Note that an EFO is approximately equivalent to 6MM BTU's.)
222 Complete Combustion

These heating values assume complete combustion. Carbon may burn completely to
carbon dioxide or incompletely to carbon monoxide. In the latter case, less than one-
third of the heat of combustion is actually liberated.
Combustion is “complete” if everything combustible burns to carbon dioxide, water
vapor and (for sulfur bearing fuels) sulfur dioxide. It is “incomplete” when the final

products contain unburned carbon or combustible gases such as carbon monoxide,

hydrogen, methane or other hydrocarbons.
Complete fuel burning is the norm in process heaters. Incomplete combustion is
very unusual. Generally, there is no such thing as “a more efficient burner.” Burners
typically burn all the fuel.
223 Estimating Flue Gas Rate

To size the volume of your heater, you will need to calculate the minimum volume
of air required to burn the fuel completely, with no excess oxygen in the flue gas. It
turns out that the minimum air consumption and the minimum volume of combus-
tion products can be represented as linear functions of the lower heating value.
Figure 200-7 gives the minimum volume of combustion products (Vp,min) and the
minimum volume of air (Xmin) for gaseous and liquid fuels. The actual volume of
combustion products is:
Vp= (Vp,min) + k(Xmin)

(Eq. 200-1)
where:
k = % of excess air expressed as a fraction
(i.e., for 20% excess air, k = .20)
When Vp (in SCF) is multiplied by the fuel rate, this gives the total volume rate of
combustion products the heater has to handle. Note the fuel rate must be known.
A simple rule-of-thumb is: A typical mixture of hydrocarbon gases and air with the
usual 10 to 20% excess air typically has a heating value of about 1000 Btu/lb. Since
mass-in equals mass-out, the flue gas production rate must be directly proportional
to the heat release, e.g., a fired heater with a heat release of 100 MMBtu/hr
produces about 100,000 lb/hr flue gas.
224 Flame Color

The flame produced by liquid fuel is more luminous than a gas flame. For a given
heat release, a liquid fuel flame will be longer and of a less predictable shape than a
gas flame.
Both blue and yellow flames produce the same products of complete combustion:
carbon dioxide and water, so there is no difference in the amount of heat released.
Yellow flames result when fuel dissociates (cracks) to its carbon and hydrogen
components. In gas burning, this is more likely to happen on the heavier gases like
propane and butane, particularly when poorly mixed with air. The higher the
hydrogen/carbon ratio by weight in the fuel, the less prone it is to yellow flame
burning. Also, the lower the molecular weight in the same series of compounds, the
less prone they are to yellow flame burning. The separate burning of the hydrogen

Fig. 200-7 Gaseous and Liquid Fuels: Combustion Parameters
is very fast and that of carbon slow. The slower burning free carbon is heated to a
bright yellow incandescence.
Oil flames are typically characterized by a very bright yellow incandescence
because there is so much free carbon around. Somewhat yellow flames are typical
of the heavier gaseous fuels, too, but yellow flames in gas burning are more often a
tipoff of poor or inadequate air mixing.
225 Gas or Oil?

Process heaters may burn gas, oil, or both. The choice depends on several factors,
including the source reliability, operator attention, and response time.

Process gas (fuel gas) has always been preferred because it is easier to handle,
burns cleaner and is less expensive. Many locations use some natural gas. However,
most natural gas contracts provide that industrial gas can be cut off on short notice
whenever the demand by domestic users exceeds the supply. Consequently, those
locations have some provisions for backup oil burning in selectedgas is curtailed.
Steam boilers are often chosen for supplemental oil firing when the local facilities
are subject to possible natural gas curtailment because they are normally attended,
generally use larger quantities of fuel, and operate more nearly at constant load. If
more units have to be switched to oil, the process heaters usually selected are large
users in less severe services with steady loads, like atmospheric crude heaters.
Design of oil fired heaters is more complicated than that for gas fired heaters:
• The oil requires separate oil guns and steam for atomization, along with sepa-
rate controls.
• The flame for a given heat release is longer and of a less predictable shape than
the flame in a gas fired heater, which affects firebox geometry. For example,
when heating a temperature-sensitive process fluid with gas, we often specify a
clearance of 5 feet between burner centerline and nearest tube surface. With oil
the figure is 6 feet.
• Because oil burning produces ash and soot, design of the heater's convection
section should include provision for tube cleaning by onstream water washing
or soot blowing.
• Choice of refractory material may be affected due to chemical attack from
components in the oil. See a specialist for more information.
• Because of the soot produced with oil, the maximum number of fins per inch
of convection tubes is only three (maximum is five with gas). This affects
thermal efficiency and draft.
• Based on operating experience, the design excess air with gas fuel is 10%; with
oil, 15%. This also affects the draft requirement.
• Fuel oil has a higher sulfur content than gas. This may affect the minimum
temperature allowed for steel surfaces in direct contact with flue gas. The
concern is sulfuric acid condensation on metal surfaces, which may present
corrosion and air pollution problems. The table below tells you the minimum
required steel surface temperature (not flue gas temperature) which is neces-
sary to prevent acid condensation. The temperature varies depending on the
sulfur content of fuel (measured in percent of weight).
Sulfur Temperature
1% 325°F
<1% 300°F
<0.1% 275°F

• The vanadium often present in fuel oil may cause severe corrosion of hot metal
parts like tube supports.
• Oil guns foul quickly, requiring frequent attention.
• Oil firing requires much more maintenance time and operator attention.
226 Naphtha
Burning naphtha is not new to the oil industry. In Europe, naphtha has been burned
in process heaters for a long time. It is unusual in American refineries only because
fuel gas has always been in ample supply and naphtha has been regarded as more
valuable as a gasoline blend stock.
Naphtha is highly flammable. It flashes quickly in contact with hot lines or equip-
ment. So burners are equipped with safety interlocks. The safety interlocks prevent
burner guns from being pulled before they are purged free of liquid fuel. Naphtha
can be fired either as a liquid or as a vapor in a conventional gas burner. But the two
phases cannot be interchanged or mixed: they must be 100% one or the other
(liquid or vapor). Today's trend is strongly toward liquid burning when naphtha
is used.
Liquid naphtha is burned in conventional steam-atomized oil guns. The fuel pres-
sure must be kept high enough to keep the naphtha liquid until it reaches the burner.
Small amounts of vaporized naphtha vapor lock the atomizer. The result is unstable
burner operation and blowout.
The following may be considered in evaluating liquid versus vaporized naphtha: A
vaporizer and steam-traced/insulated piping are not needed in a liquid system, so it
usually costs less. However, the cost of new liquid naphtha burners may offset the
cost of the vaporizer, and a vaporized naphtha system may therefore be economic.
In order to use the old gas burners without modification, the vaporized naphtha
heating value has to be reduced to that of the gas. The needed large amounts of
diluent steam imply a significant operating cost penalty.
227 Fuel Quality

Impurities in fuel oils are expected and we go to great lengths to mitigate their
effects. Duplex strainers/filters and continuously circulating headers are normally
provided. Even so, burner fouling and oil drips are just a way of life in oil burning.
When the temperature for viscosity control gets too low, it gets worse.
Pipeline-quality natural gas burns clean with very few problems. But those who
burn process byproduct refinery fuel gas are sometimes plagued with oil-like trou-
bles in their gas burners. Fuel gas containing trace amounts of O2 and H2S
(common around fluid crackers) causes plugging of the piping and burners.
Heavy components in the fuel gas sometimes condense, giving erratic flames and
potentially coking and plugging the gas ports. Where this occurs, steam tracing
often helps.

Where sour process gas is sweetened in amine units, then used as fuel gas, there is
the possibility of contamination of the fuel supply. Amine plant upsets can allow
some H2S breakthrough. Alternatively, the fuel gas may become extremely dirty if
sour gas is bypassed around an amine unit.
We have had little luck with additives. One operating center reported success in
dealing with a scale plugging problem. But at another center, use of additives
proved disappointing.
Potential solutions to fuel quality problems are:
• Enlarge the burner ports (possibly you get poor flames)
• Clean up the gas
• Install strainers (they must be kept clean)
• Try chemical cleaning, a good solution, if the deposits come from debris accu-
mulated over years. But if particles or globs are just flowing with the gas at a
rate sufficient to plug burners in weeks, chemical cleaning is not a solution.
• Try a hardware solution: go to a waste oil burner (huge ports like in a flame
thrower) for burning gas. You would get no turndown, excess air would go up,
efficiency would go down, and you might have to rebuild the fireboxes so the
flames would fit into them. But the burners probably wouldn't plug.
• Change from our typical raw gas burners (small ports) to premix burners
(larger ports). This may relieve the symptoms, but operating centers have plug-
ging problems with premix burners, too. Also, premix burners are intolerant
of the large quantities of hydrogen that we often encounter in refinery fuel
systems. They backfire and blow out when the hydrogen content is too high.
Unfortunately, no foolproof method of preventing burner plugging has yet been
developed. In actual practice operators periodically must clean burners manually to
assure even combustion and optimum heater efficiency.
230 Heat Transfer

The three mechanisms of heat transfer are radiation, convection, and conduction.
All are important in fired heaters. Basic concepts and material of particular interest
are given here. Detailed hand methods are in Appendices A and B.
Semi-rigorous solutions are provided by our fired heater computer program,
FRNC5; an abstract is in Section 280 of this manual.
231 Radiation
Radiation is the primary mode of heat transfer in the firebox and a secondary effect
in the hotter portions of the convection section. The variables used in correlating
radiant heat transfer are described here, with typical values.

The Basic Equation. Radiant heat transfer from hot surface “a” to cold surface “b”
is given by the following equation:
qR = σ AF (Ta4 - Tb4)
(Eq. 200-2)
where:
qR = radiant heat transfer rate, Btu/hr
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 1.73 × 10-9
A = area of either surface, ft2
F = radiant exchange factor (discussed in the following example)
Ta = absolute temperature of surface a, °R
Tb = absolute temperature of surface b, °R
Note that degrees Rankine (°R) equals degrees Fahrenheit (°F) plus 460°.
(°R = °F + 460°).
The radiant exchange factor, F, depends on the relative area and arrangement of the
two surfaces and on the emissivity and absorptivity of each.
Equation for a Firebox. The basic equation is adapted to the radiant section of a
fired heater. Surface “a” becomes a radiating volume of hot flue gas. Surface “b”
becomes a tube bank, called a “cold plane.”
qR = σ α Acp F (Tg4 - Tt4)

(Eq. 200-3)
where:
α = factor of comparison between a tube bank and a plane, also
known as the tube bank absorption efficiency
Acp = the “cold plane” area of the tube bank, ft2
Tg = absolute temperature of the radiating gas, °R
Tt = absolute temperature of the tube surface, °R
Tube Bank Absorption Efficiency, α. Consider a bank of tubes on the wall. The
bank is spaced one diameter out from the refractory surface. Of the radiation
coming from the interior of the firebox to the tube bank, some strikes the tubes and
is absorbed and some passes between the tubes to the refractory. Of the heat
reflected from the refractory, some strikes the backs of the tubes and is absorbed
and some again passes between and out into the firebox. Center-to-center spacing is
usually twice the nominal (inside) diameter; therefore, the ratio of spacing to
outside diameter comes out about 1.75. For this spacing, α = 0.93.
Cold Plane Area, Acp. This is the area of the wall on which the tube bank is
mounted. It is found by multiplying the number of tubes by the center-to-center

spacing by the effective length of a tube. The product of α and Acp is called the
“equivalent cold plane surface.”
Radiant Exchange Factor. F is roughly proportional to flue gas emissivity. It also
depends on the ratio of equivalent cold plane surface to total refractory surface. As
that ratio decreases, F increases. Explanation: Being able to “see” hot refractory
surface increases heat absorption by the cold tubes. Values of F are usually in the
range 0.3 to 0.7. (See Appendix B for more information.)
Gas Emissivity. This factor is very roughly proportional to the partial pressure of
radiating components, P, and to the “mean beam length”, L, both of which are
explained just below. Emissivity decreases as gas temperature increases. We have
little control over it. Appendix B contains a graphical correlation. Values in the
range 0.5 to 0.6 are common.
Partial Pressure of Radiating Components, P. Only water vapor and carbon
dioxide radiate significantly. For a typical fuel gas and 10% excess air, P equals
0.26 atm. More air decreases P which decreases heat transfer, another reason to
control excess air.
Mean Beam Length, L. This is a measure of the depth of the blanket of flue gas
which is radiating heat to the tubes. For fireboxes which do not differ greatly from
cubes, use:
L = 3.6 V/Ae
(Eq. 200-4)
where:
L = mean beam length, ft
V = firebox volume, ft3
Ae = total firebox envelope (inside surface) area, ft2
If one or two dimensions greatly exceed the other(s), the mean beam length is a
function of just the smallest dimension. For a vertical cylindrical heater, use the
diameter for L.
Temperatures in the Radiant Section. Our basic firebox model assumes that the
firebox is “well mixed.” Hot flue gas from the burners is immediately mixed with
the total flue gas volume of the firebox; thus, the firebox is of uniform temperature
throughout. Further, the gas is non-luminous; there are no flames. The result is that
Tg in Equation 200-3 is the firebox outlet or “bridgewall” temperature. We know
that this is overly conservative in most cases; much of the tube surface “sees” a gas
that is hotter. In hand calculations and in FRNC5, we apply an increment to the
bridgewall temperature to get Tg. In a box heater, the increment might be 50°F. In a
vertical cylindrical firebox, in which flue gas comes closer to plug flow, the incre-
ment could be 200°F.
Steam reformer heaters are constructed to provide control of heat flux in “zones”
along the length of vertical tubes. A more rigorous design technique is used, which
involves a different flue gas temperature in each zone.

For hand calculation of temperature in well-mixed fireboxes, Tt, the tube surface
temperature, is approximated as the average process fluid temperature (average of
temperatures in and out of the radiant coil) plus 100°F.
Example Firebox Calculation. Consider a box heater similar to that shown in
Figure 200-3. The firebox calculation is in fact an iterative, trial and error proce-
dure. In the current case, we will make the necessary assumptions and do one
iteration.
• Firebox dimensions: 15 feet high × 15 feet wide × 40 feet long (parallel to
centerlines of tubes). Convection section is 5 feet wide.
• Tubes: 13 in each bank, 6-inch inside diameter on 12-inch spacing, 40 feet
long.
• Fuel: Gas with 10% excess air.
• Temperatures: Process in, 600°F; process out, 780°F; bridgewall, 1600°F. (In
an iterative calculation, bridgewall temperature is adjusted to obtain a heat
balance on the flue gas.)
Total refractory surface area, Ae, is the sum of the following areas: side walls, floor,
roof except entry to convection section, and end walls. Ae = (2)(15)(40) + (15)(40) +
(2)(5)(40) + (2)(15)(15) = 2650 ft2.
Firebox volume, V = (15)(15)(40) = 9000 ft3.
Cold plane area, Acp = (2)(13 - 1)(1.0)(40) = 960 ft2.
Mean beam length, L, = (3.6)(9000)/2650 = 12.23 ft = 3.73 m (from
Equation 200-4).
Partial pressure of radiating components, P = 0.255 atm (from Appendix A,
Figure A-3).
PL = (0.255)(3.73) = 0.95 atm-m.
Effective gas temperature, Tg, is bridgewall temperature + 50°F = 1600 + 50 =
1650°F = 2110°R = 899°C.
Gas emissivity = 0.475 (from Appendix A, Figure A-4).
Center-to-center distance/tube OD = 12/6.625 = 1.81.
Absorption efficiency, a = 0.925 (from Appendix A, Figure A-2).
α Acp/Ae = (0.925)(960)/2650 = 0.335.
Radiant exchange factor, F = 0.71 (from Appendix A, Figure A-5).
Effective tubewall temperature, Tt, = (600 + 780)/2 + 100 = 790°F = 1250°R.
Finally, from Equation 200-3, the heat transfer rate is found: qR = (1.73 × 10-9)
(0.925)(960)(0.71)(21104 - 12504) = 18,960,000 Btu/hr.
Since the total tube area is 1804 ft2, average flux is 10,510 Btu/hr(ft2).

Radiation to Shock and Convection Tubes. Radiation to shock tubes is handled

by the same method used for the firebox. For other convection tubes, the following
equation by Berman [1] applies:
hrg = 0.0025tg - 0.5

(Eq. 200-5)
where:
hrg = radiation heat transfer coefficient for gas, Btu/hr (ft2)(°F)
tg = flue gas temperature, °F
Radiation from refractory in the convection section is handled by first adding the
convective coefficient, hc, to hrg and then multiplying the sum by 1.1.
232 Convection
Convection is a small but significant part of firebox heat transfer. It is a major
component of transfer to shock tubes and the dominant mechanism elsewhere in the
convection section. Heat transfer inside tubes is by forced convection; losses from
the furnace casing and stack surface occur by natural convection.
Hand calculation methods for convection to bare tubes are in Appendix A;
Appendix B covers extended surface (finned and studded) tubes.
Convection in the Firebox. While burners are the major influence on circulation
patterns within the firebox, convection currents are significant. Flue gas, cooled by
convection to the tubes, tends to flow downward in the vicinity of tube banks.
These currents can have unexpected effects on burner flames, causing them to
“lean” or changing their shape; this may cause flame impingement on tubes.
Firebox convective heat transfer is handled simply, by adding a term to
Equation 200-3:
qR+C = α Acp F [σ (Tg4 - Tt4) + 7.0 (Tg - Tt)]

(Eq. 200-6)
Heat Transfer to Bare Convection Section Tubes. Berman [1] suggests:
hc = 2.14 G0.6 Tg0.28/do0.4

(Eq. 200-7)
where:
hc = convective coefficient, Btu/hr(ft2)(°F)
G = flue gas mass velocity through the minimum cross-section
between tubes, lb/sec(ft2)
Tg = flue gas absolute temperature, °R
do = tube outside diameter, in

Heat Transfer to Finned Tubes. Appendix B contains methods suitable for use by
hand. Equation 200-7 is applied to finned tubes. The flue gas mass velocity is
computed on the basis of the area left after subtracting cross sectional areas of both
the tube and the fins (but not the space between fins). The value of do is not
affected by the fins. The effectiveness of the fins is reduced by conductive resis-
tance as discussed in Section 233.
Convection Inside Tubes. Inside heat transfer coefficients may be calculated by
standard methods found in handbooks and in Appendix C of API-530. It is often
unnecessary when making rough hand calculations. Inside coefficients are usually
in the range 100 to 500 Btu/hr(ft2)(°F); outside coefficients run 2 to 5. Outside resis-
tance is by far the controlling one with bare tubes. Even when extended surfaces are
used, the outside resistance dominates.
An equation for convective transfer to a two-phase mixture is listed here, however,
because it is often furnished to vendors as part of a quotation request:
htp = 0.022 (kL/d) RL0.8 PrL0.4 (µL/µLW)0.167

(Eq. 200-8)
where:
htp = two-phase inside film coefficient, Btu/hr(ft2)(°F)
RL = G d/2.42 µL = Reynolds number based on liquid properties and
total flow
PrL = 2.42 CpL µL/kL = Prandtl number, liquid properties
kL = liquid thermal conductivity, Btu/hr(ft)(°F)
d = tube inside diameter, ft.
µL = liquid viscosity, centipoise
µLW = liquid viscosity at wall, centipoise
G = total mass velocity, lb/hr(ft2)
CpL = liquid heat capacity, Btu/lb(°F)
Convection Loss from Heater Casing. This loss is usually assumed to be 1 to 2%
of the heat released in the firebox.
233 Conduction
The important applications of conduction in heater design and analysis are in
extended surface, in coke layer effects, and (rarely) in the resistance of the tube
wall to heat transfer.

The Basic Equation. For flow through a solid, from one surface to another:
q = k A t/x
(Eq. 200-9)
where:
q = conductive heat transfer rate, Btu/hr
k = thermal conductivity, Btu/hr(ft)(°F)
A = cross sectional area through which heat flows, ft2
t = temperature difference between surfaces, °F
x = thickness of the solid, ft
Some order-of-magnitude values of thermal conductivity are shown in Figure 200-8.
Fig. 200-8 Thermal Conductivity of Metals and Process Byproducts BTU/hr(ft)(°F)

Material Thermal Conductivity at 1000°F
Carbon Steel 22
9 Cr–1 Mo Steel 16
18 Cr–8 Ni Stainless 13
Incoloy 800 12
Petroleum Coke 3
Scale, Fouling 1.5
☞ Caution Some references use a different unit of thermal conductivity, Btu/hr(ft2)(°F/in).
Extended Surface. Outside convective heat transfer coefficients may be stated on

the basis of bare tube outside area or total area of the tube plus the extended
surface. Appendix B uses the bare tube area; our FRNC5 computer program uses
the total area. The important point is that fin or stud area is not as effective, per
square foot, as bare tube area. Because of conductive resistance to heat flow
through the fin, the fin tip will be hotter than the fin base, where it is joined to the
tube. Thus, the temperature difference for heat transfer between gas and tube
surface is decreased. This reduction of heat transfer is handled by a fin efficiency:
hcf = hc (EAf + At)/At

(Eq. 200-10)
where:
hcf = convective coefficient for finned tube but based on bare tube area
hc = convective coefficient (e.g. from Equation 200-7) on basis that all
area is at the same temperature
E = fin efficiency (see below)

Af = area of fins, ft2

At = area of bare tube, ft2
The fin area added to a bare tube increases with the fin height and the number of
fins per inch of tube length. Fin efficiency, however, decreases with increase of fin
height; the higher the fin, the greater the temperature difference that will develop
between root and tip. Efficiency increases with thermal conductivity of tube mate-
rial and with fin thickness but decreases as the convective coefficient increases. Fin
efficiencies in fired heater convection sections are always above 50% because
convective coefficients are low.
Figure 200-9 is based on a bare tube outside diameter of 4.5 in, carbon steel fins
[k = 22 Btu/hr(ft)(°F)], and hc of 5Btu/hr(ft2)(°F). The figure gives total surface
areas, efficiencies, and effective coefficients (based on bare tube area) for some
commonly used fins.
Fig. 200-9 Total Surface Area, Efficiency and Effective Coefficients for Commonly Used Fins
Fin Thickness, Total Surface Ht. Trans.
in. Fin Height, in. Density, Fins/in. Area, ft2/ft. Efficiency, % Coefficient
Bare — — 1.18 — 5.0
0.10 0.75 2.5 7.01 93 28.0
0.10 0.75 3 8.18 93 32.6
0.05 0.75 4 9.38 86 34.9
0.05 0.75 5 11.43 86 42.4
0.05 1.00 5 14.84 79 50.7
The figure was derived from nonproprietary information of the ESCOA Fin-tube
Corporation.
Remember that fouling strongly influences the effectiveness of fins, particularly
closely spaced ones.
Fin tip temperature is important only when it exceeds the temperature limit of the
fin material. Approximately,
ttip = tbase + θ (tgas - tbase)

(Eq. 200-11)
where:
ttip = fin tip temperature, °F
tbase = fin base (outside wall) temperature, °F
tgas = flue gas temperature, °F
θ = a parameter dependent on fin efficiency.

Following are some typical values:

Efficiency, %:
0 50 60 70 80 85 90 95 100
θ:
1.0 0.72 0.58 0.44 0.28 0.21 0.13 0.07 0
Fins are continuously welded to the tubes. There should be minimal bond resistance.
Tube Wall Resistance. Ordinarily, this is a small part of the total heat transfer resis-
tance. Temperature difference through the tube wall is usually 10 to 20°F. Catalyst
tubes of a steam reformer heater are an exception. Thermal conductivity is at the
lower end of the range for ferrous metals, and walls are thick because of low allow-
able stresses. The temperature difference can be as large as 100°F.
Coking Resistance. Hot tube walls are usually the result of coking in tubes. At a
flux of 20,000 Btu/hr(ft2), 0.25 inch of coke will raise tube wall temperature 140°F.
234 Temperature Profile Example

The list below gives a typical set of computed temperatures for a convection section
tube in a vacuum crude heater. The tube is nominally 5 inches in diameter, schedule
80, of carbon steel. Fins are of carbon steel, 0.105 inch thick, 0.75 inch high, 2.5
fins per inch. A coke layer 1/16-inch thick is on the inside tube surface. Heat flux is
9,320 Btu/hr(ft2); inside coefficient is 235 Btu/hr(ft2)(°F); outside coefficient is 4.3;
all are based on outside diameter.
Flue gas 1154°F
Fin tip 756°F
Fin base (outside wall) 716°F
Inside wall 696°F
Inside film (coke surface) 677°F
Bulk oil 633°F
A more detailed example calculation is found in Appendix C of API-530. That case

does not include fins or a coke layer.

This section presents background, definitions, and a quick method for estimating
efficiency. Detailed guidance on calculation of thermal efficiency is contained in
API-532, “Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters.”

241 General
The thermal efficiency of a heater is the heat absorbed divided by the heat input.
Heat absorbed is heat transferred to process streams, to steam generation and super-
heating coils, to boiler feedwater, etc. Heat input consists mainly of the net or low
heating value of the fuel burned. (See definitions, Section 221.)
We look for efficiency of around 90% in most cases.
Contributors to poor efficiency, in order of importance, are the following:
High Stack Temperature. Efficiency of 90% means cooling stack gas to the 300 to
400°F range. This requires a heat receiver or “sink” whose inlet temperature is
50 to 100°F cooler than the stack outlet temperatures. Regardless of its radiant
section design, a heater must have a convection section to achieve this kind of
efficiency.
In most cases, the most economically attractive waste heat recovery is (1) additional
process heating, followed by (2) steam generation and boiler feedwater heating,
followed by (3) air preheat. Waste heat recovery is discussed in Part 2 of this
manual.
See Figure 200-10, which shows the effect of stack temperature on efficiency.
High Excess Air. Stoichiometric air is the amount needed to burn the fuel
according to the chemical reactions of combustion. Any additional air is “excess.”
Some excess air is needed to ensure safe operation and complete combustion. With
natural draft, a heater typically needs 10% excess air if burning gas, 15% if burning
oil. With forced draft, the figures are 5% for gas and 10% for oil. (“Oil” means any
liquid fuel.)
Excess air is sometimes quoted in terms of oxygen content of the flue gas. Roughly,
10% excess air means 2% oxygen in the flue gas. The exact amount can be found
by combustion calculations; see Section 220. The stack damper and air registers
should be adjusted to obtain only the required excess air. (See Section 274 for
adjustments to natural draft.)
Any air beyond the required excess represents an efficiency loss. This air enters the
heater (or the air preheater) at ambient temperature and leaves at the stack tempera-
ture. The higher the stack temperature, the greater the additional loss caused by
high excess air. If stack gas is cooled to the 300 to 400°F range, the effect of excess
air becomes moderate.
Air Leaks. If the heater is operated properly, with negative pressure throughout,
any leaks will consist of air coming into the heater rather than flue gas leaking out.
Air leakage into the firebox adds to excess air. Burner operation cannot be safely
adjusted to offset it. (Heater casing plates should be seal welded during construc-
tion to minimize air leakage.) Air leakage at the stack does not affect thermal effi-
ciency, but it reduces draft.

Fig. 200-10 Approximate Thermal Efficiency
Thermal Efficiency, %
Stack Temperature, °F
Note:
1. 2% Radiation Loss is Assumed
2. See the text for Conversion to % Excess O2
Note there is a smoke test procedure in the Appendix to detect leaks during turn-
arounds. Infrared scanning is being tested as a method to determine leaks, but there
are no definite conclusions at this time.
Heat Loss from Casing. Your specification for a new heater will give a maximum
temperature for the outside surface under defined ambient conditions. This tempera-

ture is in the range 140 to 180°F, and insulation is designed accordingly. The main
concerns are personnel protection and damage to structural members. Heat loss will
be 1 or 2% of the heat released. If insulation is in poor condition, the loss can be
appreciable.
Generally, 180°F will be sufficiently low to avoid excessive heat loss. Reducing the
casing temperature to 140°F may not be economic due to the extra insulation
required. Note, however, that temperatures over 140°F require protective screens
for safety reasons.
Turndown. If you turn down a heater from its design duty and maintain control of
excess air, thermal efficiency will increase slightly. (It's difficult to control excess
air as a heater is turned down.) Assume that process flowrate and fuel rate are
decreased in proportion. Convective heat transfer coefficients will decrease
according to the 0.7 to 0.8 power of velocity, but the required duty has decreased in
proportion to turndown. The result is a small efficiency gain. Usually the efficiency
of the radiant section increases relative to the convection section.
242 Definitions
Thermal Efficiency: This is defined as the total heat absorbed divided by the total
heat input.
Total Heat Input: This is the net heat of combustion of the fuel plus the sensible
heat of the air, fuel, and fuel atomizing medium. Net heat of combustion is based on
complete combustion of fuel. Carbon burns to carbon dioxide; carbon monoxide
breakthrough is negligible. Sensible heat is measured above the datum temperature,
which is 60°F. These sensible heat effects are usually small and are ignored. An
exception is air which has been preheated by another unit, such as gas turbine
exhaust.
Total Heat Absorbed: This is the heat transferred to the process coils and to utility
coils such as boiler feedwater heating, steam generation, and steam super-heating.
Air preheat, unless it's for another heater, is not a part of heat absorbed; a fired
heater's own air preheater, if there is one, is inside the heat balance envelope.
Total Heat Loss: This is the sum of radiation heat loss and stack gas heat loss.
“Radiation loss” (actually loss by convection from the heater casing) is usually
assumed as 2% of the net heating value of the fuel. The sum of total heat absorbed
and total heat loss equals total heat input.
243 Heat Content Charts

In Chapter 14, Combustion, of API Technical Data Book – Petroleum Refining are
heat content charts giving “heat available” from complete combustion of various
fuels. The title, “Heat Available...,” is a bit confusing. What is plotted is the heat
which would be given up if the flue gas, at the adiabatic flame temperature, were
cooled to the temperature indicated. Use these charts on the infrequent occasions
when detailed calculation of thermal efficiency are necessary. The API has denied
permission to reproduce these charts.

244 Approximate Thermal Efficiency

If the sensible heat input of air, fuel, and fuel atomizing medium can be neglected,
then all remaining terms can be put on the basis of one pound of fuel. Thermal effi-
ciency of an operating heater can be estimated as follows:
1. Total heat input is only the net heating value of the fuel, per pound.
2. Total heat loss per pound of fuel is the unused heat content of the stack gas
plus radiation loss of 2% of the net heating value.
3. Total heat absorbed is total heat input minus total heat loss.
4. Thermal efficiency is total heat absorbed divided by total heat input.
Figure 200-10 shows approximate thermal efficiency of refinery gas fuel with
1,000 Btu/SCF low heating value. The figure will be correct within about 1% for
most other fuels. Radiation loss is 2% of LHV.
Example: Fuel is burned with 20% excess air, and the stack gas temperature is
800°F. The thermal efficiency is 78%.
The figure illustrates that, as a general rule, 35°F difference in flue gas temperature
is equivalent to 1% in thermal efficiency. The effect of excess air is reduced as stack
temperature decreases.
Note Figure 200-10 is based on excess air. The following may be used to convert
excess O2 to excess air:
% Excess O2: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
% Excess Air: 5 10 16 22 29 37 45
250 Waste Heat Recovery

The discussion in this section is restricted to recovery of additional heat from the
flue gas of a fired heater. Additional information is included in Part 2, Waste Heat
Recovery.
251 The Starting Point

We assume that a heater is being designed, or has been built, to satisfy a defined
process heating requirement. If a convection section was justified, it is already
included. We now note the temperature of the stack gas and ask if additional heat
can economically be recovered from it. The higher the temperature, and the greater
the quantity of gas, the more likely that waste heat recovery can be justified. A
stack temperature over 900°F is a very good prospect. We would like to cool stack
gas to the 350 to 450°F range. Use 50 to 100°F as the minimum economical
approach temperature; e.g., to cool flue gas to 400°F, you need a “heat sink” at a
temperature of 300 to 350°F, preferably cooler. Caution: Depending on fuel sulfur
content, the minimum allowable temperature for metal in contact with flue gas may
be as high as 325°F.

252 Heater Modification

If we decide to recover waste heat, we can add more coils to the convection section
or add a convection section to increase convection section duty. Doing so may have
two negative effects on draft. Additional tube coils increase pressure drop in the
convection section, and cooler flue gas decreases the draft effect of the stack.
Lengthening the stack to increase draft is often feasible.
Some heaters were constructed with unused height in the convection section.
Putting additional coils into these heaters is relatively inexpensive. (The design of
any new heater can specify that space is to be left for two additional rows of finned
tubes in the convection section. The cost is low.) A small increment of convection
area can be gotten by increasing the fin density. Retrofitting finned tubes or
replacing bare tubes with finned ones means a new tube coil and new tube sheets.
It is unlikely that the downtime needed to modify an existing convection section
can be justified, although sometimes one is removed and replaced by a larger one.
If additional space is needed, a chamber must be built nearby. Stack gas must be
ducted to and from that location, at significant cost. An induced draft fan may be
needed. A possible cost-saving measure is that flue gas from two or more heaters
may be handled in a central location. Interaction effects on heater draft must then
be reviewed.
253 Possible Services

What can we use the recovered heat for? First, consider additional process heating.
Second, look for steam generation, steam superheating, and boiler feedwater
heating. Third, consider combustion air preheat. This is the usual order of economic
attractiveness, but there are exceptions. Additional steam production will have very
little value if steam is already in excess.
Process Heating. In some cases, the original design of an existing heater did not
involve a close temperature approach between flue gas and the process stream.
Additional convection area for the process stream is an obvious choice. Higher
thermal efficiency would result in lower fuel use; the draft penalty mentioned above
might be offset by the lower flue gas rate.
In other cases, heating another process stream from the same plant is a possibility.
Piping and control investments will be required. Plant operability can be a concern;
if a heater is fired according to the need of one process stream, other services may
have to take what comes. There may be undesirable interactions.
If a second process stream is shut down, its coil may need to be isolated and purged
to prevent coking. Tube material must withstand the flue gas temperature at that
point.
Where there is a choice, exchanging heat between process streams in tubular
exchangers is usually more economical than waste heat recovery in a fired heater.
An example of the former is a crude unit preheat exchanger system.

Steam Production. This is a common waste heat service. Unfortunately, most

plants need high pressure steam and have an excess of low pressure steam. Genera-
tion of 600 psig steam, for example, will recover flue gas heat down to 550°F at
best. Steam generation has one advantage: it's essentially isothermal on the tubeside,
i.e., temperature of the steam-water mixture in the tubes does not rise and create a
“temperature pinch” with the flue gas. On the minus side, water must be pumped
from the steam drum. We do not rely on thermosyphon circulation through a fired
heater.
Air Preheat. Equipment needed for air preheat is discussed in Section 430. The
following discusses how air preheat affects the heater.
Air preheat raises flame temperatures for two reasons: (1) The sensible heat of the
air, above ambient conditions, is added to the heating value of the fuel. (2) Forced
draft is usually necessary, and this means that lower percent excess air is practical.
If forced air preheat is added to an existing heater, the burners may have to be
changed. In addition, there is the possibility of overheating the radiant tubes.
254 Gas Turbine Exhaust

This subject is covered in more detail in Part 2 of this manual. Gas turbine exhaust
may be used as a source of combustion air. The stream, with about 16% oxygen, is
available at 850 to 1000+°F. If turbine exhaust is used, you want it to supply the
entire oxygen requirement of the heater; however, an auxiliary air blower is usually
provided for non-routine operation. The heater is operated on ambient air when
being started up or shut down.
At the Pascagoula Refinery, gas turbine exhaust is used in steam reformer heaters in
two hydrogen plants and the ammonia plant, with good results.
260 Emissions
In years gone by, burner optimization generally meant complete combustion with
the smallest practical flame volume and minimum practical amount of excess air.
Today we also want to reduce pollutant emissions.
The major pollutants are particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of
sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes, ammonia and noise. Normally these pollut-
ants are present in only trace quantities and the effect of their production on
combustion efficiency is insignificant.
The emphasis in this discussion is on the control of nitrogen oxides. Properly oper-
ated and maintained refinery process heaters and burners do not normally emit
amounts of particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ammonia,
smoke or haze beyond legal limits. As far as the oxides of sulfur are concerned, the
sulfur is generally removed from the fuel when necessary. Today the significant
emissions problem that often cannot be adequately controlled by proper operation
and maintenance or by fuel treatment is the oxides of nitrogen.
Noise is covered in Section 500 “Burners and Plenums.”

261 Regulatory Approvals

What are the emission limits? Obviously, this is one of the first things to find out
when planning a new installation or modification at a particular location. You find
out by asking the local regulatory or permitting authority. In Chevron, this responsi-
bility rests with the local operating centers.
CUSA's Environmental Affairs and ETD's Environmental Engineering Division
staffs are available for consultation in the following areas: general EPA require-
ments, state implementation plans (SIP), requirements in nonattainment (NA) and
prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) areas, emissions offsets, Best Avail-
able Control Technology (BACT), Lowest Achievable Emission Rates (LAER),
Reasonably Available Control Technology (RACT), Best Available Retrofit Tech-
nology (BART) and related matters. But the responsibility for determining specific
requirements and meeting them rests with the local operating center.
262 Emissions Estimates

The EPA's regulation AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, gives
accepted methods of estimating emissions from refinery sources including process
fired heaters. The emission factors are updated from time to time, so be sure to
check the latest edition.
Emission estimates based on AP-42 are generally accepted and are often required
by regulatory agencies at the project approval stage. In some cases agencies have
their own data and factors. If emissions estimated by the AP-42 emission factors are
within legal limits imposed by the local regulatory agency, the new heater should be
acceptable.
While it is widely accepted and estimates by its methods may be required by regula-
tory authorities, AP-42 is not the last word on air pollution emissions. In some
cases, the EPA factors have been shown to overestimate emissions. ETD's Environ-
mental Engineering Division specialists are available for consultation on emissions
estimates and permits.
263 Gaseous Pollutants

Carbon monoxide is formed when there is not sufficient air present to complete
combustion. Aldehydes are formed when the flame is quenched before combustion
is complete. Fuel sulfur reacts to form sulfur oxides. Fuel nitrogen and nitrogen in
the air react to form nitrogen oxides.
Carbon monoxide and aldehydes are effectively controlled by sufficient excess air
and good mixing. The main practical means of controlling the oxides of sulfur in
process fired heaters is to get the sulfur out of the fuel. (See Section 130 for federal
fuel sulfur limits.) The oxides of nitrogen are a problem because the combustion-
zone temperature, hence the reaction rate for NOx formation, peaks sharply at effi-
cient operation.

264 NOx Reduction

Low NOx Burners. Staged combustion burners are very effective in reducing NOx
by reducing the combustion zone temperature. Low NOx burners are being installed
in virtually all new process heaters and retrofitted where emissions regulations have
been tightened. They are discussed in Section 500.
Reducing Excess Oxygen. Reducing the amount of excess oxygen in the combus-
tion zone reduces the total amount of free oxygen available to combine with
nitrogen. However, reduction of excess oxygen as measured in the stack gas only
works to reduce NOx if the same reduction is actually realized in the combustion
zone. Heaters with considerable air leakage above the combustion zone may
already have low excess oxygen in the combustion zone. If so, reduction of stack
oxygen may not be possible without severe adverse effects in the combustion zone
such as large billowy flames, smoke and pulsating combustion.
Field experience suggests that one may reasonably expect about 5 ppm NOx reduc-
tion for each one-percent reduction of oxygen in the combustion zone. This can
easily be tested on any heater on which this means of NOx reduction is planned.
Steam Injection. The effectiveness of steam injection has been demonstrated on
gas firing. The formation of NOx by oxidation of nitrogen in the combustion air
responds well to flame temperature reduction. Generally, injecting steam into the
combustion zone does not work as well as injecting it into the fuel gas itself. Up to
50% reductions have been attained on gas firing by this means with no adverse
effect on burner operation.
The same cannot be said for oil firing. The major factor in the oxidation of fuel
nitrogen compounds is the oxygen concentration in the combustion zone. So for
fuel oils high in nitrogen, steam injection tends to be less effective.
Flue Gas Recirculation. Another way to lower the production of nitric oxide is to
recirculate some flue gas. This also reduces the flame temperature and hence the
reaction rate. Again, flue gas recirculation is more effective on gas fired heaters
than on oil.
Certain factors limit how much flue gas you can recirculate to around 15%: combus-
tion pulsation, flame instability, convection section temperature, draft and firebox
pressure limitations. But circulating only 15% of your fuel gas can still reduce
nitric oxide by as much as 50%.
Flue Gas Treatment. Various injection technologies, most commonly using
ammonia, are available for chemically reducing nitrogen oxides in the flue gas.
Other injectants being considered or developed today include urea, cyanuric acid,
and hydrazine. For help on flue gas treatment plants, contact ETD's Environmental
Engineering Division.
When ammonia is simply injected onto the flue gas at the proper temperature, the
process is called Selective Non-catalytic Reduction or “SNR.” The reaction works
best when the ammonia is injected into the flue gas within an optimum temperature
window, the location of which shifts with load changes and may not be accessible

in many process heaters. Mixing is also a problem. The SNR process reduces NOx
by only 40 to 60%.
When the ammonia is injected into the flue gas and the mixture is then passed at the
proper temperature over a catalyst bed, the process is called Selective Catalytic
Reduction or “SCR.” Sometimes when carbon monoxide limits are very tight, a
CO converter is also included in the Selective Catalytic Reduction Flue Gas Treat-
ment Plant package. Reliable, trouble-free 80 to 90 percent NOx reduction is
typical. The only drawback is that SCR is by far the most costly of the NOx reduc-
tion technologies.
There are a variety of catalysts, designers and suppliers of SCR systems. The
design contractors specify the type of catalyst along with other design details. The
catalyst bed typcially runs in the 600 to 750°F range.
The Company has few SCR systems in operation and experience is scarce. We
know SCR is a reliable but expensive technology, typically costing $5 per pound of
NOx reduced in new construction and $10-$20 per pound for retrofits. Combustion
modification (low NOx burners, flue gas recirculation, etc.) is by far the cheaper
alternative when they can be applied.
270 Draft
271 Definition
Flue gas does not pass through a natural draft heater and rise up the stack of its own
accord. It is pushed by the atmosphere outside, which enters through the burner air
registers. The motive pressure is draft; at any point in the heater, draft is the differ-
ence between internal absolute pressure and pressure of the atmosphere outside, at
the same elevation. Positive draft, or “negative pressure,” is the desired condition
where absolute pressure inside the heater is lower than that outside. “Positive pres-
sure,” the reverse, is to be avoided in order to prevent personnel hazard and damage
to the structure.
Section 460, Stacks and Ducts, has additional information on draft calculations.
272 Scale, Units, and an Example

Suppose we have the floor fired, natural draft heater described in Figure 200-11.
The elevation of the floor is sea level, the top of the stack is 120 feet above sea
level, and other elevations are as shown in the figure. Ambient conditions at floor
level are standard: temperature of 60°F and atmospheric pressure of 14.696 psia.
The density of air at standard conditions is 0.0763 lb/ft3. Therefore, the change of
atmospheric pressure per foot of elevation is 0.0763/144 or 0.000530 psi. Pressure
at the top of the stack is 14.696 - (120)(0.000530) = 14.632 psia. The change of
atmospheric pressure with elevation is shown on Figure 200-11.

Fig. 200-11 Draft Profile—Floor Fired, Natural Draft Heater
Proceeding through the heater from a point just outside the burner air registers to a
point just outside the top of the stack, we see that the total pressure change is the
same as that described in the paragraph above, 0.064 psi. Flue gas flows “uphill” as
a result of decreasing pressure. There are sizable pressure drops through the
burners, convection section, and stack damper. Pressure drops through the unob-
structed volumes, the firebox and stack, are much lower than in the atmosphere
outside. Although flue gas has about the same molecular weight as air, the much
higher temperature of flue gas makes it less dense.
The difference between the two curves just described is the draft at any elevation in
the heater. Draft is also plotted in Figure 200-11. Because psi is an inconvenient
unit for small pressure differences, we have switched over to inches of water
column, abbreviated in.wc, the common unit for draft calculations. A cubic foot of
water weighs 62.4 lb, so an inch of water column is 62.4/1728 or 0.0361 psi. We
notice that the point of minimum draft (not minimum pressure) is almost always
just below the convection section. The one exception is a heater operating well
below design; minimum draft may occur just below the damper. The location of
this minimum draft is sometimes called the “pinch point.”

273 Draft Calculation

The Draft Effect. The draft provided by a stack or any section of height H within
the fired heater is given by the following formula. “Height” means elevation at top
minus elevation at bottom.
h = 0.53 H P (1/Ta - 1/Tg)

(Eq. 200-12)
where:
h = draft, in. wc
H = height, ft.
P = atmospheric pressure, psia
Ta = atmospheric temperature, °R
Tg = flue gas temperature, °R
Note that temperatures are in degrees Rankine and that Tg is flue gas temperature at
the location that draft is being calculated. This is not necessarily the stack exit.
Implicit in the above formula is the assumption (usually close enough) that molec-
ular weights of flue gas and air are the same (28.97).
Following are some useful approximations:
• The change of atmospheric pressure per foot of elevation is 0.0147 in.wc
(standard conditions).
• The increase of draft per foot of elevation in the firebox (at 1500°F) is
0.011 in.wc.
• The increase of draft per foot of stack height is 0.006 in.wc at 400°F or 0.008
at 700°F.
Contraction, Expansion, and Friction Losses. Most flue gas pressure drops
through the fired heater and stack are estimated in terms of velocity heads. One
velocity head, in inches of water column, is defined as follows:
∆Pv = (v2/2gc)(ρg/ρw)(12) = 0.0030 v2 ρg

= 0.0030 G2 / ρg
(Eq. 200-13)
where:
∆Pv = 1 velocity head, in. wc
v = gas velocity, ft/sec
gc = gravitation constant, 32.17 ft/sec2
ρg = gas density, lb/ft3

ρw = density of water, 62.4 lb/ft3

G = gas mass velocity, lb/sec ft2
Estimate pressure drops as follows:
Per row of convection section tubes 0.5 velocity head
Stack entrance 0.5 velocity head
Damper, minimum in normal operation 1.5 velocity head
Stack friction, per diameter 0.02 velocity head
Stack exit 1.0 velocity head
When calculating pressure drop per convection tube row, base G on the minimum
cross-section between tubes, taking into account the additional space taken up by
extended surface. Base stack losses on the stack mass velocity, which is usually in
the range 0.75 to 1.0 lb/sec/ft2. The stack friction loss, in velocity heads, is 0.02 ×
(height/diameter).
Example. Refer again to Figure 200-11. The various components of the draft
profile will be reviewed. We begin at the arch, where negative pressure of 0.05
inches of water column is being maintained. According to Equation 200-12, thirty
feet of height in the firebox at an average temperature of 1500°F provides 0.33 inch
of additional draft or a total of 0.38 inch at the floor.
h = (0.53)(30)(14.7)[1/(60+460) -1/(1500+460)] = 0.33 in. wc
This is the operating pressure drop of the burners. If the burners were unable to
operate at this draft, then a higher draft (more negative pressure) would have to be
maintained at the arch.
In the convection section, assumed to be at an average temperature of 700°F,
flue gas rate and tube spacing are such that maximum mass velocity equals
0.565 lb/sec/ft2, corresponding to a flue gas density of 0.0342 lb/ft3 and a linear
velocity of 16.5 ft/sec. One velocity head is computed by Equation 200-13:
∆Pv = (0.0030)(0.565)2/0.0342 = 0.028 in. wc.
Twenty tube rows (not the 6 shown schematically in Figure 200-11) at 0.5 velocity
head per row equals 0.28 inches of water column. However, this is partially offset
by the draft effect of 16 vertical feet of flue gas at an average temperature of 700°F.
According to Equation 200-12, this is 0.008 inches of water column per foot or
0.13 inch for the whole section, which leaves a net change of 0.15 inches of water
column. In sum, as flue gas passes through the convection section, draft increases
from 0.05 inch of water column at the arch to 0.20 inch just ahead of the stack
entrance.
We assume that the stack has been sized for a mass velocity of 0.75 lb/sec/ft2,
resulting in a diameter of 4.0 feet. Flue gas temperature is now 400°F, and density
is 0.0462 lb/ft3. According to Equation 200-13, a velocity head is 0.0365 in. wc.

The draft effect of 74 feet of stack at 0.006 inch of water column per foot is 0.44
inch. Friction loss through the stack is (0.02) (74/4) = 0.37 velocity head; entrance
and exit losses total 1.50 heads. Total losses then are (1.50 + 0.37) (0.0365) = 0.07
in. wc. Recalling that draft at the stack entrance is 0.20 inch, pressure drop across
the damper is found by difference: 0.44 - 0.20 - 0.07 = 0.17 in. wc. This is equiva-
lent to 4.6 velocity heads, well above the minimum.
Rules of Thumb. Note the following rules:
• Minimum draft at any point should be 0.05 to 0.10 in. wc.
• Draft loss through a typical natural draft burner (including plenum if present)
is 0.2 to 0.5 in. wc.
Stack height should be such that, at design duty in the heater, draft loss at the
damper is 0.2 to 0.3 in. wc.
274 Adjustment of Draft

In a natural draft heater, the primary control of draft is the damper; burner air regis-
ters have a secondary effect. Conversely, the primary control of excess air is the
burner registers, and the damper has a secondary effect. This means that draft and
excess air must be adjusted together, and the procedure is done step by step. See
Figure 200-12. If the heater load changes significantly, the procedure must be
repeated.
In a forced/induced draft system, dampers in combustion air and flue gas ducts are
adjusted simultaneously to obtain desired draft and excess air. Burner air register
adjustments are used to balance the supply of air to the various burners.
Desired draft, at the point of minimum draft, is typically 0.05 to 0.10 inch of water
column. Consult the manufacturer's design to be sure. If pressure becomes positive,
hot flue gas will flow outward, possibly damaging the furnace structure and causing
a hazard to operators. If draft becomes too great, air leakage into the heater
becomes difficult to control, and excess air decreases thermal efficiency.
Air leakage, on the other hand, can be the cause of draft problems. Excess air cools
the flue gas, reducing the draft effect. The increased volume of flue gas results in
greater contraction, expansion, and friction losses. Both effects increase the chance
of positive pressure or insufficient draft at burners.

Fig. 200-12 Fired Heater Operation Checklist for Control of Draft and Excess O2: Natural Draft Heaters Courtesy of
the John Zink Company

280 Computer Program Abstracts
281 Process Furnace Program FRNC5

FRNC5 is a mainframe computer program for rating the performance of a fired
heater. The program can handle most types of heaters found in refineries and chem-
ical plants. It is mainly of interest to process engineers in operating companies and
Engineering Technology Department (ETD). Uses include:
• Modeling existing heaters to analyze performance
• Predicting the effects of proposed modifications
• Preparing process designs for new heaters
• Evaluating alternatives in design of retrofits or new heaters
The heat transfer and fluid flow correlations used in the program are similar to
those presented elsewhere in this manual. In particular, the firebox is “well mixed”
as discussed in Section 231. The power of the computer is used to handle complex
coil geometry and to obtain converged solutions to the large number of simulta-
neous equations which describe the heater. Where necessary, each tube of a pass
may be broken up into several sections in order to closely model the phase behavior
of the process streams.
Program input includes a complete description of the heater and the process and
utility streams. The user may specify either duty or firing rate; however, a duty spec-
ification results in a longer, trial and error calculation. The program does not have a
“design mode”; it will not change any part of the physical description of the heater.
Physical and thermodynamic properties of each process stream are stored in
internal arrays as functions of temperature and pressure. A subprogram called
PGRID will use standard correlations to create these arrays.
Standard output includes process temperatures and pressures, fluxes, duties, heat
transfer coefficients, flue gas temperatures, tube wall and fin tip temperatures, draft
at various points, firing rate and thermal efficiency. Optional output includes coordi-
nates for the Talmor Flow Maps (see Figures 200-2 and 200-3) and “hot spot”
calculations [2].
At present (1988), FRNC5 can be accessed through the Unit Operations Menu
System on any of the Concord computers, COVMA through COVMD. Instructions
for use are in “FRNC5 User's Guide” [3], available from the Technical Standards
Division, ETD. For assistance, contact the process engineering program specialist
in the Process Planning and Simulation Division of ETD. Cost per run varies from
$20 for simple cases to $200 for complex heaters with duty specified.
282 Steam-Hydrocarbon Reformer Furnace Program REFORM3

REFORM3 is a rigorous program for modeling the radiant section (only) of a
reforming heater of the type found in hydrogen and ammonia plants. The program

handles the various configurations found in Company plants: up-fired, down-fired,

side-fired (Selas), and terrace wall (Foster Wheeler).
As in the case of FRNC5, REFORM3 is mainly a process engineering tool. Sources
of information and assistance are the same as for FRNC5. The REFORM3 user's
guide [4] is available from Central Files at Chevron Research Company. Mainframe
online executions cost $100-150 (1988).
Unlike FRNC5, REFORM3 uses a “zoned” firebox. The vertical catalyst tubes and
the firebox are subdivided into several vertical zones, typically 10. Each zone may
have burners. Hot flue gas flows upward or downward between zones. Process gas
flows downward through catalyst-filled tubes. In each zone, the program calculates
temperatures of flue gas, refractory, tube wall (at various points around the circum-
ference, inside and outside), and process gas. A reaction kinetics sub-program
calculates extent of the various chemical reactions that occur.
Like FRNC5, REFORM3 “rates” a completely defined heater. The user supplies
feed rate and composition; fuel or firing rate; and dimensions of firebox, tubes, tube
layout, and catalyst pellets. Feed may be natural or process gas, LPG, or naphtha.
Plant product or refinery hydrogen may be recycled. Gas turbine exhaust may be
used as combustion air.
As stated above, REFORM3 handles only the firebox. A typical reformer will have
several convection services, which may include steam generation and preheating of
process gas and steam. FRNC5 is used for the convection section. If the convection
section preheats reactants, then REFORM3 and FRNC5 must be used in an itera-
tive, trial and error manner.
290 References
1. Chem. Eng. vol. 85, no. 18, p. 129.
2. E. Talmor, Predict and Control Combustion Zone Hot Spots in Petroleum
Processing Heaters, Chevron Research Company, Sept. 26, 1978.
3. R. F. Cleverdon, FRNC5 User's Guide, Process Furnace Program, August 25,
1982. Available from ETD Staff Support Services.
4. R. F. Cleverdon, REFORM3 Users' Guide, Steam-Hydrocarbon Reformer
Furnace Program, July 17, 1987. Available from Central Files at CRC.

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200 Design Background

210 Process and Economic Considerations 200-3

Chevron Corporation 200-1 March 1989

223 Estimating Flue Gas Rate

March 1989 200-2 Chevron Corporation

210 Process and Economic Considerations

211 Heat Flux and Temperature

Chevron Corporation 200-3 March 1989

Fig. 200-1 Recommended Design Parameters for Various Services

March 1989 200-4 Chevron Corporation

(convective) heat transfer coefficient. This difference is added to the maximum

212 Velocity, Pressure Drop, and Flow Regime

Chevron Corporation 200-5 March 1989

March 1989 200-6 Chevron Corporation

Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery