Manual for

BiPV Projects

1
2
 Preface

The integration of renewable energy As a manufacturer of innovative solar

systems into architectural design is elements that can be customised to
a topical and prevalent theme that pre- meet project-specific architectural re-
sents opportunities for innovative quirements, Odersun AG is the ideal
approaches. As consultants and drivers partner and consultant when it comes
of innovation, architects and design to designing, planning and constructing
engineers have a decisive role to play innovative, energy-optimised solar
in recognising the advantages and solutions for the building envelope.
potentials of building-integrated photo-
voltaics (BiPV) and applying them to This document aims to provide an over-
meet specific project requirements. view of the design potential of BiPV
This involves combining energetic, modules and the factors that influence
architectural, engineering design, and planning considerations, and can be used
economic considerations. as a guideline for relevant projects.

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4
 Contents

1. What is BiPV ? 4

2. Design potential 5
2.1. Technologies 5
2.2 Efficiency and yield 6
2.3 Module design 7

3. BiPV design guidelines 10

3.1 Design strategies 11
3.2 Environmental variables 12
3.3 Multifunctionality 15
3.4 Mounting system and installation situation 17
3.5 Glass layer structures 21
3.6 Module design 22
3.7 Electrical system 24
3.8 Economic aspects 27

5
 1.
What is BiPV ?

The terms component-integrated and In principle, BiPV can be used in all parts
building-integrated photovoltaics (BiPV) of the building envelope. Although roof
refer to the concept of integrating surfaces are the preferred area for in-
photovoltaic elements into the building stalling PV elements due to their advan-
envelope, establishing a symbiotic tageous irradiation values, façades also
re-lationship between the architectural offer enormous potential.
design, functional properties and eco-
nomic regenerative energy conversion. The ratio of façade surface area to roof
surface area increases along with the
The photovoltaic modules (PV modules) building height. In addition, the available
thus replace conventional construction roof area is often reduced due to the
materials, taking over the function installation of facilities and superstructu-
that these would otherwise perform. res, which means that BiPV façades are
Although this idea is not new, it is not of particular value in high-density urban
widely harnessed due to the extensive centres.
planning and architectural challenges
currently involved.

6
2.
Design potential

With regard to the aesthetics of the 2.1.1. Crystalline silicon The size of the modules is predeter-
building, a PV module should have a mined by the size of the carrier plate and
homogeneous appearance and either Crystalline solar cells usually consist of is only rarely broken into smaller seg-
blend subordinately into the overall approximately 15 × 15 cm (6” × 6”) square ments. Unfortunately, because the in-
design or dominantly shape it. plates with a metallic blue or black sur- dividual cells are connected in series, it
face that is subdivided by is not possible to create special shapes.
The appearance of the PV module is silver-coloured contact grids, which However, this technology does enable
determined essentially by the type collect the current. Special anti-reflec- a constant level of transparency to be
of technology used in the PV cell and tive coatings can be applied to create created across a surface by the selective
by the design possibilities offered by other metallic shades. removal of film in individual areas.
the selection of materials used in the
module. Modules are created by connecting sev- 2.1.3. Odersun CISCuT
eral silicon cells to form larger strings.
2.1. Technologies The light transmission through the mod- A narrow copper strip, over a kilometre
ules can be adjusted by altering the in length, serves as the carrier and
The PV market, as an innovative and spacing between the cells. Since the size contact material for a micrometre-thick
rapidly growing market, offers a wide of the cells is not variable, any change solar cell. This cell can be cut to any
range of different technologies. Gener- in the module size leads to a change in length and the cell stripes are connected
ally, these can be divided into two main the light transmittance or to a subopti- together with a slight overlap, using an
groups based on the type of manufac- mal arrangement of cells. electrically conductive adhesive, to
turing technology, namely crystalline form a string. The surface colour ranges
cells and thin-film cells. The approach 2.1.2. Traditional thin-film from graphite grey to black and does
adopted for Odersun’s CISCuT solar not require a visible contact grid.
cells, however, results in an architectur- Thin-film modules consist of a semicon-
ally interesting solution that unites ductor, just a few micrometres thick, An individual string or several individu-
the design benefits of both of these typically deposited on a carrier of thin al strings of various sizes, the so-called
groups. non-hardened glass by means of vapour Odersun Super Cells, are connected to-
deposition. The resulting coating here- gether to form a freely definable module.
after is subdivided into individual thin li- This enables the manufacture of cus-
near cells. The cells are usually reddish tomised and project-specific module siz-
brown to black and are broken up by es and special shapes.
metallic or transparent lines.
The level of transmittance can be indi-
vidually controlled by adjusting the spac-
ing between the strings of cells.

7
2.

2.2. Efficiency and output The air mass factor represents the path Generally, the older and already highly
length of the solar radiation through developed crystalline technologies
In order to compare the different types Earth’s atmosphere. If the solar radiation still provide the highest commercially
of cell technology, the rated output of is vertical, the light takes the shortest available efficiency values, with 12 % to
each type is determined on the basis of path through the atmosphere (air mass 17 % for multicrystalline modules and
standardised measurements, usually un- = 1). If the angle of incidence is shallow- up to 20 % for monocrystalline modules.
der standard test conditions (STC). er, the path of the light through the
atmosphere is longer and the AM value The efficiency of thin-film technologies
This involves applying a light source of increases accordingly. currently lies below these values, typical-
1000 W per m² vertically to the mod- ly ranging from 5 % for amorphous
ules, at an ambient temperature of 25° The output measured under these con- silicon up to 13 % for CIS modules. With
Celsius. The spectral composition ditions determines the solar element’s maximum efficiency values of approxi-
of the light is 1.5 AM (air mass) for the rated module output that the manufac- mately 20 %, current research promises
purpose of this measurement. turer is obliged to state. The ratio of the further optimisation of the yield per
applied radiation (1000 W/m²) to the unit area of solar elements, particularly
measured values gives the efficiency of in the field of CIS technologies.
the solar module.

8
 Design potential

2.3. Module design Various parameters can be taken into 2.3.1 Semi-transparency

account in the design of the modules.
Solar modules are available as lami- Examples of possible options are: The effect created in the module by
nates made of glass or film. As a rule, the combination of transparent unoccu-
façade and overhead glazing systems ⋅⋅ Module size pied areas and opaque solar cells is
use laminates made of glass only. In ⋅⋅ Module shape (e.g. rectangles or spe- referred to as semi-transparency. The
addition to providing protection for cial shapes) arrangement and distribution of the
the solar cells, these laminate elements ⋅⋅ Covering glass solar cells within the module thus con-
can also meet structural and design ⋅⋅ glass quality trols the degree of transparency.
requirements. ⋅⋅ strength
⋅⋅ structure This makes it possible to create inter-

⋅⋅ coating esting and innovative light effects. If

⋅⋅ colour the module is required to have no trans-

⋅⋅ tinted glass parency, the intermediate areas not

⋅⋅ coloured printing filled with cells can also be coloured.

⋅⋅ Cell background or reverse side of module

Since the solar cells are usually opaque
⋅⋅ Semi-transparency and need to absorb the sunlight for
⋅⋅ Arrangement of solar cells in the module energy conversion, it is not possible to

⋅⋅ Interconnections create fully transparent solar generators.

Depending on the type of technology,
⋅⋅ Multi-layered superstructures such as
however, the pattern of transparency
insulated glazing
can be arranged in various ways.
⋅⋅ Cell colour → 2.1. Technologies

9
2.

Fig. 3 Surfaces: structured glazing

These creative design measures on the

front surface of the module naturally
result in a reduction in the sunlit surface
area or in the reflection of some of the
incident light. The output of the solar
Fig. 1 CISCuT module with orange backing Fig. 2 CISCuT module with 25 % printed lines
module is therefore always reduced.

For this reason, a compromise be-

tween design and output must always
2.3.2. Colour The following methods can be used for be found when designing coloured solar
colouring solar modules: modules. To minimise the reduction
To achieve colour effects that differ from in efficiency, the coverage rate of the
the cell colour, coloured printing, coat- ⋅⋅ The use of coloured glass. colour printing or the intensity of
ings or films can be used. This makes it ⋅⋅ Glass with full area print the colouring must always be kept as
possible to create interesting effects such (glass enamel) with various patterns: low as possible.
as logos on PV modules or colours that resilient and durable. → Fig. 1, 2

match the existing building, since the en- ⋅⋅ The application of a coloured film
tire range of RAL colours is available. (low resistance)

⋅⋅ Anti-reflective coatings.

10
 Design potential

Fig. 4 Pliable CISCuT cells (Odersun) Fig.  5 Electrical contacts between mono- Fig. 6 Electrical contacts between CISCuT cells
crystalline cells (Odersun)

2.3.3. Glass surfaces 2.3.4. Pliability and flexibility 2.3.5. Cell contacts

Provided there are no process-related The pliability and flexibility of solar cells Electrically conductive contacts are re-
limits to the range of possible glazing- depends on the materials used, the sub- quired to connect the individual cells and
types, all available quality grades and strates and the thickness of the cells. Super Cells within the module. Often,
types of glass can be used for solar mod- Various technologies can produce pliab- these are made of conductive materials
ules. This means that the structural and le solutions when they are based on such as copper and significantly affect
safety requirements for specific types metal or film. Tight bending radii are the appearance of the module.
of application can be met by using tough- possible if thin-film technologies such
ened glass or different thicknesses of as amorphous silicon or CIS are depos- Depending on the type of technology
glazing. ited on flexible metal or synthetic sub- used, however, these electrical contacts
strates. Due to the thickness of the cells, can be made invisible if required. → Fig. 5, 6
To ensure optimum yield, the cover glass crystalline cells, on the other hand, are
should preferably be white glass with low much more limited since they are brittle
iron oxide content and high transmission. and porous.
The lower iron oxide content also reduc-
es the typical greenish tint of the glazing. Mechanically flexible solutions are al-
ready available from some manufac-
The yield of a solar module can also be turers for specialist applications such
increased by using structured glass for the as roof sheets, but only in fixed sizes.
cover glass. The surface of the structured
glass is made up of wave-shaped, rounded Module layers made of glazing that al-
depressions that act as light traps. Some lows cold bending of the module are
of the radiation that would normally be proving to be more stable in the long
reflected into the environment and lost is term and to offer more variation in size.
directed back into the cell. This increases Either very thin and malleable glazing
the amount of incident radiation and can can be used or the glazing can be held in
increase the output of the solar modules form using special fixing systems.
by up to 3 %. From an architectural point Hot bending of the solar modules is not
of view, however, the fascination of this possible due to the high temperatures
type of glazing lies in its matt appearance required. → Fig. 4
and non-reflective surface. → Fig. 3

11
3.
BiPV design guidelines

Pfosten-Riegel

Punkthalter

4m

Successful building-inte- In the case of complex install- The product specifications Close cooperation be- Partner companies in-
grated PV solutions are ation situations, the BiPV manu- are determined coopera- tween the BiPV manu- stall the customised solar
taken into account in even facture provides advice regard- tively and the interfaces are facturer and the other ser- modules on site. The
the preliminary planning ing the possibilities for project- defined. A detailed calcula- vice providers involved quality of the individual
and design stages of specific module designs. Sup- tion of the yield from the in the project ensures the solar modules is assured
a project so that project- port is also given to the electri- PV system can be made. development of a preci- by means of guarantees.
specific characteristics cal engineer with regard to the sely tailored product that
can be considered at an design of the electrical instal- meets all the specific
early stage. lations for the BiPV system. requirements.

Parties involved Parties involved Parties involved Parties involved Parties involved

⋅⋅ BiPV manufacturer ⋅⋅ BiPV manufacturer ⋅⋅ BiPV manufacturer ⋅⋅ BiPV manufacturer ⋅⋅ BiPV manufacturer
⋅⋅ Architect ⋅⋅ Architect ⋅⋅ Architect ⋅⋅ Architect ⋅⋅ Architect
⋅⋅ Project manager ⋅⋅ Project manager ⋅⋅ Façade contractor ⋅⋅ Façade contractor
⋅⋅ Structural engineer ⋅⋅ Electrical engineer ⋅⋅ Electrical engineer
⋅⋅ Electrical engineer ⋅⋅ Structural engineer
⋅⋅ B uilding shell design
engineer

Fig. 7 Project stages

The design of a BiPV system can often to take these elements into consideration As a basic principle, however, the steps

be a complex process. This stands to rea- at an early stage in the planning process and questions described in more detail

son, since it is necessary to reach a con- in order to achieve electrically and ar- below should be observed in the plan-

sensus between optimum operating chitecturally optimised systems. Particu- ning phase and should be reflected in the

conditions for the photovoltaic system, lar attention must also be paid to the design and implementation:

the architectural context, economic con- planning processes and to the allocation
of responsibilities before and beyond ⋅⋅ Design strategy
siderations and building regulation re-
quirements. project completion. The planning, design ⋅⋅ Environmental variables
and implementation of a building-inte- ⋅⋅ Multifunctionality
The supposedly definitive rated output grated system require the cooperation of
⋅⋅ Construction system and
data for the PV modules, which is based several different trades, such as electrical
installation situation
on standardised measurements, is of installation and façade construction spe-
cialists, which would traditionally have ⋅⋅ Glass layer structures
only limited relevance here.
very little overlap during the detailed de- ⋅⋅ Module design

In this case, it is more important to care- sign stage. ⋅⋅ Electrical components

fully select the right system, to tailor ⋅⋅ Economic aspects
the design of the BiPV elements to suit It is vital, therefore, that the services pro-

the requirements of the project, and vided by the different trades are precisely
defined and demarcated. → Fig. 7

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 BiPV design guidelines

3.1. Design strategies Photovoltaic systems can be integrat- The integration of PV systems in exist-
ed in various ways. Depending on the ing or even protected buildings presents
The use of renewable energy sources in desired appearance, various strategies a particular challenge, since the surfac-
architecture is by no means a new con- are employed in practice that can in- es available for PV integration are often
cept, but it has become more topical fluence the overall effect of the building. very limited.
recently, particularly as architects, prop- Common strategies include:
erty developers and building users be- Comprehensive information on this sub-
come more inclined to consider issues of ⋅⋅ Adjustment ject can be found in the leaflet “PV im
resource conservation. ⋅⋅ Contrast Denkmalschutz” (PV in listed buildings)

⋅⋅ Dominance from the specialist group “Bauwerkin-

Sustainable or energy-active systems in tegrierte Photovoltaik” (Building-inte-
⋅⋅ Dialogue
the building envelope present the pos- grated photovoltaics) of Bundesverband
sibility of meeting this requirement using Bausysteme e.V. → www.bv-bausysteme.de
innovative types of application within 3.1.2. Urban space
the context of the proposed building or 3.1.3. Landscaping
refurbishment project. Aesthetically pleasing BiPV solutions
are particularly needed in the field of ur- The acceptance of PV systems is deter-
In order to integrate photovoltaic sys- ban development. Many local authori- mined to a large extent by their sensitive
tems in a sensitive and satisfactory way, ties are laying down design regulations, integration in the landscape. Conspi-
energetic, architectural and structur- either separately or in the relevant cuous systems can look strange and
al factors as well as economic consider- development plan, which stipulate re- unfamiliar and can even be perceived to
ations must be taken into account and quirements that must observed and met spoil the landscape. This is particularly
reconciled at an early stage. be-fore building permission is given. evident in the case of typical free-
standing systems that cover large are-
3.1.1. Architecture Façades, visible roof areas and street as of land and are designed and installed
furniture determine the character taking only the economic aspects of
In this context, architects have the im- of public spaces. By designing BiPV yield optimisation into consideration.
portant task of recognising, as accurate- systems to meet the specific require-
ly as possible, the advantages and the ments it is possible to incorporate The fundamental issues of landscape
potential of applications such as building- PV systems in the townscape in a integration relate to the type of installa-
integrated photovoltaics and of pre- visually harmonious way. Coloured tion, the method used to fix the PV ele-
senting these to the developer in their designs or invisible fixings are often ments, the colouring of the elements
role as consultant and provider of ideas. requested in this context. and, not least, the choice of installation
location and the necessary safety and
security measures.

If these parameters are precisely and

sensitively controlled, innovative and
congruent solutions can be generated
and even be used to create attractive
landscape design features.

13
3.

3.2. Environmental variables In the case of BiPV systems that are

Incident solar radiation
arranged according to architectural cri- Sonneneinstrahlung
high
hoch
When designing a BiPV system, a com- teria, however, optimal positioning of
90 %
promise must be reached between the modules is rarely possible. Never-
the requirements of yield optimisation theless, good power yield can still be 100 % 75 %
95 %
and those of the architectural environ- achieved even with suboptimal align-
70 % 50 %
ment. The rated output data for the ments provided that the characteristics 65 %

PV modules, which is based on standard- of the PV modules allow this. Modules

niedrig
low
ised measurements, is not the most that perform well in weak and diffuse
important criterion here. light, for example, can be used to good
→ 2.2. Efficiency and output effect in situations where the orientation
Fig. 8 Solar radiation on inclined surfaces
is unfavourable.
The selection of the right type of tech-
nology for the environment in question Thin-film solar modules possess these
is more important in this case. Often, properties and regularly generate high-
the usually less efficient thin-film tech- er yield here in comparison to crystalline In Germany, a surface area of around
nologies represent the best choice here, systems, which prefer directly incident, 3000 km² could be used for building-
particularly in situations with subopti- high-energy solar radiation. The use of integrated systems, which would amount
mal environmental variables. thin-film modules is recommended in sit- to an installed power output of approx-
uations where there is a significant pro- imately 300 GW. In urban settings,
3.2.1. Orientation portion of diffuse light due to reflection façades represent the greater part of
and light-scattering. the area available for BiPV.
The amount of incident solar radiation
on a surface depends on its orientation Consequently, despite their vertical High-rise buildings have a much higher
and angle of inclination. The optimum alignment, façades represent an inter- proportion of façade area than roof area.
angle of inclination varies according to esting application scenario for PV sys- The incident solar radiation on south-
the latitude of the installation site: the tems They can be found in all types of facing vertical façades in Germany, for
further the distance from the equator, structures in every town and, in contrast example, is more than 80% in com-
the steeper the optimum installation to free-standing, open-field facilities, parison to a horizontal surface and is
angle. In Germany, surfaces that face they generate electricity in the imme- therefore well suited to BiPV.
south and are set at an angle of 35° to diate vicinity of the user – without the → Fig. 8

the horizontal receive the maximum power losses associated with transport
possible solar radiation. However, slight and storage.
deviations in angle, between 20° and
45°, and slight displacements to the east
or west often result in only minor losses
in radiation.

14
 BiPV design guidelines

Odersun CIS modules

Amorphous CdTe CIS HIT Mono Poly
Polycrystalline modules
Increased yield due to better
temperature coefficients 5200

5000

4800

4600

Increased yield due to 4400

Increased yield due to
longer feed-in
earlier feed-in
4200

4000

Fig. 9 CIS modules start to generate electricity earlier in the morning and Fig. 10 CIS modules get the maximum benefit from every installed Watt of
continue later into the evening, and perform more stably at higher generating capacity. (Source: IPE University Stuttgart 2010)
temperatures than crystalline types of module. Graph shows accumulated yield in kWh.

3.2.2. Low-light performance and Spectral sensitivity

spectral sensitivity
The sun’s spectrum ranges from short
The sun radiates constant, high-energy, wavelength UV light to long wavelength
direct light to earth. This direct light infrared light. Solar cells react differently
is ideal for solar modules, and highly to the different wavelengths of the
efficient silicon solar cells in particular sunlight.
are very good at converting it into
electrical power. The direct sunlight is In contrast to crystalline cells, which ab-
scattered, however, by water vapour, sorb primarily long wavelength radia-
dust and soot particles as it reaches tion, thin-film solar cells can absorb a wide
earth and is reflected from the objects spectral range. In diffuse light there is less
it strikes. This results in indirect or difference in efficiency, since the short
diffuse light. The ability of solar cells wavelength blue light is absorbed well by
to convert diffuse or scattered light the thin-film solar cells on cloudier days or
into energy is referred to as low-light when the sun is low in the sky.
behaviour.

Thin-film solar modules demonstrate

better efficiency in low light and produce
higher relative yields in comparison with
crystalline systems. They are therefore
recommended for applications with a
significant proportion of diffuse light and
in cloudy or dull weather. They also en-
able suboptimal or even north facing fa-
çades of buildings to be included in the
BiPV concept. → Fig. 9, 10

15
3.

3.2.3. Shading
Mornings Midday Afternoons

Shading can significantly affect the yield West

of a PV system. It can have many differ-

ent causes, such as vegetation, neigh-
bouring buildings, self-shading due to
construction elements, or layers of dirt
on overhanging parts of the mounting
system. This shading can also change
due to growth, new buildings or different
user behaviour.
South

Such sources of shade can be minimised

by careful planning in order to maxi-
mise the incident solar radiation. Simula-
tions of the daily and yearly path of the
shadows can be carried out to enable
the position of the solar modules and the
orientation and cubature of the building
to be optimised accordingly. If shading East

cannot be completely avoided, its effects

can be reduced by adapting the module
technology, the module design and the
electrical connection of several modules.
→ Fig. 11, 12

Fig. 11 Self-shading due to the type of fixing system selected

Fig. 12 Shading due to cubature and the environment

16
 BiPV design guidelines

3.2.4. Temperature 3.3. Multifunctionality 3.3.1. Types of application

If the PV modules heat up, a reduction Due to their mechanical module struc- Since BiPV modules can be structured
in output is inevitable. The output loss- tures, PV modules can perform the func- in many different ways, there is a cor-
es vary depending on the type of cell tions of the building envelope in addition respondingly large variety of possible
technology used. The losses from silicon to their main function of silent and emis- applications for the integration of PV
cells are approximately 0.5 % per Kelvin, sion-free energy conversion, and can systems in and on buildings. PV cells
which can sometimes equate to twice thus replace conventional construction can be incorporated into just about any
the amount lost by thin-film modules. materials. glass layer structure, so that even walk-
on glazing and thermal insulation glazing
This effect must be taken into account, The extent of this functionality is de- systems are possible. Examples of pos-
since the standard output measurement termined by the design of the module sible applications include:
for solar modules is taken at 25°C, structure, which in turn defines the tech-
whereas additional 55°C can be expected nical, economic and architectural de- ⋅⋅ Solar protection fins and louvres

in the case of façades that have no rear sign aspects. The silent, emission-free ⋅⋅ Sun protection panels and canopies
ventilation. From a yield point of view, conversion of energy, however, is the ⋅⋅ Façade cladding for curtain façades
therefore, it would be expedient to in- defining characteristic of photovoltaic and rear-ventilated façades
crease the rear-ventilation dimensions in systems.
⋅⋅ Double façades
order to keep the module temperature
as low as possible. By taking on further functions, solar ⋅⋅ Semi-transparent window areas

construction elements can be used for ⋅⋅ Roofing

various types of application in buildings, ⋅⋅ Privacy protection panels
and can even be used as a substitute
⋅⋅ Sliding shutters
for separate systems, such as shading
systems, that would otherwise be re- ⋅⋅ Canopy roofs

quired. Such substitutions make it possi- ⋅⋅ Street furniture

ble to reduce the module price paid for ⋅⋅ Noise protection walls
BiPV modules, which is otherwise usual-
ly higher than the price of standard
PV elements. Thus, despite their higher
initial costs, building-integrated PV
systems can be significantly more cost-
effective than traditional construction
materials.

17
3.

3.3.2. Functions Heating Burglary protection and

residual structural support
Privacy screening The temperature of a photovoltaic
module can increase significantly when Burglary protection can be provided by
The relationship between the interior the module is exposed to radiation. selecting the right type of cover glass
and exterior world is of great importan- This is particularly the case with direct or base glass and the right intermediate
ce in architecture. The use of semitrans- radiation on the module, which occurs film. As a rule, panels made up of multi-
parent solutions combines transparent in the summer months and in the winter ple layers are used. The type of solar
areas with opaque PV cells in order to months when the sun is low. The heat cells used can also play a decisive role
establish this relationship. In contrast to that the modules then radiate into here. Solar cells set on extensive metallic
purely opaque solutions, the architectur- the environment can be harnessed to carrier sheets (CISCuT), for example,
al design potential is increased here due provide hot water or technical process increase the breakthrough resistance of
to the use of selective screening. heat. the elements.

Sun protection Thermal insulation Sound protection and sound insulation

The PV cells provide sun protection Depending on their thickness, the multi- PV modules can reflect or attenuate
in a similar way to screening, acting as layer glass structures of PV modules can sound depending on their construction.
opaque elements or providing the be used to provide thermal insulation. For this reason, they can also be used
desired degree of semi-transparency In addition, most solar modules can also as sound protection elements. PV fa-
in accordance with a targeted design. be integrated into insulation glazing çades or roof elements already possess
structures or used as alternative front sound insulating properties thanks to
Energy conversion and shielding cladding for curtain insulation elements. their multi-layer structure, and the mod-
ule design can be adapted to meet spe-
A possible special application for PV Weather protection cific local requirements regarding sound
systems could be the reception and insulation. The sound reduction index
transmission of high-frequency signals, In general, the mechanical structure can be adjusted by increasing the thick-
as a repeater antenna for mobile phone of PV modules always provides weath- ness of the glazing and by using asyn-
systems, for example. Alternatively, er protection - if only for the purpose of chronous cover layers and specific inter-
the metallic semiconductor layer can protecting the solar cells against weath- mediate layers.
also act as a shield against electro- er influences. With the correct choice
magnetic radiation. of cover glazing layers or films in com-
bination with the building-integration
Architectural design element mounting system, PV modules can pro-
vide rain-proofing, wind-proofing, wind
The wide range of designs of PV mod- load resistance and ageing resistance.
ules makes it possible to use them as
architectural design elements, which can
be taken into account and systematically
managed during the planning stage.

18
 BiPV design guidelines

3.4. Mounting system and

installation situation

Due to the specific properties of the

system, such as shading, for example,
and the regulatory specifications with
regard to the safety and loading capacity
of the materials used, the chosen type
Fig. 13 Mullion-transom façade Fig. 15 Structural sealant glazing
and method of fixing have a decisive
impact on the design of the solar module.

3.4.1. Mounting systems

3.4.1.1. Linear mounting systems

Mullion-transom façades
→ Fig. 13, 14

Mullion-transom constructions consists

of vertical mullions and horizontal tran-
Fig. 14 Mullion-transom façade, Fig. 16 Structural sealant glazing,
soms. The mullions transfer the main
axonometric view axonometric view
loads and the transoms act as horizontal
bracing. The solar modules are set in this
framework structure as fill elements.
Clamping rails are fitted from the out- ingly low. For this reason, PV modules In contrast to other countries, German
side as linear fixings for the modules. are often integrated in a thermal insula- regulations require an additional me-
tion glazing structure. chanical safeguard to prevent panels
The circumferential profiles, however, installed above a height of 8 m from
can shade the solar modules and also re- Structural sealant glazing (SSG) plummeting. In addition, provision for
sult in the accumulation of dirt and snow. → Fig. 15, 16 the mechanical transfer of loads must
The module design should be adapted to be made. The combination of SSG with
take this shading into account. The costs With structural sealant glazing façades, solar modules is treated as a special
for maintenance and cleaning should the solar modules are fixed in place on a system, so that both product-specific
also be taken into account, if applicable, metal frame by means of circumferential building permission (Allgemeine bauauf-
particularly for roofing applications. load-transferring bonds. sichtliche Zulassung, AbZ) and project-
specific building permission (Zulassung
The dimensions of the façade grid vary This produces façades with a homo- im Einzelfall, ZiE) must be obtained.
from project to project and custom- geneous and smooth appearance.

ised solar modules are usually required. Furthermore, SSG façades have no ex-

Mullion-and-transom façades count as ternal protruding parts, which means

“warm” or thermally insulating façades. that shading and dirt traps are avoided.

Consequently, not only must the profiles

be thermally separated, but the U values
of the fill elements must be correspond-

19
3.

Fig. 17 Drilled spot fitting Fig. 19 Clamp fixings Fig. 21 Undercut anchor fixing system

Fig. 18 Drilled spot fitting, Fig. 20 Clamp fixings, Fig. 22 Undercut anchor fixing system,
axonometric view axonometric view axonometric view

3.4.1.2. Point-fixing systems that allow cut-outs to be made in these Clamp fixings

areas in the module design and permit → Fig. 19, 20

Particularly delicate designs can be drilled panes to be used independently

achieved using point-fixed façade sys- of the cell production. Standard thin-film Clamp fixings are U-shaped brack-
tems. Typical point-fixing systems are modules are not usually favourable or ets that fit around the edge of glass
clamp fixings, drilled glass panes with cannot be used at all in such cases. panes and dispense with the need to
drilled spot fixing, and undercut anchor drill holes in the glass. The fixings must
fixing systems. Drilled spot fixing overlap the glass by at least 25 mm
→ Fig. 17, 18 and the clamped area must be greater
Although point-fixing systems cause than 1000 mm².
hardly any shading in comparison to Drilled spot fixing are construction com-
frame systems and are less prone to ponents that are used for point-fixing
accumulating dirt, they can only be glass panes. They comprise two metal
used with a few types of solar module. discs and a bolt that is inserted through
a drilled cylindrical hole in the glass pane
Since holes drilled in glass must maintain to connect the two discs. These circular
a minimum offset from the edge of the pads must measure at least 50 mm in
pane and since drilled spot fixing always diameter and be offset from the edge of
shade part of the module, the only solar the glass by 12 mm.
modules that can be used here are those

20
 BiPV design guidelines

Fig. 23 Ventilated curtain wall system, Fig. 24 Ventilated curtain wall system Fig. 25 Photovoltaics in combination with stone
axonometric view and glass (Lithodecor, Airtec system for
ventilated curtain wall façades)

Undercut anchor fixings 3.4.2. Ventilated curtain wall systems Many different types of material, such
→ Fig. 21, 22 as plaster, ceramic tiles, bricks, glass or
The function of the cladding of ventilat- metal can be used for this kind of con-
Undercut anchor fixings are mechanical ed curtain wall systems) is to provide struction. Façades can thus be created
point-fixings that remain invisible, since weather protection and to serve as an using a wide variety of material combi-
the glass is not drilled right through. architectural design element. This outer nations together with PV modules.
This allows more efficient use of the cladding is fixed to a rear load-bearing Above all, ventilated curtain wall systems
PV surface area. These fixings generate wall using a fixing system (agraffes and/ are taken into consideration in energy-
higher stresses due the reduced con- or rails). efficient façade renovation projects. →
tact area of their cylindro-conical drilled Fig. 23, 24, 25

holes, which means that toughened A layer of air between the load-bearing
glass, semi-tempered glass or laminated wall (or the insulation layer attached to
safety glass must be used. it) and the building envelope ventilates
the solar modules from the rear and can
be used for laying electrical components
and sockets.

21
3.

3.4.3. Installation situations Overhead glazing Walk-on glazing

The demands made of façade systems Solar modules installed at an angle Due to the type of use, walk-on glaz-
vary according to the type of fixing greater than 10° are classified as over- ing is at greater risk of being damaged
system and installation situation. head units and must comply with more by knocks. Its stability and fitness for
stringent requirements. As a rule, lami- use must be demonstrated by means of
The following information refers to nated safety glass with a PVB inter- structural analysis if unfavourable load-
German rules and regulations. mediate film should be used as stand- ing conditions apply (1.5 kN individual
ard. Solar modules that have cells within loading, 3.5 kN/m² traffic loading). Only
Vertical glazing the intermediate film or have an inter- laminated safety glass with at least three
mediate film made of EVA are classified layers may be used. The topmost lay-
All solar modules set at an angle of in the Building Rules List as laminated er must be thicker than 10 mm and be
less than 10° to the vertical are classi- glass and not as laminated safety glass made of toughened or semi-tempered
fied as vertical glazing. Standard in- and therefore require product-specific glass. The bottom layers must be thicker
stallation situations are described in building permission (Allgemeine bau- than 12 mm and be made of float glass
the TRAV (Technical rules for the use aufsichtliche Zulassung, AbZ) or project- or semi-tempered glass.
of fall-proof glazing) and TRPV (Tech- specific building permission (Zulassung
nical rules for point-supported glazing) im Einzelfall, ZiE). Step-on glazing
guidelines. Hitherto, solar modules made
of toughened glass were often consid- Step-on glazing is usually only intended
ered to meet the requirements although to support loading during maintenance or
the module structures do not corre- cleaning by one person at a time and
spond to the standard types in accord- must be made of laminated safety glass
ance with the requirements of Building panes with at least two individual sheets.
Rules List A.
If trafficked areas beneath step-on glaz-
ing are not sealed off while the glazing
is being walked on (see the FKG trade
association leaflet on step-on glazing:
“Betretbare Verglasung”), this glazing is
then classified as overhead glazing.

22
 BiPV design guidelines

3.5. Glass layer structures for the manufacture of PV thermal

insulation glazing. As a consequence of
The combination of solar cells with the heat-insulating properties of this
various types of glass layer structures module structure, the solar cells heat Fig. 26 G lass-film module structure
makes it possible to use solar modules in up and this results in a reduction in the
many different installation situations. efficiency of the cells. Monocrystalline
Requirements regarding overhead glaz- solar cells are more sensitive to tem-
ing and fall-safe glazing can also be met perature than thin-film solar cells in this
in this way. respect.
Fig. 27 Glass-glass module structure

3.5.1. Glass-glass-PV modules Glass-glass-PV modules can be used

→ Fig. 27 for thermal insulation configurations.
Fixed either at the front or rear side,
Double-glazed solar modules comprise depending on the position of the module
Fig. 28 PV with three layers of glass
two sheets of glass and use EVA (eth- socket, these modules include spacers,
ylene vinyl acetate) or the more conven- an insulating gas or vacuum layer and a
tional PVB as a bonding material. The single or laminated glass sheet.
modules are classified as laminated
glass, due to their use of non-regulated 3.5.3. Three-layer laminated glass
bonding materials (EVA) and the use → Fig. 28

of solar cells that lie within the panes

and are also non-regulated with regard A further possibility for overhead ap-
to the Building Rules List. plications is the use of solar modules
with three layers of glass. Modules with
Since the current guidelines allow the this type of structure consist of two
use of laminated safety glass only, i.e. glass sheets bonded together, as in the
double glazing with an intermediate PVB glass-glass solar module units, plus an
film and no solar cells, as overhead glaz- additional glass layer, which is usual-
ing, project-specific building permission ly fixed at the front side of the module.
is required for overhead glass-glass Such module constructions can be used
solar modules, and particularly for those as walk-on glazing, although the same
containing EVA film, if the module manu- limitations apply as for the glass-glass
facturer does not have approval for module with regard to eligibility for ap- Fig. 29 PV thermal insulation glazing
the module structure. proval.

3.5.2. PV thermal insulation glazing rear side and a usually thinner glass
→ Fig. 29 3.5.4. Glass-film-PV modules cover sheet. If toughened glass is
→ Fig. 26 used for the cover glass and if the
For the integration of solar modules thickness complies with the structural
in transparent façades or roofs behind Glass-film modules are typically avail- requirements, then glass-film modules
which lie heated rooms, the use of able as standard solar modules and can also be used for building integration.
PV thermal insulation glazing is a have the advantage of very low module Indeed, glass-film laminates have already
standard requirement. Both crystalline weight, as a result of their combination been approved many times for use in
and thin-film solar cells are suitable of a lightweight synthetic film on the overhead situations.

23
3.

3.6. Module design Super cell

colour front anthracite-black
rear side copper

size width 180  mm – 1240  mm

The module design options described
height 17  mm – 550  mm
in the previous paragraphs are limited by
arrangement semi-transparency
the technology of the type of solar cells opacity
used, the process used to manufacture
Module size regular 1250  mm x 3200  mm
them, and, not least, the different va-
special sizes project-specific
riation options offered by the relevant
shape rectangle
manufacturer. special shapes

surface texture smooth surfaces standard glass

Insofar as different module designs anti-reflective glazing

are available, this information must be textured glazing prism structures

satin finishes
obtained individually from the manu-
colour print screen print
facturer.
digital print

inlays coloured films

By combining a strongly customer-
0glazing coloured glass
oriented approach with an extremely flex-
coatings anti-reflective layers
ible type of technology that allows many metallic coatings
configuration options, Odersun AG is cover layer glass quality green glass
able to offer a wide variety of designs. white glass

→ Fig. 30 safety float glass

toughened glass

heat strengthened glass

laminated safety glass

back layer glass quality green glass

white glass

safety float glass

toughened glass
semi-tempered glass

films Tedlar

heat insulation thermal insulation glazing

pliability bent glass radius

electrical contacts visibility of interconnections hidden (print)

visible

Module socket edge socket

rear side socket
single-pole contacts

cable length
cross-section

plug various system plugs

frame frameless
aluminium, anodized

Fixing mullion-transom
structural glazing
point-fixed system

Fig. 30 Solar module design options, using Odersun AG products as an example

24
 BiPV design guidelines

Fig. 31 Solar module designer

In order to provide a clear overview of

the wide variety of possible designs
for project-specific solar modules and
to give a first impression of the design
process, Odersun AG has developed a
module design program that is available
online for users to design their own
individual modules and to export their
Fig. 32  Fig. 33 
customised designs in CAD format.
→ Fig. 31, 32, 33

→ w ww.solarmodule-designer.odersun.com

25
3.

3.7. Electrical system

Solar generator
In a PV plant, several PV modules are
usually connected together in a string
to form the actual solar generator.
This solar generator generates a direct
current, which is fed to an inverter.
Here the direct current is converted to import meter
alternating current. Provided that it is Feed-in meter
grid
not consumed or stored directly on Inverter

site, this electrical power is registered

Fig. 34 The components of a PV system
via an electricity meter and fed into
the public supply grid.

3.7.1. The components of a To ensure easy and safe installation, Serial connections

PV system → Fig. 34 cables are used at the connection sock-
ets together with touchproof plug When the solar modules are connected
Solar module connectors that are protected against in series, the voltage increases with each
polarity reversal. module while the current remains con-
A photovoltaic module consists of sev- stant. Since the same current flows
eral solar cells that are interconnected Solar generator through all the series connected mod-
within the module. The way in which ules, the same cable cross-section can
these internal connections are made de- The solar generator is the name given to be used throughout.
termines the relationship between vol- the entity comprising all the solar mod-
tage and current and is usually limited by ules that are connected together in a Parallel connections
process-related factors. Connecting the single system. The type of connections
individual cells in parallel increases the between the PV modules determines When solar modules are connected in
voltage, while connecting them in series the cabling system, the system stability parallel, the current increases with each
increases the current generated by the and the necessary cable dimensions. module while the voltage remains con-
module. stant. This means that the requirements
PV modules can be connected in parallel for safe low voltage systems can be met.
The electrical connection is usually or in series to form an array. On the other hand, larger cable cross-
made on the rear side of the module via sections are required.
a connection socket, which is normally
fitted with a diode. Edge sockets or The interconnections for BiPV sys-
connections on the front face are also tems can be complex due to the differ-
possible, however. ent orientations, shading conditions,
temperatures or even output ratings of
the individual modules. A BiPV system
should therefore be subdivided into sev-
eral segments with environmental influ-
ences that are as similar as possible. The
smaller and more differentiated these
segments are, the more stably and effi-
ciently the generator will be able to run.
26
 BiPV design guidelines

Cables and connections DC load-break switch As already mentioned, BiPV systems

should be divided into several segments
As a rule, solar modules have two con- The DC isolating circuit breaker allows or subsystems with the same environ-
nection cables with plug connectors all the poles of the photovoltaic electri- mental influences and output capaci-
that are waterproof and protected city generator to be switched off and ties. This means that centralised inverter
against polarity reversal. This makes is installed in the interconnecting cables concepts are not usually possible. The
it easy to connect the different modules between the modules and the inverter. inverter must be selected, first and fore-
together. The requirements to be met Thus, it is possible to switch off the most, to suit the optimum segment siz-
for PV module cabling are significantly system on the direct current side, for es, so that each part of the systems has
higher for direct current cables than safety reasons. its own MPP tracker. This MPP (Maxi-
for alternating current cables, due to mum Power Point) tracker ensures that
the relevant safety regulations. Inverter the solar generator always operates
within an optimised output range.
Cables for solar systems must be UV The solar inverter converts the direct
resistant, protected against moisture current from the solar modules into In contrast to purely yield-optimised
and sufficiently insulated. When deter- grid-compatible alternating current systems with optimal environmental
mining the cross-section of the cables (frequency and voltage) and thus forms variables, the inverters of a BiPV system
that link the modules, possible line the link between the PV electricity that rarely operates in direct sunlight
losses in the system must be taken into generator and the public supply grid. and is not optimally aligned can often be
account and it must be ensured that scaled down or the maximum module
the cables cannot overheat too quickly. Further important tasks carried out by output that can be assigned to the
this component are the regulation inverter can be significantly exceeded.
The cable routing depends on the type and optimisation of the output and the
of façade system. With rear-ventilated recording of essential operating data.
façades, the connections and cables are
routed through the air gap. With mullion- Depending on their capacities, inverters
transom façades, on the other hand, can be used as a central inverter for
and particularly if semi-transparent the entire system, as array inverters for
modules are used, the cables are often each module array or as module invert-
routed through the profiles of the ers for each individual module. Inverters
façade. In this case solar modules with should be installed in positions where
edge sockets must be used. they will remain as cool or as well venti-
lated and protected as possible.

27
3.

Feed-in meter Netzgekoppelte

Netzgekoppelte PV-Anlage
PV-Anlage
kWh (in)
kWh (in)

A feed-in meter is required if the solar

electricity is to be fed into the public
=
= kWh
kWh (out)
supply grid. In principle, this meter (out)

performs the same function as a stan-

dard electricity consumption meter, Fig. 35 Grid-connected PV system
Autarke
Autarke PV-Anlage
PV-Anlage
except that it measures the electricity
that is fed into the grid instead of the
=
= =
=
purchased electricity. This meter, like = kWh
= kWh

the feed-in meters of local electricity

suppliers, is normally paid for on the
Accumulator
basis of a monthly rental fee and is Accumulator

usually installed close to the building’s

Fig. 36 Grid-independent PV system
main electricity connection box.

The meter readings are used to calculate

the payment received, on the basis of can be managed efficiently and auto- such combined systems is that they en-
the German Renewable Energy Sources matically using special inverters. In sure a continuous and redundant supply
Act, from the local supplier for the elec- Germany, own consumption (where of energy. Thus, if one of the plants
tricity that is fed into the grid. The con- the solar electricity produced is con- breaks down, the continued supply of
nection of the solar plant to the public sumed by the plant owner) has been electricity is still ensured. Furthermore,
grid must be carried out by a qualified remunerated since 2009. the plants complement each other to
electrical specialist and by the electricity provide a constant supply of electricity
supply company. Grid-independent PV plants during the course of the day or year.
→ Fig. 36

3.7.2. Solar plant concepts

PV plants that have no connection to
Grid-connected PV plants the public grid are referred to as auton-
→ Fig. 35 omous off-grid PV plants or island sys-
tems. All the electricity generated is
Plants that are connected to the public used by the plant owner. As a rule, this
grid via a feed-in point and can feed the means that intermediate storage of the
generated electricity into this grid are re- solar electricity using batteries is nec-
ferred to as grid-connected plants. They essary.
can feed in either all the generated elec-
tricity or just the excess electricity that Hybrid PV plants
is not required on site. Consequently, the
plant operator can decide, according to PV plants that are combined with other
his requirements, whether to store the systems for energy conversion are
generated electricity in batteries, use referred to as hybrid systems. Wind
the electricity directly or sell it to the power plants, diesel generators, biogas
electricity supplier. Such grid-connected plants, fuel cells or micro hydro plants
plants with partial “own-consumption” are typical systems. The advantage of

28
 BiPV design guidelines

Rear-ventilated curtain
3.8. Economic aspects façade with no PV 300  € 

Metal roller blinds 300  € – 400  €

The costs for BiPV systems are often
Thermal insulation glazing 350  € – 450  €
significantly higher than those for stand-
ard PV systems. However, the archi- Glass, enamelled 350  € – 450  €

tecturally compatible design of BiPV Standard PV modules 700  € – 850  €

elements, using application-specific
Thermal insulation glazing with PV 550  € – 800  €
module structures and placing high de-
Double façade with PV 1000  € – 1200  €
mands on the quality of their appear-
ance, results in a corresponding increase Stone façade 800  € – 1200  €

in value. When considering the econom-

ic factors, therefore, functional and ar- Fig. 37 Prices of façade materials (€/m 2)

chitectural contributions must be taken

into account as well as the revenue gen-
erated by feeding power into the grid. 3.8.1. Construction component value unless there are other influential factors
Since BiPV systems are used in place and substitution with regard to economic efficiency that
of other construction components, the the developer can take into account.
cost of procurement and installation of Solar modules that are integrated into → Fig. 37

these components can be subtracted. the architecture of a building replace

other essential elements of the exter- 3.8.2. CO2 emissions and energy
Furthermore, in addition to the remuner- nal skin, such as façade cladding or shad- conservation regulations
ation received for the solar energy ing elements, with respect to design
generated by the system, this energy and function. To achieve this, the struc- Photovoltaic systems are extremely en-
can also be included in the energy ture of the BiPV modules is specially vironmentally-friendly, since the amount
balance calculation for the building, in designed to perform the specific func- of energy they generate is significantly
accordance with the German Energy tions required. higher than the amount used in the man-
Conservation Regulations (EnEV), which ufacture of the plant. A further environ-
means that costs for alternative energy When considering issues of econom- mentally-friendly aspect is that these
efficiency measures can be avoided. ic efficiency, the value of the construc- plants require no fuel and consequently
Further effects, such as the impression tion elements replaced by the modules emit neither dust nor CO2.
that the building makes due to its mani- can be subtracted from the overall in-
fest environmental awareness, can also vestment. In order to profit from these This means that for every kilowatt-hour,
add value and shape its image. Thus, it is economic benefits, this construction the emission of approximately seven
not unusual for the economic viability component character must be taken into tonnes of CO2 is avoided. The reduction
of a BiPV system to be determined by its account in the initial design phase. De- of CO2 emissions is regarded as one of
architectural integration. pending on the type of application, the the most important measures required
value of the replaced components can to combat climate change. Today’s CO2
be decisive with respect to the econom- emissions stem mostly from the con-
ic efficiency of a system. struction and operation of buildings.
BiPV solutions are helping to resolve this
The substitution values for solar plants conflict by making sustainable and emis-
installed on typical tiled roofs are usual- sion-free energy conversion possible at
ly very low, which often makes them un- the point of use.
suitable for use as integrated systems

29
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in the future.
-100 kWh/m²/a

-200 kWh/m²/a
This is also taken into account by the
-300 kWh/m²/a
German legislature, which allows the
electricity supplied to the building by the Heating Supporting energy and water heating Consumer energy Produced energy
BiPV system to be included in the cal-
Fig. 38 Increasing requirements of the energy standards
culations required by the German Energy
Conservation Regulations (EnEV). Con-
sequently, it may be possible to dispense
with other alternative measures that may Own consumption 3.8.4. Funding programmes
have been proposed for optimising the
building’s energy consumption. → Fig .38 In accordance with Article 33 of the To assist with the financing of BiPV
German Renewable Energy Sources Act systems, funding programmes are also
3.8.3. Feed-in tariff (EEG), remuneration is also paid for available from the Kreditanstalt für
the electricity consumed directly by the Wiederaufbau (KfW) development bank.
The German Renewable Energy Sources plant owner. Since the electricity ge-
Act (EEG) provides for the 20-year obli- nerated by a plant can be partially or The “Renewable Energies” and
gation of local energy supply companies wholly used directly on site (own con- “Generating Solar Electricity” devel-
to purchase and provide remuneration sumption or self consumption), the opment loan schemes are available,
for electricity generated by PV systems. amount of remuneration is dependent for example, depending on the suitability
This type of remuneration for photo- on the proportion of solar electricity of the photovoltaic systems. These
voltaic energy is paid in cents per kilo- directly consumed. To be eligible schemes provide loans covering up to
watt-hour and depends on the date of for this type of remuneration, the elec- 100 % of the eligible net investment
commissioning and the size of the plant. tricity consumed must be used in the costs for the installation, purchase
The standard tariff paid for solar elec- immediate vicinity of the solar plant and or extension of PV systems. It is also
tricity on the day that the plant is com- the plant must have an output of no possible to combine these loans with
missioned is paid at this same rate for a more than 500 kWp. other funding programmes. The total
period of 20 years, independently of any of all the subsidies received must never
subsequent periodic reductions in the The German system of feed-in tariffs exceed your total construction costs,
feed-in tariff. has now been adopted in other Europe- however.
an countries. In contrast to Germany,
however, some countries pay higher tar- The KfW development bank also offers
iffs for electricity generated by build- special credit terms for the construction
ing-integrated systems in an attempt to of new low-energy houses as well as
encourage the use of aesthetic systems subsidies for energy-saving renovation
and systems that produce energy at measures in existing buildings. Up to
the point of use. 100 % funding can be provided in this
case.
30
We look forward to receiving your
comments and suggestions on this
first version of our design guidelines,
which we are continuously expanding
and which we are pleased to be able to
present to you for use as a tool and a
source of ideas.

We would be pleased to help you with

any questions you may have regarding
your BiPV projects.

Edition: September 2011

Publisher:

Odersun AG
Im Technologiepark 6
15236 Frankfurt/Oder, Germany
Tel.: + 49 (0) 335 56 33-120
Fax: + 49 (0) 335 56 33-150
www.odersun.com
sales@odersun.de

Person responsible for the content under

German press law: Dr. Hein van der Zeeuw

Design: Plural | Kilian Krug, www.pluralvisual.de 31

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