PRACTICAL WORK BOOK For Academic Session CIRCUIT ANALYSIS (EE-126/EE-121) For F.E Name: MARYAM NAUSHAD Roll No:EE-191 Class:F.E Batch:2019 Department: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Department of Electrical Engineering NED University of Engineering and Technology, KarachiCONTENTS List of Experiments To study the operation of: 1, Oscilloscope as a measuring instrument & 2. Function Generator as an Input Source To investigate the Transient Response of First order RC Circuit To investigate the Transient Response of First order RL Circuit. Investigating Resonance phenomena in circuits & experimentally determines the resonance frequency in a series RLC circuit. To understand the importance of test/switching, functions, Design and test the performance of integrator circuits using Op-amp. To understand the importance of testiswitching, functions, Design and test the performance of differentiator circuits using Op-amp. To investigate the behavior of Over Damping, Critical Damping & Under Damping in RLC CircuitList of Experiments Marks | Remarks Use MATLAB to analyze types of power and RMS. and peak values of current and voltages Use MATLAB and Simulink to plot waveforms of instantaneous voltage, current & Power for R, L&. Cand mixed & Load, OPEN ENDED LAB To measure the Three Phase Power of Star connected load using Three Wattmeter methods. To determine the tums ratio of a transformer, also determine the polarity of transformer windings for their parallel operation To investigate ABCD Transmission Parameters for Two Port Network. ‘Analyze three phase Y-Y and A & connection and plot waveforms of I, V and P using MATLAB OPEN ENDED LABLab Session 01 OBJECT: To study the operation of oscilloscope as a measuring instrument & function generator as an Input Source. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: 1, Oscilloscope [GW Instek GDS-820S] 2, Function Generator [(GFG-8020H (2MHz)] 3. Probes THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION: OSCILLOSCOPE: The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as it varies over time. Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis. DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE: A digital storage oscilloscope (often abbreviated DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the signal digitally rather than using analog techniques. Figl.1 Front Panel View of Oscilloscope© First Time Operation: 1. Testing the Probe (Calibration Process): Probes are single-input devices that route a signal from your circuit to the scope. They have a sharp tip which probes into a point on your circuit, The tip can also be equipped with hooks, tweezers or clips to make latching onto a circuit easier. Every probe also includes a ground clip, which should be secured safely to a common ground point on the circuit under test. Figl.2 Probes Terminal Connections As soon as you connect positive part of the probe to the signal output terminal the square wave will display on the scope sereen. The magnitude and frequency of displayed square wave are 2Vp-p and 1 KHz respectively. Now when both positive & negative parts of probes are connected with hook terminal the positive waveform will be grounded. Figl.3 Square Wave As a result of Calibration Process 2. AUTOSET: The “Autoset” function provid parameters to default settings. a stable display of any input signal (almost) and set the © Vertical controls: Channel 1, 2 Position knobs: The position control knobs adjust the vertical position of the channel 1 and channel 2 waveforms, CH1, CH2 Menu pushbutton: Shows the vertical waveform function and waveform display on/off, VOLTS/DIV knobs: Adjusts the vertical scale of the waveforms,© Horizontal controls: Aaa Press F1 softkey to select AC( “\ ), Dc ( ) coupling, or ground( 777). Invert On/Off: Press F2 softkey to select to turn (waveform) invert on or off [Bw Limit On/Off; Press F3 softkey to switch between 20MHz or full bandwidth. Probe 1/10/100; Press F4 softkey to select the probe's x1, x10, or x100 attenuation. impedance 1Mq Input impedance display. Always 1MQ input impedance for GDS-800 series digital storage oscilloscope. Horizontal Menu: Horizontal POSITION knob: Adjust waveforms horizontal position, TIME/DIV knob: Adjusts the horizontal scale of selected waveform. © Basic Settings of Both Channels: © Miscellaneous Controls: 1, MEASURE: This oscilloscope provides various automatic measurements. Automatic measurements are taken over the entire waveform record, or the area specified by cursors. Select the different ‘measurement by pressing F1 to F5 key. To activate the measurement press the Measure button. The ‘measurement parameters for both channels displayed are: Vpp, Vamp, Vavg Vrms, Vhi, Vio, Vmax, Vmin, Freq, Period, Width, Duty Cycle, Rise time and Fall time. 2. CURSOR: It is convenient to be able to make measurements of the signal being displayed on the oscilloscope. To activate the cursors press the Cursor button. The cursors, which appear as vertical or horizontal lines will be displayed. © The vertical cursor lines define the measurement with respect to change in Voltage AV, © The horizontal cursor lines define the measurement with respect to change in Time At. FUNCTION GENERATOR:A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and sawtooth shapes. eo Figl4 Function Generator Front Panel 1, Power Switch: The power switch tums the device on or off. 2. Range Selectors: This bank of switches is used to select the frequency range of the output signal 3. Function Selectors: This bank of switches is used to select the desired output function type (Square, Triangle, and Sine). 4. Frequency Adjustment Knob COARSE: This knob adjusts the output frequency of the waveform over a wide range, but with less precision than the Fine Frequency Adjustment Knob, Frequency Adjustment Knob FINE: This knob adjusts the output frequency of the waveform over a narrower range, but with more precision than the Coarse Frequency Adjustment Knob, 5. DUTY: This knob position should be counter clockwise (for 50% Duty Cycle). The Duty function varies the duty Cycle from 50% to 100%. 6. OFFSET/ADJ Knob: This knob position should be counter clockwise in order to disabled this function. 8. AMPL: Increase or Decrease the magnitude of selected waveform, 11. OUTPUT 500: The 50 Output is the generic waveform output; it is the source of all of the waveforms other than TTL and CMOS. S00 is the internal resistance of this output circuit and should be accounted for when using this device. PROCEDURE:Firstly perform the calibration of Oscilloscope and Check all the probes as well. Use Channel CH] to observe the waveforms. © Connect one probe to (CH!) of oscilloscope and other probe to the function generator terminal (OUTPUTS0Q). © Now connect the positive-positive terminals of both probes with each other and negative-negative terminals with each other in order to the view the output of fiznction generator on oscilloscope. © Oscilloscope Settings: CH1, Coupling to AC, Probe x1, Impedance 1MQ, Invert OFF, Bandwidth Limit OFF © Function Generation Settings: DUTY knob (CCW, Pulled in), OFFSET knob (CCW, Pulled in), obtain the desired waveform of any frequency, amplitude and shape. ® Using oscilloscope’s MEASURE function, observe VRMS, VPP, FREQUENCY, TIME. PERIOD & DUTY CYCLE OBSERVATIONS: ‘S.No | Waveshape Vems Ver Frequency ™ ” (Hz) [calculated [measured _| | measured _] measured | Pema tos as ise ftom fs ine [= [Sine [ores [ores [90 |irs0 [isomerase [3 [Triangle [0.842 [0.936 [2.92 [2.92 [24.00k_[250u_] CALCULATIONS: Vpp = Vp(+ve) — Vp(-ve) = Measured value (Vavg was not provided nor peak values) 1.Sine : Vrms=(Vpp/2)*(1/sqrt(2)) => Vrms = 0.672 V 2.Square: Vrms=Vp => Vrms=1.98/2 => Vrms=0.99 V 3.Triangle: Vrms = Vpp*0.577/2 => 2.92*0.577/2 => Vrms = 0.842 VAnswer the following: Q-1) What does AC, DC and GND coupling do on an oscilloscope? AC coupling will block the steady voltage, due to AC coupling we can observe small variations.DC coupling means horizontal axis is shown.DC couples the entire signal to the screen, including constant positive and negative voltages. The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the vertical system, which lets you see where zero volts is located on the screen Q-2) What is the OFFSET option in function generator? Tt is a DC voltage (from -5V to +5V) added to the ac signal present at the output by turning the DC offset potentiometer knob. It is used for changing the DC level of the signal. DC offset the distance of the mean value of a signal from zero. Q-3) What is Duty Cycle? Duty cycle is the difference between symmetry high terminals to low terminals. Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component, device, or system is operated. The duty cycle can be expressed as a ratio or as a percentage.Lab Session 02 OBJECT: To investigate the Transient Response of First order RC Circuit. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Oscilloscope Function Generator Probes Breadboard Resistor-1k(2(1), Capacitor-1uf(1) exaune THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION The Transient Response of RC & RL Circuit: The Transient Response of circuit also known as the Natural Response is the way the circuit responds to energies stored in storage elements, such as capacitors and inductors. If a capacitor and inductor has energy stored within it, then that energy can be dissipated or absorbed by a resistor. How that energy is di sipated is the Transient Response. The RC & RL circuit leads to I“ order differential equation to solve the circuit if the circuit contains only one storage element. RC Circuit: When switch is closed at position 1 (step input is applied to circuit), Capacitor voltage begins at zeto and exponentially increases to E volts and capacitor current instantaneously jumps to E /R and exponentially decays to zero.(Charging Phase)Transient C=, a Pe om Transient Steady interval interval state Fig 2.1: RC Circuit Charging State When switch is closed at position 2, Capacitor voltage has E volts across it when it begins to discharge and capacitor current will instantly jump to —E /R. Both voltage and current will decay exponentially to zero. (Discharging Phase) YC i ic a i— t -EWhere T is defined as: Rate at which a capacitor charges depends on product of R and C and known as time constant, T = RC has units of seconds. Length of time that a transient lasts =i git depends on exponential function © © considered to last for only five time constants. , for all practical purposes, transients can be CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: For RC Circuit: PROCEDUR! Assemble circuit on breadboard, Apply input signal to circuit from function generator. ‘The amplitude of Input signal is SVp-p, 50% duty eyele. Set frequeney to 100Hz (for RC), Connect Channel 1 to Input and Channel 2 across output to observe waveforms Use Scope’s CURSOR option to obtain At & AV readings for different values of T. Note down measured values and compare with calculated data. Sketch waveforms on graph paper. OBSERVATIONS: For RC Circuit:AVe At T T ) (see) (see) (see) Tee eves fos | Peaae| awe ee Plot/pictures of the waveformsQ-1) What is the difference between step response, transient response and steady state response? ANS!When something changes in a circuit, like a_switch closes,the response of the voltages and currents is called the step response. The Transient Response of circuit also known as the Natural Response is the way the circuit responds to energies stored in storage elements A steady-state response is the behavior of a circuit after a long time when steady conditions have been reached after an external excitation. Q-2) Name any one application for both RC based Circuit? ANS!One application of an RC circuit is the relaxation oscillator, The il I f and a neon lamp circuit? ANS! Reversed _polarity of capacitor_,the dielectric is_damaged,heavy current flows, large amount of heat his generated. Q-4) Can you replace polarized capacitor with non-polarized one? If, yes then why? ANS! We cannot replace havea negative voltage.Lab Session 03 OBJECT: To investigate the Transient Response of First order RL Circuit. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: 9. Oscilloscope 10, Function Generator 11. Probes 12, Breadboard 13, Resistor-1kQ(1), Inductor-Imbh(1) THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION: The Transient Response of RC & RL Circuit: The Transient Response of circuit also known as the Natural Response is the way the circuit responds to energies stored in storage element pacitors and inductors. If a capacitor and inductor has energy stored within it, then that energy can be dissipated or absorbed by a resistor. How that energy is dissipated is the Transient Response. The RC & RL circuit leads to 1" order differential equation to solve the circuit if the circuit contains only one storage element. RL Cireuit: Current i(t) in an RL circuit is an exponentially increasing function of time, When switch is closed at position 1 (step input is applied to circuit), current begins at zero and rises to a maximum value, voltage across resistor VR is an exponentially increasing function of time and voltage across inductor VL is an exponentially decreasing function of time. (Charging Phase) Fig 3.1: RL Circuit Charging StateWhen switch is now again in open condition inductor discharges by changing polarity across terminals the R2 serves as discharge path switch, inductor voltage has (Vo) volts across it when it begins to discharge and inductor current will instantly jump to Vo/R. Both voltage and current will decay exponentially to zero. (Discharging Phase) sw Fig 3.2: RL Circuit Discharging State Inductor Charging Equations: Inductor Discharging Equations: Where T is defined as: Rate at which an inductor charges depends on ratio of R and L and known as time constant, T = L/R has units of seconds. Length of time that a transient lasts depends on mit ett exponential function © © CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: For RL Circuit:vs (*\asv .25v ‘coe PROCEDURE: Assemble circuit on breadboard, Apply input signal to circuit from function generator, ‘The amplitude of Input signal is 5Vp-p, 50% duty cycle. Set frequency to 100kHz (for RL). Connect Channel | to Input and Channel 2 across output to observe waveforms. Use Scope’s CURSOR option to obtain At & AV readings for different values of t. Note down measured values and compare with calculated data Sketch waveforms on graph paper. OBSERVATIONS: For RL Cireuit: i Answer the following: Q-1) What is the difference between step response, transient response and steady state response?ANS! In a system, when certain input changes, it takes a while for the output to stabilize and reach its final state. This interim phase is called h n i re_indefini in ns in, Step response: is the time of the output of a general system when its in fre 1 in i Q-2) Name any one application for RL based Circuit? ANS) TRANSFORMER. Q-3)A coil which has an inductance of 40mH and a resistance of 2Q is connected together to form a LR series circuit, If they are connected to a 20V DC supply. a) What will be the final steady state value of the current? b) What will be the time constant of the RL series circuit. c) What will be the transient time of the RL series circuit? d) What will be the value of the induced emf after 10ms? e) What will be the value of the circuit current one time constant after the switch is closed. ANS! a) IFV/R, 20/2=10amp. b)time constant =0.04/2=20msec. c) transient time=5(time constant)=100msec. d) VL=Ve(r/L)=12. 13V. e) I-Vs(1-e(RT/L))/R=6.32amp.Lab Session 04 OBJECT: Investigating Resonance phenomena in RLC circuits & experimentally determines the resonance frequency in a series RLC circuit. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: 14, Oscilloscope 15, Function Generator 16, Probes 17. Breadboard 18. Resistor-4700(1), Inductor-10mbh(1), Capacitor-10nf{1) THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION: A series resonant circuit consists of a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor ina simple loop. At some frequency the eapacitive and inductive reactances will be of the same magnitude, and as they are 180 degrees in opposition, they effectively nullify each other. ‘This leaves the circuit purely resistive, the source “seeing” only the resistive element. Consequently, the current will be at a maximum at the resonant frequency. At any higher or lower frequency, a net reactance (the difference between Xi and Xc) must be added to the resistor value, producing higher impedance and thus, a lower current. As this is a simple series loop, the resistor’s voltage will be proportional to the current. Consequently, the resistor voltage should be a maximum at the resonant frequency and decrease as the frequency is either increased or decreased.Capacitive | Inductive Xn xr x | XL> Xe ——— a Inductive and Capacitive Reactances are equal here & peace in Ohms x Ga Frequency. 7 Fig 4.1: Series Resonance At resonance, the resistor value sets the maximal current and consequently has a major effect on the voltages developed across the capacitor and inductor as well as the “tightness” of the voltage versus frequency curve: The smaller the resistance, the tighter the curve and the higher the voltage seen across the capacitor and inductor. The Q of the circuit can be defined as the ratio of the resonant reactance to the circuit resistance, Q@=X/R, which also corresponds to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the circuit bandwidth, Frequency, 7 Lower Upper frequency frequency Fig 4.2: Bandwidth of a Series Rseonance CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:PROCEDURE: © Using cireuit diagram with R=470Q, L= 10 mH, and C=10 nF, determine the theoretical resonance frequency and Q, and record the results in first observation Table. Based on these values determine the upper and lower frequencies defining the bandwidth, fl and £2, and record them in Table. © Build the circuit using R=4700, L=10 mH and C=10 nF, Place a probe across the resistor. Set the output of the generator to a 1 V p-p sine wave. Set the frequency to the theoretical resonance frequency of first observation Table. © Adjust the frequency in small amounts, up and down, until the maximum voltage is found. This is the experimental resonance frequency. Record it in Table. Note the amplitude (it should be approximately equal to the source voltage of 1 Vp-p). Sweep the frequency above and below the resonance frequency until the experimental fl and £2 are found, These will ‘occur at voltage amplitude of approximately 0.707 times the resonant voltage (i.e., the half power points). Record these frequencies in Table. Also, determine and record the experimental Q based on the experimental f0, fl, and £2. Also measure and record the inductor and capacitor voltages. Note that the inductor and capacitor will have to be swapped with the resistor position in order to maintain proper ground reference with the oscilloscope. OBSERVATION TABLE: Theoretical Experimental Deviation f._|14.95kHz 16.6kHz 17.73kHz Q {200 222 22 fi | 11.85kHz 12kHz 0.06kHz fp_|18.05kKHz 21.4kKHz 3.25KHzFrequency Ve fr=16.6kHz. 760mV 2kHz 526mV Fh=21.4kHz 528mV 1kHz 40mV SkHz 160mV 8kHz 280mV 12kHz 528mV 20kHz 600mV 30kHz 312mV. 50kHz 152mV 100kHz 88mV. Answer the following: Q-1) What is electrical resonance and explain its significance? ANS! Electrical resonance is defined as the condition when the magnitude of capacitive reactance becomes equal to that of inductive reactance. As a result of resonance, maximum current flows through the RLC circuit. ‘Q-2) Discuss one practical application of series resonance circuit? ANS! The experimental application of series resonant circuit is made in receiver circuit of TV and radio so that it can receive the signal of particularfr fe ich _i coming from the radio.Lab Session 07 OBJECT: To investigate the behavior of Over Damping, Critical Damping & under Damping in RLC Circuit. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION L& C may have initial energy storage: i,(0) = Ig; ve(0) = Vo ‘The second order differential equation for this circuit is #t, Rat, ue) Depending on the values of R, Land C, the natural response will be either: Over damped, Critically Damped or Under damped. Let: im, ‘ a = 5 = neper frequency or exponential damping coef ficient mE fe = resonant (radian) frequency am [eta —Menpetrccemae renames =< = damping ratio (dimensionless = 5 = damping ratio ( D (Note that all except the damping ratio have units of sec) Hence: S152 =a F (0G) = complex frequencies or natural frequencies Over damped Response: a> @. critically damped si, 2 are negative, real and distinct: LC > 417 — in = Are + Arc 00] Critically Damped Response: a= a Si, $2 are negative, real and equal osetia Under damped Response: a yaa) y opoie Peetay : oS <2,Lab Session 10 OBJECT: To measure the Three Phase Power of star connected load using Three Wattmeter methods. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: W Three Watt-meters Vv Ammeter Y Voltmeter W Star Connected Load THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION: Power can be measured with the help of 1. Ammeter and voltmeter (In DC circuits) 2. Wattmeter 3. Energy meter By Ammeter and Voltmeter: Power in DC circuits or pure resistive circuit can be measured by measuring the voltage & current, then applying the formula P=VI By Energy Meter: Power can be measured with the help of energy meter by measuring the speed of the meter dise with a watch, with the cunnenr cou help of following formula: P=Nx60_kw source K Where N& actual r-p.m of meter dise K= meter constant which is equal to dise revolutions per kW hr By Wattmeter: A wattmeter indicates the power in a circuit directly. Most commercial watt meters are of the dynamometer type with the two coils, the current and the voltage coil called C.C & P.C. Power in three phase circuit can be measured with the help of poly phase watt-meters which consist of one two or three single phase meters mounted on a common shaftSingle Phase Power Measurement: One wattmeter is used for single phase load or balanced three phase load, three and four wire system. In three-phase, four wire system, p.c. coil is connected between phase to ground, while in three wire system, artificial ground is created. wi Phase A (ae ee Neutral Figure: Single Wattmeter Method PROCEDURE Arrange the watt-meters as shown above. ‘Three Phase Power Measurement Using Three Wattmeter Method: Two watt-meters & three watt-meters are commonly used for three phase power measurement. In three watt-meter method, the potential coils are connected between phase and neutral. For three wire system, three watt-meter method can be used, for this artificial neutral is created. wi #7 oa * u N I D B we y : A JFigure: Three wattmeter method PROCEDURE Arrange the watt-meters as shown above OBSERVATION Power of Delta Connected Load: _300 Ww Using Three Wattmeter Method S.No Wattmeter Wattmeter | Wattmeter | WI+W2+W3] Current Reading Reading Reading a) (wy w2) (W3) T 100 90 100 290 07 RESULT: Average Power: 290 watts Power Factor: 0.998 EXERCISE: Here we are connecting phase with neutral without any load, doing this using a small wire in house could be very dangerous, then how it is possible here? ANS! In house the load is not balanced so it will be very dangerous, but here all the load are of small value therefore, there will be no damage. What do you understand by balance and unbalance load? In our case, is load balance or unbalance? ANS:In balanced load all the impedance or load is same in all the phases whereas in_unbalanced load they are not same.In our case it is balanced,Suppose L1 is 70 W, ceiling fan, L2 is 100 W bulb, L3 is 350 W PC (Personal Computer), what amount of current will flow in the neutral? ANS:2.36A. Lab Session 11 OBJECT: To measure the Three Phase Power of Delta connected load using Two Wattmeter methods EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: V Three Watt-meters Vv AmmeterW Voltmeter W Delta Connected Load THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION: ‘Two Wattmeter Method: In two watt-meter method, two watt meters are used & their potential coils are connected between phase to phase and current coil in series with the line. Two watt meters can be used to measure power of star and delta connected load, but here we are performing experiment on delta connected load only, same method can be applied for star connected load. Following formulas are used for calculating P, Q and p.f. TWO WATTMETER CALCULATIONS 1) Real power P=W) +W? 2) Reactive power Q=V8 (W2 - Wi) 3) Power Factor _ P ieee ee Xe cr . © wi? : a Figure: Two Wattmeter Method PROCEDURE Arrange the watt-meters according to the load (single phase or three-phase) and whether neutral available or not (as shown in the above figures). OBSERVATIONPower of Delta Connected Load: 2 bulbs in series of W Line to line Voltage: 220V Using Two Wattmeter Method S.No Type of | Wattmeter | Watimeter | WI+W2 pi Current Load Reading | Reading (iy) (wy 2) Three Phase | 140 150 290 O5A Delta Connected Load RESULT: Total power of the three phase load is 290 watts. EXERCISE: Here for each delta connected load we are connecting two bulbs in series, why? For balance the load. ANS:We connect two bulbs in series in order to increase the bearing capability as the total voltage supplied from KE is 480 V. OBJECT: Lab Session 12 To determine the tums ratio of a transformer, also determine the polarity of transformer windings for their parallel operation EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:W Two Single Phase Transformers (T1 & T2) Vv Ammeter v Voltmeter THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION Turns Ratio: Transformers provide a simple means of changing an alternating voltage from one value to another, keeping the apparent power S constant. € Figure |. Finding the tums ratio For a given transformer, the tums ratio can be find out sing the relation Ve Ne ds V, Ny Ip Transformer Polarity: ‘When we speak "the polarity” of transformer windings, we are . 3) instant of time. "Polarity marks" are employed to identify these se marks may be black dots, crosses, numerals, “| (UY letters, or any other convenient means of showing which terminal are of the same polarity. In our case, we use black dots, 2 The black dots, as shown in the figure, indicate that for a given =a instant in time: when I is positive with respect to 2, then 3 is positive with respect to 4. identifying all of the terminals that are the same polarity at any INC ] The identification of polarity becomes essential when we operate the two transformers in parallel. Otherwise if terminals of unlike polarity connected to the same line, the two secondary windings would be short circuited on each other with a resulting excessive current flow. Suppose we have two transformers TI & T2, having terminals H1, H2 (HV) & X1, X2(LV) as shown in figure 2. The transformers in fig 2 are so marked that if the H1 s are connected to one primary line and the H2 s to the other primary line then the X1 s should be connected to the same secondary line and X2 s to the remaining secondary line.Figure 2: Two transformers connected for parallel operation Ifthe transformer terminals are arranged as shown in fig 3a, the transformer is said to have additive polarity and if arranged as shown in fig 3b, the transformer is said to have subtractive polarity, Figure 3: Standard polarity markings of transformers (a) additive polarity (b) subtractive polarity If the polarity of the transformer is not known, it may be determined by the test connections shown in figure 4, Here low voltage side terminals may be temporary marked as Xaand Xpas shown in figure. Adjacent terminals are then connected and a voltmeter is connected across the other two terminals Hi and Xn, Any convenient voltage is then applied to the high voltage winding of the transformer, If the voltmeter reads less than the value of the applied voltage, thepolarity is subtractive and the terminals Xa & Xn may be marked as the X2 and X: terminals, respectively. Figure 4: Connection for checking the polarity ofa transformer PROCEDURE Finding out Turns Ratio: 1. Apply 220V AC to the primary of transformer T1 through autotransformer 2. Now measure Vs using voltmeter. 3. Now calculate tums ratio a and tabulate in observation column. 4, Repeat for transformer T2. Finding out Turns Ratio: 1. Make connections according to the given circuit fig 4 for T1 and find out the polarity. 2. Make connections according to the given circuit fig 4 for T2 and find out the polarity. 3. Now connect the two transformers according to the figure 2. OBSERVATION The turns ratio for transformer T1 is found to be a= The turns ratio for transformer T2 is found to be Mark the dot (.) on the given two transformers, also connects the two with the buses using pencil. T1RESULT: Voltage across primary windh POLARITY: Voltage across secondary winding = 100V When we short primary and secondary windings from one side and measure voltage from other side , we found that it was additive polarity and voltage reading was 320V. ‘TURNS RATIO OF TRANSFORMER: ‘Vp(V) Vs(V) N 50, 23 avd 80 38 21 100 47 2.12 151 7 2.12 220 103 2.13 CONCLUSION : We get tums ratios as a fractional number because ideal transformer doesn't exist in real situation so k(coupling factor) is not equal to I(k ! due which we get turns ratio n in a fractional number. 1) so there is a leakage in fluxEXERCISE: Qi)Why must the transformer polarities be known when transformers are being connected for parallel operation? ANS! The transformers hould be properly connected with regard to their polarity. If they are connected with incorrect polarities then the two EMFs, induced in the secondary windings which are in parallel, will act together in the local secondary circuit and produce a short circuit. Q2)In figure 1, there is no load connected except voltmeter, but some amount of current is flowing in the primary, why? What this current is called? ANS! With the secondary open, the primary coil can be considered as a simple inductor connected to a source. As a simple passive element having some finite impedance, it draws some current, this current is the no-load current or the magnetizing current. This is also called magnetizing current because it magnetizes the ferromagnetic core.Lab Session 13 OBJECT: To investigate ABCD Transmission Parameters for Two Port Network. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION: ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering where they are termed as “Circuit Parameters”. ABCD parameters are also known as “Transmission Parameters”, In these parameters, the voltage & current at the sending end terminals can be expressed in terms of voltage & current at the receiving end. Thus, VI=AV2+B(-I2) 11=CV2+D (12) Here “A” is called reverse voltage ratio, “B” is called transfer impedance “C” is called transfer admittance & “D" is called reverse current ratio. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:PROCEDURE: a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board. b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P voltage & I/P current ©) Secondly, short the O/P terminal & supply SV to /P terminal. Measure I/P & OJP current using multimeter. 4) Calculate the A, B, C, & D parameters using the Eq. (1) & (2). ©) Switch ‘off the supply after taking the readings. OBSERVATIONS: S.NO_ [When 0/P is open ckt [When 0/P is short ckt v1 v2 1 vi 11 12 volts | volts | amp volts amp amp 1. 20 6.4 | 14.8m 20 2.9m 15.7m CIRCUIT SIMULATIONS: When 12: A=V1/V2 =20/6.4 =3.125 C=11/V2 =14.8m/6.4 =2.310 When V2=0: B=V1/I2 =20/2.9m =6.89kQ D=I1/I2 =15.7m/2.9m =5.4CONCLUSION: There is a slight difference in measurement of ABCD parameters when its numerically done and when it’s practically done and it’s because of instrumental errors.