Introduction to Internet Protocol

(IP) Version 4 and Version 6

1
OSI Stack & TCP/IP
Architecture
 Principles of the Internet
 Edge vs. core (end-systems vs. routers)
 Dumb network
 Intelligence at the end-systems

 Different communication paradigms

 Connection oriented vs. connection less
 Packet vs. circuit switching

 Layered System
 Network of collaborating networks
 The network edge
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g., WWW, email
 at “edge of network”
 client/server model:
 client host requests, receives
service from server
 e.g., WWW client
(browser)/server; email
client/server
 peer-peer model:
 host interaction symmetric
e.g.: teleconferencing
 Network edge: connection-
oriented service
 Goal: data transfer between end TCP service [RFC 793]
sys. reliable, in-order byte-stream data
 handshaking: setup (prepare for) transfer
data transfer ahead of time loss: acknowledgements and
 Hello, hello back human protocol retransmissions
 set up “state” in two flow control:
communicating hosts sender won’t overwhelm receiver
 TCP - Transmission Control congestion control:
Protocol senders “slow down sending rate”
 Internet’s connection-oriented when network congested
service
 Network edge: connectionless
service
 Goal: data transfer between end systems

 UDP -User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]:

Internet’s connectionless service
 unreliable data transfer
 no flow control
 no congestion control
 Protocol “Layers”
 Networks are complex! Question:
 many “pieces”: Is there any hope of organizing
 hosts structure of network?
 routers
 links of various media
Or at least in our
 applications
discussion of networks?
 protocols
 hardware, software
The unifying effect of the network
layer
 Define a protocol that works in the same way
with any underlying network
 Call it the network layer (e.g. IP)
 IP routers operate at the network layer
 IP over anything
 Anything over IP
 Why layering?
 Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 Modularisation eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure does not affect rest of
system
The IP Hourglass Model
Application layer

SMTP HTTP FTP Telnet DNS Audio Video

TCP UDP RTP Transport layer

IP Network layer

Ethernet PPP ATM Optics ADSL Satellite 3G

Physical and Data link layer

The OSI Model
7 Application
Upper Layers
6 Presentation Application oriented
“End-to-End”-Layers
5 Session

4 Transport

3 Network
Lower Layers
Network oriented
Data Link
2 “Hop-by-hop” layers

1 Physical
 OSI Model and the Internet
 Internet protocols are not directly based on
the OSI model
 However, we do often use the OSI numbering
system. You should at least remember these:
 Layer 7: Application
 Layer 4: Transport (e.g. TCP, UDP)
 Layer 3: Network (IP)
 Layer 2: Data link
 Layer 1: Physical
Layer Interaction:
TCP/IP Model

End
to Application Application
end
TCP or UDP TCP or UDP
IP IP IP IP
Hop
Link Link Link Link Link Link
by
hop Physical Physical Physical

Host Router Router Host

 End-to-end layers
 Upper layers are “end-to-end”
 Applications at the two ends behave as if they
can talk directly to each other
 They do not concern themselves with the
details of what happens in between
 Hop-by-hop layers
 At the lower layers, devices share access to the same physical
medium
 Devices communicate directly with each other

 The network layer (IP) has some knowledge of how many

small networks are interconnected to make a large internet
 Information moves one hop at a time, getting closer to the
destination at each hop
Layer Interaction:
TCP/IP Model

Application Application

TCP or UDP TCP or UDP

IP IP IP IP
Link Link Link Link Link Link
Physical Physical Physical

Host Router Router Host

Layer Interaction:
The Application Layer
Applications behave as if they can talk to each
other, but in reality the application at each side
talks to the TCP or UDP service below it.
Application Application
TCPThe
or UDP TCPwhat
application layer doesn't care about or UDP
happens at the
IP IP lower layers,
IP provided the
IP
transport layer carries the application's data
Link Link Link
safely from endLink Link
to end. Link
Physical Physical Physical

Host Router Router Host

Layer Interaction:
The Transport Layer
The transport layer instances at the two ends act
as if they are talking to each other, but in reality
they are each talking to the IP layer below it. The
transport layer doesn't care about what the
Application Application
application layer is doing above it.
TCP or UDP TCP or UDP
TheIPtransport layer
IP doesn't care
IP what happens
IP in
the IP layer or below, as long as the IP layer can
Link Link Link Link Link Link
move datagrams from one side to the other.
Physical Physical Physical

Host Router Router Host

Layer Interaction:
The Network Layer (IP)
The IP layer has to know a lot about the topology
of the network (which host is connected to which
router, which routers are connected to
Application each
Application
other), but it doesn't care about what happens at
TCP or UDP the upper layers. TCP or UDP
IP IP IP IP
TheLink
IP layer works forwardsLink
Link Link messages
Link hop Link
by hop
from one side to the other side.
Physical Physical Physical

Host Router Router Host

Layer Interaction:
Link and Physical Layers

The link layer doesn't care what happens above it,

but it is very closely tied to the physical
Application layer
Application
below it.
TCP or UDP TCP or UDP
All links are independent of each other, and have
IP IP
no way of communicating IP each other.
with IP
Link Link Link Link Link Link
Physical Physical Physical

Host Router Router Host

Layering: physical communication
data
application
transport
network
link
physical
network
application link
transport physical
network
link data
physical application application
transport transport
network network
link link
physical physical
Frame, Datagram, Segment, Packet
 Different names for packets at different layers
 Ethernet (link layer) frame
 IP (network layer) datagram
 TCP (transport layer) segment

 Terminology is not strictly followed

 we often just use the term “packet” at any layer
 Encapsulation & Decapsulation
 Lower layers add headers (and sometimes
trailers) to data from higher layers
Application Data

Transport Header Transport Layer Data

Network Header Network Layer Data

Network Header Header Data

Data Link Header Link Layer Data Trailer

Data Link Header Header Header Data Trailer
 Layer 2 - Ethernet frame
Preamble Dest Source Type Data CRC
6 bytes 6 bytes 2 bytes 46 to 1500 4 bytes
bytes

 Destination and source are 48-bit MAC

addresses (e.g., 00:26:4a:18:f6:aa)
 Type 0x0800 means that the “data” portion of
the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4 datagram.
Type 0x0806 for ARP. Type 0x86DD for IPv6.
 “Data” part of layer 2 frame contains a layer 3
datagram.
 Layer 3 - IPv4 datagram
Version IHL Diff Services Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source Address (32-bit IPv4 address)
Destination Address (32-bit IPv4 address)
Options Padding
Data (contains layer 4 segment)

Version = 4  Protocol = 6 means data

If no options, IHL = 5 portion contains a TCP
Source and Destination are segment. Protocol = 17
32-bit IPv4 addresses means UDP.
 Layer 4 - TCP segment
Source Port Destination Port
Sequence Number
Acknowledgement Number
Data Reserved U A E R S F Window
Offset R COSY I
GKL T NN

Checksum Urgent Pointer

Options Padding
Data (contains application data)

 Source and Destination are 16-bit TCP port numbers (IP addresses are
implied by the IP header)
 If no options, Data Offset = 5 (which means 20 octets)
IPv4 Addressing
 Purpose of an IP address
 Unique Identification of:
 Source
 How would the recipient know where the message
came from?
 How would you know who hacked into your network
(network/data security)
 Destination
 How would you send data to other network
 Network Independent Format
 IP over anything
 Purpose of an IP Address
Identifies a machine’s connection to a network
 Uniquely assigned in a hierarchical format
 IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority)
 IANA to RIRs (AfriNIC, ARIN, RIPE, APNIC, LACNIC)
 RIR to ISPs and large organisations
 ISP or company IT department to end users
 IPv4 uses unique 32-bit addresses
 IPv6 uses unique 128-bit addresses
Basic Structure of an IPv4 Address
 32 bit number (4 octet number):
(e.g. 133.27.162.125)
 Decimal Representation:

133 27 162 125

 Binary Representation:
10000101 00011011 10100010 01111101

 Hexadecimal Representation:
85 1B A2 7D
 Addressing in Internetworks
 The problem we have
 More than one physical network
 Different Locations
 Larger number of hosts/computer systems
 Need a way of numbering them all

 We use a structured numbering system

 Hosts
that are connected to the same physical
network may have “similar” IP addresses
 Network part and Host part
 Remember IPv4 address is 32 bits
 Divide it into a “network part” and “host part”
 “network part” of the address identifies which network in the
internetwork (e.g. the Internet)
 “host part” identifies host on that network
 Hosts or routers connected to the same link-layer network will have IP
addresses with the same network part, but different host part.
 Host part contains enough bits to address all hosts on that subnet; e.g.
8 bits allows 256 addresses
 Dividing an address
 Hierarchical Division in IP Address:
 Network Part (or Prefix) – high order bits (left)
 describes which physical network
 Host Part – low order bits (right)
 describes which host on that network

Network Part Host Part

 Boundary can be anywhere

 Boundaries are chosen according to number of hosts
required
 Network Masks
 “Network Masks” help define which bits
describe the Network Part and which for the
Host Part
 Different Representations:
 decimal dot notation: 255.255.224.0
 binary: 11111111 11111111 11100000 00000000
 hexadecimal: 0xFFFFE000
 number of network bits: /19
 count the 1's in the binary representation
 Above examples all mean the same: 19 bits for the Network
Part and 13 bits for the Host Part
 Example Prefixes
 137.158.128.0/17 (netmask 255.255.128.0)

1111 1111 1111 1111 1 000 0000 0000 0000

1000 1001 1001 1110 1 000 0000 0000 0000

 198.134.0.0/16 (netmask 255.255.0.0)

1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000
1100 0110 1000 0110 0000 0000 0000 0000
 205.37.193.128/26 (netmask 255.255.255.192)

1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 11 00 0000

1100 1101 0010 0101 1100 0001 10 00 0000
 Special Addresses
 All 0’s in host part: Represents Network
 e.g. 193.0.0.0/24
 e.g. 138.37.64.0/18
 All 1’s in host part: Broadcast
 e.g. 193.0.0.255 (prefix 193.0.0.0/24)
 e.g. 138.37.127.255 (prefix 138.37.64.0/18)
 127.0.0.0/8: Loopback address (127.0.0.1)
 0.0.0.0: For various special purposes
 Ancient History:
 A classful network naturally “implied” a prefix-length or
netmask:
 Class A: prefix length /8 (netmask 255.0.0.0)
 Class B: prefix length /16 (netmask 255.255.0.0)
 Class C: prefix length /24 (netmask 255.255.255.0)
 Modern (classless) routed networks rather have explicit
prefix-lengths or netmasks.
 So ideally you can't just look at an IP address and tell what its prefix-
length or netmask should be.
 Protocol configurations in this case also need explicit netmask or prefix
length.
 Post-1994 era of classless
addressing
 Class A, Class B, Class C terminology and restrictions are now
of historical interest only
 Obsolete since 1994
 Internet routing and address management today is classless
 CIDR = Classless Inter-Domain Routing
 Routing does not assume that former class A, B, C addresses imply
prefix lengths of /8, /16, /24
 VLSM = Variable-Length Subnet Masks
 Routing does not assume that all subnets are the same size
 Classless addressing example
 An ISP gets a large block of addresses
 e.g., a /16 prefix, or 65536 separate addresses
 Assign smaller blocks to customers
 e.g., a /24 prefix (256 addresses) to one customer, and a /28 prefix (16
addresses) to another customer (and some space left over for other
customers)
 An organisation that gets a /24 prefix from their ISP divides it
into smaller blocks
 e.g. a /27 prefix (32 addresses) for one department, and a /28 prefix
(16 addresses) for another department (and some space left over for
other internal networks)
 Classless addressing exercise

 Consider the address block 133.27.162.0/24

 Allocate 5 separate /28 blocks, one /27 block, and one
/30 block
 What are the IP addresses of each block allocated above?
 In prefix length notation
 Netmasks in decimal
 IP address ranges
 What blocks are still available (not yet allocated)?
 How big is the largest available block?
IPv6 Addressing

IP Addresses Continues
 IP version 6
 IPv6 designed as successor to IPv4
 Expanded address space
 Address length quadrupled to 16 bytes (128 bits)
 Header Format Simplification
 Fixed length, optional headers are daisy-chained
 No checksum at the IP network layer
 No hop-by-hop fragmentation
 Path MTU discovery
 64 bits aligned fields in the header
 Authentication and Privacy Capabilities
 IPsec is mandated
 No more broadcast
 IPv4 and IPv6 Header Comparison
IPv4 Header IPv6 Header
Type of
Version IHL Total Length Traffic
Service Version Flow Label
Class
Fragment
Identification Flags
Offset Next
Payload Length Hop Limit
Time to Header
Protocol Header Checksum
Live
Source Address
Source Address
Destination Address
Options Padding
Legend

Field’s name kept from IPv4 to IPv6

Fields not kept in IPv6 Destination Address
Name and position changed in IPv6
New field in IPv6
 Larger Address Space

IPv4 = 32 bits

IPv6 = 128 bits

 IPv4
 32 bits
 = 4,294,967,296 possible addressable devices
 IPv6
 128 bits: 4 times the size in bits
 = 3.4 x 1038 possible addressable devices
 = 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
  5 x 1028 addresses per person on the planet
 IPv6 Address Representation
 16 bit fields in case insensitive colon hexadecimal representation
 2031:0000:130F:0000:0000:09C0:876A:130B
 Leading zeros in a field are optional:
 2031:0:130F:0:0:9C0:876A:130B
 Successive fields of 0 represented as ::, but only once in an address:
 2031:0:130F::9C0:876A:130B is ok
 2031::130F::9C0:876A:130B is NOT ok (two “::”)

 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1  ::1 (loopback address)

 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0  :: (unspecified address)
 IPv6 Address Representation
 In a URL, it is enclosed in brackets (RFC3986)
 http://[2001:db8:4f3a::206:ae14]:8080/index.html
 Complicated for typical users
 This is done mostly for diagnostic purposes
 Use fully qualified domain names (FQDN) instead of this
 Prefix Representation
 Representation of prefix is same as for IPv4 CIDR
 Address and then prefix length, with slash separator
 IPv4 address:
 198.10.0.0/16
 IPv6 address:
 2001:db8:12::/40
 IPv6 Addressing
Type Binary Hex

Unspecified 0000…0000 ::/128

Loopback 0000…0001 ::1/128

Global Unicast
0010 ... 2000::/3
Address
Link Local 1111 1110
FE80::/10
Unicast Address 10...
Unique Local 1111 1100 ...
FC00::/7
Unicast Address 1111 1101 ...

Multicast Address 1111 1111 ... FF00::/8

 IPv6 Global Unicast Addresses

Provider Site Host

48 bits 16 bits 64 bits

Global Routing Prefix Subnet-id Interface ID

001

 IPv6 Global Unicast addresses are:

 Addresses for generic use of IPv6
 Hierarchical structure intended to simplify
aggregation
 IPv6 Address Allocation
/12 /32 /48 /64

2000 0db8 Interface ID

Registry
ISP prefix
Site prefix
LAN prefix

 The allocation process is:

 The IANA is allocating out of 2000::/3 for initial IPv6 unicast use
 Each registry gets a /12 prefix from the IANA
 Registry allocates a /32 prefix (or larger) to an IPv6 ISP
 ISPs usually allocate a /48 prefix to each end customer
 IPv6 Addressing Scope
 64 bits used for the interface ID
 Possibilityof 264 hosts on one network LAN
 Arrangement to accommodate MAC addresses
within the IPv6 address
 16 bits used for the end site
of 216 networks at each end-site
 Possibility
 65536 subnets
 IPV6 Subnetting
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000
64 bits interface ID

/64
/60=16 /64
/56=256 /64
/52=4096 /64
/48=65536 /64

/32=65536 /48
Nibble (4 bits) Concept
Summary
 Vast address space
 Hexadecimal addressing
 Distinct addressing hierarchy between
ISPs, end-sites, and LANs
 ISPs are typically allocated /32s
 End customers are typically assigned /48s
 LANs have /64s
 Other IPv6 features discussed later
Acknowledgement and Attribution
This presentation contains content and information originally
developed and maintained by the following
organisation(s)/individual(s) and provided for the African
Union AXIS Project

www.afnog.org
Introduction to Internet Protocol
(IP) Version 4 and Version 6

56