UNIT II: DEVELOPMENTAL Nothing else matters to the id except the

satisfaction of its own needs.

THEORIES The ego.
As the baby toddler and then into a pre-
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory schooler, he/she relates more with the
“The ego is not master in its own house.” environment, the ego slowly begins to
-Sigmund Freud emerge. The ego operates using the reality
principle. It is aware that others also have
-Freud’s views about human development are needs to be met.
more than a century old. He can be The superego.
considered the most well-known psychologist Near the end of the preschool years, or the
because of his interesting theory about the end of phallic stage, the superego develops.
unconscious and also about sexual The superego embodies person’s moral
development. aspects. This develops from what the parents,
-Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most teachers, and other persons who exert
influential in psychology. His theory sparked influence impart to be good or moral.
the ideas in the brilliant minds of other
theorists and thus became the starting point The Three Components and Personality
of many other theories. Adjustment
Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual has strong ego who can help satisfy the needs of the
Development id without going against the superego while
The First Stage: ORAL STAGE maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical,
- It occurs between birth and 18 months. practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the
During this stage, that baby’s chief source of ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id
pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities. exerts too much power over the ego the person
The Second Stage: ANAL STAGE becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking
- It occurs between one year and three years behaviour takes over one’s life.
of age. During this stage, the child derives
sensual gratification from withholding and Topographical Model
expelling feces. The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we
The Third Stage: PHALLIC STAGE go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings,
- This stage occurs between three to six years and impulses deep within are not available to us at a
of age. During this stage, the child becomes conscious level.
attached to parent of the other sex and later The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we
identifies with same-sex parent. aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our
The Fourth Stage: LATENCY STAGE conscious mind only comprises a very small part of
- It occurs between six and puberty. This who we are.
stage is a time of relative calm between more The Subconscious. The last part is the
turbulent states. preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us
The Final Stage: GENITAL STAGE that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our
- It occurs from puberty through adulthood. active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still
This stage is a re-emergence of sexual “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.
impulses of the phallic stage, channelled into The water may represent all that we are not aware
mature adult sexuality of have not experienced and that has not been made
part of our personalities referred to as the
Freud’s Personality Components nonconscious.
The id.
Freud says that, a child is born with the id.
The id plays a vital role in one’s personality
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s
“The principle goal of education is to create men who
essential needs are met. The id operates on
are capable of doing new things, not simply of
the pleasure principle. It focuses on
repeating what other generations have done – men
immediate gratification or satisfaction of its
who are creative, inventive and discoverers.”
needs.
– Jean Piaget
 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to concrete operational stage is marked by the
the cognitive structures by which individuals following:
intellectually adapt to and organize their Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to
environment. It is an individual’s way to understand perceive the different features of objects and
or create meaning about a thing or experience. situations.
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations
experience into an existing or previously created the child can now follow that certain operations can
cognitive structure or schema. be done in reverse.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain
new schema. properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or
Equilibration. Piaget believed that people have the area do not change even if there is a change in
natural need to understand how the world works and appearance.
to find order, structure, and predictability in their life. Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between arrange things in a series based on one dimension
assimilation and accommodation. When our such as weight, volume or size.
experiences do not match our schemata (plural of Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage.
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience In the final stage of formal operations covering ages
cognitive disequilibrium. between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more
logical. They can now solve abstract problems and
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage following:
The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. Hypothetical Reasoning this is the ability to come up
This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive with different hypothesis about a problem and to
in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more gather and weigh data in order to make a final
organized in his movement and activity. decision or judgment.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to Analogical Reasoning is the ability to perceive the
know that an object still exists even when out of relationship in one instance and then use that
sight. relationship to narrow down possible answers in
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage another similar situation or problem.
The preoperational stage covers from about two to Deductive Reasoning is the ability to think logically by
seven years old, roughly corresponding to the applying a general rule to a particular instance or
preschool years. Intelligence at this stage intuitive in situation.
nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend.
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of
objects and events. Development
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only “Healthy children will not fear life if their elder have
see his point of view and to assume that everyone integrity enough not to fear death”
also has his same point of view. - Erik Erikson
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to
focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development
other aspects. STAGE ONE
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the Psychosocial Crisis
inability reverse their thinking. The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first
Animism. This is the tendency of children attribute year or year and a half of life. The crisis is trust vs.
human like traits or characteristics to inanimate mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without
objects. completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust.
Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre- Maladaptation/Malignancy
operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither Parents who are overly protective of child, who are
inductive nor deductive. there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. that child into the maladaptive tendency which
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child Erikson calls sensory maladjustment.
to think logically but only in terms of concrete Virtue
objects. This covers approximately the ages between
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will A happier thing is to develop the right balance of
develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that, industry inferiority – that is, mostly industry with a
even when things are not going well, they will work just a touch of inferiority keep us sensibly humble.
out well in the end. Then we have the virtue called competency.
STAGE TWO STAGE FIVE
Psychosocial Crisis Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about Stage five is adolescence. Beginning with puberty
eighteen months to three or four years old. The task and ending around 18-20 yrs. old. Task during
is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role
shame and doubt. confusion. Ego identity means knowing who you are
Maladaptation/Malignancy and how you fit in to the rest of society.
A little “shame and doubt” is not only inevitable, but One of Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence
beneficial. Without it, you will develop the in our society is the psychosocial moratorium. It
maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness. suggests you take a little “time out”. There is such
Too much shame and doubt which leads to the thing as too much “ego identity”, where a person is
malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. so involved in a particular role in a particular society
Virtue or subculture that there is no room left for tolerance.
If you get the proper balance of autonomy and Erikson called this maladaptive tendency fanatism. A
shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of fanatic believes that his way is the only way.
willpower or determination. The lock of identity is perhaps more difficult
STAGE THREE still, Erikson refers to the malignant tendency here as
Psychosocial Crisis repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three their membership in the world of adults and, even
or four to five or six. Initiative means a positive more, they reject their need for an identity. If you
response to the world’s challenges, taking on successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the
responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling virtue of fidelity. Means loyalty, the ability to live by
purposeful. societies standards despite their imperfections and
Maladaptation/Malignancy incompleteness and inconsistencies.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a STAGE SIX
maladaptive tendency calls ruthlessness. To be Psychoanalysis
ruthless is to be heartless or unaffectionate or be Stage of adulthood 18-30 yrs. old. The task is to
“without mercy.” The extreme form of ruthlessness is achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to
sociopathy. remaining in isolation. Intimacy is the ability to be
Virtue close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of participant in society. You no longer need to fear
purpose. A sense of purpose is something many losing yourself.
people crave for in their lives. Maladaptation/Malignancy
STAGE FOUR Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity,
Psychosocial Crisis referring particularly to the tendency to become
Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth
from about six to twelve. Children must “tame the to your intimacy. The malignancy he calls exclusion,
imagination” and dedicate themselves to education which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from
and to learning the social skills their society. love, friendship, and community and to develop a
Maladaptation/Malignancy certain hatefulness in compensation for one’s
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive loneliness.
tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in Virtue
children who aren’t allowed to “be children,” the ones if you successfully negotiate this stage, you will
that parents or teachers push into one area of instead carry with you for the rest of your life the
competence, without allowing the development of virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson unites love.
broader interests. These are the kids without a life: Love, in the context of his theory, means being able
child actors, child athletes, child musicians, child to put differences and antagonisms through
prodigies of all sorts. Much more common is the “mutuality of devotion.”
malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who STAGE SEVEN
suffer from the “inferiority complexes.” Psychosocial Crisis
Virtue
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is Moral reasoning based on the consequence/result of
hard to pin a time to it but it would include the the act, not on the whether the act itself is good or
period during which we are actively involved in bad.
raising children. Between the middle twenties and Conventional
the late fifties is to cultivate the proper balance of Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or
generativity and stagnation. “norms” of society.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. This may include approval of others, law and order.
Stagnation is the self-absorption, caring for no-one. Post-conventional
The stagnant person stops to be a productive Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent
member of society. principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the
Maladaptation/Malignancy principle behind the law.
It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have
any “stagnation” in our lives, but the maladaptive Description
tendency Erikson calls overextension. The malignant (Stage 1) Punishment/Obedience
tendency of rejectivity is too little generativity and One is motivated by fear of punishment
too much stagnation and you are no longer (Stage 2) Mutual Benefit
participating in or contributing to society. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may
Virtue obtain later. You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.
But if you are successful at this stage, you will have (Stage 3) Social Approval. One is motivation by
the capacity for caring that will serve you through what others expect in behavior. The person acts
the rest of your life. because he/she values how he/she will appear to
STAGE EIGHT others.
Psychosocial Crisis (Stage 4) Law and Order. The person will follow
The last stage referred to delicately as late adulthood law because it is the law.
or maturity, or less delicately as old age begins (Stage 5) Social Contract. One will act based on
sometime around retirement. The task is to develop social justice and the common good.
ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. Then (Stage 6) Universal Pictures. This is associated
there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the with the development of one’s conscience. Having a
body no longer does everything it used to. set of standards that drives one to possess moral
Maladaptation/Malignancy responsibility to make social changes.
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called
presumption. When a person “presumes” ego
integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
age. Does not respect the ideas and views of the “What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow
young. The malignant tendency is called disdain, she/he will be able to do alone.”
which means a contempt of life, one’s own or - Lev Vygotsky
anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and
appears to hate life. Piaget and Vygotsky
Virtue Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time
Someone who approaches death without fear has the as Piaget in between the 1920’ and 30’s but they had
strength Erikson calls wisdom. clear differences in their views about cognitive
development. Since Piaget was taken up already in
the preceding module, it would be easier now to see
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development how his views compare with Vygotsky’s.
“Right actions tends to be defined in terms of general
individual rights and standards that have been PIAGET
critically examined and agreed upon by the whole - More individual in focus
society.” - Believed that there are universal stages of
- Laurence Kohlberg cognitive development
- Did not give much emphasis on language

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Level VYGOTSKY
Preconventional Level - More social in focus
- Did not propose stages but emphasized on
cultural factors in cognitive development Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model: Structure
- Stressed the role of language in cognitive of Environment
development The microsystem. Is the layer nearest the child. It
comprises structures which the child directly interacts
Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more with. It includes structures such as one’s family,
individual, which Vygotsky was more social. Piaget’s school and neighbourhood. As such, the microsystem
work on Piagetian’s tasks focus heavily on how an covers the most basic relationships and interactions
individual’s cognitive development became evident. that a child has in his/her immediate environment.
Vygotsky, on the other hand gave more weight on The child is affected by he behaviour and beliefs of
the social interactions that contribute to the cognitive the parents. However, the child also affects the
development of individuals. Vygotsky emphasized behaviour and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner
that effective learning happen through participation calls these bi-directional influences, and he
in social activities, making the social context of shows how they occur among all levels of
learning crucial. environment. This is quite similar to what Erikson
Cultural Factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial termed as “mutuality” in his psychosocial theory.
role that culture played on the cognitive development The mesosystem. This layer serves as the
of children. Piaget believed that as the child develops connection before the structures of the child’s
and mature, he goes through universal stages of microsystem.
cognitive development. Vygotsky, on the other hand, The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger
looked into the wide range of experiences that a social system which the child does not function
culture would give to a child. directly. This includes the city government, the
Language. Language opens the door for learners to workplace, and the mass media. The structures in
acquire knowledge that others already have. this layer may influence the child’s development by
Learners can use language to know and understand somehow affecting structure in the child’s
the world and solve problems. Language serves a microsystem.
social function but it also has an important individual The macrosystem. This layer is found in the
function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on outermost part of the child’s environment. The
his own thinking. macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs,
Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the and laws. The belief system contained in one’s
child’s thinking and action. macrosystem permeates all the interaction in the
other layers and reaches the individual.
Zone of Proximal Development The chronosystem. It covers the element of time
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she as it relates to a child’s environments. This involves
may not be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she “patterns of stability and change” in the child's life.
may perform at a certain level of competency. We This involves whether the child’s day in characterized
refer to this as the zone of actual development. by an orderly predictable pattern, or whether the
however, with the guidance of a More child’s subjected to sudden changes in routine.
Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or
a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a The Role of Schools and Teachers
higher level of competency. Brofenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the
The support or assistance that lets the child teachers of their very important role. If there is a
accomplish a task he cannot accomplish lack of support, care and affection from the home, if
independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is there is a serious breakdown of the basic
not about doing the task for the child while he relationships in a child’s life. This theory helps
watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. teachers look into every child’s environmental
As learners become more proficient, able to complete systems in order to understand more about
tasks on their own that they could not initially do characteristics and needs of each child, each learner.
without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. The schools and teachers can contribute stability and
This is called scaffold and fade-away technique. long-term relationships, but only to support and not
replace the relationships in the home. Brofenbrenner
believes that, the primary relationship needs to be
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory with someone who can provide a sense of caring that
“Children need people in order to become human” is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be
- Urie Brofenbrenner
fostered by a person or people within the immediate
sphere of the child’s influence.
Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace
the lack in the home if such exists, but to work so
that the school becomes an environment that
welcomes nd nurture families. Bronfenbrenner also
stressed that society should value work done on
behalf of children at all levels, and consequently
value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors,
work supervisors, legislators.