theory

What can urban design or architecture gain from an

understanding of the auditory nature of Japanese garden design,
and what are the implications for future urban soundscapes?

Mapping sound-space: the

Japanese garden as auditory model
Michael Fowler

Japanese culture, through its art, language and use of water features and the topography of the site
religion, is a result of accumulated flows of as a means to embody the garden’s narrative, and
knowledge from China and Korea. The traditions of provide a meaningful connection for the owner.
garden design and garden construction, similarly, One of the first Westerners to consider, document
are ‘a space of flows’ from classical Chinese models and analyse the Japanese garden was the British
though, after centuries of development and architect Josiah Conder (1852–1920). His observations
refinement, have become distinctly reflective of and considerations about the elements of the
Japanese culture and aesthetics. The first recorded Japanese garden form a type of Western interpretive
instance of this knowledge flow reaching Japan guide for the large number of sites that he visited
appears in the eleventh century. The first treatise on throughout Honshu. Conder considered and
Japanese garden design, Sakuteiki (garden making), is classified numerous recurring elements of the
attributed to Tachibana no Toshitsuna, a court gardens, though concluded that:
official and designer of gardens. Though the treatise A striking characteristic of Japanese gardening is the
contains no illustrations, much of the text is precise, importance attached to the use of natural stones, rocks
and its content reflective of the cultural and aesthetic and boulders [...] In all styles of Japanese garden designs
predilections of the Confucianist Heien court. Other careful attention to the shapes and proportions of the
3
treatises may have been extant during the Heien individual stones is of the first importance.
period (794–1185), though they are now lost. In fact, Conder describes over 100 named varieties of
The other frequently referenced classical treatise is stones that are appropriate for specific areas of the
the Senzui narabini yagyoo no zu (Illustrations for garden in terms of their contours, colours and
Designing Mountain, Water and Hillside Field textures, as well as their usefulness as illusionary
Landscapes) which is attributed to the Zen priest Zen devices to evoke native fauna or mythical mountain
from the Muromachi period (1336–1573). Slawson’s peaks from China.
translation of the work highlights the effectiveness Kinoe and Mori have asserted that in addition to
of the treatise as a style guide that is extremely the perception of texture and number within
specific in terms of its classification of Japanese Japanese garden design, the aesthetics of spatiality
garden elements (particularly rocks) and the plays out in subtle ways through the paradigm of
4
intrinsic role that Chinese geomancy holds for the soto (inside) and uchi (outside). These two terms, still
1
larger spatial structure of garden design. commonly used in contemporary Japanese
As Van Tonder and Lyons have noted, both treatises discourse, are important catalysts for the sense of
form a basis for how visual perception within a how boundaries within the gardens are never
traditional Japanese garden predicates a number of singularly dualistic. Given that gardens are both an
2
commonly accepted axioms. These can be outlined embodiment of nature, and a human intervention or
in terms of texture, number and spatiality, where: composition, the nexus of the two is often
…

IPNPHFOFPVT
BOE
OBUVSBM
DPMPVS
JT
QSFGFSSFE
JO
ambiguous within a site. Keane has discussed this
elements such as rocks, moss and gravel issue also, and argues that unity between what is
…

PEE
OVNCFSFE
HSPVQJOHT
TVDI
BT
´USJBETµ

TIPVME
outside the garden and inside it is achieved through
be used over even numbered groupings the seamless connection of common elements, and
5
…

BTZNNFUSJDBM
EFTJHO
CFUUFS
SF¿FDUT
UIBU
XIJDI
through the device of shakkei (borrowed scenery).
occurs in nature. The focus for much of the recent discussion and
Each of these design principles is typically used to research on Japanese garden design has examined
6
transform, manipulate and control perspective visual perception and spatial meaning, and the ways
within each garden site. The guidelines in both the in which Japanese garden design masterfully alters
extant garden treatises also examine the role of and manipulates a visitor’s sense of proportion, scale
certain varieties of trees and shrubs, as well as the and distance through the use of natural materials.

theory arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 63

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64 arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 theory

Given the wealth of designed sound sources common within the Bunkyo ward with the Tokyo Dome and
in even the smallest gardens (e.g. shishi odoshi, an amusement park forming the north-east border.
suikinkutsu, chozubachi), the extent to which research Two major arterial roads and the Tokyo Metro system
on the nexus between the auditory and ocular provide further acoustic boundaries to the southern
remains unexamined. and western sides, while the city of Tokyo has grown
The cross currents of multi-disciplinary to some twelve million people within the twenty-
approaches taken by the acoustic ecology movement three special wards since the garden’s first survey.
(founded by R. Murray Schafer and Barry Truax et al.) Conder’s influence over the architecture of Meiji-
would seem an appropriate research framework in era Tokyo is substantial. His role as an oyatoi gaikokujin
which to examine soundscape as a function of (foreign specialist) to the Japanese government
Japanese garden design. This manner of investigation enabled him to introduce and establish Western
may provide a projective impetus for an architecture and design freely into the recently
implementation of new modes of urban sound reopened nation, while carefully documenting and
design, and provide an insight into the spatial observing Japanese cultural institutions. Perhaps his
auditory condition within the gardens. Given that last encounter with Japanese garden design occurred
many of the gardens in Japan are located within during the construction of the house for the
urban environments, this focus on the connection Furukawa family at Komagome (completed in 1917).
between the auditory and the ocular, soto and uchi, Kyu Furukawa Teien is the garden surrounding the
culture and aesthetics, embodies a useful paradigm home designed by Conder, and finished soon after
for design studies in a range of spatial disciplines. the house by the well-known Kyoto garden maker (or
This paper will specifically address the nature of niwashi), Ogawa Jihei (1860–1933). As a much later
soundscape studies of Japanese gardens as a way to example of garden design to that of Koishikawa
extend the knowledge flow that brought gardening Korakuen, Kyu Furukawa Teien is similarly a stroll
aesthetics to Japan from China. By drawing on the garden to which a large pond (Shinjiike) and
methodology of acoustic ecology and design waterfall (Ootaki) form the two particularly strong
research, a ‘space of flows’ can be created in which aural elements within the site. It is not surprising
contemporary Western aural design and architecture that the two gardens now find themselves completely
becomes a new domain for knowledge transfer. Two surrounded by medium-to-high density housing,
case study examples are presented as a model for a main roads and train lines. For Kyu Furukawa Teien,
long-term process of mapping. The methodology a situation within a northern outer suburb provides
follows the construction of various schemas and a slightly different surrounding context, though like
visualisations from on-site audio data Koishikawa Korakuen, the garden masterfully
(environmental invariants). The process of exploits this soto-uchi paradigm through utilisation
representation is used as a notation that is intended of the natural topography.
as more than a mere site documentation. Ultimately,
the modelling of these garden data sets can provide The spatial auditory experience
the reader with a ‘text’ that is a spatial translation: Though the acoustic ecology of both Kyu Furukawa
revealing of the garden’s unseen and unheard Teien and Koishikawa Korakuen has changed
structure, and a point of departure for a sustained considerably since their completions, the nature of
inquiry for future design processes. their respective design in terms of the soundscape
remains unchanged. Though there is much mention
Two case studies: Koishikawa Korakuen and Kyu in existing treatises on water feature construction,
Furukawa Teien
Conder first wrote in 1893 of the Tokyo garden Internal site ch # min. N min. f xN xf max. N max. f
Koishikawa Korakuen, with his considered, yet Ootaki * 2 F1 44.8286 #C 69.2388 A 110.22
dogmatic descriptions of the topography and ... 4 #F1 0 #C 68.9989 E 84.4194
Keikoku 2 #F1 44.923 B1 62.3785 #F 92.9295
plantings still current over a century later. This ... 5 #F1 44.4937 B1 62.3785 #F 92.9295
seemingly unchanging landscape, first surveyed in Karetaki 1 (L) #B1 45.264 C 66.2018 #G 105.766
... 2 (R) #F1 45.264 C 65.7358 #G 105.766
1629, is in part homage to Chinese garden models
Shinjiike 1 (L) #F1 44.923 B1 63.4619 F 89.222
through the integration of borrowed (soto) aesthetics ... 2 (R) #F1 46.4143 C 63.814 F 88.657
by the artist Shunsui (a consultant to the design of
min.N—max.N is the extreme records of musical notes, xN is mean note, xf is mean
the garden). Because of this integration, Koishikawa frequency, max.f—min.f is the extreme records of frequency, and ch.# is channel
Korakuen is a particularly well-known synthesis of source; * indicates a waterfall. 1a
7
garden typologies. The garden also utilises
references of known indigenous rivers such as the Internal site ch # min. N min. f xN xf max. N max. f
Oi-gawa (from the Yamashiro province), and includes Saiko no 5 #F1 53.8515 #C 69.2388 A 110.22
a shrine dedicated to the Japanese traveller and poet tsutsumi
... 3 #F1 45.0559 C 68.9989 E 84.4194
Saigo. ‘Exotic’ Chinese mythological references are Shiraito no 2 #A1 44.923 C 62.3785 #F 92.9295
also prevalent such as the island of Horai (the home taki *
... 4 #F1 44.4402 C 62.3785 #F 92.9295
of the mischievous spirit creatures Genii), and a Otowa no 2 F1 44.8286 #C 66.2018 #G 105.766
small lake of white lotus, Hatsu-ike (named after a taki
well-known Chinese example). ... 4 #F1 45.4402 #C 65.7358 #G 105.766
Nezame no 2 A1 56.7732 B1 63.4619 F 89.222
Koishikawa Korakuen was, in 1893, surrounded by taki *
three million people. Today, the garden is embedded ... 2 A1 53.8515 B1 63.814 F 88.657 1b

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 theory arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 65

2a

2b

1 Tables of random- 2 View of and the need to convey specific scenic effects through
sample multi- a Karetaki (dry
channel audio data waterfall) site-suggestive topological transformations, the
a Kyu Furukawa Teien b Looking east across resulting soundscapes of such designs often provide
b Koishikawa Shinjiike from the site
Korakuen of the Ootaki towards
evidence of complementary auditory compositions.
the Karetaki The waterfall and subsequent creek flow is a key
soundmark in Japanese garden design. Specific
tunings (through the placement of rocks and
variation in drop depth) of such features provide
areas within the garden analogous to Schafer’s

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66 arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 theory

8
concept of keysounds. Additionally, the location of variations in bird and insect life, provide a stable yet
such sites within the garden defines the nature of the dynamic flux of sound objects. The nature of the
larger soundscape, to which a walk through the garden to provide such rich surroundings means
space incorporates both the articulation of the visual that the experience within allows for an attention to
and auditory information. The localised sounds of details of timbre, periodicity and distance (as visual
designed water features present in both Kyu or sonic objects). The synthesis of these elements in
Furukawa Teien and Koishikawa Korakuen revealed providing multi-sensory stimuli across the site
both a predictable localised stability (periodicity) yet presents the garden as a curator of spatial
slight variation among sites and gardens. Through information.
an analysis of on-site multi-channel audio A subtle feature of the Otowa no taki (the waterfall
recordings, pertinent features (including frequency of Otowa-san) at Koishikawa Korakuen is the nature
content and sound pressure) indicate only a small of the randomly placed stones within a shallow
variation between sites [1]. expanse of water. Fed by an equally shallow flow of
Indeed, the random sample data presented in [1a], water from an impressive ravine, the Otowa no taki is
and [1b], shows the mean pitch deviation (xN) across an ideal site for bird bathing. In fact, the water is so
the sites and is limited to three musical pitch shallow that the flow is aurally imperceptible, and
9
elements (Forte tri-chord 3–1). The nature of the the sound sources within this microenvironment
stroll garden to provide stopping or viewing points come wholly from the noises of the wings of the
within the sites allowed for a common approach to birds and splashing water. In this case, the Otowa no
identifying suitable recording points. These sites taki provides the infrastructure for a sounding
often incorporate designed water features, such as environment provided for by the fauna of the
the single waterfall, Ootaki at Kyu Furukawa Teien, garden. Though the name and visual formation of
or the two located within Koishikawa Korakuen the site suggests a waterfall appearing from a deep
(Shiraito no taki, Nezame no taki). For both gardens, ravine, the auditory component arises not through
each of the nominated sites chosen for recording the flow of water, but by the occasional visiting birds
incorporated a notion of soto and uchi. Waterfalls are interacting with the site.
obvious design features that provide an aural At both gardens, stopping points along the paths
content that can focus attention locally, or equally provide access to both interior and exterior sensory
mask the exterior, or articulate a particular region in information, whether it be a self-reflective
the garden through an auditory zone or acoustic examination of a waterfall embodying the natural
horizon. In addition to these more prominent topology of the site, or in the case of the Otowa no
features, the narrowing of paths, or the slowing taki, the sound of animal visitors that complement
down of the traversal through the space via sawatari the visual field of play with a sonic object. The
(stepping stones), provides both a visual, as well as an dynamics of such garden spaces also come from the
auditory awareness of changed circumstances. extent of the acoustic horizons, and the subtleties of
Additionally, the loose gravel paths are a constant shift and manipulation facilitated by the design of
reminder of how human presence shapes the the gardens. For both Kyu Furukawa Teien and
soundscape, providing a rhythmic interactive foil to Koishikawa Korakuen, the nature of the topography
the garden’s other sounding objects. of each site is exploited both in the visual and the
A consequence of these design characteristics is aural domain. Each garden has a large pond that
that the symbiotic connection between the visual duly reflects sounds across the surface, while
and the auditory remains in flux. Within each providing internal sound events created by Koi
garden, and based around the stopping points, are (ornamental carp), that unlike the waterfalls or
microenvironments (interiors). These environments other water sounding devices (e.g. shishi odoshi) are
provide either a designed focal point that is visual aperiodic in structure. Thick tree-lined groves, and
and audible (such as a waterfall), or purely visual, high sculptured absorbing hillocks act to mask
though often with an implication of an aural sound sources both from within and outside. Each of
element (as in the Karetaki, [2a], at Kyu Furukawa these features works distinctly in harmony to set a
Teien). In the latter case, the implication of a domain for the sonic behaviours possible within the
complementary aural sign is an apparent use of site. They also compress and articulate the larger
shakkei (borrowed scenery) though not in the usual space into smaller micro-environments that are
visual domain but the aural. For the dry waterfall at either ‘ready-made’ with sonic content, or activated
Kyu Furukawa Teien, though no designed sound by fauna or visitors.
source is present within the immediate surrounds, a At both gardens, the imposing stone walls at each
Shinjiike (pond) acts as a perfect reflective surface entrance work to efficiently reflect the busy noise
that diffracts the aurally present source of the Ootaki from the street in a marked fashion. The movement
(some 50m away) into the space of the Karetaki. This from the street into the garden is aurally striking,
visual allusion to water through the placement and and immediate at both sites. The reduction in dB
composition of a washed-out path of smooth stones levels at Kyu Furukawa Teien was in the order of a
finds a complement through an aural shakkei. But 30dB drop within 10m of the street, to which the
even those areas that specifically focus the attention garden’s aural programme quickly establishes itself
to a visual feature of the garden (such as the keikoku as an approach to the Ootaki is made. This naturally
[ravine] in Kyu Furukawa Teien), the enveloping means that the garden may act quite differently
nature of the soundscape, including seasonal throughout the seasons in relation to its absorbing

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 theory arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 67

surfaces (deciduous plantings), sound sources (water colour relates to a pitch centre, and size to relative
flow, animal/human activity) and acoustic horizons. amplitude. The lines that emerge outwards from the
The contraction and expansion of both sonic content events are polygons created with data taken from the
and penetration inside the site, gives a flux and raw spectrum of attack (an eleven-element list
dynamic envelope to the soundscape, while still indicating values through eleven frequency bands),
allowing a feeling of encapsulation from the soto soundfile amplitude (the further these extend to the
world beyond the walls.

Audio data sets and analysis

In any study of a soundscape, or acoustic ecology, one
recurring issue that arises pertains to the method
and process by which audio recordings can be
understood as not merely the documentation of
3a
sound sources per se, but the acquisition of an
insight into a site’s construction of spatial auditory
experiences. Between 13 and 17 June 2006, twenty-
four multi-channel recordings captured the spatial
auditory invariants within Kyu Furukawa Teien and
Koishikawa Korakuen. Both stationary and roving
record points allowed for a more complete sense of
the attributes of the soundscape. A methodology 3b
analysed the recordings in a way that would
highlight both the traditional statistical relation
between each recording’s data set (in acoustic terms),
and a qualitative analysis of the garden’s spatiality.
Just as there is an element of play within each site
relating to the notion of soto/uchi, interior/exterior,
the manner in which the recording data sets
highlighted the auditory trends needed to reflect
this tension and pull of opposites.
Utilising the open-source object-oriented
programming environment Pure Data (Pd) allowed
for rapid delivery of real-time audio information
from the multi-channel soundfiles. Using bonk~ and
fiddle~ objects provided a way in which the signal
information of each channel of each recording could
be extracted and stored (e.g. [1]) for later
10
comparison. Given the large array of data and
number of recordings (ca. 9G), a method was devised
to track the unfolding of information in the
temporal dimension through the visualisation of
elemental auditory data.
4
Understanding the shape of large data sets, relative
to this case study, comes in the qualitative assessment
of the data, its temporal form and projection. Due to
these desires, Pd’s capability to visualise information
as a data-structure seemed an appropriate method to
better understand the datum scale and regional
movement. Figure [4] shows the developed
visualisation of a two-channel recording from the
Kuhachiya (pavilion) at Koishikawa Korakuen. The Pd
data-structure, invoked in real-time from the audio
file, or synthesised from a saved data file, is a visual
description of the site’s spatial auditory information.
In a similar manner to which many ink paintings of
the fifteenth century (particularly those of Sesshu 5

Toyo) became templates for garden designs, the Pd

data-structure runs from top down, like a reverse- 3 Location of SP (sound 4 Pure data (Pd) data- 5 Comparison between
pressure) level structure of stereo Pd data-structure of
engineered scroll painting. Time, in this ‘score’, recordings points for recording of the stereo recording (ch.2)
similarly moves down the page, and tracks auditory a Koishikawa Kuhachiya (pavilion) of a sound walk (left
Korakuen at Koishikawa image) from Koishikawa
elements as they appear in the soundscape. Each of b Kyu Furukawa Teien Korakuen Korakuen and the
the coloured circles represents an event that stationary recording
(ch.4) of Karetaki at Kyu
occurred during the recording (i.e. a significant Furukawa Teien
change in the raw spectrum attacks), in which its

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68 arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 theory

right, the bigger the values) and cooked pitch at 500 6 Schematic of 7 Random sample SP 9 NURBS model of
periodic water data values for Koishikawa Korakuen
millisecond intervals from the soundfile onset.
features within a Kyu Furukawa Teien generated through a
Since all the data are stored after printout, the Koishikawa b Koishikawa lofting sequence
viability of the Pd data-structure becomes both a Korakuen showing Korakuen from 0dB (plan) to
relative distance elevated points
quantitative and qualitative analytic tool. The from entrance 8 a NURBS model of corresponding to
visualisation of the information from the Kyu Furukawa Teien local SP values
generated through a a plan and elevations
recordings, on the lowest level, highlights areas lofting elevation b perspectives
within each recording of commonalities in pitch and b Perspectives
amplitude, and can assist in defining the nature of
event. Also, given that the channels can be mapped
against each other for comparative analysis between Site name SP value in dB
gardens and sites, it gives a greater spatial context to front gate 93.0
understanding issues of soundscape within the garden office 81.1
grass lawn 63.0
gardens [5]. kiosk 53.8
The data-structures developed from the audio Ootaki 62.9
Shinjiike (pond) 42.4
recordings are a foil for the ambient SP levels taken Karetaki (dry waterfall) 52.6
on site (see [3]), and collated acoustic signal data (see clearing 77.2
[1] for random samples). The multi-channel Keikoku (ravine) 45.9
7a
recordings collected from each garden ranged from
between two to seven channels, with a mobile
Site name SP value in dB
recording array capturing a complete horizontal
entrance at street 65.5
field (30°, 0°, 30°, 120°, 270°), with an additional front gate 56.1
(vertical) stereo pair for height information (30°, 30°) Shishi oodoshi 51.7
Saiko no tsutsumi (hillock) 50.1
on the seven-channel recording. In addition to this Tsutenkyo (Chinese bridge) 50.6
array configuration, a roving stereo pair captured Otowa no taki (Otowa-san’s waterfall) 50.0
Hitotsumatsu (old pine) 59.3
soundwalks throughout the sites. Each of the
Shiraito no taki (waterfall of white threads) 63.0
channels’ frequency of content and zone Kuhachiya (thatched pavilion) 64.0
distribution is easily grasped from the data- Chikubushima (small water channel) 56.8
Nezame no taki (waterfall) 59.2
structures, and the comparison between sites in Chuosen (small creek bridge) 51.7
7b
terms of their stability, encroachment from garden
traffic, and level of content can be visually assessed.

Developing spatial schemas

In addition to the development of the Pd data-
8a
structures as a tool for understanding audio
recordings made on site, and any variations between
zones and gardens, the collation and analysis of
ambient sound pressure (SP) data can provide
further insights into the articulation and formation
of quiet and transitional zones and spaces of flow
within each garden.
Figure [6] shows a spatial diagram of Koishikawa
Korakuen. To explore the auditory relationships
inherent in the site, each of the designed water
features is located within the diagram as to their 8b
distance from the entry of the garden. A circle
represents each of the micro-environments and
corresponds to the relative size of the environment.
Located within each circle is an indication of the
number of static sound sources, and its relative dB
level (size of the circle). Small arms extend off the
circumference to indicate relative pitch value for the 9a

6
9b

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 theory arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 69

microenvironment. Each site’s relative elevation is values from the street, front gate area), to the data of
also included. the quieter rear of the garden (e.g. the Nezame no
This spatial diagram is an attempt to represent the taki and Chikubushima area). The smoother, less
relationships between each of the elements that complex surfaces that exist at the rear of the object
define the sites of the garden that were analysed in a express this data trend. The corresponding SP data
way that suggests their function and uniqueness. from this zone showed a greater uniformity and had
Further to this two-dimensional representation of a smaller range of values. In comparison, the values
site schema, was a desire to project and visualise the from the garden’s first 50–60m from the entrance
data sets as three-dimensional representations for show a greater variability, and are materialised as a
later comparative study. less uniform surface on the model.
Taking the data set of the ambient SP levels
recorded from both gardens (see [7] for random Towards informing design
samples) was the starting point for a process for the Günter Nitschke’s assessment that the state of the
creation of three-dimensional forms. This process urban landscape in Japan is in desperate need of a
visualises the relationship between 0dB levels and revolution is an increasing concern that is finding
corresponding ambient SP values, and in doing so, resonance outside the Japanese metropolis:
reveals an emergence of auditory zones within each [...] awareness of the unity, interdependence and indeed
garden. Figure [8] shows the extent to which the inseparability of architecture and nature, which has taken
process of using lofting algorithms (via non-uniform mankind a long time to reach, is to my mind the only
rational b-spline modelling) sets the SP data as a stimulus fertile and potent enough to bring about a new
point elevation from the plan (0dB). In automating vision in architecture and a new concept – a sixth
11
the lofting sequence, each of the points maps to prototype – of the garden.
other points within the array, creating a series of Furthermore, Blesser’s notion of the ‘aural architect’,
interconnecting surfaces that reflect the complexity a designer whose manipulation of effect and affect
or regularity in the data set. manifested through materials of the seen and the
The resultant form from the lofting procedure heard is innovative for its implications for urban
between each garden produces two unique objects in sound design: ‘to understand a spatial area and
terms of the materialisation of surfaces. The spatial boundaries, think of them as experiential
12
modelling is a transmediation of each garden’s concepts that are unrelated to physical partitions’.
auditory zones, and the environmental invariants The study of both Koishikawa Korakuen and Kyu
that construct the local soundscape. Furukawa Teien is in many ways an attempt to
In Figure [9], a clear transition is present from the coalesce both Nitschke’s desire for ‘buildings to
data that make up the front of the form (i.e. the SP become landscape’ and Blesser’s suggestion for the
principles of design to extend beyond the ocular. But
any intended impact within urban sound design or
10 Legend of parallel 11 Parallel coordinate architecture must be afforded through a framework
coordinates variables mapping of entire
(see Figure 11 for data dataset from that facilitates a new knowledge channel between
visualisation) Koishikawa Korakuen the extant spatial and experiential information
and Kyu Furukawa
Teien (see Figure 10
embodied within Japanese gardens, and projective
for parameter design process that usurps auditory awareness as a
details)
catalyst for new spatial experiences. The myriad
relationships that Japanese gardens embody (i.e.
Site name Corresponding parameter those connections and disconnections between the
#ch-recording number of channels in recording auditory and the ocular) may suitably provide a
min(Hz) minimum frequency value of recording in Hertz
mean(hz) mean frequency value of recording in Hertz framework by which design actuates.
sf-min(dB) minimum amplitude value of soundfile in Decibels Figure [11] shows a mapping of every recording
#env-attacks number of envelope attacks in the soundfile
sf-mean(dB) mean amplitude value in Decibels
taken in the case study of Koishikawa Korakuen and
mean pc mean pitch class value as a modulo 12 integer Kyu Furukawa Teien. Using the visualisation
max(Hz) maximum frequency value of soundfile measured in Hertz
technique of parallel coordinates to represent this
area(sq.m) approximate area of recording site (leading edge) in metres
sf-max(dB) maximum amplitude value of soundfile in Decibels vast multi-variant data set as a series of qualitative
site-AF Leq(dB) average sound pressure value in Decibels according to site spatial relationships reveals trends and emerging
distance(m) distance to garden entrance measured in metres
10 rules in the information. Extracting trends in a large

11

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70 arq . vol 14 . no 1 . 2010 theory

enough data set (e.g. a survey of ten or more gardens) balanced sensory experiences of a Japanese garden
could mean an identification of pertinent and are utilised to drive new processes in contemporary
recurring relationships between, say, the distance design.
from the garden entrance to corresponding mean Architects and sculptors such as Ando, Shigemori
pitch class, or ambient dB levels etc. Extracting such and Noguchi have provided a precedent for the
features allows for the creation of parameters for translation of Japanese gardening aesthetics into
design, and therefore, the use of such relationships built form, though the processes of these
in projective parametric modelling. translations have focused on mapping spatiality in
Additionally, parallel coordinates may provide a terms of its ocular articulations of site. The two brief
way of better understanding the relationships and case study investigations presented in this paper are
(dis)connections that occur in Japanese garden intended as a proposal: first for a closer examination
design in regard to context, typology and seasonal of the importance of balance and the composition of
changes on site. With this type of rule-generated sound within such proposed spaces, as well as a
system, parametric design of form may become a catalyst for a multi-sensory translation of the spatial
viable method to which the essential spatial experience within these gardens in future design
relationships of Japanese gardens materialise at strategies. As more sites are examined and mapped,
myriad, user-defined scales, or the materials and an increasingly detailed picture will arise as to the
absorption coefficients assist in the construction of underlying structural nature of aural design within
auditory zones. Japanese gardens. The complex task at present for
designers to craft unified multi-sensory experiences
Conclusion within urban environments that are born out of
This brief introduction into the study of the spatial effect and affect may find a resolution within the
auditory experience of a Japanese garden is a methods to which experiences are constructed in
proposal for a longer-term investigation into the Japanese gardens.
Japanese garden as a utility and model for design The Japanese garden, if successfully used in
within the built environment. Though the focus of recasting the auditory experience in ever
traditional Japanese garden texts has predicated an increasingly dense and populated urban areas will
importance on natural elements, and the placement require a sustainable methodology that applies a
of rocks, the audio recording process used in this considered approach to the design of the built
study has revealed a strong sense that Japanese environment. By utilising the inherent relationships,
gardens may be useful as models for urban sound and consistent attention to balanced multi-sensory
design and architecture. Similarly, by considering content within Japanese garden design, a new urban
the history of knowledge transfer in gardening condition can be encouraged in which the spatial
aesthetics from Chinese models to native Japanese auditory experience within our daily lives is
implementations, Western architecture and design embodied in the design of the acoustic ecology of the
can establish a contemporary domain as ‘a space of built environment, and therefore, the future sound
flows’, from which the design predilections and of cities.

Notes pp. 344–59. Illustration credits

1. David A. Slawson, Secret Teachings in 7. Tsutomu, Hattori, ‘Garden arq gratefully acknowledges:
the Art of Japanese Gardens (Tokyo: Formation of Koishihawa- Author, all images
Kodansha International Ltd, 1987), Korakuen Garden based on “The
pp. 142–175. Plan of Mitosama Koishihawa Biography
2. Gert J. Van Tonder and Michael J. Oyashihi’s Garden“’, in Journal of Dr Michael Fowler is a researcher
Lyons, ‘Visual Perception in Agricultural Science, vol. 44, no. 1 involved in soundscape studies and
Japanese Garden Design’ in (1999), pp. 19–29. the acoustic ecology of Japanese
Axiomathes, 15 (2005), pp. 353–71. 8. R. Murray Schafer, The Tuning of the gardens. He has presented immersive
3. Josiah Conder, Landscape Gardening World (Rochester: Destiny Books, sound installations in Tokyo,
in Japan (New York: Dover, 1964), 1977). Yamaguchi and Hakodate that
p. 41. 9. Allen Forte, The Structure of Atonal examine the auditory conditions of
4. Yosuke Kinoe and Hirohiko Mori, Music (New Haven: Yale University the traditional Japanese garden as a
‘Mutual Harmony and Temporal Press, 1973), pp.179–181. means for informing new design
Continuity: A Perspective from the 10. Miller Puckette, Theodore methodologies within the built
Japanese Garden’, in ACM SIGCHI Apel and David Zicarelli, ‘Real-time environment.
Bulletin, vol. 25, issue 1 (January Audio Analysis Tools for Pd and
1993), pp. 10–13. MaxMSP’, in Proceedings from the Author’s address
5. Mark Peter Keane and Haruzo International Computer Music Dr Michael Fowler
Ohashi, Japanese garden design Conference (Ann Arbor, 1998), 77 Barnett Street
(Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1997), pp. 109–12. Kensington
p. 141. 11. Günter Nitschke, Japanese Gardens Victoria
6. Sean McGovern, ‘The Ryoan-Ji Zen (London: Taschen, 1989), p. 238. Australia 3031
Garden: Textual Meaning in 12. Barry Blesser, Spaces Speak, Are you michael.fowler@rmit.edu.au
Topographic Form’, in Visual Listening? (Boston: MIT Press, 2006),
Communication, vol. 3, no. 3 (2004), p. 21.

Michael Fowler Mapping sound-space

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