CHAPTER

7
Job Analysis
Jane O'Callaghan
Sharon Suwitzer-Mclntyre

Industrial Therapy Worker Care Spectrum

Ability Management: Disability Management
Placement &Prevention Rehabilitation &Return to Work

Educaton Work
Training Hardening

jod Worh Work Exit

Anayss Conditioning Conditioning Assessment
Functiona!
Capacity
Assessment
Job
Jo Acute
Placement Place Retun
Descnption Otter Assessment ment Injury Care Worx

Job
Analysis
Job
Moditication Cornditicnung

Jce
Modthcaten

"Manifold is the harvest of diseases reaped by certain cause of injury identified by Ramazinni
(noxious va-
workers fron the crafts and trades that they pursue. All pors and very fine particles) has fallen into the realm of
the profit that they get is njury to their health, that stems the contemporary industrial
hygienist.
mostly, I think from two causes. The first and most potent The second cause (violent and
is the harmful character of the materials that they hnandle,
irregular motions
and unnatural postures) constitutes an area in which
noxious vapors and very fine particles, inimical to human Industrial Therapists often function.
beings, inducng specific diseases. As a second cause 1
Carpal tunnel
syndrome (Figure 7.1, page 86), repetitive motion
assign certain violent and irregular motions and unnatur- problems, cervical strains, low back pain, and degener-
al postures of the body, by reason of which the natural ative disc disease all
structure of the living machne is so impaired that serious
are
examples of problems referred
to by Ramazinni and treated by Industrial Therapists,
diseases gradually develop. today, in clinical practice." lt is not enough to treat
Bernardino Ramazin these problems in the clinic.
De Morbis Artijicum
They must also be treated
on the job site
there may be a mismatch between the
as
About Diseuses of Workers, 1700 worker's capabilities and the
workplace demands.
During the 1990s, the United States and Canada
he need to
passed legislation that increased the rights of workers
analyze job demands was first recognized to demand safe
n the working conditions, established the
early eighteenth century in Furope, The first rights of injured workers to return to work and ensured

85
 Part lI Injury Prevention
86

tunnel syndrome, the epidemic

of the FIGURE 7.2 Teaching workers safer work
styles is ne
FIGURE 7.1 Carpal of the most valuable Industrial
high-tech '90s.
measures.
Therapy

Reduce Carpal Tunnel

Syndrome 50-90%%

equitable employment for the disabled. These laws ments, and in response to changing legislation in the
have made job analyses a legal requirement for em- United States (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1992)
ployers as part of their efforts to provide safe working and Canada.
conditions, to return injured workers to the job and to Numerous lists, tables, charts, and scales which
accommodate people with disabilities (Figure 7.2).A8 differentiate the various demands to be considered
Industrial Therapists, using their acquired skills have been developed. This chapter describes one com
and expertise in the understanding of disabilities, prehensive approach to understanding and analyzing
injuries, and physical demands analysis are in an ideal the demands of a job.
position to assist organizations in conducting Job Anal-
yses. The results of a Job Analysis are useful in many
aspects of the Worker Care Spectrum-for matching THE ANALYSIS CONTINUUM
workers' functional capacities with the for
job; making
hiring and job placement decisions; for identifying and Job Analysis (JA) is often the first step or the foundation
correcting risk exposure; for determining Work Condi- for most aspects of Industrial Therapy, whether it is tor
tioning or Work Hardening goals; and for designing a a new hire or rehabilitation
purposes. The term J0o
modified job to ensure a safer return to work. It is Analysis refers to the total analysis continuum o
therefore suggested that the which Job Demands Analysis (JDA), Task Analysis (TA)
approach for concise analysis of job demands.
Therapist develop an
and Ergonomic Evaluation (EE) are subsets.
Since the 1700s,
systems
have been developed to Depending on the complexity of the job to
meet a variety of
objectives with respect to re-organiz- analyzed and the purpose for the assessment, the
ing a workplace to improve safety and for may be one or several types of analyses complete
the physical requirements of predicting
any job. Job analysis in the (Figure 7.3). In all cases it is beneficial to review the jou
past has been subjective, estimation oriented and not description, whether written or verbal, to gain a
always performance related. Recently this has changed understanding of the purpose of the job and how it n
due to the recognition of value in Functional
Assess- into the organization. The goal of the analysis must
 Chapter 7 Job Analyels 87

FIGURE 7.3 The Analysis Continuum. FIGURE 7.4 The scope and budget of a Job Analysis is
determined through discussion with the
employer.

Job description
A written or verbal
description of the
functions of the job

Job demands analysis

A checklist or itemization
of the physical demands
of the job in general

Task analysis
A detailed inventory of the
frequency, duration, and forces
required to meet the major
demands of the job (mojor demands
determine the tasks to be analyzed)

DEFINITIONS
Ergonomic evaluation
A mathematical analysis of the
Job Demands Analysis
physical aspects of the job which
might be considered hazardous A Job Demands Analysis JDA) is an objective and
based on the above analysis to identify the demands of a
systematic procedure
particular job."i" The demands of a job can include;
basic physical demands (lifting, carrying, pushing, and

(Repnnted with permission from TOC Inc., 1993.)

pulling), mobility requirements (walking and climb-
and
ing), sensory and perceptual demands (hearing
environmental
vision), vocational requirements and
demands of a job for conditions (exposure to heat, cold, and vibrations).
to have an inventory of the global Each demand is considered separately and in combina-
be adequate. If there is
Job Demands Analysis to tion with other job components.
concern regarding specific
tasks within a job, then a
When there are
The word objective is key to this definition. A Job
Task Analysis will also be required.
identifiable risks that need to be investigated
and can Demands Analysis is incomplete if it is based solely on
be measured mathematically then
an Ergonomic Eval- subjective input. Although one cannot discount the
uation is conducted importance of the subjective information, a compre-
outlines a hensive JDA should validate the subjective findings
Appendix I, at the end of the chapter, with objective data that is reliable and reproducible.
It includes an
comprehensive Job Analysis process. from
to fill out, step-by-step methodology to Thus, it is imperative to collect data for a JDA
example form a
is covered in several sources.
follow, and a brief description of what
each step. Not all situations will call for or cost-justify
be as
thefully-comprehensive process. Job analysis can Task Analysis
comprehensive or as abbreviated as the company's that essential,
During the JDA, individual tasks
are
needs and The Therapist must tailor
budget require. identified. Subse-
the analysis to meet the needs of the situation. The frequent, or potentially high risk are
conducted. The TA
scope and budget for the Job Analysis
should first quently, a Task Analysis (TA) is and
in detail the frequency, duration,
be discussed with the enmployer, payer, or both (l'ig measures more

ure 7.4). forces generated.

 Part lI Injury Prevention
88

data recording device facilitatee

FIGURE 7.5 A hand held
When a JDA identifies that lifting of "X" pounds accurate record keeping during the Job
a high risk, a TA
"X" number of times is potentially Analysis.
In TA would measure the
would be performed. a you
height lifted, the distance carried, the weight and
frequency (Figures 7.5 and 7.6).
Thus, a TA provides a detailed picture of the
demands placed on the worker by a particular task.

Ergonomic Evaluation
Tool and job redesign issues may be identified while
performing the Job Demands Analysis and Task Analy-
sis. These components may require Ergonomic Evalua-
tion.
Ergonomic Evaluation is a mathematical analysis
of any aspect of a job that is identified during the JDA,
as "hazardous" or of "risk" to the worker.
Job Demands Analysis, Task Analysis and Ergo-
nomic Evaluation are all areas of the study of work
activities and do not include workers. The evaluation
of worker capability is defined as a Functional Capacity
Assessment. This measures an individual's capacity to
sustain performance in conformance with the defined
job demands analysis (see Chapter 13).

FIGURE 7.6 A, Reach; B, Lift; C, Turn; D, Carry. Job analysis involves breaking job tasks into components.

A
B
PURPOSES AND APPLICAIONS

ad the Thetap: maIN T lin i

t l ii l
d Aualysla

Worker and Job Match

AI An.aly in l ful duin1, tu iitny mnn
d n y ; detailed infomtin Alinp jol t

hation when ondu tiny . la

1yfetmatiall\ t liagol medal

Rohabilitatlon Roqulrementn

i t A Ole
frsts that a a p o a at lal
(iyue 7.7. ay 0)
AsUmOthat a vinll inaie ni

has dona jol malya lut

Cducation, wok"wrien', tle j
but is unsue wlotler h a|ylhuant it t pliy
icaldemand A luntional ity AnonI
 Part II Injury Prevention
90

FIGURE 7.7 Worker/job match.

Aids to accommodate

The i bb The person

(work to do) (ability to do it)

Functional capacity assessment

Job demands analysis

JobMatch - -

Job description: Experience, work history,

education, skills interests, aptitudes, abilities,
skills, education

Training

L
(Reprinted with permission from TOC Inc., 1993.)

FIGURE 7.8 The job is matched to the worker through Job Analysis and Job Placement Assessment.
A, Job Analysis;
B, Job Placement Assessment; C, Job is modified to match the worker.

B
A
 Chapter 7 Job Analysis

FIGURE 7.8, cont'd Reasonable accommodation entails making facili-

ties and jobs accessible to, and performable by disa-
bled employees. Job restructuring, scheduling, work
place modifications, and other adjustments are re-
quired to accommodate the disabled individual.
Employers and employees are advised to familiarize
themselves with the appropriate legislation.

Training and Injury Prevention Programs

In order to ensure that workers receive adequate train-
ing for a job, it is essential to know the demands of the
various tasks involved. Once the requirements of a job
are quantified, training programs can be designed and
implemented to inculcate the required abilities.
Injury prevention programs that do not consider
the specific demands of a given job may not assist in
reducing the injury rate. Back schools that do not focus
on the specific lifting parameters of the target audience
may not show statistically significant results, in reduc-
ing the incidence of back injuries.
It is apparent that in order to develop effective
injury prevention programs within a given setting
one must have a clear understanding of the demands
of the jobs on the workforce. This applies for all
injury prevention and wellness programs ranging from
back education programs and cumulative trauma
workshops to nutrition and smoking cessation pro-
grams.

Job Modification
Through the job analysis process, specific aspects of a Job and Tool Design and Redesign
job that exceed the individual's work capacity, or To effectively redesign jobs and tools a JA may be
present potential hazards can be identified. This base performed on the new job and equipment. New pro-
line of information permits the Industrial Therapist duction ines without thorough analysis may lead to
and other members of the team to reduce risks by
costly worker problems and additional equipment
modifying the hazardous aspects of the critical tasks. changes.
Through job modification the worker can gradually, As an example, one client of the authors' practice
yet progressively, return to work in their fullest capaci- had two employees on the production line who com-
ty. Clear guidelines should be developed to ensure that plained of upper extremity pain and fatigue. New
the worker returns to full capacity in a reasonable chairs and air guns were
amount of time.
supplied for these employees.
Two months later the same
employees had complaints
of wrist and back pain. When the situation was reana-
Reasonable Accommodation lyzed, it was determined that the entire production line
required redesign, and the initial fix represented un-
In order to accommodate individual, the specific
an
necessary expense.
mismatches between the job demands and the abilities
of the individual need to be identified. According to the

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in the United

tates, the Workers' Compensation Board (WCB), and BENEFITS OF A COMPREHENSIVE JOB
Human Rights Legislation in Canada, employers must DEMANDS ANALYSIS
Provide reasonable accommodation for disabled em-
poyees unless such accommodation causes the em Once the Job Analysis has been
oyer undue hardship" (ADA, 1992; wCB Act, performed the reports
are available to match the worker to the
1990).11s With
workplace.
a better match, the potential benefits can include
 Prevention
92 Part lI Injury

e n v i r o n m e n t , and improved coopera

work
range-of-motion goal ing the the union, and labor.:
FIGURE 7.9 The transition from a
between management,
to a job performance capability goal. A, can improve communication wi
outside Analysispractitioners.
Job medical Rehabilitation goals ean
Teaching lifting out of job context; B,
Teaching lifting in job context. of th
the demands
be targeted through recognizing
e n s u r e that the worker.
This will
job (Figure 7.9). safe and timely, eliminating th
return to work is ne
of absence.
consequences
of prolonged periods

THE PROCESS
involves a review of the job
The Job Analysis process
description, collection of all necessary equipment and
of the job, completion of the
documents, observation
Demands form, discussion with the
Analysis major
Job and written
stakeholders, specific tasks analysis, reports
Stakeholders include all the people
(Figure 7.10).
vested interest in the making process suc-
who have a

cessful.
Following is a step by step guide of how perform
to
a Job Demands Analysis and a Task Analysis.

Step 1: Review the Job Description. Review the job

description, whether it be written or verbal. This
provides an overall view of the job and how it fits into
the organization.
Written documents such as job descriptions, Work
ers' Compensation Board claims, health benefit utiliza-
tion records, and injury prevention procedures provide
an insight into injury types and rates within an organi-
zation.

Step 2: Collect The Necessary Equipment. Collect

all the necessary equipment and forms (Figure 7.11).
Box 7.1 lists the tools and equipment that you may fina
useful.

Step 3: The Job Demands

Analysis-Observe,
sure, and Document the Job. On-site observation 15
Mea
imperative when conducting a JA. The observer must
witness the performance of all tasks associated with a
given job, any variances that may occur from one work
station toanother, and any changes that may be due t
environmental conditions. Cycle periods of the task
will be determined by the time
an improvement in productivity and morale. Equally
required to observe
particular job. Often between one and eight hours i>
important is the potential for a general improvement in sufficient.
the well-being of the workers, through a reduction of Some jobs will however have components that ar
work
related physical and psychosocial
overall improvement in the workers' health and thus a
discomfort performed infrequently, obliging the observer to retur"
to the job
site a number of times. Observation
reduction in the incidence of include
disabilities.58.14.17
occupational related the objective measurement of forces generated, as
tances traveled or reached,
frequencies of occurrence
Hallmarks of a satisfied and motivated workforce
assumed and durations of various activities.
may include a reduction in absenteeism rates and labor postures
These measurements are clearly outlined in Appen
turnover, a reduction of personnel
complaints regard- dix I.
 Chapter 7 Job Analysis 93

BOX 7.1

Tools and Equipment

Special clothing: To comply with organizational requirements for clothing and footwear.
Paperwork: To record all the data. Clip board, pen/pencil, and appropriate docunents (Job Demands
Analysis form, graph paper, and writing paper)
Tape measure: To determine reach distances, heights, and widths.
Force gauge To measure weights as well as push/pull forces.
Torque wrench: To determine pull or turning forces on rotating parts such as steering wheels, bolts,
and screWS.
Pedometer To measure longer distances which are normally associated with pushing, walking., and
carying tasks.
Level: To measure slopes particularly of walking and working surfaces.
Goniometer To measure joint angles of workers and working angles of equipment.
Stopwatch: To measure precise intervals of time for calculation of task duration and of
cycle frequency.
Grip dynamometer To measure the force required to close a hand around an object and squeeze firmly-
gripping tools, squeezing wire cutters, etc.
Event counter To accurately count the number of repetitions of a specific event or cycle within a
specified time period.
Camera or video To visually record and document critical information that can be reviewed again at a
camera:
later date. Check the organization's confidentiality agreements and camera restrictions

FIGURE 7.10 The process model. FIGURE 7.11 Equipment for a Job Analysis.

Review the job description

Collect necessary equipment

Job demands analysis

Observe Measure Document

Interview stakeholders

The Job Demands Analysis Form includes a brief

Task analysis written job description and comments related to all
aspects of the job. The essential tasks of the job should
be highlighted to indicate where specific task analyses
might be required. An essential task is a fundamental
Report physical demand that the worker must be able to
perform unassisted. Questions which can assist the
Therapist to identify essential tasks may include the
(Heprinted with permission trom TOC Inc., 1993) following
 94 Part l Injury Prevention

exist in order to perform the Step 5: Perform Task Analysis. If it is

Does the position eemed
appropriate to proceed beyond the global pich
provided, perform a task analysis. Independentlycture
task?
Does the task make use of m o r e
performing work as
sess the tasks, using the guidelines provided in Appen.
than 50% of the worker's total daily
dix I for each task. If there are that
hours? areas
requirs
Does the task require the worker to have specific assessment beyond the expertise of an Industrial Ther.
expertise?10 apist, recommend the appropriate consultant. If a iok
contains ergonomic hazards which may
require
While assessing the job, keep in mind that the equip.
it is the
ment redesign, recommend an ergonomist.
picture being drawn is very general
a yet one,
precursor to focusing on specific tasks and potential
Step Report and Recommendations. Once the job
6:
hazards of the job. has been observed, measured, analyzed, and
docu-
mented, the information is gathered into a report. The
Step 4: Interview Stakeholders. Subjective informa- format of the report should be negotiated with
tion regarding the job to be analyzed can be obtained your
client prior to beginning the JA process. It is
by conducting interviews with the major stakeholders important
that the client's receive information in a clear format.
(those who see that their self-interest is involved in the
Reporting formats may differ depending on the reason
situation). These stakeholders are individuals who may
for the JA. Recommendations for ergonomic evalua-
have valuable contributions to make and could be
tion, work station redesign, training, accommodation,
representatives from; upper management, middle
and job modifications may also be included in this
management, line management, the work force, occu-
pational health and safety, and the union. report.
A three-tiered approach to the report is
Interviews are conducted only on completion of recom
mended. First include your actual Job Analysis forms.
the Job Demands Analysis in order to maintain objec-
The completed Task Analysis forms, along with the Job
tivity and to reduce the chances of being biased by the
Demands Analysis form, should be filed together,
general attitude of the organization. The observer must
making all the information regarding a given job
bear in mind that each location will have its own
accessible to all stakeholders. Second, if required write
and political hierarchy that must be consid-
managerial
ered.
a narrative
description of the findings with a summary
statement. Third, if you have been invited to make
The Job Demands Analysis Form should be re-
recommendations as a result of your JA, the following
viewed with the major stakeholders to ensure that they
section is offered as a guideline.
are in agreement with the
findings, and that all compo- Review the report and recommendations with the
nents of the job have been observed in the correct
major stakeholders to ensure all team members under-
context (Figure 7.12).
stand the findings. This review could take the form of a
meeting where the Therapist presents the findings and
recommendations. As a result of this meeting, a set of
actions may be developed if follow-up is required.
FIGURE 7.12 Subjective information from stakeholders Signatures of the major stakeholders also ensures
complements the objective Job Analysis that the report has been reviewed and accepted (Figure
data.
7.13).

MAKING THE RECOMMENDATIONS

The Job Analysis process may result in a recommenda-
tion to modify the job to match the worker's capabili
ties, or to provide a transitional job that the worker can
perform safely while completing rehabilitation to the
original job. The following explains the kinds of rec
ommendations that might be made in these two major
categories.

Job Modifications
Recommendations for accommodations or job modifi
cations can be classified into five general types:
 Chapter 7 Job Analysis

Modifications in the workplace can fit the

FIGURE 7.13 Signatures of major stakeholders ensures FIGURE 7.14
that the report has been road and job to the person.
accepted.

o 0 TLE MACNE SPt CIAL IGI

KEYK
Job Analysis
Phystoal Esenthit
DemandFunetion

wORKER
Reasonablo
AcconmmodationA
TasikMMaster
m en e

pete
eety po.

3. Work Site Modifications. Site accommodations

will not only accommodate the worker's need, but can
1. Physical Accomnodations. This list is endless and be beneficial to the entire business:
work setting. It
would be different for each particular Ramps and easily opened doors are necessay
the actual work station, but may
encompasses not only for wheelchairs but also benefit older worker,
to the individual
also include products that are unique
delivery, and sales people
(Figure 7.14). Elevators labeled for people with and withou:
wheelchair
to accommodate a
Height of a desk vision
to accommodate a sit/ Restrooms with grab bars, large enough for
Adjustable desk height
stand requirement wheelchairs
Ergonomically designed
chairs allowing for ad-
Flooring-highly polished floors are hazardous
justable back support to people on crutches, and too rich a carpet pile
workers must reach to is difficult for wheelchairs
Changing the distance
or tools
access equipment
motorized scooter for those em- 4. Job Restructuring. Job restructuring may lead to a
Providing a distances
ployees who cannot walk long redesign of a production line or the entire operation ot
tasks
Arm or wrist support for repetitive a unit.
Rearranging office furniture
Unnecessary task procedures can be identified
Materials handled can be bundled in smaller
manageable box sizes Reassigning tasks to make the greatest use of
weights or more
individual's skills results in accommodation as
Attention to the im- well as increased efficiency
2. Environmental Aduptations.
pact the work environment may
have on an employee:
5. Work Activities Modification. Work activity mod-
too warm or too ifications are changes to the general work require-
Temperatures that are either
or with the
cold can be adjusted mechanically ments,
use of room dividers
head sets or Altering arrival and departure times to assist
Loud noises can be diminished with
enclosures
with transportation needs
acoustical r o o m area
 Prevention
C3 Part II Injury

the injured worker's major functional limita

rest and lunch breaks into more fre tion, then modify the job by altering or elimi.
Dividing
ent,
shorter rest periods nating strength demands.
4. 1f the worker is being assigned a transitional

TO-WONK TRANSITION job, the Therapist typically offers modified

work in the form of a progression by hours and
cases, a worker can be returned to the job
cne
by tasks. For example:
without the
at the end of rehabilitation
econment Week # 1 2-4 hours most
In others,
12ccd for any interim lower demand work.
tcre is need to provide meaningful productive activity appropriate
wile the worker is acquiring the strength and capabili- tasks
ultimate Week # 2 4-6 hours
to assume the ultimate job assignment. This
ty Week # 3 6-8 hours
onay be the exact job they had prior to injury, or a Tuesday, Thursday
cd
version of it.
Week # 4 6-8 hours progress tasks

al Modiicd Job 5. Identifyhow the tasks of the job which the

ill be
to this job, the worker may be given a
iding up employee is unable to do currently,
sitiortal modified job, defined as any job, task, or addressed (provide an assistant).
Job Demands Analysis to de-
o n that a worker who temporarily suffers from a 6. Prepare a new

scribe the work assignment.

ninished capacity may perform safely without risk of
the modified
CL. ury, exacerbation of disability, or
risk to others. 7. If it is a transitional job, discuss
work must be productive and have value to the
work and the progressed or stepped hours
with the worker.
cr and the organization.
Tre goal of transitional modisied work is to maxi- 8. Advise the worker that a copy of the Task
if
e he work contribution and rehabilitative progres- Analysis will. be sent to their physician and,
is on Workers' Compensation or Long Term
Dis-
sion of the employee. A transitional modified job
term modified job is ability (LTD), a copy to the benefit carrier.
detc nined in the same way long
a

Job Demands 9. Prepare a cover letter to the physician explain-

cooined. The first steps are typically a

inclyois and a Functional Capacity Assessment

of the ing the organization's work program and the
commitment to rehabilitation. If the program
C.Ker. involves transitional work, clearly outline the
progressed/stepped approach and the de-
TTCnotion Process
whether
mands of the transitional "modified" work
ensition to the job assignmr ent is the same that has been offered.
e worker is going to a permanent or temporary
10. Copy the demands analysis and cover letter
transitional job. and send to the insurance carrier involved.
In rehabilitation, a Job Analysis system that can
11. Keep all pertinent information in a disability
compare the physical demands of the job with the management file for each person.
pysical capacities of the worker is preferred over one
that does not lend itself to both tasks.13 Therefore, in
comnunications with the physician, occupational SUMMARY
heelth nurse, or benefits representative the same form
can te used to report the Functional Capacity and the
The Job Analysis approach eliminates much of the
guesswork involved in dealing with an injured or
job Demands Analysis. The form may require slight
employee. Guesswork is costly; it costs the employee
modifcations. at

The return-to-work transition process includes: days or weeks of idle time when they could be back
work, it creates pain and delay of recovery if they at
1. Prepare the job and task demands analysis. sent back to certain tasks too soon, and it results in
in
2. Determine the worker's functional capacity. time to the employer, decreased efficiency, and
3. Deterrnine the tasks which may be within the creased disability insurance costs.1
worker's capabilities. Compare the job de- the' information provided in the Jod
y using
nands analysis with the worker's functional Analysis any employee, physician, Industrial Thera
capabilities to determine if their major limita pist, counselor, placement officer, or employer who
for
tions are related to strength, mobility, work called upon to make decision regarding "fitness
a
environment, or work conditions. Then identi- work' will know specifically
what that work involve
fy a task that does not require demands in A decision based on concrete facts will be a mue
areas of limitations, For example, if strength is better decision than one based on guesswork.
 Chapter 7 Job Analysis 97

11. Leamon TB: Ergonomics: a technical approach to human

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