14th March, 2023 RELIGION & SOCIETY
An assignment given by Mrs. Nishat Afroze Ahmed,
Assistant Professor, Dept. of International Relations,
University of Chittagong, for the course IR-107 named
Introduction to Sociology.
MISBAH UDDIN
DEPT. OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG
RELIGION AND SOCIETY
Religion has been important throughout history, shaping what people believe and how they
behave. Even though fewer people are religious now, it still affects many people's lives, giving them
comfort, meaning, and a sense of community. Religion can be different for everyone, from going to
church to practicing alone. In this assignment, I will talk about how religion affects society and
people's lives, as my course instructor Nishat Afroze Ahmed asked for. Let’s start with definition-
❖ Definition
▪ Émile Durkheim, a pioneer in the field of sociology, defined religion as "a unified system
of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and
forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a
Church, all those who adhere to them" -Durkheim, 1912/2001, p. 47
▪ Religion is a matter of faith, belief based on personal conviction rather than on scientific
evidence. -Source: Sociology, 16th edition, by John J. Macionis.
▪ Religion is a social institution involving beliefs, practices, and values that relate to what
people consider to be sacred or spiritually significant. It involves a shared set of symbols,
rituals, and stories that provide a framework for understanding the world and one's
place in it, and that shape the behavior and identities of individuals and groups.
-Source: Sociology, 16th edition, by John J. Macionis.
❖ Religion: Concepts and Theories
The French sociologist Emile Durkheim stated that religion involves “things that surpass the limits
of our knowledge” (1965:62, orig. 1915). We define most objects, events, or experiences as profane
(included as an ordinary element of everyday life) . But we also consider some things sacred (set a part
extraordinary, inspiring awe and reverence).
For Example, although people regard most books as profane, Muslims believe that the holy Quran
is sacred.
Religion, then, is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the
sacred.
➢ Structural-Functional Theory: Functions of Religion
According to Durkheim, society has a life and power of its own beyond the life of any individual.
Religion is an important element of society and it has a significant role in functioning the society.
Durkheim identified three major functions of religion that contribute to the operation of society.
1. Establishing Social Cohesion
Religion unites people through shared symbolism, values and norms. Religious thought and
ritual establish rules of fair play, Organizing our social life.
In "Religion and Social Cohesion," Grim and Finke argue that religion can promote social cohesion
by providing a shared set of beliefs, values, and practices that unite individuals within a
community. They suggest that religious participation is positively associated with various
indicators of social cohesion, such as trust in others, participation in civic life, and charitable
giving. The authors explore some of the ways in which religion can promote social cohesion, such
as through the creation of social networks, the provision of social services, and the promotion of
moral values. While religion can sometimes lead to social conflict, they suggest that it can also
serve as a powerful force for social integration and solidarity.
-Source: "Religion and Social Cohesion" by Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke.
2. Promoting Social Control.
Every society uses religious ideas to promote conformity. By defining God as a “judge,” many
religions encourage people to obey cultural norms.
In “Religion and Social Control” by Ted G. Jelen, he argues that religion has historically been used
as a tool of social control, particularly by political elites seeking to maintain their power and
influence over the masses. Jelen examines how religion has been used to control various aspects
of social life, such as morality, sexuality, and political dissent. He also discusses the potential
negative consequences of using religion in this way, such as the suppression of individual
freedoms and the promotion of conformity over diversity. Despite these concerns, Jelen
acknowledges that religion can also play a positive role in promoting social cohesion and providing
a sense of meaning and purpose for individuals. -Source: "Religion and Social Control" by Ted G. Jelen
3. Providing Meaning and Purpose
Religion can provide individuals with a sense of meaning and purpose in life, by offering answers
to fundamental questions about the nature of existence, the meaning of suffering, and the purpose
of human life. Religion can also provide comfort and solace in the face of death, by offering the
hope of an afterlife or the belief in reincarnation. It also give guidance and support to individuals
during times of crisis, such as illness, bereavement, or emotional distress. Religious communities
can offer practical and emotional support to their members, helping to promote resilience and
well-being.
➢ Symbolic-Interaction Theory: Constructing the Sacred
Symbolic-Interaction Theory is a sociological perspective that emphasizes the importance of
symbols and interactions in shaping our understanding of the world. When it comes to religion,
symbolic-interaction theorists argue that religious beliefs and practices are socially constructed
and influenced by cultural context and individual experiences. And whenever human beings face
uncertainty or life-threatening situations— such as illness, natural disaster, terrorist attack, or
war—we turn to our sacred symbols.
Sometimes, in society religious symbol transforms a profane to a sacred.
For example, Marriage is a good example. If two people look on marriage as merely a contract, they
can agree to split up whenever they want. Their bond makes far stronger claims on them when it
is defined as holy matrimony, which is surely one reason that the divorce rate is lower among
people with strong religious beliefs.
➢ Social-Conflict Theory: Inequality and Religion
Social-conflict theory posits that society is made up of different groups with competing interests,
and that inequality is a fundamental feature of society. In this context, Religion is seen as a
tool used by those in power to maintain their dominance over the less powerful.
When there is inequality in society, powerful people dominate the less powerful people and they
lead a very bad life, they just accept it and pray. That’s why Karl Marx said “the sigh of the
oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the
opium of the people.”
➢ Feminist Theory: Gender and Religion
Feminist theory highlights the fact that major religions have traditionally been patriarchal,
supporting the domination of women by men. A number of major religious organizations bar
women from serving as religious leaders.
And in the book, suggested by my course instructor, there is a quote from Quran and I think I am not agreed with this
example they provided. This is not today’s topic, so it’s better to discuss another time.
❖ Religion and Social Change
Relations between religion and social change means, society is always changing and is there any
impact of Religion in this change. Religion can be the conservative force portrayed by Karl Marx.
But at some points in history, as Max Weber explained, religion has promoted dramatic social
change.
➢ Max Weber: Protestantism and Capitalism
Max Weber, a prominent sociologist and economist, proposed a theory that links the rise of
capitalism to Protestantism, particularly Calvinism.
According to Weber, Calvinism emphasized the idea of predestination, which holds that individuals
are predestined to either salvation or damnation. This led to a focus on individual responsibility
and a desire to prove one's worthiness to be among the elect. The Protestant work ethic emerged
as a way to demonstrate one's faith and to avoid idleness, which was seen as a sign of sloth and
potential damnation.
The Protestant work ethic, in turn, created a culture that valued hard work, frugality, and
investment in business ventures. These values, combined with the emergence of new technologies
and the expansion of trade networks, led to the growth of capitalism in Europe and eventually in
other parts of the world.
-Source: "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" by Max Weber.
➢ Liberation Theology
Christianity has reached out to oppressed people, urging all to a stronger faith in a better life to
come. In recent decades, however, some church leaders and theologians have taken a decidedly
political approach and endorsed liberation theology, the combining of Christian principles with
political activism, often Marxist in character.
This social movement started in the 1960s in Latin America’s Roman Catholic Church. Today,
Christian activists continue to help people in poor nations liberate themselves from abysmal
poverty. Their message is simple: Social oppression runs counter to Christian morality, so as a
matter of faith and justice, Christians must promote greater social equality.
-Source: Sociology, 16th edition, by John J. Macionis.
❖ Types of Religious Organizations
Sociologists categorize the hundreds of different religious organizations found worldwide. We begin
with the church-sect typology—a way of identifying differences among religious groups. This
typology was given its fullest early conceptualization by the theologian Ernst Troeltsch, but it was
introduced into sociology by his teacher, Max Weber and has been used and expanded by
numerous sociologists since their time.
➢ Church
Drawing on the ideas of his teacher Max Weber, Ernst Troeltsch (1931) defined a church as a type
of religious organization that is well integrated into the larger society. They typically have
formalized structures and hierarchies, and their beliefs and practices are often moderate and
flexible. Churches tend to be conservative and focused on maintaining tradition and stability.
Examples of churches include the Catholic Church and the Anglican Church.
▪ We can summarize several characteristics as follows: The church
1. claims universality and includes all members of the society within its ranks, and
has a strong tendency to equate “citizenship” with “membership”;
2. exercises religious monopoly and tries to eliminate religious competition;
3. is very closely allied with the state and secular powers—frequently there is
overlapping of responsibilities and much mutual reinforcement;
4. is extensively organized as a hierarchical bureaucratic institution with a complex
division of labor;
5. employs professional, full-time clergy who possess the appropriate credentials of
education and formal ordination;
6. almost by definition, gains new members through natural reproduction and the
socialization of children into the ranks.
-Source: “Religion in Society A Sociology of Religion” by Ronald L. Johnstone
A church may operate with or apart from the state. As its name implies, a state church is a church
formally allied with the state. State churches have existed throughout human history. For
centuries, Roman Catholicism was the official religion of the Roman Empire, and Confucianism
was the official religion of China until early in the twentieth century.
A denomination, by contrast, is a church, independent of the state, that recognizes religious
pluralism. Denominations exist in nations, including the United States, that formally separate
church and state.
➢ Sect
The second general religious form is the sect, a type of religious organization that stands apart
from the larger society. Sect members have rigid religious convictions and deny the beliefs of
others. They tend to have charismatic leaders and emphasize strict adherence to a set of beliefs
and practices. Sects are often seen as radical or extremist and may be viewed with suspicion by
the wider community. Examples of sects include the Amish and Jehovah's Witnesses.
▪ we can observe the following about sects:
1. A sect sees itself as a fellowship of the elect—that is, an embodiment of true
believers.
2. Sects encourage spontaneity of religious expression, involving extensive group
participation.
3. Sects de-emphasize organization and strive to maintain maximum democratic
participation of members within an explicitly nonbureaucratic structure.
4. A sect is usually small and deliberately so.
5. Sects utilize laypeople as leaders. Frequently part-time, such leaders most likely
have little or no formal theological training. Commitment to the principles avowed by
the group is seen as more important than “book learning.” The element of charisma
is a common feature of leaders.
6. A sect emphasizes purity of doctrine and usually demands a return to original
religious teaching. This involves a renunciation of the doctrinal perversions and
aberrations that it accuses the established denominational religious groups of having
allowed to intrude into true religion.
7. A sect emphasizes traditional ethical principles and strives to influence its
members along a broad spectrum of behavior.
8. Sects tend to concentrate on other-worldly issues (salvation, deliverance, heaven,
and hell) and discount or deprecate this world’s concerns. Even their emphasis on
ethics (point 7) is focused more on its relevance to ultimate otherworldly concerns
and less on the relationship of person to person.
9. A sect gains new members primarily through conversion. It is initially a fellowship
of adults, although eventually it must turn its attention to the religious socialization
of children.
10. sect draws disproportionately from the lower social classes in the society.
-Source: “Religion in Society A Sociology of Religion” by Ronald L. Johnstone
➢ Cult
A cult is a religious organization that is largely outside a society’s cultural traditions. Most sects
spin off from conventional religious organizations. However, a cult typically forms around a highly
charismatic leader who offers a compelling message about a new and very different way of life.
Cults seldom develop much of an organizational structure, often tend to remain small and
informal, and can be quite casual about membership requirements. They may not even require
followers to sever their other religious affiliations. Cults tend to be rather transitory and short-
lived. Being dependent on a charismatic leader, they tend to dissolve when the leader dies,
disappears, or is discredited. Occasionally, however, a cult persists, develops a structure and
means of leadership succession, grows in size, and actually moves toward denominational status.
❖ Religion in History and Around the world
Like other social institutions, religion shows marked variation according to time and place. Let us
look at several ways in which religion has changed over the course of history. Let’s talk about it –
➢ Religion in Preindustrial Societies
Early hunters and gatherers practiced animism, the belief that elements of the natural world are
conscious life forms that affect humanity. Animists view forests, oceans, mountains, and even the
wind as spiritual forces.
Belief in a single divine power responsible for creating the world began with pastoral and
horticultural societies, Animism is which first appeared 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. The
conception of God as a “shepherd” arose because Christianity, Judaism, and Islam all began
among pastoral peoples.
➢ Religion in Industrial Societies
The Industrial Revolution introduced a growing emphasis on science. More and more, people
looked to doctors and scientists for the knowledge and comfort they used to get from priests. But
as Durkheim predicted almost a century ago, religion persists in industrial societies because
science is powerless to address issues of ultimate meaning in human life. In other words, learning
how the world works is a matter for scientists, but why we and the rest of the universe exist at all
is a question of faith.
➢ World Religions
The diversity of religions in the world is almost as wide-ranging as the diversity of culture itself.
Many of the thousands of different religions are found in just one place and have few followers.
But there are a number of world religions, with millions of adherents. We shall briefly examine six
world religions, which together claim more than 5 billion believers—just about three-fourths of
humanity.
➢ Christianity
Christianity is the most widespread religion with 2.3 billion followers, almost one-third of the
world’s people. Most Christians live in Europe or the Americas; more than 75 percent of the people
in the United States and Canada identify with Christianity. As noted earlier, Christianity began as
a cult, drawing elements from Judaism, a much older religion. Like many cults, Christianity was
built on the personal charisma of a leader, Jesus of Nazareth, who preached a message of personal
salvation.
Christianity is one example of monotheism, belief in a single divine power. This new religion was
quite different from the Roman Empire’s traditional polytheism, belief in many gods. Yet
Christianity views the Supreme Being as a sacred Trinity: God the Creator; Jesus Christ, Son of
God and Redeemer; and the Holy Spirit, a Christian’s personal experience of God’s presence.
➢ Islam
Islam has about 1.6 billion followers, which is almost one-fourth of humanity. Followers of Islam
are called Muslims. A majority of people in the Middle East are Muslims, so we tend to associate
Islam with Arabs in that region of the world.
Muslims accept the Five Pillars of Islam. And those are-
1. Recognizing Allah as the one, true God, Muhammad as God’s messenger.
2. Ritual Prayer – Salat
3. Giving alms to the poor – Zakaat
4. Fasting during the month of Ramadan – Siyaam
5. Making a pilgrimage at least once in one’s life, who has ability, to the Sacred House of Allah
in Maccah – Hajj
➢ Judaism
In terms of numbers, Judaism’s 14 million followers worldwide make it something less than a
world religion. Jews make up a majority of the population in only one country—Israel. But Judaism
has special importance to the United States because the second largest concentration of Jews (5.1
million) is found in this country.
The Ten Commandments and the Old Testament of the Bible is the sacred text of Judaism.
➢ Hinduism
Hinduism is the oldest of all the world religions, originating in the Indus River valley about 4,500
years ago. Today, there are about 950 million Hindus, which is almost 14 percent of the world’s
people. Global Map 19–3 shows that Hinduism remains an Eastern religion, mostly practiced in
India and Nepal but with a significant presence in southern Africa and Southeast Asia.
Hinduism differs from most other religions in that it is not linked to the life of any single person.
In addition, Hinduism envisions God as a universal moral force rather than a specific entity.
They believe in the principles of dharma (moral responsibilities) and karma (the spiritual progress
of the human soul). They have a lot of sacred items, mentionable one is “ The Holy Gitaa”.
➢ Buddhism
Buddhism is a major world religion that originated in ancient India around 2,500 years ago. It is
based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is also known as the Buddha, which means
"the awakened one." Today, some 495 million people, or 7 percent of humanity, are Buddhists,
and almost all live in Asia.
Buddhism emphasizes the importance of mindfulness, meditation, and the cultivation of wisdom
and compassion in order to attain liberation from suffering and achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana.
➢ Confucianism
From about 200 B.C until the beginning of the twentieth century, Confucianism was a state
church—the official religion of China. After the 1949 revolution, the Communist government of
the new People’s Republic of China repressed all religious expression. But even today, although
only 1 to 2 million people claim to be Confucianists, hundreds of millions of Chinese are influenced
by this religion.
Confucianism emphasizes the importance of moral values, social order, and harmony in human
relationships. It stresses the concept of the "Five Relationships" - ruler and subject, father and
son, elder brother and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend - as the basis for
a well-ordered society.
➢ Religion: East and West
First, religions that arose in the West (Christianity, Islam, Judaism) have a clear focus on God as
a distinct entity. Eastern religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism), however, see divine
power in everything, so that these belief systems make little distinction between the sacred and
the profane and seem more like ethical codes for living.
Second, followers of Western religions form congregations, worshiping together in a special place
at a regular time. Followers of Eastern religions, by contrast, express their religion anywhere and
everywhere in their daily lives.
❖ Religious Diversity: Class, Ethnicity, and Race
Religious affiliation is tied to social class, ethnicity, and race –
➢ Social Class: On average, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and jews enjoy high standing;
lower social standing is typical of Baptists, Lutherans, and members of sects.
➢ Ethnicity: Religion is often linked to the ethnic background of immigrants who came
from countries with a major religion.
➢ Race: Brought here as slaves, most Africans became Christians, but they blended
Christian beliefs with elements of African religion.
❖ Secularization
Secularization is the historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and the sacred.
Secularization is commonly associated with modern, technologically advanced societies in which
science is the major way of understanding and religious participation is declined.
Chadwick defines secularization as "the process whereby religious thinking, practices, and
institutions lose social significance."
-Source: "The Secularization of the European Mind in the 19th Century" Owen Chadwick.
Another definition comes from the sociologist Peter Berger, who argues that secularization refers
to "the process by which sectors of society and culture are removed from the domination of
religious institutions and symbols."
❖ Civil Religion
The concept of civil religion was first introduced by the sociologist Robert Bellah in his 1967 essay
"Civil Religion in America." Bellah argued that civil religion played a vital role in American society,
he said, a quasi-religious loyalty linking individuals in a basically secular society. In other words,
formal religion may lose power, but citizenship takes on religious qualities.
Some examples of civil religious practices include the singing of the national anthem, the recitation
of the Pledge of Allegiance, and the celebration of national holidays such as Independence Day.
These practices help to reinforce a sense of shared identity and purpose among members of a
nation or society.
❖ Religious Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly
accommodation in favor of restoring traditional, other-worldly religion.
❖ Conclusion
Religion has been an integral part of human society for centuries. It has influenced people's beliefs,
values, and behavior, and has played a significant role in shaping cultures and traditions around
the world. In this assignment, I have tried to explain the complex relationship between religion
and society, types of religious organization, about some famous religion, the effects of religious
diversity on social cohesion and many things. In conclusion, religion has played a vital role in
shaping human societies throughout history.
▪ References
1. Sociology, 16th edition, by John J. Macionis.
2. Religion and Social Cohesion by Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke.
3. Religion and Social Control by Ted G. Jelen.
4. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism by Max Weber.
5. Religion in Society A Sociology of Religion” by Ronald L. Johnstone.
6. The Secularization of the European Mind in the 19th Century by Owen Chadwick.
Submitted by
MISBAH UDDIN
ID 22406024
Dept. of International Relations,
University of Chittagong.
