Agb 404

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: AGB 404
COURSE TITLE: BIO RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (3 UNITS)
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Course Writers/Developers: *Emem Bassey Inyang1 and Aniefiok-Uduak Inyang2
*1
Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Uyo, P.M.B. 1017, Uyo,
Akwa Ibom State.
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Ecology and Environmental Zoology Unit,
Centre for Educational Development and Career Initiative (CEDCI)
P. O. Box 2921, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State.
Programme Leader: Dr N.E Mundi

National Open University of Nigeria
14/15 Ahmadu Bello Way,
Victoria Island, Lagos
Course Coordinator: Mr Samuel awolumate

National Open University of Nigeria
14/15 Ahmadu Bello Way,
Victoria Island, Lagos
Table of Contents
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Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………4
What you will learn in this Course……………………..................................................................4
Course Aims………………………………………………............................................................4
Course Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………5
Working through this Course……………………………………………………………………...5
Course Materials…………………………………………...............................................................6
Study Units………………………………………………………………………………………...6
Recommended Texts……………………………………………………………………………….7
Assessment…….…………………………………………………………………………………...8
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)……………………………………………………………….8
Final Examination and Grading……………………………………………………………………8
Summary………….………………………………………………………………………………..8
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Introduction
Biodiversity or Biological diversity literally means different forms of living organisms in any
given space and time. It basically describes the various life forms expressed at all levels (the genetic,
species and ecosystem levels). Biodiversity is a measure of species richness, species diversity and
species uniqueness within specific locations.
The loss of biodiversity has been shown in the abundance of species of highly desired varieties
and the diminishing of other acclaimed low quality varieties. This record is higher in developed
countries where many habitats have been loss in exchange to industrial and agricultural activities.
This reduction in ecosystem exposes living things to adverse conditions and possible elimination.
Nigeria has rich and varied biological resources, which supports its social and economic
activities. These resources contribute immensely to the development of agriculture and industrial
activities as it promotes food production, raw materials for industries and others. With increase in
human population, demands for biological resources, industrialization and biotechnology in
agricultural activities, there is reduction in diversity. These have increasing global impacts. It is
important that the environment be conserved to sustain diversity of life for the benefit of man.
What you will learn in this course
This course guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course materials you will be using
and how you are to use them.
Course Aims
The aim of this course is to provide a good understanding of the levels biodiversity and their losses;
the biotechnological process of preserving the genetic materials, their management and
appropriation.
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Course Objectives
In addition to the aims above, this course sets to achieve some objectives. After going through this
course, you should be able to:
i. Explain the origin of biodiversity as well as name the levels of biodiversity
ii. State the characteristics and explain the elements of the ecosystem
iii. Explain the status of biodiversity and name local species in the Nigerian ecosystem
iv. Explain the types and discuss the uses of biodiversity
v. Define genetic erosion and identify their causes
vi. State indirect and direct causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria
vii. State the effects and methods of managing genetic erosion
viii. Define plant biotechnology and explain traits of interest in plants
ix. Discuss the benefits of plant biotechnology to farmers, producers and consumers
x. Explain the potential risks of plant biotechnology in forestry
xi. State the need as well as strategies for conserving forest trees
xii. Define germplasm, germplasm conservation and explain obstacles to the use of plant genetic
resources
xiii. Discuss germplasm appropriation as well as its status in Nigeria
xiv. State the purposes of the Nigerian Conservation Foundation
xv. Identify the constraints to bio-resource management in Nigeria
xvi. Explain bio-resource legislations in Nigeria
xvii. Discuss approaches to biodiversity management
Working through this Course
The ideas have been carefully put together to ensure that adequate explanations are made to
enhance better understanding of the course. You are therefore, encouraged to spend quality time to
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study this course and ensure that you attend tutorial sessions where you can ask questions, assess
your understanding of concepts and compare your knowledge with that of your classmates.
Course Materials
You will be provided with the following:
i. Course guide
ii. Five (5) modules of content of nineteen (18) units
iii. Recommended textbooks and lists of reference materials.
Study Units
There are eighteen (18) study units in this course. This is arranged as follows:
Module1: Biological Diversity
Unit 1: Historical Perspectives
Unit 2: The Ecosystem
Unit 3: The Nigerian Ecosystem
Unit 4: Types and Uses of Biodiversity
Module 2: Genetic Erosion
Unit 1: Genetic Erosion
Unit 2: Genetic Erosion in Nigeria
Unit 3: Effects and Management of Genetic Erosion
Module 3: Plant Biotechnology
Unit 1: Plant Biotechnology
Unit 3: Benefits of Plant Biotechnology
Unit 4: Applications of Biotechnology in forestry
Unit 5: Forest Biotechnology and Conservation
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Module 4: Germplasm Appropriation
Unit 1: What is Germplasm
Unit 2: Germplasm Conservations
Unit 3: Germplasm Appropriation
Module 5: Bio-resource Management and Legislation
Unit 1: Bio-resource Management
Unit 2: Biotechnological Legislation
Unit 3: Approaches to Biodiversity Management
Each unit includes a table of contents, introduction, specific objectives, recommended textbooks and
summaries of key issues and ideas. At intervals in each unit, you will be provided with a number of
exercises or self-assessment exercises. These are to help you test yourself on the material you have
just covered or to apply it in some way. The value of these self-tests is to help you gauge your
progress and to reinforce your understanding of the material. At least one tutor-marked assignment
will be provided at the end of each unit. The exercises and the tutor-marked assignments will help
you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the course.
Recommended Texts:
More recent publications are recommended for further reading.
• Buza, L; Young, A and Thrall, P.( 2000) : Genetic erosion, inbreeding, and reduced fitness in
fragmented populations of the endangered tetraploid pea Swainsona recta. Biological
Conservation 93:177–186.
• Ledig FT. 1991. Secret extinctions: the loss of genetic diversity in forest ecosystems. In:
Fenger MA, Miller EH, Johnson JF, Williams EJR, editors. Our living legacy: proceedings
of a symposium on biological diversity. Victoria (BC): Royal British Columbia Museum. Pp
127–140.
• Ledig FT. 1992. Human impacts on genetic diversity in forest ecosystems. Oikos 63:87–108.
• McGuire PE, Qualset CO, editors. 1990. Genetic resources at risk: scientific issues,
technologies, and funding policies. Davis (CA): University of California, Genetic Resources
Conservation Program. Report No. 5.
• Neira M.(2011): Biodiversity. http://www.panda.org
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• Oladipo, E.( et.al)( 2001): First National Biodiversity Report on Nigeria. Biodiversity Report
on Nigeria. Accessed on May 5, 2011. From http://www.pabiodiversity.org/economic.html
• Silvert W.(2011): The meaning of biodiversity. http://bill.sivert.org/pdf/Biodiversity.pdf
• Templeton AR, Shaw K, Routman E, Davis SK. 1990. The genetic consequences of habitat
fragmentation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 77:13–27.
Assessment
There are two components of assessment for this course.
These are :
i. Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMA’s)
ii. End of course examination
Tutor-Marked Assignment
The tutor-marked assignment (TMA) is the continuous assessment component of your course. It
accounts for 30% of the total score. The TMAs must be answered before you are allowed to sit for
the end of course examination. Thus, it is expected of you to apply information, knowledge and
techniques obtained from the course. The TMAs would be returned after you have done the
assignment.
Final Examination and Grading
The examination concludes the assessment for the course. To prepare for this examination, revise
all the areas covered in the course. Revision of all the exercises and the tutor-marked assignments
before the examination will also be of help to you. The revision should start after you have finished
studying the last unit. This examination constitutes 70% of the whole course. You will be informed
of the time for the examination. It may or not coincide with the university semester examination.
Summary
AGB 404 intends to introduce you to Bio-Resource Management. By the time you complete
studying this course, you will be able to answer the following questions:
1. Explain the origin of biodiversity.

2. Name the levels of biodiversity
3. State the characteristics of the ecosystem and explain its elements
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4. Explain the status of biodiversity and name local species in the Nigerian ecosystem
5. Explain the types and discuss the uses of biodiversity
6. Define genetic erosion and identify their causes
7. State indirect and direct causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria
8. State the effects and methods of managing genetic erosion
9. Define plant biotechnology and explain traits of interest in plants
10. Discuss the benefits of plant biotechnology to farmers, producers and consumers
11. Explain the potential risks of plant biotechnology in forestry
12. State the need for forest conservation
13. Name strategies for conserving forest trees
14. Define germplasm and germplasm conservation
15. Explain obstacles to the use of plant genetic resources
16. Discuss germplasm appropriation as well as its status in Nigeria
17. State the purposes of the Nigerian Conservation Foundation
18. Identify the constraints to bio-resource management in Nigeria
19. Explain bio-resource legislations in Nigeria
20. Discuss approaches to biodiversity management.
The questions are inexhaustible. There are many more you can answer. We wish you luck and
success with the course and hope you will find it both helpful and interesting.
Best wishes!
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Module1: BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Unit 2: The Ecosystem
Unit 3: The Nigerian Ecosystem
Unit 4: Types and Uses of Biodiversity
Unit 1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Historical Perspectives
3.2 Definitions 0f Biodiversity
3.3 Levels of Biodiversity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/ Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we will consider biodiversity; its origin, various definitions proffered as well as its levels. It
is interesting to note that most times, biodiversity is relatively considered to be a new concept but its
first prominence was in the 1980s. It is an abstract and extraordinarily complex concept that is often
used in the current public policy to explain issues regarding the biotic components in our environment.
Several specialists in different fora have proffered various definitions, which present biodiversity not
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simply about animal populations or conservation, but as an umbrella-style political approach to the
interactions between human populations and the environment. More often than not, it is simply used as a
proxy description of habitat or wilderness; when the phrase ‘biodiversity loss’ is used, it is more often
than not a description of habitat loss or deforestation.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
- Explain the origin of biodiversity
- define biodiversity
- name the levels of biodiversity
3.0 Main Body
The term ‘biological diversity’ was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F.
Dasmann in the 1968 lay book “A Different Kind Of Country” advocating conservation. This term was
widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and
environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book “Conservation Biology”, introduced the
term to the scientific community. Until then the term “natural diversity” was quite common, introduced by
The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, The Preservation of Natural
Diversity”.
By the early 1980s, Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in
America advocated the use of “biological diversity”. The term’s contracted form ‘biodiversity’ may have
been coined by W. G. Rosen in 1985 while planning the 1986 National Forum on Biological Diversity
organized by the National Research Council (NRC). Biological diversity first appeared in a publication in
1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as the title of the proceedings of that forum.
From the period earlier referred to, the term “biological diversity” has achieved widespread use among
biologists, environmentalists, political leaders and concerned citizens. A similar term in the United States is
‘natural heritage’. It predates the others and was more accepted by the wider audience interested in
conservation. Natural heritage is broader than biodiversity because it includes geology and landforms
(geodiversity).
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3.2 Definitions of Biodiversity
‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ can have many interpretations. These interpretations vary from
one biologist, conservationist or ecologist to another, and a definition of biodiversity that is altogether simple,
comprehensive, and fully operational is unlikely to be found. Some scientific definitions used by resource
managers and ecologists and which can help to develop an understanding of the broad concept of
biodiversity, have been identified and were presented as:
The variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they
occur.
The full range of variety and variability within and among living organisms and the ecological
complexes in which they occur, and which encompasses ecosystem or community diversity,
species diversity and genetic diversity.
The variety of life and its processes including the variety of living organisms, the genetic
differences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur.
The totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a region.
These various definitions, amongst others, seem to describe in different manners in most circumstances and
present a unified view of the traditional levels at which biological variety has been identified.
3.3 Levels of biodiversity
Biodiversity can be seen at different basic levels which could be regarded either as a building block or as a
unified component. These levels include:
Genetic diversity: this is the combination of different genes found within a population of a
single species and the pattern of variation found within different populations of the same
species.
Species diversity: this is the variety and abundance of different types of organisms which
inhabit an area.
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Ecosystem diversity: it encompasses the variety of habitats that occur within a region, or the
mosaic of patches found within a landscape.
4.0 Conclusion
Everything in an ecosystem is part of the web of life. When we try to pick anything out by itself, we find that
it is hitched to others. The various species, carrying different genetic components interact and depend upon
one another for what each offers. This differences are identified in their characteristics, needs and
locations.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you have learnt that;
.the term biodiversity as a concept seems new but has its historical background.
.the definition of biodiversity has different perspectives depending on the school of thought from which this
being viewed.
. biodiversity is defined in a way as the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological
complexes in which they occur.
. levels of biodiversity include genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.
1. Explain the origin of biodiversity.
2. Define biodiversity
3. Name the levels of biodiversity.
7.0 References
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.Leveque, C. & J. Mounolou (2003) Biodiversity. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0-470-84957-6
.Margulis, L., Dolan, Delisle, K., Lyons, C. Diversity of Life: The Illustrated Guide to the Five Kingdoms.
Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0862-3
Unit 2 The Ecosystem
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Ecosystem
3.2 Characteristics of Ecosystem
3.3 Elements of the Ecosystem
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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1.0 Introduction
This unit will focus on the Ecosystem. You will appreciate its features and elements which are quite
unique. Ecosystem is the contracted form of the ecological system. The relationships or interactions existing
amongst the different biotic components as well as with abiotic components form an ecological system.
Within the system, the biotic community cannot function independently as much as abiotic components,
directly or indirectly, are influenced by the activities of the biotic components
2.0 Objectives
- define the ecosystem
- state the characteristics of the ecosystem
- explain the elements of the ecosystem
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Ecosystems
The ecosystem may be defined as either an artificially created or natural unit, consisting of biotic and
abiotic factors. In real situations, natural units are normally considered for various observations and studies.
These natural units can be large or small, depending on prevailing conditions, natural occurrences and
availability of factors (living and non-living) . These bears significant influence on natural units and
constitutes marked differences observed therein.
As such, ecosystems differ in structure and status. These differences bear direct influence on the variety
of biotic components it can support without collapsing. As the biotic community depends, on the abiotic
resources found therein, the sustainability of the ecosystem depends on their population and level of
interactions existing within.
3.2 Characteristics of Ecosystem
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There is much more to biodiversity than the numbers of species and kinds of ecosystems. Ecosystem
exhibits three primary attributes: composition, structure, and function. Within each location, these attributes
interact one with another.
Ecosystem components: These refer to the inhabiting species in all their variety and richness.
The various flora and fauna occupy habitants with distinctive features; and to which they are
best –fit. They provide genes for various and diverse interactions.
Ecosystem structure: It refers to the physical patterns of life forms which are different,
relative to ecological conditions of an area. This could be described in terms of coastal, forest
or arid areas as shown by the type of vegetation and corresponding animal lives, beginning
from the most delicate to the most complex in that habitat.
Ecosystem functions : Ecosystem functions are hard to see in action but the results can be
felt. These among others, include:
i. The biogeochemical cycles: These are essential for recycling of useful environmental
materials.
ii. The natural disturbances: These entail wildfires which release nutrients to the soil, weed- out
of weak trees and reset of the succession clock. Other natural disturbances are energy of
falling water, which creates spawning beds for salmon even while it carves a mountain’s
bones; and the release of oxygen into the atmosphere.
These ecological processes create landscapes and diverse environmental conditions out of life itself. These
features are all interdependent and thus support biological diversity.
3.3 Elements of the Ecosystem
The functioning ecosystem has different elements which constitute its uniqueness. The uniqueness of
functioning ecosystem lies in the degree of diversity found in it. Biodiversity is so complex but has, as the
most basic element , its genetic variation.
Genetic variation: Genetic variation occurs within individual populations and between
populations of species. The variations observed reflects differences in their:
-physical characteristics
-viability
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-productivity
-resilience to stress, and
-adaptability to change.
Distinct species: This term can be described in terms of their abundance or decline which
most often attracts concern. Species, such as American elk, rainbow trout and ponderosa
pine are in abundance. Others like woodpecker, Siler’s pincushion cactus, the Nigerian
hippotamus, manatee, crocodile, and others, have populations that are much reduced or
which may even face extinction. The reduction in specific species necessitates their
conservation. This perpetuates native species in numbers and distributions that provide a
high likelihood of continued existence.
Associations of species: Associations of species are often called biological communities. They
are usually recognized as distinct stands, patches or sites such as old-growth forests, riparian
areas or wetlands. These communities form the biotic parts of ecosystems.
The variety of species in an ecosystem is a function of its structural and functional characteristics, the
diversity of its ecological processes and the physical environment. This variety are actively expressed as the
elements or make-up of an ecosystem.
4.0 Conclusion
The ecosystem bears a direct influence on biodiversity. Its functions, size and structure determine the
richness and variety of inhabiting species. An alteration in the structure, size and function, affects, most times
grievously, the biotic diversity within a locati5.0 Summary
.characteristics of biodiversity biodiversity are ecosystem components, ecosystem structure and ecosystem
functions.
.elements of ecosystem are genetic variation, distinct species and association of species, and
1. Define the ecosystem
2. State the characteristics of the ecosystem.
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3. Explain the elements of the ecosystem
7.0 References
. Keystone Center, “Final Consensus Report of the Keystone Policy Dialogue on Biological Diversity on
Federal Lands,”1991
.World Growth(2009) Forestry and Biodiversity : A Healthy Report. Pp1-37
.World Resources Institute , World Conservation Union, and United Nations Environment Programme,
Global Biodiversity Strategy,”1992
Unit 3 The Nigerian Ecosystem
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Nigerian Ecosystem
3.2 Local Species in Nigeria
3.2.1 Local Species of Cereals
3.2.2 Local Species of Legumes
3.2.3 Local Species of Fruit Trees
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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1.0 Introduction
Ecosystems differ one from another. These differences can be assessed, based on the type and
quantity of available vegetation. The vegetation is determined by the edaphic factors and the
region’s climatic condition. The vegetation cover bears direct influence on the type and population of
animals accommodated within the specific ecological location. Thus, the species richness in a
location is a functional tool to ascertain the status of an ecosystem. Therefore, you will be expected
in this unit to come to terms with the status of biodiversity in Nigeria. You will be taken through
some indigenous plant species in Nigeria
2.0 Objectives
- explain the status of biodiversity in the Nigerian ecosystem
- name local species of plants within the Nigerian ecosystem
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Nigerian Ecosystem
The Nigerian ecosystem is rich in biodiversity as it is endowed with a variety of plant and animal
species. These species occur in different numbers within the country’s vegetation that range from the
mangrove, along the coast in the south to the Sahel in the north. Most of the biodiversities sustain the
rural economy and with massive dependence, the rate of depletion increases uncontrollably.
Of the 150 food-plants commonly consumed by man, 115 are indigenous African species and the
world’s major regions of crop diversity include among others the delta of Niger River as well as the
humid forest zone of West and Central Africa. Endemism, which is the proportion of species not found
anywhere else in the world, is high in Africa. In the Tropical Africa, at the general level, it has been
estimated to be 45%. Report show that countries of West and Central Africa sub-regions have identified
a large number of under- utilized species that are important to the livelihoods of local population.
On the list are:
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- 7 cereals
- 8 legumes
- 4 roots and tubers
- 8 oil crops
- 31 fruits and nuts
- 17 vegetables and spices
- 4 beverages
- 38 medicinal plants and
- 44 genera of forages.
These groups of plants also constitute the food groups used by the Nigerian populace. Reports show
that an expanded list of twenty-four indigenous leaf vegetables are eaten in southwest Nigeria only.
In addition to serving as vegetables and fruits, some plants are also sources of traditional medicine in
southwest Nigeria, as shown in the usage of twenty-four indigenous leaf vegetables.
Within the Nigerian ecosystem, there are several species of local bio-products, with regional
differences.
3.2 Local Species in Nigeria
The Nigerian ecosystem is rich in indigenous biotic components. An index of 7,895 plant species
identified in 338 families, 2,215 genera and 22,000 animal species, confirms that the country is endowed
with a variety of plant and animal species. These animal and plant species occur in different numbers within
the country’s vegetation, sustaining the rural economy. There are also exotic species, which have adjusted to
the climatic conditions; they make up part of the biotic community.
3.2.1 Local Species of Cereals
s/no Local Cereals English Name Local Name Parts Used

1 Zea mays Maize Akpakpa Seeds
2 Sorghum vulgare Guinea Corn --------- Seeds
3 Oryza sativa Rice Edesi Seeds
3.2.2 Local Species of Legumes
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s/no Local Legumes English Name Local Name Parts Used
1 Vigna sinensis Cowpea Nsama Seeds
2 Phaseolus vulgaris Kidney beans Okofi Seeds
3 Mueona urens Velvet beans Ibaba Seeds
4 Conophorun tetracarpidum ---------- Ekporo Seeds
3.2.3 Local Species of Fruit Trees

S/no Fruit Trees English Name Local Name Edible Part
1 Chrysophyllum albidun Star Apple Udara Fruits
2 Dacryodes edulis African pear Eben Fruits
3 Persea Americana Avocado Eben mbakara Fruits
4 Treculia africana African Breadfruits Adian Seeds
5 Mangifera indica Mango Manko Fruits
6 Euginea oweriensis Apple Apple Fruits
7 Cola argentea ---------- Ndiya Fruits
8 Carica papaya Pawpaw Udia Edi Fruits
9 Irvingia gabonensis Bush mango Uyo Fruit/Seeds
10 Gareinia kola Bitter cola Efiat Seed
11 Maesobofrya dusenii ---------- Nyayatet Fruits
12 Synsepalum dulcificum ---------- Mkpautuk Fruits
These native species may not necessarily represent the flora community in the country, there are many
others which may not gain as much popularity depending on its location and usage, but constitute remarkable
components of the floral community.
4.0 Conclusion
Though Nigeria has a vast Biodiversity, it is not evenly distributed. Flora and fauna diversity depends on
climate, altitude, soils and the presence of other species. This measures higher in the tropics than in other
localized regions. When a wide diversity of species are maintained, the web of life that sustains all biota is
preserved.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt that;

.bio-products common in Nigerian ecosystem are local cereals, local legumes and local fruit trees
. there are many others which may not gain as much popularity depending on its location and usage.
1. Explain the status of biodiversity in the Nigerian ecosystem.

2. List four of each of local legumes and fruit trees found in Nigerian ecosystem.
7.0 References/Further Reading
.Grumbine, E.(1993): “Ghost Bears: Exploring the Biodiversity Crisis,”
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.Jensen, D. B; Torn, M. and Harte J. (1990): “In Our Own Hands: A Strategy for Conserving
Biological Diversity in California,”
.Keystone Center(1991): “Final Consensus Report of the Keystone Policy Dialogue on Biological
Diversity on Federal Lands,”1991
. Oladipo, E.( et.al)( 2001): First National Biodiversity Report on Nigeria. Biodiversity Report on
Nigeria. Accessed on May 5, 2011. From http://www.pabiodiversity.org/economic.html
.U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment(1987): “Technologies to Maintain Biological
Diversity”
.World Growth(2009): Forestry and Biodiversity : A Healthy Report. Pp1-37
.World Resources Institute(1992): World Conservation Union, and United Nations Environment
Programme, Global Biodiversity Strategy”
Unit 4 Types and Uses of Biodiversity
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Types of Biodiversity
3.1.1 Functional Diversity
3.1.2 Taxonomic Diversity
3.1.3 Genetic Diversity
3.2 Uses of Biodiversity
3.2.1 Food and Shelter
3.2.2 Environmental Maintenance
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3.2.3 Agriculture
3.2.4 Forest Products
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Efforts have been made in the previous units to define the concept of biodiversity along with its historical
perspective and levels. So also, the elements and characteristics of ecosystem, genetic erosion vis-avis its
Causes and management were well elucidated. In this unit, you will learn about the types and uses of
biodiversity. This knowledge is meant to prepare you to appreciate the nature of biodiversity and how you
would be in the position to manage it in the Nigerian environment.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you would be expected to be able to:
- explain the types of biodiversity
- discuss the uses of biodiversity
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Types of Biodiversity
There are three main types of biodiversity. These are functional diversity, taxonomic diversity and genetic
diversity.
3.1.1 Functional Diversity
Functional diversity ensures that every task that needs doing within an ecosystem gets done. According to
Silvert(2011), functional diversity doesn’t help to have thousands of species of herbivores in a system if there
are no primary producers to feed them and no detrivores to clean up after them.
3.1.2 Taxonomic Diversity
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Taxonomic diversity is the most widely recognized from but may also be the least meaningful. It involves
identifying the number of diffusant taxa (usually at the specie level) and possibly weighting them by the
abundance of individuals. Calculators of taxanomic biodiversity tend to be limited by the taxonomic expertise
available, especially at lower trophic levels(Silvert;2011).
3.1.3 Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity has long been recognised in agriculture, where the danger of disease wiping out a single
strain of organism is prevalent. Genetic diversity protects ecosystems against other forms of environmental
change, not only against disease. Diversity within a species is the driver behind evolutionary adaptations. The
concept of genetic diversity also applies between populations, since species replacement in response to
environmental change usually indicates that the replacement species is genetically better suited to the
changed conditions.
Genetic diversity becomes especially important in the context of climate change and other local or global
environmental shifts, since it plays a critical role in determining how communities will adapt to
stress(Silvert,2011).
3.2 Uses of Biodiversity
3.2.1 Food and Shelter
Biodiversity is very important in the provision of food, fuel and fibre for domestic consumption while it
equally serves as materials for shelter and other buildings. Apart from those managed within the ecosystem, a
lot more grow in the wild.
3.2.2 Environmental Maintenance
Biodiversity helps in the detoxication and decomposition of water, stabilization and moderation of earl
climate. To an extent also, moderation of floods, control of drought, temperature and extremes of forci of
wind is another role played by biodiversity.
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3.2.3 Agriculture
Biodiversity plays an important role in the generation and renewal of soil fertility including, nutrient cycle
which result from its decomposition. Biodiversity is responsible for the pollination of plants including many
crops and also, in the control of pests and diseases. The maintenance of genetic resources as key input to
crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines and other products is attributed to biodiversity.
3.2.4 Forest Products
An estimated harvest of 50,000 to 70,000 plant species is used for traditional and modern medicine
worldwide. About 100million metric tones of aquatic life, including fish, mollusks and crustaceans are taken
from the wild every year. So also, meat from wild animals forms a critical contribution to food sources.
4.0 Conclusion
We have stressed that types of biodiversity include functional diversity, taxonomic diversity and genetic
diversity. The uses of biodiversity have been categorized into provision of food and shelter, maintenance of
the environment, enrichment of soil fertility for agriculture and forest products.
5.0 Summary
Having gone through this unit, it is expected that you should be able to explain;
.Functional diversity as what ensures that every task that needs doing within an ecosystem gets done.
.Taxonomic diversity involves identifying the number of diffusant taxa and possibly weighting them by the
abundance of individuals.
.The concept of genetic diversity applies between populations .
.Biodiversity is useful in provision of food and shelter, agriculture, environment and as forest products.
25
1. Explain two types of biodiversity
2. Discuss the uses of biodiversity within Nigerian ecosystem
7.0 References/Further Readings
.Neira M.(2011): Biodiversity. http://www.panda.org
.Silvert W.(2011): The Meaning of Biodiversity. http://bill.silvert.org/pdf/Biodiversity.pdf
Module 2 Genetic Erosion
Unit 1 : Genetic Erosion
Unit 2 : Genetic Erosion in Nigeria
Unit 3 : Effects and Management of Genetic Erosion
Unit 1 Genetic Erosion
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Genetic Erosion
3.2 Causes of Genetic Erosion
26
3.3 Reasons for Occurrence in Animals
3.4 Reasons for Occurrence in Plants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/ Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, efforts will be made for you to learn that, as important as the conservation of biodiversity is to
any nation’s environment, losses of elements still occur. In the last unit, we have defined and explained
biological diversity or biodiversity to refer to the variability among living organisms from all sources
including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are
part. Biodiversity also encompasses the variety of all forms of life on earth that provides the building blocks
for our existence and ability to adapt to environmental changes in the future, Jensen,et.al(1990) and Keystone
center(1991). However, despite the importance of biodiversity to the survival of present and future
generations, there is a high rate of biodiversity loss even as experienced in Nigeria, a situation that is
evidenced by reports of reduced or disappearance of native species, Oladipo,et.al(2001). Though the loss of
biological diversity has become a matter of concern within scientific and political circles, increase in demand
for biological resources rises by the day and is relative to increase in population. This poses serious threats to
biodiversity. The elimination or disappearance of certain animal and plant varieties can have adverse effects
on the environment.
The loss of biodiversity indicates loss of genetic variability which is measured by the frequency of species
extinctions; and the rate of species loss far exceeds the origin of new ones.
2.0 Objectives
- define genetic erosion
-identify causes of genetic erosion
-state reasons for its occurrence in plant and animal populations
27
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Genetic Erosion
Genetic erosion is the process in which a plant or animal species faces a gradual or drastic
diminishing or complete loss of its unique gene pool .
A gene pool is a complete set of unique alleles that occur in the genetic matter of all members of a
particular species. When members of a specific population are removed without replacement, the gene pool
becomes distorted. This manner of loss can be attributed to technological advancement in improving bio-
varieties, since the resource, upon which they are based, are eliminated.
A comprehensive survey of the wildlife situation in Nigeria in 1962 showed drastic
reduction in wildlife numbers when compared with neighbouring countries, a trend attributed to
excessive hunting. This led to a recommendation preventing hunting or capture of all species
threatened with extinction. The recommendation also places a strict limit to the hunting of species
with low or reduced numbers, a ban on night hunting and establishment of closed hunting seasons. A
substantial loss of species diversity (intra and infra-specific) is due to habitat destruction resulting from land
clearance for various uses. Forest exploitation and vegetation clearance are the major causes of natural gene-
pool loss as is occurring in many species including irvingia gobanensis and I. Wombulu in the Nigerian
rainforest and Niger Delta.
Most species that were originally diverse in Nigeria are becoming rare. It is obvious that Nigeria’s
plant diversity, is being seriously eroded as a result of multiplicity of environmental, political and socio-
economic factors. These conditions are also reported of in other African Countries, even those that are
signatories to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) of the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) (1994) and the Global Plan of Action (GPA) on plant genetic resources of the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) (FAO, 1998). They seem to identify a singular cause of genetic erosion in crops as the
replacement of local varieties by improved or exotic varieties and species. This is as a result of the ever-
increasing human population, greater competition for natural resources and some interplay of natural factors.
28
3.2 Causes of Genetic Erosion
Genetic diversity is a dynamic entity that changes over time. Generally, many issues contribute to genetic
erosion. Depending on location, there could be differences of various magnitude which to such extent are
crucial. Genetic erosion are caused by natural selection, dependence on improved varieties of crops, bad
management practices, high level of mortality and habitat loss.
3.2.1 Natural Selection
Natural selection removes some genetic diversity (at least at the population, if not at the species, level). Too
rapid a loss, or losses that aren’t associated with natural processes, such as natural selection, can cause
problems in a conservation or restoration context. In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, other less
obvious influences can also cause genetic erosion. For example, where there are no outbreeder, mating among
relatives (inbreeding) is more likely in smaller populations where the process is cumulative, so that over time
matings between unrelated individuals become impossible.
3.2.2 Dependence on Improved Varieties of Crops
The use of only improved varieties of crops and the complete neglect of local varieties and the land races also
lead to loss of biodiversity. A major example of this is the use of improved okra (Abelmoscus esculentus) in
place of the native materials of the tall okra (A. caillei) that is popularly known to be sensitive to day-length.
Local varieties of crops including sword bean (Canavalia ensiformis), African yam bean (Sphenostylis
stenocarpa) and Lima beans (Phasceolus lunatus) are now becoming extremely rare, as only improved
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is being cultivated on many farms. Similarly, Dioscorea dumetorum, Dioscorea
bulbifera, Trichosanthis species, (Snake tomato), and Digitaria exilis (Hungry rice – ‘acha’) are no longer in
popular cultivation. Restricted planting of many other popular crops have also been reduced and they have
been replaced with commercially improved varieties, thereby causing the loss of important gene resources of
these plants.
3.2.3 Bad Management Practices
Grazing pressure, fire, and excessive use of systemic herbicides are other factors that affect biodiversity loss.
Fire destroys large areas of forest ecosystems annually with the elimination of sensitive species such as
Afromosia laxiflora, Ceiba pentandra, Entada abyssinica, Hildegardia barteri and Holarrhera wulfbergia.
Although, fire is a natural phenomenon in the savanna, it is steadily entering the rainforest. Indiscriminate
29
hunting of wildlife for food to compliment subsistence farming and bush burning leads to loss of biodiversity
and also depletes the ecosystem by causing death of wildlife; destruction of eggs and plant species, while
illegal grazing of livestock in game reserves constitutes a threat to wildlife itself.
3.2.4 High Level Mortality
High level mortality among species eliminates distinct organisms thereby, reducing biodiversity. In periods of
natural disaster- flood, drought, fire- out breaks, etc when there is massive disaster, genetic occurs as the
species are destroyed
3.2.5 Habitat Loss
Habitat loss resulting from urbanization accelerated by increase in population destroys homes of plants and
animals. If the habitat, and not just the plants are removed (such as in land conversion), and there is no
subsequent regeneration from seedbanks or previously collected seeds, then loss of genetic diversity can
occur immediately, assuming that there is some diversity in the removed plants that is not contained
elsewhere. But even if genetic diversity is not lost immediately, it is often reduced gradually in the resulting
smaller population.
The loss of genetic diversity in this case can weaken the entire species and can lead to eventual extinction.
The disappearance of certain species can have an unfavorable effect on other species that might have
depended on them in some manner for their survival and ultimately on the environment as a whole.
3.3 Genetic erosion occurs in animal species for the following reasons
- Members of the endangered species cannot meet and breed as result of habitat loss, habitat
fragmentation or geographical distance.
- The individual dies without breeding.
- The individuals do breed, but because they are restricted to a certain area and cannot travel to meet
different members of the species, there is low genetic diversity and inbreeding occurs. Inbreeding leads to
physical defects that weaken the entire species.
3.4 Genetic erosion occurs in plant species for the following reasons:
- Loss of habitat is a cause of genetic erosion here as well.
30
- Overgrazing an area can lead to loss of plant species; so also the spoiling of an environment by land
clearing or chemical dumping or over-zealous construction.
- Replacing local varieties of plants with those that wouldn't occur there naturally, like plants from
another area or genetically modified (GM) plants, can also lead to genetic erosion.
- Modern agriculture is also responsible to a large extent for loss of genetic diversity. Farmers tend to
grow a limited number of commercial crop varieties or GM crops, enforcing a uniformity in farming, and so
there has been a noticeable reduction in the many crop varieties that were seen with traditional farming.
4.0 Conclusion
Biodiversity loss is one of the world's most pressing crises. It threatens the very basis of more
sustainable development and the quality of life. The resources in Nigeria (flora and fauna), which are very
vital, are presently threatened by increased population pressure and intensified human development activities.
As such, genetic diversity in animals and plants, in domestic populations and in the wild, is being lost at an
increasing rate.
The loss of biodiversity occurring as a result of loss of natural habitat and movement restrictions
imposed by human developments and activities is more alarming. The advent of scientific plant breeding this
century and rapid spread of high-yielding varieties characterized by narrow genetic base had caused the
displacement of traditional unimproved species that had large genetic base. Narrowness of the genetic base of
a crop may lead to disasters, as shown by historical examples, especially on Irish potato. In Nigeria, there is
awareness about the loss of indigenous leaf vegetables as a result of neglect by research and development,
fast rate of forest destruction for industrial development and environmental degradation due to pollution as in
the Niger Delta region
5.0 Summary
. Genetic erosion is the process in which plant species or breeds face gradual or drastic diminishing or
complete loss of their genetic pool
31
.Causes of genetic erosion are by natural selection, bad management practices, high level mortality and
habitat loss
.Genetic erosion occurs in plants and animals for different reasons.
1. Define genetic erosion
2. Identify causes of genetic erosion
3. State the reasons for genetic erosion in plants and animals.
7.0 References
.Buza, L; Young, A and Thrall, P.( 2000) : Genetic erosion, inbreeding, and reduced fitness in fragmented
populations of the endangered tetraploid pea Swainsona recta. Biological Conservation 93:177–186.
.Campbell, R. K and Sorensen, F .C.(1984): Genetic implications of nursery
.Jensen, D. B; Torn, M. and Harte J. (1990): “In Our Own Hands: A Strategy for Conserving Biological
Diversity in California.
.Lacy, R .C.(1987): Loss of genetic diversity from managed populations: interacting effects of drift, mutation,
immigration, selection, and population subdivision. Conservation Biology 1:143–158.
.Ledig, F. T.(1992): Human impacts on genetic diversity in forest ecosystems. Oikos 63:87–108.
.McGuire, P. E.and Qualset, C. O. editors.( 1990): Genetic resources at risk: scientific issues, technologies,
and funding policies. Davis (CA): University of California, Genetic Resources Conservation Program. Report
No.5
32
Unit 2 Genetic Erosion in Nigeria
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Genetic Erosion in Nigeria
3.1.1 Indirect Causes in Nigeria
3.1.2 Direct Causes in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In the previous unit, we took a look at the definition and causes of genetic erosion. It is important to
note that this situation occurs in all environment including Nigeria. So, efforts will be made to
explain the different activities in the Nigerian environment that lead to genetic erosion as well as its
direct and indirect causes. It is obvious that genetic erosion constitutes great threat to human
survival. The extent and impact of the erosion may not be visible to the present generation. Future
generations will have to pay dearly for the carelessness of the earlier generations.
2.0 Objectives
- Discuss genetic erosion in Nigeria
- state indirect and direct causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Genetic Erosion in Nigeria
33
In Nigeria, certain factors are observed as available evidence shows that biodiversity is being lost at a
disturbing rate in Nigeria. Generally, the causes of biodiversity loss here, are largely related to human factors.
These are due to interactions with the environment for :
-development,
- improved quality of life resulting from industrialization,
-technological advancement and
- rapid growth in urbanization.
3.1.1 Indirect causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria
Indirect causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria include the following:
-economic policies,
- rising demand for forest products,
-poor n cultural practices,
-poor law enforcement and
-weak laws.
-Increased export demands for primates and birds for research
-trade in timber and non-timber species.
- Continued timber cut without replacement.
-Cultural practices that encourage the use of specific species for festivals often limit the population
of species particularly occurring under narrow ecological range.
-Most of the laws that control the management of several species are outdated, and their
enforcement is inadequate.
3.1.2 Direct causes of genetic erosion
Direct causes of genetic erosion are related to agricultural activities and they include;
- bush burning,
-fuel-wood collection,
- logging,
-grazing and
- gathering.
34
4.0 Conclusion
The introduction of cash crops like cocoa, coffee, rubber, cotton, groundnut and oil palm into the
farming systems since the 1900s was a big impetus for massive deforestation of the natural ecosystems. For
example, the land devoted to agriculture increased from 8.9 million hectares in 1951 to about 55.8 million
hectares in 1995. The massive rate of deforestation is a direct cause of biodiversity loss. Wood accounts for
about 85% of domestic energy use in the country. Preference is often given to wood species with high
calorific values that occur largely in the savanna and rainforest ecosystems of the country. Thus high
depletion of fuel wood species is easily notable in the savanna and rainforest ecosystem.
5.0 Summary
.Genetic loss in Nigeria is through interactions with the environment for development, rapid growth in
urbanization and technological advancement
.there are direct and indirect causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria.
1. Discuss genetic erosion in Nigeria.
2. State the direct and indirect causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria.
7.0 References
.The Effects of Poverty in Conservation of Biodiversity : The Nigerian Experience
http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2001/nov/nigeria.htm
.USDA NRCS. 2004. The PLANTS Database, version 3.5. URL:
http://plants.usda.gov (accessed 18 Aug 2004). Baton Rouge (LA):
35
National Plant Data Center.
Unit 3 Effects and Management of Genetic Erosion
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Effects of Genetic Erosion
3.2 Management of Genetic Erosion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Human impacts on ecosystem have been going on since its evolution. As human needs increases by
the day, Agricultural and lndustrial activities are seen as tools which have altered the magnitude of change
lately. The loss of biodiversity offers grave consequences which may required prolonged seasons to correct.
Genetic diversity changes over time and space; and spatially reflects patterns in the environment, suggesting
adaptation to prevailing conditions. Considering its usefulness, it is imperative that genetic erosion be
36
viewed seriously. Therefore in this unit, your attention will be drawn to the effects of genetic erosion as well
as how it can be managed. As proper management requires up-to-date and relevant procedures to sustain
genetic variability, these methods are outline within the context.
2.0 Objectives
- state the effects of genetic erosion
- discuss the methods of managing genetic erosion
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Effect of Genetic Erosion
- Leads to Inbreeding
- Lowers reproductive fitness
- Reduces the ability of the population to genetically respond to a changing environment overtime.
- The genes from some potential parent plants may not be represented in the seeds because of random
factors such as : phenological differences,
- distance from other plants,
- weather patterns that influence pollen dispersal,
- random mortality of plants, random abortion of embryos, and others.
- Increased risk of extinction
3.2 Management of Genetic Erosion
i. Ex-situ Conservation:
The management of agricultural crops, solutions or mitigations are focused on ex situ conservation—
seedbanks, genebanks, and others. This approach allows genetic diversity to be maintained even if it is not
currently represented in agricultural practice. In addition, genetic research on some agriculturally important
crops is done to compare genetic diversity between modern and historic cultivars and even with the
progenitor wild plant species, where possible. This information helps to illuminate current or to predict future
37
problems of genetic erosion, allowing an appropriate management response. For native plant species, focus is
on conservation of genetic diversity in situ, although ex situ conservation methods are certainly an
appropriate parallel conservation strategy, particularly, for rare or endangered species or those experiencing
high mortality or rapid loss of habitat.
However, ex situ conservation is not an effective or reasonable substitute for in situ conservation. These
are complementary, rather than alternative, conservation strategies . Ex situ collections, for example, is only a
sample of the natural range of genetic diversity in the species and are removed from the influence of natural
selection and thus cannot accrue new adaptations over time. They are also vulnerable to financial constraints
or downsizing, chronic losses in diversity depending on storage methods, catastrophic losses from equipment
failures or fires, among other issues.
ii. Avoiding Losses of Habitat:
Avoiding losses of habitat or fragmentation of habitat (that can interrupt sharing of genes between
populations, for example) are important management practices.
iii. Good nursery management, based on awareness of possible genetic variation in seed characteristics,
germination requirements, and growth patterns, can take measures to avoid inadvertent selection and
minimize the impact on the genetic diversity of the original collection.
4.0 Conclusion
The loss of genetic diversity can weaken the entire species and can lead to eventual extinction. The
disappearance of certain species can have an unfavorable effect on other species that might have
depended on them in some manner for their survival and ultimately on the environment as a whole. It is
imperative that biodiversity loss be managed by précised methods to avoid their extinction.
5.0 Summary
. genetic erosion ultimately leads to reduction in species vigour and extinction of all life forms.
.effects of genetic erosion include inbreeding and lowering of reproductive fitness
.genetic erosion can be managed by ex-situ conservation, avoiding habitat losses and good nursery
management.
38
1. State the effects of genetic erosion.
2. Discuss the methods of managing genetic erosion.
7.0 References
.Brown AHD, Brubaker CL.(2002). Indicators of sustainable management ofplant genetic resources: how
well are we doing? In: Engels JMM, Ramanatha Rao V, Brown AHD, Jackson MT, editors. Managing plant
genetic diversity. Oxon (UK): CABI Publishing. p 249–262.
.Cole CT. 2003. Genetic variation in rare and common plants. Annual Review
of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 34:213–237.
.Kitzmiller JH. 1990. Managing genetic diversity in a tree improvement program.
Forest Ecology and Management 35:131–149.
.Lacy RC. 1987. Loss of genetic diversity from managed populations: interacting effects of drift, mutation,
immigration, selection, and population subdivision. Conservation Biology 1:143–158.
.Ledig FT. 1991. Secret extinctions: the loss of genetic diversity in forest ecosystems. In: Fenger MA, Miller
EH, Johnson JF, Williams EJR, editors. Our living legacy: proceedings of a symposium on biological
diversity. Victoria (BC): Royal British Columbia Museum. p 127–140.
.Ledig FT. 1992. Human impacts on genetic diversity in forest ecosystems. Oikos 63:87–108.
39
.McGuire PE, Qualset CO, editors. 1990. Genetic resources at risk: scientific issues, technologies, and
funding policies. Davis (CA): University of California, Genetic Resources Conservation Program. Report No.
5.
.Templeton AR, Shaw K, Routman E, Davis SK. 1990. The genetic consequences
of habitat fragmentation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
77:13–27.
MODULE 3 Plant Biotechnology
Unit 1 Plant Biotechnology
Unit 2 Historical Perspectives
Unit 3 Benefits of Plant Biotechnology
Unit 4 Applications of Biotechnology in Forestry
Unit 5 Forest Biotechnology and Conservation
UNIT 1 Plant Biotechnology
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Biotechnology
40
3.2Plant Biotechnology
3.3Traits of Interest in Plants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Technology has gained enormous access into different sectors including Agriculture. Biotic resources are
flexible enough to allow genetic manipulation to meet human needs. Plants have been raised through
technological innovations because all of the biological processes of trees contain targets for
biotechnological alteration and improvement, and the utilization processes offer potential targets for
biotechnology as well.
Thus, biotechnology is often associated with generically modified organisms (GMOs) or
transformations that involves the introduction of selected foreign genes into the plant genome. This
technology identifies these specific genes and modifies them to affect biochemical pathways which results in
phenotypes with perceived superior traits.
In this unit therefore, you will be exposed to the concept of biotechnology and attributes of focus in plants.
2.0 Objectives
- define plant biotechnology
- explain traits of Interest in Plants
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Biotechnology
This is a scientific transformation that involves the introduction of selected foreign genes into the plant
genome which affect biochemical pathways producing desired phenotypes with superior features.
41
This technology has been used in transforming trees and crops. Various wild plant species with less or
undesirable attributes have been altered to adapt to new or stressful conditions through this standardized
process which have proved dependable.
3.1.1 Plant Biotechnology
Plant biotechnology is a precise process in which scientific techniques are used to develop molecular- and
cellular-based technologies :
• to improve plant productivity, quality and health;
• to improve the quality of plant products;
• to prevent, reduce or eliminate constraints to plant productivity caused by diseases, pest organisms
and environmental stresses.
This process and technology transforms the genetic components of plant species to produce observable
improvements.
3.1.2 Traits of Interest in Plants
Gene alteration can result in unique gene combinations unachievable by traditional plant breeding.
This allows species to have attributes or traits that would not be possible through natural processes.
These attributes can be characterized as:
Silvicultural Traits : these are features like
Growth rate
Nutrient uptake
Crown/ stem
Flowering control
Herbicide
Adaptability Traits: these are features like
Drought tolerance
Cold tolerance
Fungal resistance
Insect resistance
42
Wood Quality Traits : these are features like
Wood density
Lignin reduction
Lignin extraction
Juvenile fiber
Branching
4.0Conclusion
Innovations leading to the generation of non-genetically engineered crops have been employed to support
the increasing food, water and fiber shortages associated with population growth and climate change. Its
application in agriculture captures desired features to enhance commercialization of these products which
ultimately support human population.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been intimated with the facts that;
.plant biotechnology is a precise process in which scientific techniques are used to improve
productivity
.biotic resources are flexible enough to allow genetic manipulation to meet human needs
.plant biotechnology focuses on improving traits of interests based on silvicultural traits, adaptability
traits and wood quality traits.
1. Define plant biotechnology
2. Explain the traits of interests in plants.
7.0 References
.Buis S. 2000. Writing woody plant specifications for restoration and mitigation practices. Native Plants
Journal 1:116–119.
.Cole CT. 2003. Genetic variation in rare and common plants. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and
Systematics 34:213–237.
43
UNIT 2 Historical Perspectives
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1.1 Indicators of Biotechnological Achievements
3.1.2 Biotechnological Achievements in the Future
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Our natural ecosystems are subject to increasing pressures, and negative effects can already be seen in
some regions of the world. In the years 1999 – 2000, 9.4 million hectares of forests were lost worldwide.
Tropical deforestation accounts for 20 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions and the loss of
essential terrestrial and freshwater resources for humanity and critical habitats for endangered species.
Biotechnological innovations have been employed to replenish the natural abundance and transform low
quality species into highly desirable ones with recorded evidences.
44
In this unit, it would be necessary to explore the historical and futuristic perspectives of biotechnology. You
will be exposed to the extents of achievements in biotechnological world and also consider areas of focus in
the future.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to :
- explain the Historical Perspectives of biotechnology
- state indicators of biotechnological achievements
- mention areas for future achievements
3.0 Main Body
Plant biotechnology in use today is a product of advanced technology, which allows plant breeders to
make precise genetic changes to impart beneficial traits to plants. This practice of plant biotechnology has
been around for centuries.
The use of less advanced methods by early farmers and plant breeders to improve plants reflected their
traditional breeding methods which included selecting and sowing the seeds from the strongest, most
desirable plants to produce the next generation. By selecting and breeding plants with characteristics such as
higher yield and resistance to pests and hardiness, these early farmers dramatically changed the genetic
makeup of plants long before the science of genetics was understood. As a result, most of today’s plants bear
little resemblance to their wild ancestors.
The tools of modern biotechnology allow plant breeders to select genes that produce beneficial traits and
move them from one organism to another. This process is far more precise and selective than crossbreeding,
which involves the transfer of tens of thousands of genes and provides plant developers with more detailed
knowledge of the changes being made. The ability to introduce genetic material from other plants and
organisms opens up a world of possibilities to benefit food production.
3.1.1 Indicators of Biotechnological Achievements
Important commercial plants that have been modified to resist viral infections include; potato, squash,
cucumber, watermelon and papaya. These plants resist viruses through a mechanism known as cross-
45
protection, which is somewhat similar to immunization. Farmers growing these plants are able to reduce
pesticide applications to control virus-carrying insects.
Other varieties like Soybean, Corn, Canola and other crop plants have been modified to tolerate safe,
broad-spectrum herbicides. Herbicide tolerance allows farmers to use weed controls more selectively. Rather
than applying herbicide before planting, farmers can wait until after the crop emerges to apply herbicides
where and in the quantities needed.
3.1.2 Biotechnological Achievements in the Future
New advances including a promising array of product, will offer:
- improved yields,
- enhanced nutrition,
- medicinal properties and vaccines;
- healthier cooking oils;
- extended shelf life;
- renewable resources and industrial feedstock’s; and other desirable products.
These new varieties of plants could open up lucrative new markets to farmers and provide enhanced food
products to consumers .
4.0 Conclusion
Biotechnology emerged to encompass a developing collection of tools for modifying plant physiology and
genetics to aid breeding and propagation. Over the years, these various methods have become increasingly
sophisticated producing acceptable varieties.
5.0 Summary
.the tools of modern biotechnology have been used by plant breeders to select genes that produce beneficial
traits, transferring them from one organism to another
.commercial plants have been modified to resist viral infections, tolerate safe, broad-spectrum herbicides
among others
46
.biotechnological achievement hopes to produce improved yields, enhanced nutrition, medicinal properties
and vaccines, extended shelf life in the future.
1. Explain the Historical Perspectives of biotechnology
2. State indicators of biotechnological achievements
3. Mention areas for future achievements
Buis S. 2000. Writing woody plant specifications for restoration and mitigation practices. Native Plants
Journal 1:116–119.
FAO. 2004. Preliminary review of biotechnology in forestry, including genetic modification. Forest Genetic
Resources Working Paper FGR/59E, Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division
Rome, Italy.
Unit 3 Benefits of Plant Biotechnology
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Benefits of Plant Biotechnology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
47
1.0 Introduction
There have been indications of positive achievement using plant biotechnology as analysed in the
previous unit. Are they available in our environment? This unit will seek to explain potential benefits
accruing to various groups of people.Modern civilization would be impossible without the domestication
of a small number of plants, particularly wheat, rice and maize. Domestication generates plants with high
yields, large seeds, soft seed coats, non-shattering seed heads that prevent seed dispersal and thus
facilitate harvesting, and a flowering time that is determined by planting date rather than by natural day
length. These improvements are driven by technological innovations.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
- discuss the benefits of plant biotechnology to farmers, producers and consumers.
3.0Main Body
3.1 Benefits of Plant Biotechnology
A distinguishing feature of the introduction of technology is increased productivity because it reduces cost
or enhances yield. Thus, the application of biotechnology in agriculture has resulted in benefits to farmers,
producers and consumers.
1. Pest and Weed Control
Plant biotechnology has helped make both insect pest control and weed management safer and easier
while safeguarding plants against disease. For example, genetically engineered insect-resistant cotton has
allowed for a significant reduction in the use of persistent, synthetic pesticides that could contaminate
groundwater and the environment.
In terms of improved weed control, herbicide-tolerant soybeans, cotton and corn enable the use of
reduced risk herbicides that break down more quickly in soil and are non-toxic to wildlife and humans.
2. Herbicide Tolerant Plants
48
Herbicide tolerant plants particularly are compatible with no-till or reduced tillage agriculture systems
that help preserve topsoil from erosion.
The Flavr Savr tomato was the first genetically modified commercial crop food Plant biotechnology has
been used to protect plants from devastating diseases. The papaya ring spot virus threatened to ruin the
Hawaiian papaya industry until papayas resistant to the disease were developed through genetic engineering
— something that saved the U.S. papaya industry. Research on potatoes, squash, tomatoes and other crops
continues in a similar manner to provide resistance to viral diseases that otherwise are very difficult to control
3. Increase in Yields
Biotech plants can make farming more profitable by increasing crop quality and in some cases may increase
yields. The use of some of the crops can simplify work and improve safety for farmers, which allow farmers
to spend less time managing their crops and more time on other, profitable activities. Biotechnology-derived
varieties of pest protected corn, cotton and potatoes and herbicide-tolerant soybeans significantly have
reduced pesticide and herbicide use, boosted yields and saved growers tens of millions of dollars. A study by
the National Center for Food and Agriculture Policy found that six biotech crops — canola, corn, cotton,
papaya, soybean and squash — increased grower incomes by an additional $1.9 billion, boosted crop yields
by 5.3 billion pounds and reduced pesticide use by 46.4 million pounds in 2003. These savings came from
reduced inputs including time, labor and wear and tear on farm equipment.
4. Quality Traits
Biotech crops provide enhanced quality traits, such as increased levels of beta-carotene in rice and improved
oil compositions in canola, soybean and corn. For example, scientists have developed a new strain of rice,
called golden rice, that naturally produces betacarotene, the precursor to vitamin A. Golden rice can provide
enough beta-carotene to make up for vitamin A deficiencies in the diets of poor children, and it also can
increase the amount of vitamin A in breast milk, an important source of nutrition for infants. Furthermore,
scientists have enriched the same strain of rice with additional iron to combat anemia, which affects hundreds
of millions of the world’s poor.
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5. Drought and Salty Soils Resistant Crops
Crops with the ability to grow in salty soils or better withstand drought conditions also are in the
works. Thus, Plant biotechnology also can be a key element in the fight against hunger and malnutrition in
the developing world.
Today, an estimated 800 million people do not have access to sufficient supplies of food.
By 2030, the global population is expected to reach, if not exceed, eight billion people, putting a further strain
on food supplies. But while world population is expected to grow rapidly, particularly in developing
countries, the amount of available agricultural land is limited. Only 10 percent of the world’s land surface is
arable, and over farming and soil erosion are growing problems in some areas. To overcome those dynamics,
farmers will need to find ways to grow more food while using less land.
4.0Conclusion
Plant biotechnology is a precise process in which scientific techniques are used to develop molecular- and
cellular-based technologies to improve plant productivity, quality and health; to improve the quality of plant
products; or to prevent, reduce or eliminate constraints to plant productivity caused by diseases, pest
organisms and environmental stresses. This process and technology already is in widespread use in the
United States today. Plant biotechnology, practically increases the production of main food staples,
improves the efficiency of production, reduces the environmental impact of agriculture and provides access
to food for small-scale farmers.
5.0Summary
In this unit, you have learnt that,
.the application of biotechnology in agriculture has resulted in benefits to farmers, producers and consumers
.benefits of biotechnology include; pest and weed control, herbicide tolerant plants, increase in yields, quality
traits and production of drought and salty soil resistant crops.
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Discuss the benefits of plant biotechnology to farmers, producers and consumers.
7.0 References
Cole CT. 2003. Genetic variation in rare and common plants. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution,
and Systematics 34:213–237.
Guerrant EO. 1992. Genetic and demographic considerations in the sampling and reintroduction of rare
plants. In: Fiedler PL, Jain SK, editors. Conservation biology: the theory and practice of nature conservation,
preservation, and management. New York (NY): Routledge, Chapman and Hall Inc. p 321–344.
Unit 4 Applications of Plant Biotechnology in Forestry
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Applications of Plant Biotechnology
3.1.1 Benefits of Biotechnology in Forestry
3.1.2 Risks of Biotechnology in Forestry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
51
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, we considered the benefits of biotechnology to different human groups who survive
in various environments. These areas, are occupied by both plants and animals. Its sustainability depends
on the vegetation cover. Biotechnology is an artificial process of recombining genes from different
organisms and by passing natural barriers to sexual reproduction. It promotes the engineering of new
biochemical pathways to increase species that are stress tolerant. Its application has enabled crops, trees
and their products possess traits that meet public demands, easing primitive stress conditions. We will
thus consider the benefits and potential risks of plant biotechnology in forestry.
2.0 Objectives
- Identify the benefits of biotechnology in forestry
- explain the potential risks of plant biotechnology in forestry
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Applications of Plant Biotechnology
Much of the information related to plant biotechnology focuses on its use with crop production. This
primarily is because the technology has been applied and used in this way. It still is being debated and tested
in the laboratory for other uses, such as in forestry. Other applications include using biotechnology to produce
ornamental flowers with new colors, fragrances and increased longevity.
3.1.1 Crop Production
Plant biotechnology provides farmers with tools that can make production cheaper and more manageable.
For example, some biotechnology crops can be engineered to tolerate specific herbicides, which make weed
control simpler and more efficient. Other crops have been engineered to be resistant to specific plant diseases
and insect pests, which can make pest control more reliable and effective and can decrease the use of
synthetic pesticides. Those crop production options can help countries keep pace with demands for food
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while reducing production costs. A number of biotechnology-derived crops that have been deregulated by the
USDA and reviewed for food safety by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and/or the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) have been adopted by growers. Many other types of crops now are in the research
and development stages. Advances in plant biotechnology could provide consumers with foods that are
nutritionally enriched, are long lasting or contain lower levels of certain naturally occurring toxins that are
present in some food plants. Developers are using plant biotechnology to try to reduce saturated fats in
cooking oils and allergens in foods and increase disease-fighting nutrients in foods. They also are researching
ways to use genetically engineered crops in the production of new medicines, which might lead to a new,
plant made pharmaceutical industry that could reduce the costs of production by using a sustainable resource
Genetically engineered plants also are being developed for a purpose known as phytoremediation, in
which the plants detoxify pollutants in the soil or absorb and accumulate polluting substances out of the soil
so the plants may be harvested and disposed of safely. In either case, the result is improved soil quality at a
polluted site. Plant biotechnology also may be used to conserve natural resources, to enable animals to use
nutrients present in feed more effectively, to decrease nutrient runoff into rivers and bays and to help meet the
increasing world food and land demands. Researchers are at work to produce hardier crops that will flourish
in even the harshest environments and that will require less fuel, labor, fertilizer and water, helping to
decrease the pressures on land and wildlife habitats.
3.1.2 Forestry
Forestry researchers are working on ways to create trees to resist pests, to make it easier to process pulp and
paper products and to assist in the restoration of endangered tree species. Developing a more sustainable
means of producing wood and paper products is an urgent need. For example, Americans consume 750
pounds of paper every year, not to mention the wood products used for building and other endeavors.
Although the United States has 20 percent more trees than it did on the first Earth Day 25 years ago, it is
estimated that an additional 800 million hectares of low-yielding native forest, or 25 percent of Earth’s forest
estate, will have to be logged to meet worldwide demand in 2050. With humans relying so heavily on forest
products, biotechnology could reduce the need to log old-growth forests. For example, trees could be
engineered to be grown more efficiently on plantations and to make stronger lumber or more pulp for paper.
53
Such genetic enhancements could increase the productivity of tree farms and provide trees that would use less
energy and fewer chemicals during processing and result in cleaner air and water.
Scientists believe that if there is to be widespread use of Genetically Engineered (GE) trees, it first will
be on intensively managed forest plantations — plantations that already are using the most current science
and intensive management practices to improve timber quality and production. Research has shown how GE
technology could provide commercial plantations with trees that grow faster, produce pulp easier and provide
better wood quality than conventional trees. But while the potential benefits are intriguing, the environmental
consequences must be carefully considered. And though some observers believe it could be more than 10
years before genetically engineered trees become commonplace, developing countries could move much
more quickly. F or instance, there already are large test plots of GE poplars currently being cultivated in
China, and other developing countries — driven by internal and external demands — could begin commercial
use of GE trees in as little as a year. Some of the concern about GE trees centers on the fact that tree pollen
can drift miles away, so even if the technology exclusively is applied to private forests, pollen drift could
cause GE trees to migrate into “wild” stands wherever they might be, including national forests, parks and
other public lands.
3.1.2.1 Benefits of using biotechnology in forestry
Revealing trees’ unique biological properties which increases wood yield and quality
Reducing pressure on natural forests by increasing productivity of managed forests
Improving disease and insect resistance assisting in the restoration of endangered tree varieties
Reducing the environmental impact of pulping assisting in cleaning up toxic waste
Serving as a new source for feed and pharmaceuticals.
3.1.2.2 Risks of using plant biotechnology in forest production
Trees could become invasive, supplanting natural forests
Environmental impacts could persist because of the long life spans of trees.
It could be difficult to track “escapes” and to reverse potential damage.
It could be difficult to predict the consequences for complex ecosystems.
54
It could alter the aesthetic qualities of forests.
It could clash with the cultural need for natural forests consumer concerns could emerge.
It could foster inequities between large and small landowners.
4.0Conclusion
Biotechnology uses the tools of genetic engineering, which is the process of manipulating genes and
involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of DNA into cells. This process introduces new
characteristics physiologically, producing desired attributes. These tools have been invaluable for
researchers in helping understand the basic biology of living organisms. As products are meeting desired
purposes, thes indicates possibilities of greater achievements, especially in agriculture.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been informed that;
.applications of plant biotechnology are basically observed in crop production and forest conservation
.biotechnology in forestry is largely associated with potential benefits and risks factors.
1. What are the benefits of using biotechnology in forestry
2. Explain the potential risks of plant biotechnology in forestry
.FAO. 2004. Preliminary review of biotechnology in forestry, including genetic modification. Forest Genetic
Rome,Italy.
.Guerrant EO. 1992. Genetic and demographic considerations in the sampling and reintroduction of rare
55
Unit 5 Forest Biotechnology and Conservation
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Forest Biotechnology and Conservation
3.2 Conservation of Forest Trees
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
There is significant social and ecological value in conserving larger areas of biodiversity-rich natural
forests and in reducing economic demands on those forests by increasing yields from planted forest. This
suggests that total value in plantations is not simply a financial equation. While intensive forestry and
biotechnology are not panaceas in the absence of concerted efforts by governments and the private sector to
expand protected areas, they are important tools that support sustainable forestry programs. This unit will
thus focus on the necessities and strategies for conserving forest trees.
2.0 Objectives
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By the end of the unit, you should be able to
- state the need for forest conservation
- state the strategies for conserving forest trees
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Forest Biotechnology and Conservation
The world’s forests are under severe pressures from unsustainable logging and road building. The threats
are especially acute in the tropics, where just 45% of original extent of habitat remains and the remainder are
being lost at rate of 1% per year. Current rates of tropical deforestation are equivalent to an area half the size
of Florida being removed from the lower 48 annually.
Of course, commercial timber production is not the only contributing factor, since many other forces are
driving the global forest crisis. But the infrastructure associated with timber extraction is often at the
vanguard of habitat conversion and threats to endangered species. A compelling example was published
recently in nature: gorilla and chimp populations in Gabon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo which
showed a drop by 80% from 1983-2000, leading scientists to recommend immediate designation of the
species as “critically endangered.” The decline was attributable to illegal bush meat hunting and Ebola virus
epidemic, but a significant root cause was expansion of new a logging road network into remaining intact
tropical forests in western equatorial Africa. Trends in the tropics are highly relevant to the future of forests
and the forest and paper industry in North America.
A new report commissioned by AFPA and conducted by Seneca Creek Associates found that illegal
logging – mostly but not entirely in the tropics – significantly depresses U.S. and Tropical deforestation
accounts for 20% of the greenhouse gas emissions responsible for global warming and the threat of climate
instability.
Global warming, in turn, presents enormous risks to the world’s biodiversity. Research findings estimates
that one-third of all species could be committed to extinction under current global warming scenarios as a
consequence of disruption of habitat ranges and other results of changing climate patterns.
Moreover, forest destruction is a major driver of loss of terrestrial and freshwater resources that provide
essential ecosystem services for humanity and critical habitat for endangered species around the world. For
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instance, the global amphibian assessment recently published by CI, IUCN and Nature serve concluded that
more than 40% of salamanders, frogs, toads and other amphibians are in decline, with habitat loss as the
major driver underlying this threat. Fortunately, ingredients exist for convergence of interests between the
business world, conservation community and the world’s consumers.
3.2 Conservation of Forest Trees
Reports by WWF-International titled “The Forest Industry in the 21st Century” concluded that meeting
projected increases in global wood demand over the next five decades will not require significant expansion
of commercial logging beyond the estimated 600 million hectares of timber lands that currently account for
90% of the world’s industrial wood supply.
A broad consensus may be emerging around the elements of a strategy that produces benefits for industry,
communities and biodiversity. Thus, Forest trees can be conservation by a strategy that produces benefits for
industry, communities and biodiversity. One element of the strategy is a shift away from commercial logging
and road construction in biodiversity hotspots and major tropical wilderness areas. Another critical need is to
secure and expand protected areas around the world. An additional component is to achieve best
environmental practices on existing plantations, without tapping substantial new areas of natural forest for
fiber production . The strategy must also include efforts to build international pressure on “bad actors”
conducting egregious logging, and strengthen enforcement systems to crack down on illegal timber.
Stepping up appropriate strategies for the future in research, development and technology transfer in forest
biotechnology as well as addressing associated societal and regulatory issues seem very demanding. A
general response is that the R & D strategy should be focused on whether and how forest biotechnology
might contribute to achieving the objectives of conserving threatened forests and biodiversity while meeting
society’s needs for forest products. For example, does forest biotechnology have potential to enhance fiber
production, while enabling reduced chemical applications and improved water efficiency, on intensive
plantations established on degraded agricultural lands? It is important to recognize that intensified timber
management on existing plantations, while clearly a preferable alternative to liquidating remaining tropical
forests, does not unto itself guarantee positive results for conservation. Intensive forestry or biotechnology
58
should not be oversold as a panacea in the absence of concerted efforts by governments and the private sector
to expand protected areas, stabilize and rebuild populations of endangered species, and create conservation
corridors that combine protection of key biodiversity areas with ecologically compatible economic uses
across the larger landscape(Buis,2000).
4.0 Conclusion
The forest has been the reservoir of biotic components. Its elimination exposes both biotic factors and
edaphic factors to adverse conditions with grave consequences on the human population as well. Biodiversity
should be taken care of in carefully structured, transparent and independent regulatory frameworks. If
shortcuts are taken on regulatory issues and public participation could result in lengthy delays or loss of
valuable new technological innovations.
5.0 Summary
.the threats to the world’s forests are especially acute in the tropics
.global warming presents enormous risks to the world’s biodiversity
. forest trees can be conserved by a strategy that produces benefits for industry, communities and
biodiversity
1. Why is forest conservation necessary.
2. State the strategies for conserving forest trees.
.Buis S. 2000. Writing woody plant specifications for restoration and mitigation practices. Native Plants
Journal 1:116–119.
.FAO. 2004. Preliminary review of biotechnology in forestry, including genetic modification. Forest Genetic
Rome,Italy.
59
.Guerrant EO. 1992. Genetic and demographic considerations in the sampling and reintroduction of rare
.Meyer SE, Monsen SB. 1993. Genetic considerations in propagating native shrubs, forbs, and grasses from
seed. In: Landis TD, technical coordinator. Proceedings, Western Forest Nursery Association symposium;
1992 Sep 14–18; Fallen Leaf Lake, CA. Fort Collins (CO): USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report RM-GTR-221. p 47–54.
Module 4 Germplasm Appropriation
Unit 1 What is Germplasm
Unit 2 Germplasm Conservations
Unit 3 Germplasm Appropriation
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 What is Germplasm?
3.2 Germplasm Reserviours
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
60
1.0 Introduction
All biotic components are made up of genetic materials. There are naturally preserved for continuity. Recent
development shows that their availability may not be consistently guaranteed. Germplasm as it is referred to
is the source of the genetic potential of living organisms. It can also be referred to as genetic material of
plants or plant genetic resources. This means the seed or other material from which plants are propagated.
Biotechnology can never thrive except on its resources. This unit will seek to identify where they can safely
preserved.
2.0 Objectives
- define germplasm
- mention potential germplasm storage centres
3.0 Main Body
3.1 What is Germplasm?
Germplasm can be viewed differently. It, thus, attracts various definitions. It can be defined as:
a collection of genetic resources for an organism;
the genetic material, especially its specific molecular and chemical constitution, that comprises the
inherited qualities of an organism; or
a set of propagules that carries the desired genetic resources.
These definitions identify the genetic material as the functional property; but in the zoological context,
reference could be made to the preservation of gametes and the animals from which they are derived.
3.2 Germplasm Storage Centres
Germplasm can be preserved in standardized places like
- Seed banks
- Crop type collection centers or field gene banks
- Natural ecosystem
- Collection mission
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- Cryopreservation centers
4.0 Conclusion
Seeds are the most convenient part of plant for storage, with the exception of a few species that have
recalcitrant behavior e.g. Telfairia occidentalis. In storage, under good temperature and humidity
regimes, seeds can be stored for several years. Therefore, following collection, reliable seed banks must
be put in place for conservation of the collected samples. It must be emphasized that regular checks are
carried out to test the viability of the stored seeds periodically. The seed bank will serve as a major
insurance against permanent loss of any species that had been previously collected.
5.0 Summary
. germplasm can be defined in different ways among which is the collection of genetic resources for
organisms
.germplasm can be preserved in standard places under regulated conditions
. seeds are the most convenient part of plant storage with exception of a few species with recalcitrant
behaviour.
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment
1. Define germplasm
2. Name standard places where germplasm can be properly preserved.
Falk DA. 1987. Integrated conservation strategies for endangered plants. Natural Areas Journal 7:118–123.
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Given DR. 1987. What the conservationist requires of ex situ collections. In:Branwell D, Hamann O,
Heywood V, Synge H, editors. Botanic gardens and the world conservation strategy. London (UK):
Academic Press. p 103–116.
Unit 2 Germplasm Conservations
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Germplasm Conservations
3.1.1 What is Germplasm Conservation
3.1.2 Need for Germplasm Conservation
3.1.3 Benefits of Germplasm Conservation
3.1.4 Obstacles to effective use of Germplasm
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
As you go through this unit, basic facts on germplasm conservation, need to conserve, benefits of
germplasm conservation and obstacles to effective use of germplasm will be explored. It would be
important to appreciate that conservation is a process that involves adequate planning, controlled
exploitation, judicious use and efficient management of resources to ensure their availability for
present and future use. As human population increases, there is increase demands on available
resources. Conservation of the germplasm thus ensures the continuity of wild species on which
biotechnology thrives upon.
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2.0 Objectives
- Define germplasm conservation
- State the need to conserve germplasm
- Identify the benefits of germplasm conservation
- Explain the obstacles to effective use of germplasm
3.0 Main Body
1.1 What is Germplasm Conservation
This is an activity involving the conscious storage of genetic materials under standardized
conditions by regulated agencies for safe-keeping and most importantly to avoid loss by extinction.
This is carried out by technological innovations and approaches that ensure conformity with
original conditions even in artificial environment. Biotechnological approaches have been employed
extensively in the process, even as research seeks to accommodates new bio-materials.
3.2 Need for Germplasm Conservation
The rapid decline in the abundance of wild or local biodiversity demands the setting apart of genetic
material mainly to avoid its disappearance from natural environments. In the excessive demand for desired
varieties, certain wild forms tend to be ignored. Thus, it is observed that there is :
increasing availability of cultivars,
their supply is more controlled,
the quality is high,
their botanical identification is not questionable,
there are genetic improvement as well as
agronomic manipulation,
their post-harvesting is usually good and
they are relatively safe (little or no adulteration).
3.3 Benefits of Germplasm Conservation
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The benefits include the following:
Building blocks/ gene pool for genetic improvement/enhancemet
Genes for adaptations/endurance to varying, unfavourable biotic/abiotic stresses/environments
Contribute to develop high yielding varieties
Contribute to sound pest and disease management
Reduce dependency on external inputs.
3.4 Obstacles to the effective use of Germplasm
Several obstacles limit the effective use of plant genetic resources. These include:
the lack of characterization and evaluation data,
poor coordination of national policies and poor linkages between the national genebanks and the
users of the germplasm.
Utilization of plant genetic resources maintained by farmers is limited due to lack of information on
their characteristics and lack of availability.
Though, International Research Centres (IRC) and African National Agricultural Research
Systems(ANARS) have developed new improved varieties, these varieties often do not reach farmers
because of lengthy testing requirements which have to be repeated even in countries with similar
agro-ecological conditions. For existing and approved varieties, lack of national capacity to maintain
the variety and provide basic seed in a timely manner hampers exploitation of the varieties.
Other obstacles are:
Weak Disaster Management
Disasters (droughts, floods and conflicts) are increasing in frequency around the world including
Africa where acute disasters are developing into chronic disasters which lead to food and seed
insecurity. However, although it is generally accepted that disasters occur regularly, there is little
forward planning or consultation at national or regional levels and African countries currently do not
have the necessary capacity to respond to disaster in an effective and sustainable manner. A number
of efforts to deal with the impact of disasters such as food aid, food imports by government and
supply of seeds as part of relief programmes have had only minimal impact on the overall food
situation, and the frequent introduction during disasters of unsuitable varieties erodes biodiversity
65
and leads to loss of valuable local genetic resources. As a result of the increasing incidence of
emergency situations, an increasing proportion of the assistance allocated to Africa is invested in
relief operations and a much smaller and decreasing proportion in seed development work needed to
increase sustainable seed supply and improve preparedness. This complex situation must be reviewed
and solutions found to ensure adequate investment in seed development.
Inadequate Regional Seed Marketing
There is a lack of collaboration, consultation and harmonization at the regional and continental
levels concerning the development, movement and use of high-yielding vegetatively propagated materials
and seed. This has led to unduly restrictive seed certification and variety release requirements, which differ
from country to country, and which, together with excessive phytosanitary and foreign currency regulations,
function as non-tariff barriers that hamper seed exchange. Better coordination and capacity building are
needed at the national, regional and continental levels to overcome the constraints related to seed trade
through harmonization of seed rules and improved policies.
4.0 Conclusion
Though, International research centres and African national agricultural research systems have developed
new improved varieties. However, these varieties often do not reach farmers because of lengthy testing
requirements which have to be repeated even in countries with similar agro-ecological conditions. For
existing and approved varieties, lack of national capacity to maintain the variety and provide Basic Seed in a
timely manner hampers exploitation of the varieties
5.0 Summary
.germplasm can be preserved to avoid its disappearance from natural environment
.the rapid decline in the abundance of wild biodiversity necessitates its conservation
.germplasm conservation has many benefits
.several obstacles limit the effective use of plant genetic resources
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1. Define germplasm conservation
2. State the need to conserve germplasm
3. Identify the benefits of germplasm conservation
4. Explain three the obstacles to use of plant genetic resources
7.0 References
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Germplasm Appropriation
3.2 Germplasm Appropriation in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
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5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, focus would be laid on germplasm appropriation. An appropriation may be defined as an act of
taking something which belongs to someone else, especially without permission. We will be looking at how
farmers’ rights to genetic resources are usurped.
2.0 Objectives
- discuss germplasm appropriation
- explain the appropriation status in Nigeria
- explain the appropriation status in Nigeria
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Germplasm Appropriation
The concept of Farmers’ Rights was formulated as a retrospective equity to acknowledge the different
contributions which farmers have made towards “conserving, improving and making available plant genetic
resources particularly those in the centers of origin/diversity”. The rights were vested in the international
community, as trustees for present and future generations of farmers. It was proposed that they would be
implemented through an international fund for plant genetic resources.
In many regions, there seem to be a lack of collaboration, consultation and harmonization at the regional
and continental levels concerning the development, movement and use of high-yielding vegetatively
propagated materials and seed. This has led to unduly restrictive seed certification and variety release
requirements, which differ from country to country, and which, together with excessive phytosanitary and
foreign currency regulations, function as non-tariff barriers that hamper seed exchange.
68
Most times farmers do not know their rights and may be cheated out of accruing benefits. Better
coordination and capacity building are needed at the national, regional and continental levels to overcome the
constraints related to seed trade through harmonization of seed rules and improved policies.
3.2 Germplasm Appropriation in Nigeria
Germplasm Appropriation in Nigeria seems to be passive if non-existing. Even though Nigeria has
joined the league of International Treaty Community, majority of known species are disappearing from their
natural habitats without control, documentations or assessments. Individuals may gather biodiversity for
preservation, without legal authority and to no registered controlled environments. Farmers and Users
mostly recognized over time that certain herps are no longer found. There is no enforced legislation to
promote germplasm appropriation.
4.0 Conclusion
The conservation ethic advocates management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity
in species, ecosystems, the evolutionary process, and human culture and society. This should be of benefit to
foreign and local farmers.
5.0 Summary
.the concept of Farmer’s Rights was formulated to acknowledge the contributions of farmers towards
conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources particularly, those in the centers of
origin/diversity
. there seem to be a lack of collaboration, consultation and harmonization at the regional and continental
levels concerning the development, movement and use of high-yielding vegetatively propagated materials
and seeds.
69
1. Discuss germplasm appropriation.
2. Explain the appropriation status in Nigeria.
Guerrant EO. 1992. Genetic and demographic considerations in the sampling and reintroduction of rare
preservation, and management. New York (NY): Routledge, Chapman and Hall Inc. p321-344.
Module 5 Bio-resource Management
Unit 1 Bio-resource Management
Unit 2 Biotechnological Legislation
Unit 1 Bio-resource Management
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
70
3.1 Bio-resource management
3.1.1 Bio-resource management in Nigeria
3.2 Nigeria Projections on Bio-resource Management
3.2.1 Constraints to Bio-resource Management in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, your attention will be drawn to bio-resource management, how it is done in Nigeria. The
country’s projections and constraints to management will be considered. It is necessary to note that the
continual depletion of plant and animal species and the degradation of ecosystem stemming primarily from
economic motives have become an important issue of growing global concern. Despite the unbridled rate of
increase in the exploitation of biodiversity globally, the rate of replacement has not been commensurate with
use. Thus, the number of threatened and endangered species is increasing. There is need to preserve their
diversity. Focus on the activities of Nigerian Conservation Foundation will be great importance.
Objectives
- define bio-resource management
- explain the status of bio-resource management in Nigeria
- state the purposes of the Nigerian Conservation Foundation(NCF)
- where are the locations of NCF projects
- state Nigeria projections on bio-resource management
- identify the Nigerian constraints to bio-resource management
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3.0 Main Body
3.1 Bio-resource Management
Management is an aspect of conservation. It goes hand in hand with adequate planning to control
exploitation of resources and employ judicious use of the resources. The management of bio-resources is
an integral aspect of natural resource management which carters for all abiotic wellbeing to sustain biotic
components. The edaphic and other environmental conditions must be conducive for bio-resource
management to be successful. These conditions include proper waste control and management, especially
gaseous emissions which promotes global warming – a condition that increasingly supports biodiversity
loss.
3.1.1 Bio-resource Management in Nigeria
In Nigeria, government had set up various agencies to manage natural resources within its territory. Thus,
bio-resource management is taken alongside the management of natural resources by
The Establishment of Conservation Agencies
- The Forestry Department of the State and Federal Ministry of Agriculture
- The Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA)
- The Rivers Basin Development Authorities
- The Department of Wildlife Conservation
- Zoological and Botanical gardens in some Nigeria Universities
- The Nigerian Conservation Foundation and Nigerian Game Reserves Authorities.
The Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) is one of the foremost environmental non-
governmental organisation (NGO) in Nigeria today.
It was established to achieve the following purposes:
-saving the country's flora and fauna from extinction
-protecting the environment from pollution and degradation
-improving the quality of life of the custodians of our wildlife heritage.
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Since its inception, NCF has been deeply involved in specific projects targeted at improving the quality of the
Nigerian environment and Its management.
NCF projects are found in different locations across the nation. These conservation centres include
• Game Reserves, for the preservation of rare animals, like
Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State
Borgu Game Reserve in Niger State
Kainji Game Reserve in Niger State
Obudu Cattle Ranch in Cross River State
Okomu Sanctuary in Edo State
• Forest Reserves, for the preservation of plants and trees, like
Olomu Forest Reserve in Kwara State
Milki Hill Forest Reserve in Enugu State
Zamfara Forest Reserve in Zamfara State
Shaha River Forest in Ogun State
The centres which protect the environment alongside biotic components are
Hadejia-Nguru Wetland Conservation project
Kano Desertification Control Project, etc.
These projects still need support –financially, technically, etc for sustenance.
3.2 Nigerian Projections on Bio-resource Management
In practice, biodiversity’ suggests sustaining the diversity of species in each ecosystem as we plan
human activities that affect the use of the land and natural resources. Thus, the Federal Government's policy
goal on the conservation of biodiversity is to ensure sustainable use of forest resources and preservation of
the many benefits accruing from soil, water, and wildlife conservation for economic development.
Among the current priority programmes in Nigeria are the extension of National Parks and Reserves and
the compilation of the flora and fauna of Nigeria. The Nigerian Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(NBSAP) reviews the status of biodiversity conservation in Nigeria in an attempt to fill the gaps identified in
the country study programme, and develops strategies and action plans to bridge the gaps in the conservation
effort.
73
The Government's mission is that Nigeria's rich biological endowment together with the diverse
ecosystems would be secured, and its conservation and management assured through appreciation and
sustainable utilization by the Year 2010. Nigeria will continue to be active in the international arena while at
the local level infrastructural, human, and institutional capabilities will be developed to ensure equitable
sharing of biodiversity benefits over time.
To achieve this goal, the Nigerian strategy will be based on:
a) the inventory, identification, and rehabilitation of all threatened and endangered species of fauna and flora;
b) increasing the network of protected areas to include all ecosystem types consistent with internationally
accepted classification;
c) promotion and enhancement measures for both in situ and ex-situ conservation through identification,
inventories, evaluation, monitoring, research, education, public awareness, and training;
d) increasing the nation's biodiversity management capability (human, infrastructural, institutional, and
technological);
e) the development of economically and culturally sound strategies to combat biodiversity loss;
f) protection and promotion of policy guidance for bio prospecting and indigenous knowledge (intellectual
property right); and
g) the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems.
3.2.1 Constraints to Bio-resource Management in Nigeria
Bio-resource management in Nigeria is of utmost importance and immense support.
The major constraints are
- dearth of trained manpower,
- appropriate technology and
- Inadequate funds for implementation.
4.0 Conclusion
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an
entire planet. It is also a measure of the health of ecosystems. Greater biodiversity implies
greater health and as it is in part, a function of climate, it is of great need to be judiciously
managed.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been exposed to the fact that;
74
.the management of bio-resources is an integral aspect of natural resource management
which carters for all abiotic wellbeing to sustain biotic components
.in Nigeria, government had set up various agencies to manage natural resources within its
Territory
.government’s focus is that Nigeria’s rich biological endowment together with the diverse
ecosystems would be secured, and its conservation and management assured through
appreciation and sustainable utilization
.there are many constraints to bio-resource management in Nigeria
1. Define bio-resource management
2. Explain the status of bio-resource management in Nigeria
3. State the purposes of the Nigerian Conservstion Foundation (NCF)
4. Where are the locations of NCF projects
5. State Nigeria projections on bio-resource management
6. Identify the Nigerian constraints to bio-resource management
Prof. Oladipo, E.( et.al) 2001. First National Biodiversity Report on Nigeria. Biodiversity
Report on Nigeria. Accessed on May 5, 2011. From
http://www.pabiodiversity.org/economic.html
75
United Nations Report on: National Resource Aspects of Sustainable Development in
Nigeria.2009
Unit 2 Bio-resource Legislation
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Bio-resource Legislation
3.1.1 Bio-resource Legislation in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/ Further Reading.
1.0 Introduction
Biodiversity as the economic and socio-cultural base of human systems, providing
unquantifiable benefits to man and the environment including shelter, food, clothing, medicine,
recreation, and resources for industry, needs to be conserved and managed sustainably for
present and future generations. Uncontrolled logging and tree felling are the order of the day in
many parts of the southern states of Nigeria. This carries with it loss of precious biological
diversity. This unit will look at the bio-resource legislations in Nigeria.
76
2.0 Objectives
- discuss legal status on bio-resource
- explain the bio-resource legislations in Nigeria
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Bio-resource Legislations
There are legislations regarding bio-resource. they are related to private and public property
rights. They can define protection for threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for
example, fishing and hunting rights). They define species that must be protected because they may
be threatened by extinction. The U.S. Endangered Species Act is an example of an attempt to
address the "law and species" issue.
Domestication and plant breeding methods are not new, but advances in genetic engineering has
led to tighter laws covering distribution of genetically modified organisms, gene patents and process
patents. Governments struggle to decide whether to focus on for example, genes, genomes, or
organisms and species; but there are global agreements such as the Convention on Biological
Diversity), which give "sovereign national rights over biological resources" . These agreements
commit countries to
• conserve biodiversity
• develop resources for sustainability and
• share the benefits resulting from their use.
Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting or collection of natural products, expect a
share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers/exploits the
resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when such
principles are not respected. Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access
and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity implies informed consent
between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for
77
what, and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing. Though uniform approval for use of
biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved in many countries.
3.1.1 Bio-resource Legislation in Nigeria
Without doubt Nigeria is richly endowed with diverse flora and fauna. These vital resources are
presently threatened by increased population pressure and intensified human development activities. These
activities are of major concern to managers who realize that natural resources are the backbone of industry.
Though there are technologies and capabilities being developed to protect endangered ecosystems,
especially watersheds, freshwater and high forests in Nigeria, conservation of biodiversity requires the
development and application of appropriate technology, particularly in research, ex-situ conservation, and
others. Such technology are not yet operational in Nigeria, though, there are hopes of implementation in the
near future.
There is no Land Use Policy in the country other than a Land Use Act. States are being encouraged
to derive their legislation from the national framework. A national forest and wildlife law is being developed
with the involvement of all stakeholders.
There is no forest certification practice in the country. However, public involvement on forest
certification is being articulated in the proposed revised policy which will encourage private sector and NGO
participation.
Issues relating to reports on Nigerian Farmers’ Rights Legislation and Policy Database shows that
there is no legislation found on Patent Laws in Nigeria, neither is there the Plant Breeders’ Right Legislation.
4.0 Conclusion
There are relationships between law and ecosystems which has been for decades now and they
have consequences for biodiversity. Law regarding species is more recent while Laws regarding gene
pools have been in existence but were not popular until recent times, mainly due to needs to
preserve or conserve. In Nigeria, some of these issues are lacking and those in place lack popular
enforcement.
5.0 Summary
78
Having gone through this unit, you are aware that;
.bio-resource legislation can define protection for threatened ecosystems, endangered species as well
as some rights and duties
.there are global agreements committing countries to conserve their biodiversity, develop resources
for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use
. presently, there is no Land Use Policy, no Forest Certification Practice, there is no legislation found
on Patent Laws neither is there the Plant Breeders’ Right legislation in Nigeria.
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment
1. Discuss legal status of bio-resource legislations
2. Explain the bio-resource legislations in Nigeria.
7.0Reference/Further Reading
Prof. Oladipo, E.( et.al) 2001. First National Biodiversity Report on Nigeria. Biodiversity Report on
Nigeria. Accessed on May 5, 2011. From http://www.pabiodiversity.org/economic.html
United Nations Report on: National Resource Aspects of Sustainable Development in Nigeria.2009
http://asbp-au.org/about/-programme|programme-rationale/inadequate-regional-seed-marketing
Unit 3 Approaches to Biodiversity Management
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 In-Situ Approach
3.2 Ex-Situ Approach
3.3 Restoration and Rehabilitation Approach
79
3.4 Land-Use Approach
3.5 Policy and Institutional Approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
You have been intimated with the concept ‘biodiversity’ particularly, its definitions and benefits to humans
and natural endowments. Emphasis has also been placed on effective management of bio-resources with
many strategies employed. In this unit, however, efforts will be made to further stress the approaches that are
being adopted to control and manage biodiversity.
2.0 Objectives
It is hoped that at the end of this unit you will be able to ;
- discuss in-situ approach
- explain ex-situ approach
- explain restoration and rehabilitation approach
- discuss land-use approach
- discuss policy and institutional approach
3.0 Main Body
3.1 In-Situ Approach
This approach is very popular among the ecologists and conservationists who use it to protect habitats
and ecosystems. Simply, the approach uses methods and tools to protect species, genetic varieties and habitats
in the wild. It ensures that the cherished varieties or species of plants do not go into extinction. The
usefulness of the species not withstanding both the beneficial and the less beneficial are collectively
protected.
3.2 Ex-Situ Approach
80
This approach is concerned with the deliberate and selective removal of plants, animals and microbial
species and genetic varieties from their original environment. What the agriculturalists and specie-orientated
biologists do is attributable to this approach. The ultimate goal for the use of this approach is approach is for
the maintenance of samples of species.
3.3 Restoration and Rehabilitation Approach
As the name implies, the approach combines the use of the earlier described approaches, that is, in-
situ and ex-situ to achieve its objective. The combined approaches are used to re-establish species, genetic
varieties, communities, populations, habitats and ecological processes. Ecological restoration is concerned
with the reconstruction of natural and semi-natural ecosystems on degraded lands.
This approach therefore, includes the reintroduction of most native species, while ecological
rehabilitation is concerned with the repair of ecosystem processes.
3.4 Major- Land-Use Approach
This approach is popular with the tools and strategies as used by those in agriculture, forestry, fisheries and
wild-life management and tourism. This is because these fields make use of extensive land and in the process
incorporate protection, sustainable use and equity criteria and guidelines as management objectives and
practices.
These approaches dominate most landscapes and the near shore coastal zone and so offer the greatest
reward for investments in biodiversity management.
3.5 Policy and Institutional Approach
The main focus of this approach is the establishments of easements and the arrangements between
public agencies and private interests that are seeking to establish landscape characteristics favourable to
biodiversity. The approach works by limiting the use of incentives and tax policies to foster particular land-
use practices and to create and enforce land tenure arrangements that promote effectiveness and
sustainability.
4.0 Conclusion
Biodiversity management requires deliberate effort at making the species and varieties of the bio-
resources in a particular environment. The evolving effective strategies that are being used include the in-situ
approach, the ex-situ approach, the restoration and rehabilitation approach, the major land-use approach and
the policy and institutional approach.
5.0 Summary
Having gone through this unit, you should be in the position to acknowledge that;
. in-situ approach uses methods and tools to protect bio-resources in the wild
. ex-situ approach is concerned with the deliberate and selective removal of plants, animals and microbial
species from their original environment
81
.restoration and rehabilitation approach includes the reintroduction of most native species and the repair of
ecosystem processes
.major land-use approach incorporates protection, sustainable use and equity criteria and guidelines as
management objectives and practices.
.policy and institutional approach aids the agencies and pirate interests that are seeking to establish landscape
characteristics favourable to biodiversity.
1. Distinguish between in-situ and ex-situ approaches in biodiversity management.
2. Explain restoration and rehabilitation approach of biodiversity management.
. Gray J. S.(2004): Why should we study and be concerned about marine biodiversity? Hydrobiological
.Neira M.(2011): Biodiversity. http://www.panda.org
.Silvert W.(2011): The meaning of biodiversity. http://bill.sivert.org/pdf/Biodiversity.pdf
82

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: AGB 404

COURSE TITLE: BIO RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (3 UNITS)

Programme Leader: Dr N.E Mundi

Course Coordinator: Mr Samuel awolumate

What you will learn in this Course……………………..................................................................4

Working through this Course……………………………………………………………………...5

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)……………………………………………………………….8

Final Examination and Grading……………………………………………………………………8

species uniqueness within specific locations.

human population, demands for biological resources, industrialization and biotechnology in

What you will learn in this course

and how you are to use them.

course, you should be able to:

i. Explain the origin of biodiversity as well as name the levels of biodiversity

iv. Explain the types and discuss the uses of biodiversity

v. Define genetic erosion and identify their causes

vi. State indirect and direct causes of genetic erosion in Nigeria

vii. State the effects and methods of managing genetic erosion

viii. Define plant biotechnology and explain traits of interest in plants

x. Explain the potential risks of plant biotechnology in forestry

xiii. Discuss germplasm appropriation as well as its status in Nigeria

xiv. State the purposes of the Nigerian Conservation Foundation

xv. Identify the constraints to bio-resource management in Nigeria

xvi. Explain bio-resource legislations in Nigeria

xvii. Discuss approaches to biodiversity management

Working through this Course

You will be provided with the following:

ii. Five (5) modules of content of nineteen (18) units

iii. Recommended textbooks and lists of reference materials.

Module1: Biological Diversity

Unit 1: Historical Perspectives

Unit 2: The Ecosystem

Unit 3: The Nigerian Ecosystem

Unit 4: Types and Uses of Biodiversity

Module 2: Genetic Erosion

Unit 1: Genetic Erosion

Unit 2: Genetic Erosion in Nigeria

Unit 3: Effects and Management of Genetic Erosion

Module 3: Plant Biotechnology

Unit 1: Plant Biotechnology

Unit 2: Historical Perspectives

Unit 3: Benefits of Plant Biotechnology

Unit 4: Applications of Biotechnology in forestry

Unit 5: Forest Biotechnology and Conservation

Unit 1: What is Germplasm

Unit 2: Germplasm Conservations

Unit 3: Germplasm Appropriation

Module 5: Bio-resource Management and Legislation

Unit 1: Bio-resource Management

Unit 2: Biotechnological Legislation

Unit 3: Approaches to Biodiversity Management

• Neira M.(2011): Biodiversity. http://www.panda.org

• Silvert W.(2011): The meaning of biodiversity. http://bill.sivert.org/pdf/Biodiversity.pdf

i. Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMA’s)

ii. End of course examination

Final Examination and Grading