Unit 3

UNIT-3: SQL
Data Definition, Constraints, and Schema Changes in SQL2
Structured Query Language (SQL) was designed and implemented at IBM Research.
Created in late 70‘s, under the name of SEQUEL
A standard version of SQL (ANSI 1986), is called SQL86 or SQL1. A
revised version of standard SQL, called SQL2 (or SQL92).
SQL are going to be extended with objectoriented and other recent database
concepts. Consists of
A Data Definition Language (DDL) for declaring database schemas
Data Manipulation Language (DML) for modifying and querying database
instances
In SQL, relation, tuple, and attribute are called table, row, and columns respectively.
The SQL commands for data definition are CREATE, ALTER, and DROP.
The CREATE TABLE Command is used to specify a new table by giving it a name and
specifying its attributes (columns) and constraints.
Data types available for attributes are:
o Numeric integer, real (formated, such as DECIMAL(10,2))
o CharacterString fixedlength and varyinglength
o BitString fixedlength, varyinglength
o Date in the form YYYYMMDD
o Time in the form HH:MM:SS
o Timestamp includes both the DATE and TIME fields
o Intervalto increase/decrease the value of date, time, or timestamp
4.2 Basic Queries in SQL
SQL allows a table (relation) to have two or more tuples that are identical in all their
attributes values. Hence, an SQL table is not a set of tuple, because a set does not allow
two identical members; rather it is a multiset of tuples.
A basic query statement in SQL is the SELECT statement.
The SELECT statement used in SQL has no relationship to the SELECT operation of
relational algebra.
The SELECT Statement
The syntax of this command is:

SELECT <attribute list>
FROM <table list>
WHERE <Condition>;
Query 0: Retrieve the birthday and address of the employee(s) whose name is ‗John B. Smith‘
Q0: SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME = ‗John‘ AND MINIT =‗B‘ ANDLNAME = ‗SMITH‘
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employee who work for the ‗Research‘ Dept.
Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROMEMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME = ‗Research‘ AND DNUMBER = DNO
Query2: For every project located in ‗Stafford‘, list the project number, the controlling
departmentnumber, and the department manager‘s last name, address, and birthdate.
Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, ADDRESS, BDATE
FROMPROJECT, DEPARTMENT,EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN AND PLOCATION =

‗Stafford‘
Dealing with Ambiguous Attribute Names and Renaming (Aliening)
Ambiguity in the case where attributes are same name need to qualify the attribute using DOT
separator
e.g., WHERE DEPARTMENT.DNUMBER=EMPLOYEE.DNUMBER
More
Ambiguity in the case of queries that refer to the same relation twice
Query 8: For each employee, retrieve the employee‘s first and last name and the first and last
name of his or her immediate supervisor
Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEEAS S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN
Unspecified WHEREClause and Use of Asterisk (*)
A missing WHEREclause indicates no conditions, which means all tuples are selected
In case of two or more table, then all possible tuple combinations are selected
Example: Q10: Select all EMPLOYEE SSNs , and all combinations of EMPLOYEE SSN and
DEPARTMENT DNAME
SELECT SSN, DNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
More
To retrieve all the attributes, use * in SELECT clause
Retrieve all employees working for Dept. 5
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=5
Substring Comparisons, Arithmetic Operations, and Ordering
like, binary operator for comparing strings

%, wild card for strings
_, wild card for characters
||, concatenate operation for strings
(name like ‘%a_‘) is true for all names having ‗a‘ as second letter from the end.
Partial strings are specified by using '

SELECTFNAME, LNAME
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME LIKE '%Mc%';
In order to list all employee who were born during 1960s we have the followings:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME
. FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE BDATE LIKE '6_______';
SQL also supports addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (denoted by +, , *,
and /, respectively) on numeric values or attributes with numeric domains.
Examples: Show the resulting salaries if every employee working on the 'ProductX' project is
given a 10 percent raise.
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER AND PNAME='ProductX';
Retrieve all employees in department number 5 whose salary between $30000 and $40000.
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE (SALARY BETWEEN 30000 AND 40000) AND DNO=5;
It is possible to order the tuples in the result of a query.
SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME

FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME, FNAME;
The default order is in ascending order, but user can specify
ORDER BY DNAME DESC, LNAME ASC, FNAME, ASC;
Tables as Sets in SQL
SQL treats table as a multiset, which means duplicate tuples are OK
SQL does not delete duplicate because Duplicate elimination is an expensive operation (sort and
delete) user may be interested in the result of a query in case of aggregate function, we do not
want to eliminate duplicates
To eliminate duplicate, use DISTINCT
examples
Q11: Retrieve the salary of every employee , and (Q!2) all distinct salary values
Q11: SELECT ALL SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE
Q12: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE
More Complex SQL Queries
Complex SQL queries can be formulated by composing nested SELECT/FROM/WHERE

clauses within the WHEREclause of another query
Example: Q4: Make a list of Project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last
name is ‗Smith‘, either as a worker or as a manger of the department that controls the project
Q4 SELECT DISTINCT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT
WHERE PNUMBER IN (SELECT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN AND

LNAME=‗Smith‘
OR PNUMBER IN (SELECT PNO
FROM WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE ESSN=SSN AND LNAME=‗Smith‘)
IN operator and set of union compatible tuples
Example:
SELECT DISTINCT ESSN
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE (PNO, HOURS) IN (SELECT PNO, HOURS
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=‗123456789‘
ANY, SOME and >, <=,<>,etc.
The keyword ALL
In addition to the IN operator, a number of other comparison operators can be used to compare a
single value v to a set of multiset V.
ALL V returns TRUE if v is greater than all the value in the set
Select the name of employees whose salary is greater than the salary of all the
employees in department 5
SELECT LNAME, FNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SALARY > ALL (SELECT SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=5);
Ambiguity in nested query
SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND E.FNAM=DEPENDENT_NAME AND
SEX=E.SEX
Correlated Nested Query
Whenever a condition in the WHEREclause of a nested query references some attributes of a

relation declared in the outer query, the two queries are said to be correlated. The result of a
correlated nested query is different for each tuple (or combination of tuples) of the relation(s) the
outer query.
In general, any nested query involving the = or comparison operator IN can always be rewritten
as a single block query
FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D
WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND E.SEX=D.SEX AND E.FNAME =D.DEPENDENT=NAME
Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent with the same first name as the employee.
Q12: SELECTE.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)
In Q12, the nested query has a different result for each tuple in the outer query.
The original SQL as specified for SYSTEM R also had a CONTAINS comparison operator,
which is used in conjunction with nested correlated queries This operator was dropped from the
language, possibly because of the difficulty in implementing it efficiently Most implementations
of SQL do not have this operator The CONTAINS operator compares two sets of values , and
returns TRUE if one set contains all values in the other set (reminiscent of the division operation
of algebra).
Query 3: Retrieve the name of each employee who works on all the projects controlled by
department number 5.
Q3: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ( (SELECT PNO FROM WORKS_ON WHERE SSN=ESSN)

CONTAINS (SELECT PNUMBER FROM PROJECT WHERE DNUM=5) )
In Q3, the second nested query, which is not correlated with the outer query, retrieves the project
numbers of all projects controlled by department 5.
The first nested query, which is correlated, retrieves the project numbers on which the employee
works, which is different for each employee tuple because of the correlation.
THE EXISTS AND UNIQUE FUNCTIONS IN SQL
EXISTS is used to check whether the result of a correlated nested query is empty (contains no
tuples) or not We can formulate Query 12 in an alternative form that uses EXISTS as Q12B
below.
Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent with the same first name as
the employee.

FROM EMPLOYEE E
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE E.SSN=ESSN AND SEX=E.SEX AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME
Query 6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.

Q6: SELECTFNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS(SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN)
In Q6, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT tuples related to an EMPLOYEE
tuple. If none exist , the EMPLOYEE tuple is selected EXISTS is necessary for the expressive
power of SQL
EXPLICIT SETS AND NULLS IN SQL
It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set of values in the WHEREclause rather than a
nested query Query 13: Retrieve the social security numbers of all employees who work on
project number 1, 2, or 3.
Retrieve SSNs of all employees who work on project number 1,2,3
SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1,2,3)
Null example
SQL allows queries that check if a value is NULL (missing or undefined or not applicable) SQL
uses IS or IS NOT to compare NULLs because it considers each NULL value distinct from other
NULL values, so equality comparison is not appropriate .
Retrieve the names of all employees who do not have supervisors
SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SUPERSSN IS NULL
Note: If a join condition is specified, tuples with NULL values for the join attributes are not
included in the result
Join Revisit
Retrieve the name and address of every employee who works for ‗Search‘ department
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNO=DNUMBER)
WHERE DNAME=‗Search‘
Aggregate Functions
Include COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
Query 15: Find the sum of the salaries of all employees the ‗Research‘ dept, and the max salary,
the min salary, and average:
SELECT SUM(SALARY), MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY) AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=FNUMBER AND DNAME=‗RSEARCH‘
Query 16: Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary, and the average salary among
employees who work for the 'Research' department.
Q16: SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)

WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND DNAME='Research'
Queries 17 and 18: Retrieve the total number of employees in the company (Q17), and the
number of employees in the 'Research' department (Q18).
Q17: SELECTCOUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE
Q18: SELECTCOUNT (*)
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND DNAME='Research'
Example of grouping
In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate functions to subgroups of tuples in a relation Each
subgroup of tuples consists of the set of tuples that have the same value for the grouping
attribute(s)
The function is applied to each subgroup independently

SQL has a GROUP BYclause for specifying the grouping attributes, which must also appear in
the SELECTclause
For each project, select the project number, the project name, and the number of employees
who work on that projet
SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT(*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
In Q20, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groupseach group having the same value for the
grouping attribute DNO The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such group of
tuples separately.The SELECTclause includes only the grouping attribute and the functions to be
applied on each group of tuples. A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping
Query 21: For each project, retrieve the project number, project name, and the number of employees who work on
that project.
Q21: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
In this case, the grouping and functions are applied after the joining of the two relations
THE HAVINGCLAUSE:
Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of these functions for only those groups that satisfy
certain conditions. The HAVINGclause is used for specifying a selection condition on groups
(rather than on individual tuples)
Query 22: For each project on which more than two employees work , retrieve the project
number, project name, and the number of employees who work on that project.
Q22: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)

WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2
Update Statements in SQL
The Insert Command
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE
VALUES (‗Richard‘,‘K‘,‘Marini‘,653298653‘,‘30dec52‘,98 Oak Forest, Katy,

TX‘,‘M‘,37000,‘987654321‘,4)
More on Insert
Use explicit attribute names:
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME,SSN)
VALUES (‗Richard‘,‘Marini‘, ‗653298653‘
The DELECT Command
DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE LNAME=‗Brown‘
The UPDATE Command
Used to modify values of one or more selected tuples
Change the location and controlling department number of project number 10 to ‗Bellaire‘ and 5
respectively
UPDATE PROJECT
SET PLOCATION = ‗Bellaire‘, DNUM=5
Where PNUMBER=10;
Views in SQL
A view refers to a single table that is derived from other tables
CREATE VIEW WORKS_ON1

AS SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
More on View
CREATE VIEW DEPT_INFO(DEPT_NAME, NO_OF_EMPLS, TOTAL_SAL)
AS SELECT DNAME, COUNT(*), SUM(SALARY)
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE

WHERE DNUMBER=DNO
GROUP BY DNAME
More on view
Treat WORKS_ON1 like a base table as follows
SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM WORKS_ON1
WHERE PNMAE=‗PROJECTX‘
Main advantage of view:
Simplify the specification of commonly used queries
More on View
A View is always up to date;
A view is realized at the time we specify(or execute) a query on the view
DROP VIEW WORKS_ON1
Updating of Views
Updating the views can be complicated and ambiguous
In general, an update on a view on defined on a single table w/o any aggregate functions can be
mapped to an update on the base table
More on Views
We can make the following observations:
A view with a single defining table is updatable if we view contain PK or CK of the base table
View on multiple tables using joins are not updatable
View defined using grouping/aggregate are not updatable
Specifying General Constraints
Users can specify certain constraints such as semantics constraints
CREATE ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT
CHECK ( NOT EXISTS ( SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M,

DEPARTMENT D
WHERE E.SALARY > M. SALARY AND E.DNO=D.NUMBER AND D.MGRSSN=M.SSN))
5.3 Additional features
Granting and revoking privileges
Embedding SQL statements in a general purpose languages (C, C++, COBOL, PASCAL)
SQL can also be used in conjunction with a general purpose programming language, such as
PASCAL, COBOL, or PL/I. The programming language is called the host language. The
embedded SQL statement is distinguished from programming language statements by prefixing
it with a special character or command so that a preprocessor can extract the SQL statements. In
PL/I the keywords EXEC SQL precede any SQL statement. In some implementations, SQL
statements are passed as parameters in procedure calls. We will use PASCAL as the host
programming language, and a "$" sign to identify SQL statements in the program. Within an
embedded SQL command, we may refer to program variables, which are prefixed by a "%" sign.
The programmer should declare program variables to match the data types of the database
attributes that the program will process.These program variables may or may not have names
that are identical to their corresponding attributes.
Example: Write a program segment (loop) that reads a social security number and prints out some information from
the corresponding EMPLOYEE tuple
E1: LOOP:= 'Y';
while LOOP = 'Y' do
begin
writeln('input social security number:');
readln(SOC_SEC_NUM);
$SELECT FNAME, MINIT, LNAME, SSN, BDATE,
ADDRESS, SALARY
INTO %E.FNAME, %E.MINIT, %E.LNAME, %E.SSN,
%E.BDATE, %E.ADDRESS, %E.SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN=%SOC_SEC_NUM ;
writeln( E.FNAME, E.MINIT, E.LNAME,
E.SSN, E.BDATE, E.ADDRESS, E.SALARY);
writeln('more social security numbers (Y or N)?
'); readln(LOOP)
end;
In E1, a single tuple is selected by the embedded SQL query; that is why we are able to assign its
attribute values directly to program variables. In general, an SQL query can retrieve many tuples.
The concept of a cursor is used to allow tupleatatime processing by the PASCAL
programCURSORS: We can think of a cursor as a pointer that points to a single tuple (row) from
the result of a query.The cursor is declared when the SQL query command is specified. A
subsequent OPEN cursor command fetches the query result and sets the cursor to a position
before the first row in the result of the query; this becomes the current row for the cursor.
Subsequent FETCH commands in the program advance the cursor to the next row and copy its
attribute values into PASCAL program variables specified in the FETCH command. An implicit
variable SQLCODE communicates to the program the status of SQL embedded commands. An
SQLCODE of 0 (zero) indicates successful execution. Different codes are returned to indicate
exceptions and errors. A special END_OF_CURSOR code is used to terminate a loop over the
tuples in a query result. A CLOSE cursor command is issued to indicate that we are done with
the result of the query When a cursor is defined for rows that are to be updated the clause FOR
UPDATE OF must be in the cursor declaration, and a list of the names of any attributes that will
be updated follows.The condition WHERE CURRENT OF cursor specifies that the current tuple
is the one to be updated (or deleted)
Example: Write a program segment that reads (inputs) a department name, then lists the names
of employees who work in that department, one at a time. The program reads a raise amount for
each employee and updates the employee's salary by that amount.
E2: writeln('enter the department name:'); readln(DNAME);

$SELECT DNUMBER INTO %DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME=%DNAME;
$DECLARE EMP CURSOR FOR
SELECT SSN, FNAME, MINIT, LNAME, SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=%DNUMBER
FOR UPDATE OF SALARY;
$OPEN EMP;
$FETCH EMP INTO %E.SSN, %E.FNAME, %E.MINIT,
%E.LNAME, %E.SAL;
while SQLCODE = 0 do
begin
writeln('employee name: ', E.FNAME, E.MINIT, E.LNAME);
writeln('enter raise amount: '); readln(RAISE);
$UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET SALARY = SALARY + %RAISE
WHERE CURRENT OF EMP;
$FETCH EMP INTO %E.SSN, %E.FNAME, %E.MINIT,
%E.LNAME, %E.SAL;
end;
$CLOSE CURSOR EMP;
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.
What is SQL?
1. SQL stands for Structured Query Language

2. SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
3. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
What Can SQL do?
1. SQL can execute queries against a database

2. SQL can retrieve data from a database
3. SQL can insert records in a database
4. SQL can update records in a database
5. SQL can delete records from a database 2i 39 h 0
6. SQL can create new databases
7. SQL can create new tables in a database
8. SQL can create stored procedures in a database
9. SQL can create views in a database
10. SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers"
or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Kumari Mounitha VPura Bangalore
2 Kumar Pranav Yelhanka Bangalore
3 Gubbi Sharan Hebbal Tumkur
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName,
Address, and City).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.
Keep in Mind That...
2.2 SQL is not case sensitive
Semicolon after SQL Statements?
Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than
one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server.
We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL
statement, but some database programs force you to use it.
SQL DML and DDL
SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language
(DDL).
The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
2.8 SELECT - extracts data from a database

2.9 UPDATE - updates data in a database
2.10 DELETE - deletes data from a database
2.11 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also define indexes (keys), specify links
between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
3.1 CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

3.2 ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
3.3 CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
3.4 ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
3.5 DROP TABLE - deletes a table
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
and
SELECT * FROM table_name
Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.

An SQL SELECT Example
The "Persons" table:

Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName
Kumari Mounitha
Kumar Pranav
Gubbi Sharan
SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.
Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
This chapter will explain the SELECT DISTINCT statement.

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem, however, sometimes
you will want to list only the different (distinct) values in a table.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT Example

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above.
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons
City
Bangalore
Tumkur
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
WHERE Clause Example


Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Bangalore" from the table above.

WHERE City='Bangalore'

Quotes Around Text Fields
SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes).
Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes.
For text values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Pranav'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Pranav
For numeric values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause
With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:
OperatorDescription
<> Not equal

1 Equal
3.2.3 Greater than
1 Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEENBetween an inclusive range

LIKE Search for a pattern
IN If you know the exact value you want to return
for at least one of the columns
Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !
SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.
The AND & OR Operators
The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example

Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Pranav" AND the last name equal to
"Kumar":

WHERE FirstName='Pranav'
AND LastName='Kumar'

OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Pranav" OR the first name equal to
"Mounitha":

WHERE FirstName='Pranav'
OR FirstName='Mounitha'

Combining AND & OR
You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to "Kumar" AND the first name equal to
"Pranav" OR to "Mounitha":
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE

LastName='Kumar'
AND (FirstName='Pranav' OR FirstName='Mounitha')

SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.
The ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column.
The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in ascending order by default.
If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC
ORDER BY Example

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Tumkur
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons by their last
name.

ORDER BY LastName

ORDER BY DESC Example
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons descending
by their last name.

ORDER BY LastName DESC

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
SQL INSERT INTO Example
We have the following "Persons" table:

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
INSERT INTO Persons

VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Tumkur')
The "Persons" table will now look like this:

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Tumkur
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.

The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the
"FirstName" columns:
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)

VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')

5 Tjessem Jakob
SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.
The UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records
that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
SQL UPDATE Example

5 Tjessem Jakob
Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.

UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Bangalore'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Bangalore
SQL UPDATE Warning
Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the example above, like this:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Bangalore'
The "Persons" table would have looked like this:

1 Kumari Mounitha Nissestien 67 Bangalore
2 Kumar Pranav Nissestien 67 Bangalore
3 Gubbi Sharan Nissestien 67 Bangalore
4 Nilsen Johan Nissestien 67 Bangalore
SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.
The DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records
that should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
SQL DELETE Example

Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
DELETE FROM Persons

WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

Delete All Rows
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure,
attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name

or
DELETE * FROM table_name
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
SQL TOP Clause
The TOP Clause
The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number of
records can impact on performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the TOP clause.

SQL Server Syntax
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle
MySQL Syntax
FROM table_name
LIMIT number
Oracle Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number
SQL TOP Example

Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above.
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons

SQL TOP PERCENT Example

Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the table above.
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons

SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
The LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.
SQL LIKE Syntax

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "B" from the table above.

WHERE City LIKE 'B%'
The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and after the pattern.

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "r" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE '%r'

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "mk" from the "Persons"
table.

WHERE City LIKE '%mk%'

It is also possible to select the persons living in a city that NOT contains the pattern "mk" from the "Persons"
table, by using the NOT keyword.

WHERE City NOT LIKE '%mk%'

SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data in a database.
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for data in a database.
SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator.
With SQL, the following wildcards can be used:
Wildcard Description
% A substitute for zero or more characters
_ A substitute for exactly one character
[charlist] Any single character in charlist
[^charlist] Any single character not in charlist
or
[!charlist]
SQL Wildcard Examples

Using the % Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "sa" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE 'Ba%'

Using the _ Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with any character, followed by "ri" from the
"Persons" table.

WHERE FirstName LIKE '_ri'

Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "P", followed by any character, followed by
"an", followed by any character, followed by "v" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE LastName LIKE 'P_an_v'

Using the [charlist] Wildcard
Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons"
table.

WHERE FirstName LIKE '[bsp]%'

Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons"
table.

WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'

SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Kumari" or "Gubbi" from the table above.

WHERE LastName IN ('Kumari','Gubbi')

SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range of data between two values.
The BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data between two values. The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
BETWEEN Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between "Kumari" and "Gubbi" from the
table above.

WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Kumari' AND 'Gubbi'

Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases.
In some databases a person with the LastName of "Kumari" or "Gubbi" will not be listed (BETWEEN only selects
fields that are between and excluding the test values).
In other databases a person with the last name of "Kumari" or "Gubbi" will be listed (BETWEEN selects fields
that are between and including the test values).
And in other databases a person with the last name of "Kumari" will be listed, but "Gubbi" will not be listed
(BETWEEN selects fields between the test values, including the first test value and excluding the last test
value).
Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator.
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

WHERE LastName
NOT BETWEEN 'Kumari' AND 'Gubbi'

SQL Alias
With SQL, an alias name can be given to a table or to a column.
SQL Alias
You can give a table or a column another name by using an alias. This can be a good thing to do if you have
very long or complex table names or column names.
An alias name could be anything, but usually it is short.
SQL Alias Syntax for Tables

FROM table_name
AS alias_name
SQL Alias Syntax for Columns

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name
Alias Example
Assume we have a table called "Persons" and another table called "Product_Orders". We will give the table
aliases of "p" an "po" respectively.
Now we want to list all the orders that "Mounitha Kumari" is responsible for.
SELECT po.OrderID, p.LastName, p.FirstName

FROM Persons AS p,
Product_Orders AS po
WHERE p.LastName='Kumari'
WHERE p.FirstName='Mounitha'
The same SELECT statement without aliases:
SELECT Product_Orders.OrderID, Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName

FROM Persons,
Product_Orders
WHERE Persons.LastName='Kumari'
WHERE Persons.FirstName='Mounitha'
As you'll see from the two SELECT statements above; aliases can make queries easier to both write and to read.
SQL Joins
SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship between
certain columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship
between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique value for each row. Each primary key
value must be unique within the table. The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating
all of the data in every table.
Look at the "Persons" table:

Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This means that no two rows can have the
same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.
Next, we have the "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and that the "P_Id" column refers to the
persons in the "Persons" table without using their names.
Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id" column.
Different SQL JOINs

Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of JOIN you can use, and the differences between
them.
3.6 JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
3.7 LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table
3.8 RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table
3.9 FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
SQL INNER JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo

FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName
LastName FirstName OrderNo

Kumari Mounitha 22456
Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. If there are rows in
"Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there are no matches in
the right table (table_name2).
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
SQL LEFT JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables above.

FROM Persons
LEFT JOIN Orders

Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
Kumar Pranav
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), even if there are no matches in
the right table (Orders).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the right table (table_name2), even if there are no matches in
the left table (table_name1).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the tables above.

FROM Persons
RIGHT JOIN Orders

Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there are no matches in
the left table (Persons
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SQL FULL JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
SQL FULL JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with their persons.

FROM Persons
FULL JOIN Orders

Gubbi Sharan 77895
Gubbi Sharan 44678
Kumar Pranav
34764
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), and all the rows from the right table
(Orders). If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that
do not have matches in "Persons", those rows will be listed as well.
SQL UNION Operator
The SQL UNION operator combines two or more SELECT statements.
The SQL UNION Operator
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The columns
must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.
SQL UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use
UNION ALL.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax

UNION ALL
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in the first SELECT
statement in the UNION.
SQL UNION Example
Look at the following tables:
"Employees_India":
E_ID E_Name
01 Kumari, Mounitha
02 Kumar, Pranav
03 Kumar, Stephen
04 Gubbi, Sharan
"Employees_USA":
E_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Kumar, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_India

UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
E_Name
Kumari, Mounitha
Kumar, Pranav
Kumar, Stephen
Gubbi, Sharan
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen
Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in India and USA. In the example above we have two
employees with equal names, and only one of them will be listed. The UNION command selects only distinct
values.
SQL UNION ALL Example
Now we want to list all employees in India and USA:
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_India

UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
Result
E_Name
Kumari, Mounitha
Kumar, Pranav
Kumar, Stephen
Gubbi, Sharan
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Kumar, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to create backup copies of tables.
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a different table.
The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax
We can select all columns into the new table:
SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the new table:
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
SQL SELECT INTO Example
Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an exact copy of the data in our "Persons" table.
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT *
INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new table:
SELECT LastName,FirstName
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
SQL SELECT INTO - With a WHERE Clause
We can also add a WHERE clause.
The following SQL statement creates a "Persons_Backup" table with only the persons who lives in the city
"Bangalore":
SELECT LastName,Firstname
INTO Persons_Backup
FROM Persons
WHERE City='Bangalore'
SQL SELECT INTO - Joined Tables
Selecting data from more than one table is also possible.
The following example creates a "Persons_Order_Backup" table contains data from the two tables "Persons"
and "Orders":
SELECT Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo
INTO Persons_Order_Backup
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax

CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE DATABASE Example
Now we want to create a database called "my_db".
We use the following CREATE DATABASE statement:
CREATE DATABASE my_db
Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types
available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
CREATE TABLE Example
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName,
Address, and City.
We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number. The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are
of type varchar with a maximum length of 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement
SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is
created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
We will focus on the following constraints:
4.1 NOT NULL

4.2 UNIQUE
4.3 PRIMARY KEY
4.4 FOREIGN KEY
4.5 CHECK
4.6 DEFAULT
The next chapters will describe each constraint in details.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot insert a new
record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not accept NULL values:

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255)
)
SQL UNIQUE Constraint
SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of
columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.
Note that you can have have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint
per table.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only one primary key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple
columns, use the following SQL syntax:
To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint
To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:

The "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted into the foreign key column, because it
has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on
To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement
What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself?
Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE Statement
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax
To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype
To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't allow deleting
a column):

DROP COLUMN column_name
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:

ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype
SQL ALTER TABLE Example
Look at the "Persons" table:

Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD DateOfBirth date
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data type specifies
what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access,
MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
The "Persons" table will now like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth
Change Data Type Example
Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or four-digit
format.
DROP COLUMN Example
Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth
The "Persons" table will now like this:

SQL Views
A view is a virtual table.
This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real
tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data were
coming from one single table.
SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's SQL
statement, every time a user queries a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples
If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default.
The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued) from the "Products"
table. The view is created with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table with a unit price
higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that this view
selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS

SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS
CategorySales FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category "Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'
SQL Updating a View
You can update a view by using the following syntax:
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the view with the
following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View
You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name
SQL Date Functions
SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you are trying to insert,
matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if a time portion
is involved, it gets complicated.
Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most important built-in
functions for working with dates.
SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.

SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
5.1 AVG() - Returns the average value

5.2 COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
5.3 FIRST() - Returns the first value
5.4 LAST() - Returns the last value
5.5 MAX() - Returns the largest value
5.6 MIN() - Returns the smallest value
5.7 SUM() - Returns the sum
SQL Scalar functions
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Useful scalar functions:
6.1 UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case

6.2 LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
6.3 MID() - Extract characters from a text field
6.4 LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
6.5 ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
6.6 NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
6.7 FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next chapters.
SQL AVG() Function
The AVG() Function
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
SQL AVG() Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL AVG() Example
We have the following "Orders" table:
O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the average value of the "OrderPrice" fields.
SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders
OrderAverage
950
Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher than the average OrderPrice
value.
SELECT Customer FROM Orders

WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)
Customer
Kumari
Nilsen
Jensen
SQL COUNT() Function
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of the
specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name
Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to count the number of orders from "Customer Nilsen".
SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders

WHERE Customer='Nilsen'
The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer Nilsen has made 2 orders in total:
CustomerNilsen
2
SQL COUNT(*) Example
If we omit the WHERE clause, like this:
SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders
NumberOfOrders
6
which is the total number of rows in the table.
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example
Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders
NumberOfCustomers
3
which is the number of unique customers (Kumari, Nilsen, and Jensen) in the "Orders" table.
SQL MAX() Function
The MAX() Function
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SQL MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MAX() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the largest value of the "OrderPrice" column.
SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders

LargestOrderPrice
2000
SQL MIN() Function
The MIN() Function
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SQL MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MIN() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the smallest value of the "OrderPrice" column.
SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders
SmallestOrderPrice
100
SQL SUM() Function
The SUM() Function
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SQL SUM() Syntax

SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL SUM() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice" fields".
SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders
OrderTotal
5700
SQL GROUP BY Statement
Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.
The GROUP BY Statement
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or
more columns.
SQL GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
SQL GROUP BY Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.
We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers.
SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Kumari 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen 2000
Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY statement:
Kumari 5700
Nilsen 5700
Kumari 5700
Kumari 5700
Jensen 5700
Nilsen 5700
The result-set above is not what we wanted.
Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The SELECT statement above has two
columns specified (Customer and SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a single value (that is the
total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer" returns 6 values (one value for each row in the "Orders"
table). This will therefore not give us the correct result. However, you have seen that the GROUP BY statement
solves this problem.
GROUP BY More Than One Column
We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this:
SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate
SQL HAVING Clause
The HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with
aggregate functions.
SQL HAVING Syntax

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value
SQL HAVING Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Kumari
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Kumari
4 2008/09/03 300 Kumari
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.

GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)<2000
Nilsen 1700
Now we want to find if the customers "Kumari" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500.
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:

WHERE Customer='Kumari' OR Customer='Jensen'
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)>1500

Kumari 2000
Jensen 2000
SQL UCASE() Function
The UCASE() Function
The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase.
SQL UCASE() Syntax

SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL UCASE() Example

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to uppercase.
SELECT UCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
LastName FirstName
KUMARI Mounitha
KUMAR Pranav
GUBBI Sharan
SQL LCASE() Function
The LCASE() Function
The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase.
SQL LCASE() Syntax

SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LCASE() Example

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the
"LastName" column to lowercase.
SELECT LCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
LastName FirstName
Kumari Mounitha
Kumar Pranav
Gubbi Sharan
SQL MID() Function
The MID() Function
The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field.
SQL MID() Syntax

SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to extract characters from.
start Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1).
length Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function
returns the rest of the text.
SQL MID() Example

Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above.
SELECT MID(City,1,4) as SmallCity FROM Persons
SmallCity
Bang
Bang
Tumk
SQL LEN() Function
The LEN() Function
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.
SQL LEN() Syntax

SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LEN() Example

Now we want to select the length of the values in the "Address" column above.
SELECT LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Persons
LengthOfAddress
5
8
6
SQL ROUND() Function
The ROUND() Function

The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified.
SQL ROUND() Syntax

SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name
column_name Required. The field to round.
decimals Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.
SQL ROUND() Example
We have the following "Products" table:
Prod_Id ProductName Unit UnitPrice

1 Jarlsberg 1000 g 10.45
2 Mascarpone 1000 g 32.56
3 GorgonzMounitha 1000 g 15.67
Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the nearest integer.
SELECT ProductName, ROUND(UnitPrice,0) as UnitPrice FROM Persons
ProductName UnitPrice
Jarlsberg 10
Mascarpone 33
GorgonzMounitha 16
SQL NOW() Function
The NOW() Function
The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
SQL NOW() Syntax

SELECT NOW() FROM table_name
SQL NOW() Example

Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date.
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, Now() as PerDate FROM Persons
ProductName UnitPrice PerDate

Jarlsberg 10.45 30/09/2012
Mascarpone 32.56 30/09/2012
GorgonzMounitha 15.67 30/09/2012
SQL FORMAT() Function
The FORMAT() Function
The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed.
SQL FORMAT() Syntax

SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name
column_name Required. The field to be formatted.
format Required. Specifies the format.
SQL FORMAT() Example

Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with today's date displayed in the following
format "YYYY-MM-DD").
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') as PerDate

FROM Persons

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UNIT-3: SQL

Data Definition, Constraints, and Schema Changes in SQL2

4.2 Basic Queries in SQL

The SELECT Statement

The syntax of this command is:

Q0: SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS

WHERE FNAME = ‗John‘ AND MINIT =‗B‘ ANDLNAME = ‗SMITH‘

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

WHERE DNAME = ‗Research‘ AND DNUMBER = DNO

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, ADDRESS, BDATE

WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN AND PLOCATION =

Dealing with Ambiguous Attribute Names and Renaming (Aliening)

e.g., WHERE DEPARTMENT.DNUMBER=EMPLOYEE.DNUMBER

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEEAS S

SELECT SSN, DNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT

To retrieve all the attributes, use * in SELECT clause

Retrieve all employees working for Dept. 5

Substring Comparisons, Arithmetic Operations, and Ordering

like, binary operator for comparing strings

Partial strings are specified by using '

SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*SALARY

It is possible to order the tuples in the result of a query.

SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME

The default order is in ascending order, but user can specify

ORDER BY DNAME DESC, LNAME ASC, FNAME, ASC;

Tables as Sets in SQL

SQL treats table as a multiset, which means duplicate tuples are OK

To eliminate duplicate, use DISTINCT

Q11: SELECT ALL SALARY

Q12: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY

More Complex SQL Queries

Complex SQL queries can be formulated by composing nested SELECT/FROM/WHERE

Q4 SELECT DISTINCT PNUMBER

WHERE PNUMBER IN (SELECT PNUMBER

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE

WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN AND

OR PNUMBER IN (SELECT PNO

FROM WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE

WHERE ESSN=SSN AND LNAME=‗Smith‘)

IN operator and set of union compatible tuples

SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

WHERE (PNO, HOURS) IN (SELECT PNO, HOURS

ANY, SOME and >, <=,<>,etc.

The keyword ALL

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

Correlated Nested Query

Whenever a condition in the WHEREclause of a nested query references some attributes of a

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D

WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND E.SEX=D.SEX AND E.FNAME =D.DEPENDENT=NAME

Q12: SELECTE.FNAME, E.LNAME

Q3: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ( (SELECT PNO FROM WORKS_ON WHERE SSN=ESSN)

THE EXISTS AND UNIQUE FUNCTIONS IN SQL

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

Query 6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.