SEMESTER 2 2021/2022

BKC4913 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II

FINAL REPORT

PRODUCTION OF 50,000 MTPA GASOLINE FROM MIXED PLASTIC

WASTES (PP, PE AND PS) USING CATALYTIC PYROLYSIS

SUPERVISOR: AP. TS. DR. SUMAIYA BINTI ZAINAL ABIDIN @ MURAD

GROUP: A06

NAME STUDENT ID
1. Koo Chun Hong KA18189
2. Reniasha A/P Anballagan KA18066
3. Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd Tarmizi KA18144
4. Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri KA18176
5. Luqman Shah Bin Mohammad Shahzar KA18231

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

 DECLARATION

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the Department of
Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering for acceptance of this project entitled The
Production of 50,000 Metric Tonnes Per Annum of Gasoline from Mixed Plastic Wastes
(Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Polystyrene) Using Catalytic Pyrolysis submitted by

Koo Chun Hong KA18189

Reniasha A/P Anballagan KA18066
Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd Tarmizi KA18144
Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri KA18176
Luqman Shah Bin Mohammad Shahzar KA18231

in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the B.Eng. (Hons.) Chemical Engineering.

(ASSOC. PROF. TS. DR.

SUMAIYA ZAINAL ABIDIN @
MURAD)
 ACKNOLEDGEMENT

Firstly, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor, Assoc.
Prof. Ts. Dr. Sumaiya Zainal Abidin @ Murad, for her aspiring guidance, patience,
motivation and friendly advice during the design project work. Without her assistance
and dedicated involvement throughout the process, this design project would have never
been accomplished. We would like to thanks to all the lectures at the Engineering
College for the helps and advices throughout the project.

Furthermore, we are obliged to all panels for the valuable comments and
information provided by them in their respective fields. All these useful comments help
a lot in improving our plant design project. In addition, we would like to thank our
parents for their unconditional love in giving us support and motivation which enable us
to be determined and without giving up in completing the plant design project. Last but
not least, thanks to our beloved course mates and acquaintance, constant encouragement
and exchange of knowledge throughout our struggles in completing this design project.

We hope that, this report will give the readers some insight about gasoline
production plant from its planning stages until it is ready for start-up and
commissioning. The study has indeed helped us to explore more knowledgeable
avenues related to our topic and we were sure it will help us in future.
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Summary of Chapter 9: Conclusion

As a conclusion, this plant design is considered as a profitable project and is certainly
worth investing into the process plant. Gasoline should be generated to meet local and
oversea demand. Therefore, this project is feasible.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION

TITLE PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENT i

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF FIGURES xx

CHAPTER 1 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Plastic Waste Issues 1

1.1.2 Statistics of Plastic Waste in Malaysia 2

1.1.3 Plastic Types and Their Characteristics 4

1.1.4 Main Product from the Plastic Pyrolysis Process 5

1.1.5 By-Products from the Plastic Pyrolysis Process 7

1.1.6 Toxicity of Gasoline 8

1.2 Applications 10

1.2.1 Application of Plastic 10

1.2.2 Application of Main and By-Products of Pyrolysis Process 12

1.3 Market Survey 16

1.3.1 Plastic Production and Plastic Waste 16

1.3.2 Market for Gasoline 18

1.3.3 Market for Diesel 20

1.3.4 Market for Fuel Gas 21

1.3.5 Market for Char 22

1.3.6 Market for Residual Fuel Oil 23

1.3.7 Plant Capacity Decision 24

i
1.4 Process Technology 26

1.4.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) 27

1.4.2 Thermal Pyrolysis 29

1.4.3 Catalytic Pyrolysis 31

1.4.4 Catalyst Selection 38

1.5 Site Selection and Plant layout 41

1.5.1 Factors of Site Selection 41

1.5.2 Site Selection 43

1.5.3 Justification of Site Selection 49

1.5.4 Plant Layout 49

1.6 Project Objectives 53

CHAPTER 2 54

2.1 Level 1 Decision 54

2.1.1 Screening of Synthesis Routes 54

2.1.2 Decision on Synthesis Routes 54

2.1.3 Decision on Catalyst 55

2.1.4 Decision on Process Mode 55

2.1.5 Profit Margin and Economic Potential 1 Calculation for Each Synthesis
Routes 57

2.2 Level 2 Decision: Input-Output Structure 63

2.2.1 Input: Raw Material Selection 63

2.2.2 Output Materials Determination and Decision of Their Destinations 64

2.2.3 Block Flow Diagram of Level 2 65

2.2.4 Level 2 Degree of Freedom Analysis 65

2.2.5 Mole Balance in Term of Extent of Reaction 66

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 2.2.6 Stoichiometry and Yield Calculations for Different Conversions 67

2.2.7 Desired Condition Determination 69

2.2.8 Economic Potential 2 Calculation 76

2.3 Level 3 Decision: Recycle Structure 79

2.3.1 Block Flow Diagram of Level 3 79

2.3.2 Level 3 Degree of Freedom Analysis 80

2.3.3 Material Balance for Level 3 81

2.3.4 Reaction Kinetic 83

2.3.5 Heat Effect 85

2.3.6 Reactor Cost 90

2.3.7 Catalyst 93

2.3.8 Economic Potential 3 Calculation 94

CHAPTER 3 95

3.1 Process Flow Diagram & MEB 95

3.1.1 Process Description 95

3.1.2 Unit Operation Description Summary 96

3.1.3 Process Flow Diagram (PFD) 98

3.2 Material Balance Manual Calculation 99

3.2.1 Shredder (S-101) 100

3.2.2 Washing Tank (W-101) 101

3.2.3 Pump 1 (P-101 A/B) 102

3.2.4 Mixer (M-101) 103

3.2.5 Compressor 1 (C-101) 104

3.2.6 Heater - Air (E-101) 105

3.2.7 Dryer (D-101) 106

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 3.2.8 Intermediate Feed Tank (TK-102) 107

3.2.9 Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 108

3.2.10 Compressor 2 (C-102) 110

3.2.11 Heater - Nitrogen (E-102) 111

3.2.12 Cyclone (CYC-101) 112

3.2.13 Cooler - Gaseous Products (E-103) 113

3.2.14 Cooler - Char (E-104) 114

3.2.15 Flash Column (V-101) 115

3.2.16 Compressor 3 (C-103) 116

3.2.17 Cooler - Fuel Gas (E-105) 117

3.2.18 Pump 2 (P-102 A/B) 118

3.2.19 Heater - Pyrolysis Oil (E-106) 119

3.2.20 Distillation Column 1 (T-101) 120

3.2.21 Cooler - Gasoline (E-107) 124

3.2.22 Pump 3 (P-103 A/B) 125

3.2.23 Heater - Bottom Products of T-101 (E-108) 126

3.2.24 Distillation Column 2 (T-102) 127

3.2.25 Cooler - Diesel (E-109) 130

3.2.26 Cooler - Residual Oil (E-110) 131

3.3 Energy Balance Manual Calculation 132

3.3.1 Shredder (S-101) 135

3.3.2 Washing Tank (W-101) 136

3.3.3 Pump 1 (P-101 A/B) 137

3.3.4 Mixer (M-101) 137

3.3.5 Compressor 1 (C-101) 138

3.3.6 Heater - Air (E-101) 139

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 3.3.7 Dryer (D-101) 139

3.3.8 Reactor (R-101) 140

3.3.9 Compressor 2 (C-102) 141

3.3.10 Heater - Nitrogen (E-102) 142

3.3.11 Cyclone (CYC-101) 142

3.3.12 Cooler - Gaseous Products (E-103) 143

3.3.13 Cooler - Char (E-104) 144

3.3.14 Flash Column (V-101) 145

3.3.15 Compressor 3 (C-103) 146

3.3.16 Cooler - Fuel Gas (E-105) 146

3.3.17 Pump 2 (P-102 A/B) 147

3.3.18 Heater - Pyrolysis Oil (E-106) 148

3.3.19 Distillation Column 1 (T-101) 149

3.3.20 Cooler - Gasoline (E-107) 150

3.3.21 Pump 3 (P-103 A/B) 150

3.3.22 Heater - Bottom Products of T-101 (E-108) 151

3.3.23 Distillation Column 2 (T-102) 152

3.3.24 Cooler - Diesel (E-109) 153

3.3.25 Cooler - Residual Oil (E-110) 153

3.4 Comparison between Manual Calculations and Simulation Results 154

3.4.1 Material Balance 154

3.4.2 Energy Balance 156

3.4.3 Process Flow Diagram in Aspen V11 157

3.5 Estimated Utilities 158

CHAPTER 4 159

v
4.1 Introduction of Heat Integration 159

4.2 Heat Exchange Network (HEN) 159

4.2.1 Pinch Analysis 159

4.2.2 Construction of Steam Table 160

4.2.3 Selection of Minimum Approach Temperature 161

4.2.4 Construction of Temperature Interval Diagram 162

4.2.5 Construction of Cascade Diagram 164

4.2.6 Grand Composite Curve 165

4.2.7 Heat Exchanger Network Design Based On Pinch Temperature 166

4.2.8 Maximum Energy Recovery (MER) 171

4.3 Utilities 172

4.3.1 Electricity 172

4.3.2 Steam 174

4.3.3 Cooling Water 175

4.4 Economic Potential 4 Calculation 176

4.5 Integrated Process Flow Diagram (PFD 177

CHAPTER 5 178

5.1 Sizing of Equipment 178

5.1.1 Reactor (R-101) 178

5.1.2 Distillation Column 181

5.1.3 Heat Exchanger 185

5.1.4 Compressor 204

5.1.5 Pump 205

5.1.6 Storage Tank 207

5.1.7 Flash Column 211

vi
 5.1.8 Mixer 212

5.1.9 Washer 213

5.1.10 Shredder 214

5.1.11 Dryer 215

5.1.12 Cyclone 216

5.1.13 Cooling Tower 217

5.2 Economic Potential 4 Calculation 218

CHAPTER 6 220

6.1 Introduction of Process Control and Safety 220

6.2 Equipment Control 221

6.2.1 Introduction of Equipment Control 221

6.2.2 Classification of Control Strategies 221

6.2.3 Control System of Reactor 226

6.2.4 Control System of Distillation Column 227

6.2.5 Control System of Heat Exchanger 230

6.2.6 Control System of Pump 231

6.2.7 Control System of Compressor 231

6.2.8 Control System of Storage Tank 232

6.2.9 Control System of Mixer 233

6.2.10 Control System of Flash Column 234

6.2.11 Control System of Dryer 235

6.2.12 Control System of Shredder 236

6.2.13 Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) 237

6.3 Identification of Hazards 238

6.3.1 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) 239

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 6.3.2 Flammability 240

6.3.3 Toxicity 243

6.3.4 Dow Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI) 249

6.3.5 Toxicity Index 257

6.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) 259

6.4.1 HAZOP Definition 259

6.4.2 HAZOP Objectives 260

6.4.3 HAZOP Techniques 261

6.4.4 HAZOP Studies on Major Equipment 264

6.4.5 HAZOP Studies on Minor Equipment 272

CHAPTER 7 274

7.1 Introduction of Waste Management & Pollution Control 274

7.2 Objective of Waste Management & Pollution Control 275

7.3 Wastes From The Production Of Gasoline 275

7.4 Related Environmental Act 276

7.4.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 or EQA 1974 276

7.4.2 Sewage Service Act 1993 (Act 508) 277

7.4.3 Gaseous Emission and Effluent Standards 277

7.4.4 Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limit of Effluents for Standard A
and Standard B 279

7.5 Solid Wastes Disposal 280

7.6 Gaseous Waste Treatment 282

7.6.1 Calculation of Effective Stack Height 283

7.6.2 Costing of Flare 286

7.7 Conceptual Design of Waste Treatment 287

viii
 7.7.1 Waste Treatment Process 287

7.7.2 Waste Management Hierarchy 287

7.7.3 Description of Wastewater Treatment Plant 289

CHAPTER 8 293

8.1 Introduction of Economic Analysis 293

8.2 Grass Root Capital 294

8.3 Fixed and Total Capital Investment 296

8.4 Manufacturing Cost and Total Cost Production 297

8.5 Cash Flow Analysis 297

8.6 Profitability Analysis (Financial Ratios) 297

CHAPTER 9 297

REFERENCES 301

APPENDICES 308

Appendix A: Polymath Code and Results 308

A1. Polymath Report for Reactor (R-101) 308

A2. Polymath Report for DeltaCp 313

A3. Polymath Report for Heat Effect 315

Appendix B: Process Simulation Report 322

CHAPTER 1 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Plastic Waste Issues 1

1.1.2 Background of Gasoline 2

ix
 1.1.3 Application of Gasoline 2

CHAPTER 2 3

2.1 Literature Review 3

2.1.1 Production of Gasoline Via Catalytic Pyrolysis 3

2.1.2 Reaction Kinetics 4

CHAPTER 3 5

3.1 List of Chemical Components Definition 5

CHAPTER 4 7

4.1 Selection of Thermodynamics Model 7

CHAPTER 5 9

5.1 Process Flowsheet Design 9

CHAPTER 6 10

6.1 Raw Material Input 10

6.2 Products Output 11

CHAPTER 7 12

7.1 Summary of Major Unit Operation Model Specification - Reactor 12

CHAPTER 8 18

8.1 Summary of Major Unit Operation Model Specification - Separations 18

8.1.1 Dryer (D-101) 18

8.1.2 Cyclone (CYC-101) 21

x
 8.1.3 Flash Column (F-101) 23

8.1.4 Distillation Column 1 (T-101) 24

8.1.5 Distillation Column 2 (T-102) 29

CHAPTER 9 33

9.1 Model Simulation and Convergence 33

9.2 Simulation Results 36

Appendix C: Lesson Learned Report Presentation 1 330

Appendix D: Manual Calculation of Energy Balance 336

D.1 Shredder (S-101) 336

D.2 Washing Tank (W-101) 337

D.3 Pump 1 (P-101 A/B) 338

D.4 Mixer (M-101) 339

D.5 Compressor 1 (C-101) 340

D.6 Heater - Air (E-101) 341

D.7 Dryer (D-101) 342

D.8 Reactor (R-101) 343

D.9 Compressor 2 (C-102) 346

D.10 Heater - Nitrogen (E-102) 347

D.11 Cyclone (CYC-101) 348

D.12 Cooler - Gaseous Products (E-103) 349

D.13 Cooler - Char (E-104) 351

D.14 Flash Column (V-101) 352

D.15 Compressor 3 (C-103) 356

D.16 Cooler - Fuel Gas (E-105) 358

D.17 Pump 2 (P-102 A/B) 359

xi
D.18 Heater - Pyrolysis Oil (E-106) 361

D.19 Distillation Column 1 (T-101) 362

D.20 Cooler - Gasoline (E-107) 365

D.21 Pump 3 (P-103 A/B) 366

D.22 Heater - Bottom Products of T-101 (E-108) 367

D.23 Distillation Column 2 (T-102) 368

D.24 Cooler - Diesel (E-109) 370

D.25 Cooler - Residual Oil (E-110) 371

Appendix E: Calculation for Utilities Costs 373

E.1 Calculation for Cost of Electricity Consumption 373

E.2 Calculation for Cost of Steam Consumption 374

E.3 Calculation for Cost of Cooling Water (CW) Consumption 375

Appendix F: Calculation of Equipment 379

Appendix G: Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for Chemicals Involved in The
catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes 472

G.1: MSDS for Polyethylene (PE) 472

G.2: MSDS for Polypropylene (PP) 476

G.3: MSDS for Polystyrene (PS) 480

G.4: MSDS for Nitrogen 484

G.5: MSDS for Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) 488

G.6: MSDS for Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 492

G.7: MSDS for Gasoline (Octane) 497

G.8: MSDS for Diesel (Hexadecane) 503

G.9: MSDS for Residual Fuel Oil (1-Octacosene) 507

G.10: MSDS for Char (Carbon) 513

Appendix H: Fire, Explosion and Toxicity Index 516

xii
Appendix I: Lesson Learned Report Presentation 2 529

Appendix I: Calculation Design of Wastewater Treatment Plant 533

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Proximate analysis of plastics (Abnisa & Daud, 2014)

Table 1.2 Physical and chemical properties for the gasoline
Table 1.3 Type of toxicity and mechanism of toxicity of Gasoline (Kamrin,
2014)
Table 1.4 Example of products made by LDPE, LLDPE and HDPE
Table 1.5 Example of products made by PP
Table 1.6 Example of products made by PS
Table 1.7 Current price for recycled plastic from Malaysia in 2018
Table 1.8 Comparison of different synthesis routes
Table 1.9 Comparison of different types of catalysts
Table 1.10 Comparison of The Industrial Site
Table 2.1 Mode of Operation and Description
Table 2.2 Raw material for Hydrothermal Liquefaction Synthesis
Table 2.3 Raw material for Thermal Pyrolysis Synthesis
Table 2.4 Raw material for Catalytic Pyrolysis Synthesis
Table 2.5 The Boiling Point of Output Components and Their Destinations
Table 2.6 Price For Each Products
Table 2.7 Degree of Freedom of the Overall Process at Level 2
Table 2.8 Mole Balance in Term of Extent of Reaction
Table 2.9 Rate Model Parameters of Catalytic Pyrolysis Porcess
Table 2.10 Stoichiometry Table
Table 2.11 Operating Conditions for Temperature Determination
Table 2.12 Final Selectivity (S) of Gasoline, Yield (Y) of Gasoline &
Conversion of Plastic Wastes (XA) at Respective Temperature
Table 2.13 Operating Conditions for Pressure Determination
Table 2.14 Final Selectivity (S) of Gasoline, Yield (Y) of Gasoline &
Conversion of Plastic Wastes (XA) at Respective Pressure
Table 2.15 Operating Conditions for Feed Ratio Determination
Table 2.16 Final Selectivity (S) of Gasoline, Yield (Y) of Gasoline &
Conversion of PE (XA), PP (XB), and PC (XC) at Respective Feed
Ratio
Table 2.17 Price For Each Components
Table 2.18 Degree of Freedom at Level 3
Table 2.19 Information obtained from Level 2
Table 2.20 Data for Simpson’s 3/8 Rule Calculation

xiv
Table 2.21 Heat Capacity of Components
Table 2.22 Heat of Formation of Fuel Gas I & II, Gasoline, Diesel and Char
(W.Green & H.Perry, 2008)
Table 2.23 Heat of Formation of PE, PP and PS (Parks and Mosher, 1963)
Table 2.24 Heat of Formation of Residual Oil (Joback Method)
Table 2.25 Summary of Reactor Design
Table 2.26 Reactor Cost Data
Table 2.27 The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index for different year
(Jenkins, 2018)
Table 3.1 Description for Each Equipment Used
Table 3.2 Material Balance of S-101
Table 3.3 Material Balance of W-101
Table 3.4 Material Balance of P-101 A/B
Table 3.5 Material Balance of M-101
Table 3.6 Material Balance of C-101
Table 3.7 Material Balance of E-101
Table 3.8 Material Balance of D-101
Table 3.9 Material Balance of TK-102
Table 3.10 Yield of each product in R-101
Table 3.11 Material Balance of R-101
Table 3.12 Material Balance of C-102
Table 3.13 Material Balance of E-102
Table 3.14 Material Balance of CYC-101
Table 3.15 Material Balance of E-103
Table 3.16 Material Balance of E-104
Table 3.17 Material Balance of V-101
Table 3.18 Material Balance of C-103
Table 3.19 Material Balance of E-105
Table 3.20 Material Balance of P-102 A/B
Table 3.21 Material Balance of E-106
Table 3.22 Summary of Feed, Distillate, and Bottom of T-101
Table 3.23 Antoine equation constant
Table 3.24 Tdew Calculation of T-101
Table 3.25 Tbubble Calculation of T-101
Table 3.26 Material Balance of T-101
Table 3.27 Material Balance of E-107

xv
Table 3.28 Material Balance of P-103 A/B
Table 3.29 Material Balance of E-108
Table 3.30 Summary of Feed, Distillate, and Bottom of T-102
Table 3.31 Tdew Calculation of T-102
Table 3.32 Tbubble Calculation of T-102
Table 3.33 Material Balance of T-102
Table 3.34 Material Balance of E-109
Table 3.35 Material Balance of E-110
Table 3.36 Gases State Heat Capacity for Each Components
Table 3.37 Liquid State Heat Capacity for Each Components
Table 3.38 Solid State Heat Capacity for Each Components
Table 3.39 Heat of Formation of Chemical Species at Standard Condition
Table 3.40 Summary of Energy Balance of S-101
Table 3.41 Summary of Energy Balance of W-101
Table 3.42 Energy Balance of P-101 A/B
Table 3.43 Summary of Energy Balance of M-101
Table 3.44 Summary of Energy Balance of C-101
Table 3.45 Summary of Energy Balance of E-101
Table 3.46 Summary of Energy Balance of D-101
Table 3.47 Summary of Energy Balance of R-101
Table 3.48 Summary of Energy Balance of C-102
Table 3.49 Summary of Energy Balance of E-102
Table 3.50 Summary of Balance of CYC-101
Table 3.51 Summary of Energy Balance of E-103
Table 3.52 Summary of Energy Balance of E-104
Table 3.53 Summary of Energy Balance of V-101
Table 3.54 Summary of Energy Balance of C-103
Table 3.55 Summary of Energy Balance of E-105
Table 3.56 Summary of Energy Balance of P-102 A/B
Table 3.57 Summary of Energy Balance of E-106
Table 3.58 Summary of Energy Balance of T-101
Table 3.59 Summary of Energy Balance of E-107
Table 3.60 Summary of Energy Balance of P-103 A/B
Table 3.61 Summary of Energy Balance of E-108
Table 3.62 Summary of Energy Balance of T-102

xvi
Table 3.63 Summary of Energy Balance of E-109
Table 3.64 Energy Balance of E-110
Table 3.65 Differences Between Manual Calculation And Simulation Results
of Material Balance
Table 3.66 Differences Between Manual Calculation And Simulation Results
of Energy Balance
Table 3.67 Estimation Cost of Utilities
Table 4.1 Summary of Hot and Cold Streams
Table 4.2 Summary of Shifted Temperature for Both Hot and Cold Streams
Table 4.3 Temperature Interval Diagram
Table 4.4 Summary of Heat Duties Before and After MER
Table 4.5 Summary of Hot and Cold Utility Consumption
Table 4.6 Electricity Tariff Rates from TNB (2021)
Table 4.7 Summary of Power Consumption and Annual Cost of Electricity
Table 4.8 Cost of Different Types of Steam
Table 4.9 Summary of Steam Consumption and Annual Cost of Steam
Table 4.10 Summary of Cooling Water Consumption
Table 4.11 Annual Cost of Cooling Water of Cooling Water from Cooling
Tower
Table 4.12 Total Utilities Cost for the Gasoline Production Plant
Table 5.1 List of Equipment
Table 5.2 Design Specification Data Sheet for R-101
Table 5.3 Design Specification Sheets for T-101
Table 5.4 Design Specification Sheets for T-102
Table 5.5 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-101
Table 5.6 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-102
Table 5.7 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-103
Table 5.8 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-104
Table 5.9 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-105
Table 5.10 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-106
Table 5.11 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-107
Table 5.12 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-108
Table 5.13 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-109
Table 5.14 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-110
Table 5.15 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-111
Table 5.16 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-112

xvii
Table 5.17 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-113
Table 5.18 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-114
Table 5.19 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-115
Table 5.20 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-116
Table 5.21 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-117
Table 5.22 Design Specification Sheets of C-101, C-102, and C-103
Table 5.23 Design Specification Sheets of P-101 A/B
Table 5.24 Design Specification Sheets of P-102
Table 5.25 Design Specification Sheets of P-103
Table 5.26 Design Specification Sheets of TK-101
Table 5.27 Design Specification Sheets of TK-102
Table 5.28 Design Specification Sheets of TK-103
Table 5.29 Design Specification Sheets of TK-104
Table 5.30 Design Specification Sheets of TK-105
Table 5.31 Design Specification Sheets of TK-106
Table 5.32 Design Specification Sheets of TK-107
Table 5.33 Design Specification Sheets of V-101
Table 5.27 Design Specification Sheets of M-101
Table 5.35 Design Specification Sheets of W-101
Table 5.36 Design Specification Sheets of S-101
Table 5.37 Design Specification Sheets of D-101
Table 5.38 Design Specification Sheets of CYC-101
Table 5.39 Design Specification Sheets of T-103
Table 5.33 Cost of Equipment
Table 6.1 Control System Loop Elements
Table 6.2 Instrumentation Idenfication Letters (Hughes, 2002)
Table 6.3 Legends Used and The General Function of Control Element in
P&ID
Table 6.4 Symbols used to show the Valve, Instrument & Control Loops
Table 6.5 Control and Feedback System of R-101
Table 6.6 Control and Feedback System of T-101
Table 6.7 Control and Feedback System of T-102
Table 6.8 Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger
Table 6.9 Control and Feedback System of Pump
Table 6.10 Control and Feedback System of Compressor

xviii
Table 6.11 Control and Feedback System of Storage Tank (TK-103, TK-105,
TK-106, and TK-107)
Table 6.12 Control and Feedback System of Storage Tank (TK-104)
Table 6.13 Control and Feedback System of M-101
Table 6.14 Control and Feedback System of V-101
Table 6.15 Control and Feedback System of D-101
Table 6.16 Control and Feedback System of S-101
Table 6.17 Classification of Fires
Table 6.18 Summary of Toxicity of Polyethylene (PE)
Table 6.19 Summary of Toxicity of Polypropylene (PP)
Table 6.20 Summary of Toxicity of Polystyrene (PS)
Table 6.21 Summary of Toxicity of Nitrogen (N2)
Table 6.22 Summary of Toxicity of Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen)
Table 6.23 Summary of Toxicity of Fuel Gas 2 (Propane)
Table 6.24 Summary of Toxicity of Gasoline (Octane)
Table 6.25 Summary of Toxicity of Diesel (Hexadecane)
Table 6.26 Summary of Toxicity of Residual Fuel Oil (1-Octacosene)
Table 6.27 Summary of Toxicity of Char (Carbon)
Table 6.28 Assessment of Hazard (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
Table 6.29 Material Factor Determination Guide
Table 6.30 Summary of Dow, Fire & Explosion Index for Each Equipment
Table 6.31 Determination of Toxicity Number
Table 6.32 Penalty Factor (Ts) based on Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
Table 6.33 Toxicity Index and Qualitative Hazard Level
Table 6.34 Summary of Toxicity Index
Table 6.35 HAZOP Guide Words
Table 6.36 Deviation and Some Typical Causes
Table 6.37 HAZOP of Reactor (R-101)
Table 6.38 HAZOP of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-110)
Table 6.39 HAZOP of Pump (P-101 A/B to P-103 A/B)
Table 6.40 HAZOP of Compressor (C-101 to C-103)
Table 6.41 HAZOP of Storage Tank (TK-101 to TK-107)
Table 6.42 HAZOP of Distillation Column (T-101 to T-102)
Table 6.43 HAZOP of Flash Column (V-101)
Table 6.44 HAZOP of Dryer (D-101)

xix
Table 6.45 HAZOP of Mixer (M-101)
Table 6.46 HAZOP of Shredder (S-101)
Table 7.1 Summary of Wastes
Table 7.2 Stack Gas Emission Standards in Malaysia (Environmental Quality
(Clean Air) Regulations, 1978)
Table 7.3 Recommended Malaysia Air Quality Guidelines (at 25℃ and
101.13 kPa) Adopted in Air Pollutant Index Calculation
(Legislation, 1978)
Table 7.4 Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standard A and B (Legislation,
1978)
Table 7.5 Disposal Method With The Recpective Price by Kualiti Alam Sdn.
Bhd.
Table 7.6 Stream composition of Stream Fuel
Table 7.7 Amount of Gaseous Waste Sent to Flare Tower
Table 7.8 Assumptions for The Calculation of Flare Tower Height
Table 7.9 Vessel Thickness based on Diameter (inch)
Table 7.10 Summary of Flare System Design
Table 7.11 Design Specification for Filter Screening
Table 7.12 Design Specification for Wastewater Pit Tank
Table 7.13 Design Specification for Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
Table 7.14 Design Specification for Chlorination Dosing Tank
Table 7.15 Design Specification for Sludge Decanter Centrifuge
Table 7.16 Summary of Cost for Solid, Gaseous, and Wastewater Treatment
Table 8.1 Bare Module Cost for All Equipment
Table 8.2 Estimation of Grass Roots Capital Cost
Table 8.3 FCI Range Direct and Indirect Cost
Table 8.4 Total Direct and Indirect Cost
Table 8.5 Fixed Capital Investment
Table 8.6 Total Capital Investment

xx
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Volume of solid waste from various states (2007 - 2010)
Figure 1.2 Plastic production by plastic category in Malaysia (JPSPN, 2011)
Figure 1.3 Estimated installed capacity vs Missing capacity for recycling of
major resins in Malaysia (WorldBankGroup, 2021)
Figure 1.4 Gasoline Type Engine’s Piston
Figure 1.5 Diesel Type Engine’s Piston
Figure 1.6 The percentage of the plastic production in various applications in
Malaysia
Figure 1.7 CAGR for gasoline in global from 2016 to 2026
Figure 1.8 CAGR for diesel in global from 2016 to 2026
Figure 1.9 The supply and consumption of the global petroluem and other
liquids from 2019 to 2022
Figure 1.10 The global oil demand by product (mb/d) and the annual growth
rate
Figure 1.11 Hydrothermal liquefaction process of the plastic wastes
(Seshasayee & Savage, 2020)
Figure 1.12 Reaction scheme of converting PP via subcritical water
liquefaction: (a) depolymerization, (b) cracking, (c)
hydrogenation/saturation, (d) cyclization, (e) aromatization, (f)
gasification, and (g) dehydrogenation (W. T. Chen et al., 2019)
Figure 1.13 Polyethylene thermal cracking (Rama et al., 2020)
Figure 1.14 Overall process flow diagram (Sahu et al., 2014)
Figure 1.15 Plant Layout
Figure 2.1 Overall Block Flow Diagram at Level 2 Decision
Figure 2.2 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of plastic wastes at
different temperature and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion
plastic wastes at different temperature
Figure 2.3 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of plastic wastes at
different pressure and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion
plastic wastes at different pressure
Figure 2.4 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of PE at different
feed ratio and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion of PE at
different feed ratio
Figure 2.5 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of PP at different feed
ratio and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion of PP at different
feed ratio

xxi
Figure 2.6 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of PS at different
feed ratio and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion of PS at
different feed ratio
Figure 2.7 Graph of Economic Potential 2 versus Conversion
Figure 2.8 Block Flow Diagram at Level 3 Decision
Figure 2.9 1/(-rA) vs Conversion
Figure 2.10 Temperature vs Conversion of Limiting Reactant
Figure 2.11 Flowrate of Gasoline vs Weight of Catalyst
Figure 2.12 Graph of Economic Potential 3 versus Conversion
Figure 3.1 Process Flow Diagram of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes
Figure 3.2 S-101 in PFD
Figure 3.3 W-101 in PFD
Figure 3.4 P-101 A/B in PFD
Figure 3.5 M-101 in PFD
Figure 3.6 C-101 in PFD
Figure 3.7 E-101 in PFD
Figure 3.8 D-101 in PFD
Figure 3.9 TK-102 in PFD
Figure 3.10 R-101 in PFD
Figure 3.11 C-102 in PFD
Figure 3.12 E-102 in PFD
Figure 3.13 CYC-101 in PFD
Figure 3.14 E-103 in PFD
Figure 3.15 E-104 in PFD
Figure 3.16 V-101 in PFD
Figure 3.17 C-103 in PFD
Figure 3.18 E-105 in PFD
Figure 3.19 P-102 A/B in PFD
Figure 3.20 E-106 in PFD
Figure 3.21 T-101 in PFD
Figure 3.22 E-107 in PFD
Figure 3.23 P-103 A/B in PFD
Figure 3.24 E-108 in PFD
Figure 3.25 T-102 in PFD
Figure 3.26 E-109 in PFD
Figure 3.27 E-110 in PFD

xxii
Figure 3.28 Schematic Diagram of S-101
Figure 3.29 Schematic Diagram of W-101
Figure 3.30 Schematic Diagram of P-101 A/B
Figure 3.31 Schematic Diagram of M-101
Figure 3.32 Schematic Diagram in C-101
Figure 3.33 Schematic Diagram of E-101
Figure 3.34 Schematic Diagram of D-101
Figure 3.35 Schematic Diagram of R-101
Figure 3.36 Schematic Diagram in C-102
Figure 3.37 Schematic Diagram of E-102
Figure 3.38 Schematic Diagram of CYC-101
Figure 3.39 Schematic Diagram of E-103
Figure 3.40 Schematic Diagram of E-104
Figure 3.41 Schematic Diagram of V-101
Figure 3.42 Schematic Diagram in C-103
Figure 3.43 Schematic Diagram of E-105
Figure 3.44 Schematic Diagram of P-102 A/B
Figure 3.45 Schematic Diagram of E-106
Figure 3.46 Schematic Diagram of T-101
Figure 3.47 Schematic Diagram of E-107
Figure 3.48 Schematic Diagram of P-103 A/B
Figure 3.49 Schematic Diagram of E-108
Figure 3.50 Schematic Diagram of T-102
Figure 3.51 Schematic Diagram of E-109
Figure 3.52 Schematic Diagram of E-110
Figure 3.53 Process Flow Diagram of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes in
Aspen V11
Figure 4.1 Cascade Diagram
Figure 4.2 Grand Composite Curve
Figure 4.3 Proposed Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) Design After Analysis
Figure 4.4 Design of Heat Exchanger Network Above The Pinch Temperature
Figure 4.5 Heat Integration Within The Streams Above The Pinch
Temperature
Figure 4.6 Design of Heat Exchanger Network Below The Pinch Temperature
Figure 4.7 Heat Integration Within The Streams Below The Pinch
Temperature

xxiii
Figure 4.8 Heat Integration Within The Streams Below The Pinch
Temperature
Figure 4.6 Integrated Process Flow Diagram of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic
Wastes
Figure 6.1 Feedback Control Loop System
Figure 6.2 Feedforward Control Loop System
Figure 6.3 Cascade Control Loop
Figure 6.4 Control System of R-101
Figure 6.5 Control System of T-101
Figure 6.6 Control System of T-102
Figure 6.7 Control System of E-101
Figure 6.8 Control System of E-117
Figure 6.9 Control System of P-101, P-102, and P-103
Figure 6.10 Control System of C-101, C-102, and C-103
Figure 6.11 Control System of TK-103, TK-105, TK-106, and TK-107
Figure 6.12 Control System of TK-104
Figure 6.13 Control System of M-101
Figure 6.14 Control System of V-101
Figure 6.15 Control System of D-101
Figure 6.16 Control System of S-101
Figure 6.17 P&ID of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes
Figure 6.18 Hazard identification and risk assessment procedure
Figure 6.19 Fire Prevention Triangle-Heat, Oxygen and Fuel (Fire Prevention -
Health and Safety Authority, 2019)
Figure 6.20 Dow Fire and Explosion Index Calculation Form
Figure 6.21 Procedure for calculating fire and explosion index and other risk
analysis information (Dow, 1994)
Figure 6.22 HAZOP Study Procedure
Figure 7.1 Self-Supported Flare
Figure 7.2 Hierachy of Waste Management
Figure 7.3 Process Flow Diagram for Wastewater from Drain System before
Discharge

xxiv
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Plastic Waste Issues

Plastics are made from synthetic organic polymers and are durable, lightweight,
versatile, and relatively inexpensive to produce, making them one of the most utilised
materials and due to this, the consumption of plastic is increasing worldwide at an
alarming rate of 4% per year (Ivleva et al., 2017; Miandad et al., 2017). Plastic
constitutes the third-highest waste source globally, with the total volume of plastic
waste growing in-line with increases in the global population and per capita
consumption (Chen et al., 2021).

The plastic manufacturing industry has one of the highest growth rates of all
industries since 2000. With over 1,300 plastic manufacturers, Malaysia is one of the
largest plastic production industries globally and in 2016, resins of a value of 30 billion
Malaysian Ringgits (MYR) were exported to plastic producers around the world (Chen
et al., 2021). The Malaysian plastic industry has been categorised into 7 main sectors,
comprising agriculture, household, packaging, construction, electronics, automotive and
other subsectors that include plastic furniture and medical devices. Matching global
patterns, packaging is the largest end-use for plastic produced in Malaysia (Chen et al.,
2021).

Malaysia is tracking global trends in both the overall generation of plastic waste
and the consumption of single-use plastics, where an overall upward trajectory since
1970s. Apparently, as plastic wastes are abundant, it makes sense to consider the use of
plastics mixed together as feedstock for the production of gasoline. Significantly, by
2018, Malaysia produces more than 0.94 million tonnes of mismanaged plastic wastes
per year (Chen et al., 2021). The disposal of plastic wastes are always controversial like
the incineration of plastics will produce toxic and greenhouse gases.

So, recycling technology has bring outs many benefits such as reducing the
usage of landfills, reducing fuel usage for the incineration of plastic wastes, and cutting
carbon dioxide emissions. However, not all plastic wastes are recyclable (Basha et al.,

1
2020). This is where the pyrolysis technology is very advantageous, as plastic wastes
can be used for a wide range of feedstock. In the pyrolysis technology, the all new
valuable product such as gasoline will be produced when the plastic wastes are used as
feedstock. Hence, the problem of plastic wastes management in Malaysia can be greatly
reduced.

1.1.2 Statistics of Plastic Waste in Malaysia

Malaysia is a country that produces high production of plastic and mismanages

the municipal solid waste and unsorted the plastic which dump into a landfill or
domestic burning. In 2011, there are about 14 companies became plastic resins producer
in Malaysia and the total production of plastic is about 2.4 million metric tonne per
year. Due to the great production of plastic in Malaysian households, waste has been
generated geographically and economically around 0.85 kg to 1.5 kg per person in a
day. The increase of waste generated is shown in the Figure 1 .1. Figure 1 .1 shows
the volume of solid waste collected from various states from 2007 until 2010 in the unit
of kilo tonne.

Figure 1.1 Volume of solid waste from various states (2007 - 2010)

Most of the municipal solid waste that has been collected are coming with the
plastic product. The plastic product is usually the daily product packaging like food,
detergent, and storage purposes. A market study for plastic circularity opportunities and

2
barrier for Malaysia also stated that the polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) has
doubled the amount of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which is 148,100 tonne per
year (WorldBankGroup, 2021). This is because the production of plastic increase when
the daily usage of plastic increase.

Based on the National Solid Waste Management Department Ministry of

Housing and Local Government Malaysia data from a study on management in
Peninsular Malaysia, it has summarized all the plastic production by plastic category in
Malaysia as shown in Figure 1.2. According to JPSPN, the production of polyethylene
(PE) which is consisted of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) is the highest which is 24% each and then followed by 13% of
Polypropylene (PP), 13% of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 10% of Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), 5% of polystyrene (PS), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and
other minor plastics (JPSPN, 2011).

Figure 1.2 Plastic production by plastic category in Malaysia (JPSPN, 2011)

As the production of new plastic increase, the number of plastic wastes will be
increased too and subsequently increase the difficulty to manage waste. The topmost
difficulties are sorting and recycling the plastic. There no way to ensure that the plastic
is 100% recycled and large amount of them will be sent to the landfill and incineration.
Next, Figure 1 .3 shows the estimated installed capacity against missing capacity for
recycling of major resins in Malaysia.

According to Figure 1 .3, the amount of plastic that is recycled by the recycling
centre on LDPE is around 162,545 tonne per year with 52% of missing capacity, HDPE

3
is around 149,423 tonne per year with 70% of missing capacity, PP is around 317,311
tonne per year with 25% of missing capacity, and PET is around 1,536 tonne per year
with 90% of missing capacity. Meanwhile, Ps lies within 0.94 million tonne of plastic
waste as per year (Chen, 2020).

Figure 1.3 Estimated installed capacity vs Missing capacity for recycling of major
resins in Malaysia (WorldBankGroup, 2021)

1.1.3 Plastic Types and Their Characteristics

Fundamentally, different types of plastics have different compositions that

normally reported in terms of their proximate analysis. Proximate analysis can be
defined as a technique to measure the chemical properties of the plastic compound
based on four particular elements which are moisture content, fixed carbon, volatile
matter and ash content (Sharuddin et al., 2016).

Volatile matter and ash content are the major factors that influence the liquid oil
yield in pyrolysis process. High volatile matter favoured the liquid oil production while
high ash content decreased the amount of liquid oil, consequently increased the gaseous
yield and char formation (Abnisa & Wan Daud, 2014). Table 1 .1 shows the summary
of the proximate analysis of different plastics which are PE, PP, and PS. Based on Table
1 .1, it was observed that the volatile matter for all plastics is very high while the ash
content is considered low. These characteristics indicate that plastics have high

4
potential to produce large amount of liquid oil which is gasoline through pyrolysis
process.

Table 1.1 Proximate analysis of plastics (Abnisa & Daud, 2014)

Type of Moisture Fixed Volatile Ash (wt
Plastics type
carbon (wt
Plastic marks (wt%) (wt%) %)
%)
- HDPE
0.01 - 98.57 - 0.18 -
0.00
Polyethylene 0.03 99.81 1.40

(PE)
- LDPE
99.60 -
0.30 0.00 0.00
99.70

Polypropylene
0.15 - 0.16 - 95.08 - 1.99 -
(PP)
0.18 1.22 97.85 3.55

Polystyrene
0.25 - 0.12 - 99.50 -
(PS) 0.00
0.30 0.20 99.63

1.1.4 Main Product from the Plastic Pyrolysis Process

1.1.4.1 Gasoline

Originally, gasoline was a waste product of the refinery process used for
producing kerosene from petroleum. Due to its high combustion energy, it became the
preferred automobile fuel (Kaltschmitt & Deutschmann, 2012). Gasoline is considered
as a crucial fuel in transportation; however, due to the rapid depletion of crude oil
resources, finding an alternative route to produce gasoline from additional resources is
essential.

Gasoline is one of the most highly refined products leaving the refinery.
Originating from relatively light fractions (C4 – C12), automotive gasoline is the result of
blending the products of a variety of refinery operations, including the products of
isomerization, reforming, cracking, and alkylation reactions. If gasoline were simply the

5
product of straight run fractional distillation, it would differ significantly in composition
and would be a poor fuel for the internal combustion engine. Since lead-based
compounds can no longer be added to most gasolines, the octane number of gasolines is
increased primarily by augmenting the relative proportion of aromatic compounds and
isoparaffins. Gasoline contains essentially all classes of hydrocarbons in the C 4 to C12
range, but is dominated by aromatic compounds, with the alkylbenzenes being the most
abundant and with a lesser abundance of naphthalene-based and indane-based
compounds.

1.1.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Gasoline

The composition of gasoline varies widely, depending on the crude oils used,
the refinery processes available, the overall balance of product demand, and the product
specifications. The typical composition of gasoline hydrocarbons (% volume) is as
follows: 4 - 8% alkanes; 2 - 5% alkenes; 25 - 40% isoalkanes; 3 - 7% cycloalkanes; l -
4% cycloalkenes; and 20 - 50% total aromatics (0.5 - 2.5% benzene). The gasoline
chemical and physical properties are listed in Table 1 .2 (Amirante et al., 2017). Table
1 .2 includes the combustion characteristics, the auto-ignition temperature and flash
point of gasoline are higher which makes gasoline safer for transportation and storage.
Gasoline has a measurably higher-octane number which could be advantageous if
higher compression ratio applications are utilised.

Table 1.2 Physical and chemical properties for the gasoline

Name Unit Value
Carbon Mass (%) 86.12
Hydrogen Mass (%) 13.25
Oxygen Mass (%) 0.63
Aromatic content % v/v 35.00
Density at 15℃ kg/L 0.75
Boiling point ℃ 30-210
Auto ignition temperature ℃ 275
Flame temperature ℃ 1720
Flame speed m/s 0.35
Viscosity at 20℃ mPa*s 0.39

6
 Lower Heating Value (LHV) MJ/L 32.00
Stoichiometric air/fuel kg/kg 14.70
Octane number Rating 95.0
1.1.5 By-Products from the Plastic Pyrolysis Process

Pyrolysis of plastics also will produces diesel, char and gas as by-products. The
proportion of by-product in pyrolysis strongly depends on several parameters such as
temperature, heating rate, pressure and residence time.

1.1.5.1 Diesel

Originally, diesel fuel is a member of the class of crude oil products known as
middle distillates. As the name implies, these fuels are higher boiling than gasoline but
lower boiling than gas oil. Middle distillates cover the boiling range from
approximately 175°C to 375°C (350°F – 700°F) and the carbon number range from
about C8 to C24. Diesel fuel oil is essentially the same as furnace fuel oil, but the
proportion of cracked gas oil is usually less since the high aromatic content of the
cracked gas oil reduces the cetane value of the diesel fuel. Diesel fuel is composed of
approximately saturated hydrocarbon derivatives (75% v/v, primarily paraffin
hydrocarbons including n-paraffins, iso-paraffins, and cycloparaffins), and aromatic
hydrocarbon derivatives (25% v/v, including alkyl benzenes and naphthalene
derivatives). Diesel fuels predominantly contain a mixture of C10 to C19. Jet fuels are
based primarily on straight-run kerosene, as well as additives (Speight, 2019).

1.1.5.2 Char

Generally, slow heating rate at very low temperature and long residence time
maximizes the char formation in pyrolysis process. Even though the char formation in
fast pyrolysis process is commonly low, it is worth noting the properties and usage of
the char to fully maximize the potential of plastic pyrolysis. Char been used as an
adsorbent in water treatment to remove heavy metal through an upgrading treatment.
The adsorption properties of the upgraded chars were examined and the result indicated
that the chars were mainly mesoporous and macroporous material with adsorption
capacities for methylene blue dye in the range of 3.59 to 22.2 mg/g. This indicates that
the upgraded chars should have good adsorption properties towards bulky molecules

7
(Anuar Sharuddin et al., 2016). Therefore, the upgrading treatments performed on the
chars allowed carbonaceous residue from pyrolysis to be reused as precursors for
adsorbents to be obtained.
1.1.5.3 Fuel Gas

Gaseous products of polymer pyrolysis are typically mixtures of hydrocarbons

CxHy (maximum C6) and hydrogen (H2). Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2)
and hydrogen chloride (HCl) may also be included. Because of the compositions
described above, pyrolytic gas has a high net calorific value and thus has a lot of
potential to be used in the power industry. According to Maqsood et al. (2021), the gas
produced by pyrolysis of PE or PP has been reported to have calorific values of 42 to 50
MJ/kg. Thus, the pyrolytic gas has a high potential to be used as a heating source in
pyrolysis industrial plants. Ethene and propene can also be used as a chemical feedstock
for the production of polyolefin after being separated from other gas materials.
Pyrolytic gas can also be used in gas turbines to generate electricity and in direct firing
in the boilers without the need of flue gas treatment.

1.1.6 Toxicity of Gasoline

Gasoline is a product of petroleum refining that varies in composition and often

includes additives such as antiknock agents, antioxidants, lubricants, and detergents and
gasoline is a human-made substance that people use primarily to fuel vehicles and other
machines that use an engine. Having exposure to gasoline or gasoline vapours in large
amounts or over an extended period of time can cause serious health complications.
Ingesting even a small quantity of gasoline can be fatal.

Gasoline is a toxic and extremely flammable liquid. At room temperature, it is

usually colourless, pale brown, or pale pink. Gasoline comprises compounds called
hydrocarbons, which include alkanes, benzene, toluene, and xylenes. When even small
quantities of hydrocarbons enter the bloodstream, it can reduce the functioning of
the central nervous system (CNS) and cause organ damage. Gasoline is not just toxic
when people ingest it. A person can also sustain damage to the skin, eyes, and lungs
when they come into contact with gasoline liquid or the fumes or vapours of gasoline.
Burning gasoline releases several harmful chemicals, one of which is carbon monoxide.

8
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas that can be deadly when a person
inhales it in high concentrations or for a prolonged period of time.

Other than that, gasoline is flammable at room temperature. It also poses a

danger from explosion. For exposure standards and guidelines while working on
gasoline is the permissible exposure limit time-weighted average for gasoline in
workplace air is 900 mg m-3 (300 ppm). Federal limits for gasoline in drinking water
and air have not been promulgated although such limits exist for some gasoline
components, e.g., benzene. However, some states and municipalities have promulgated
acceptable ambient air concentrations for gasoline.

Since gasoline is a mixture, several mechanisms of toxicokinetic information as

shown in Table 1 .3. Referring to Table 1 .3, there are three types of gasoline’s
toxicity which are acute and short-term toxicity, chronic toxicity and genotoxicity.
These toxicities are for different type of exposures at which the described effects occur
are much greater than any exposures that would occur through ingestion of
contaminated water or the inhalation of gasoline while filling the tank of a car or
spending time at a filling station.

Table 1.3 Type of toxicity and mechanism of toxicity of Gasoline (Kamrin, 2014)
Type of Toxicity Mechanism of Toxicity
Acute and Short- Gasoline is an eye irritant and may also cause damage to the
Term Toxicity skin, lungs, and the intestinal mucosa at high exposure levels.
At such levels, it may also cause neurotoxic effects such as
dizziness, nausea, and headache as well as adverse effects on
the cardiovascular system. At high enough levels, e.g., adult
ingestion of several hundred grams, it may cause coma or even
death. The 1-h TCLo (the lowest concentration in air that causes
toxicity in a 1-h exposure) is 900 ppm based on irritation.
Chronic Toxicity Although there have been numerous epidemiological studies
of workers exposed to gasoline, the results are inconclusive
with regard to a link to cardiac toxicity, neurotoxicity, or any
form of cancer. However, some of the components of gasoline,
e.g., benzene, are classified as known human carcinogens. In
addition, intentional excessive exposure, e.g., from gasoline

9
 sniffing, can lead to adverse neurological and renal effects.
Genotoxicity Studies of bacterial and mammalian cells in culture as well as
in vivo experiments indicate that gasoline is not mutagenic.

1.2 Applications

1.2.1 Application of Plastic

Plastic is utilized in nearly every industry, including packaging, construction,

textiles, consumer goods, transportation, electrical and electronic equipment, and
industrial machinery. So, there are few types of common plastics which are PE, PP, and
PS that will going to be discussed in the following section.

1.2.1.1 Application of Polyethylene (PE)

Polyethylene (PE) are the most used family of plastics in the world. PE of all
density grades is an appealing choice for a variety of goods due to its high toughness,
ductility, great chemical resistance, low water vapour permeability, and very low water
absorption, as well as the ease with which it can be produced. Polyethylene resins
account for approximately 100 million tonnes of annual production in 2017, accounting
for 34% of the entire plastics market. PE's modulus, yield stress, and melting point are
all relatively low. PE is used to create a variety of products, including containers,
bottles, film, and pipes because of its excellent impact strength, toughness, and
ductility. There are 3 types of PE that are commonly use in daily life which are LDPE,
LLDPE, and HDPE. The example for both types of plastics are shown in Table 1 .4.

Table 1.4 Example of products made by LDPE, LLDPE and HDPE

Type of PE Example of Products
Low-Density Polyethylene Bags (grocery, dry cleaning, bread, frozen food
(LDPE) bags, newspapers, garbage), plastic wraps;
coatings for paper milk cartons and hot & cold
beverage cups; some squeezable bottles (honey,
mustard), food storage containers, container lids
Linear Low Density Polyethylene Plastic bags and sheets, plastic wrap, stretch
(LLDPE) wrap, pouches, toys, covers, lids, pipes, buckets

10
 and containers, and covering of cables
High-Density Polyethylene Grocery bag, opaque milk, juice container,
(HDPE) shampoo bottles, and medicine bottle

1.2.1.2 Application of Polypropylene (PP)

Polypropylene (PP) is a synthetic resin built up by the polymerization of

propylene. One of the important family of polyolefin resins, polypropylene is molded or
extruded into many plastic products in which toughness, flexibility, light weight, and
heat resistance are required. It is stiffer and more resistant to heat, so PP is widely used
for hot food containers. Its strength quality is somewhere between LDPE and HDPE.
Besides in thermal vests, and car parts, PP is also included in the disposable diaper and
sanitary pad liners. Table 1 .5 shows the example of products that are made by PP.

Table 1.5 Example of products made by PP

Type of Plastic Example of Products
Polypropylene (PP) Bottle tops, bottles, facial masks, clothing,
laboratory items for autoclave, food containers,
carpets, and mats

1.2.1.3 Application of Polystyrene (PS)

Polystyrene (PS) is a hard, stiff, brilliantly transparent synthetic resin produced

by the polymerization of styrene. It is widely employed in the food-service industry as
rigid trays and containers, disposable eating utensils, and foamed cups, plates, and
bowls. PS is also copolymerized, or blended with other polymers, lending hardness and
rigidity to a number of important plastic and rubber products. It is also used for toys,
light diffusers, beakers, ordinary household appliances, video / audio cassette cases,
electrical housings, refrigerator liners, and kitchenware. However, when exposed with
hot and oily food, PS could leach styrene that is considered as brain and nervous system
toxicant. It could also affect genes, lungs, liver, and immune system. On top of all of
those risks, PS has a low recycling rate. Table 1 .6 shows the products that are made
by PS.

11
 Table 1.6 Example of products made by PS
Type of Plastic Example of Products
Polystyrene (PS) Food containers, egg cartons, disposable cups
and bowls, packaging, and also bike helmet.

1.2.2 Application of Main and By-Products of Pyrolysis Process

Pyrolysis is a common technique used to convert plastic waste into energy, in

the form of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of
plastic waste at different temperatures (300 – 900°C), in the absence of oxygen, to
produced liquid oil (Rehan et al., 2017). Commonly, the products from the pyrolysis
process are fuel gas, pyrolysis liquid oil, and char. The pyrolysis oil is then can be
further purified into gasoline, diesel, residual fuel oil and so on. In this plant design
project, the targeted main product is gasoline while the by-products are diesel, fuel gas,
residual fuel oil, and char. Thus, the details of the application for each product will
going to be discussed in the following section.

1.2.2.1 Application of Gasoline (Main Product)

Gasoline, often known as petrol, is a clear, flammable liquid generated from

petroleum that is primarily used as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion
engines (Miranda et al., 2021). It is primarily made up of organic compounds derived
through fractional distillation of petroleum, which are then augmented with various
additions. Gasoline is mainly used as an engine fuel in vehicles for gasoline type engine
as shown in Figure 1 .4.

Figure 1.4 Gasoline Type Engine’s Piston

12
 When the gasoline is supplied into the gasoline engine, there is an internal
combustion happening. This is a basic chemical process of releasing energy from a fuel
and air mixture. The engine is then partially converts the energy from the combustion to
work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The expanding
combustion gases push the piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately,
through a system of gears in the powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.

On the other hand, the gasoline can be varies by grades. The grades that are able
to be found in Malaysia are Ron 95, Ron 97, and Ron 100. Ron 95 is a lower octane
unleaded petrol, Ron 97 is a high-octane premium unleaded petrol, and Ron 100 has a
higher octane rating that makes it more resistant to higher compression before
detonating. In fact, the main difference between the Ron is the resistance to knocking.
Last but not least, the gasoline can be applied in other ways such as electricity
generators for portable and emergency power supply, tools used in construction,
farming, forestry, and landscaping.

1.2.2.2 Application of Diesel (By-Product)

Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel in which fuel ignition takes place
without a spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air and then injection of fuel. It is
specifically designed for use in diesel engines as shown in Figure 1 .5.

Figure 1.5 Diesel Type Engine’s Piston

13
 In diesel engines the fuel is ignited not by a spark, as in gasoline engines, but by
the heat of air compressed in the cylinder, with the fuel injected in a spray into the hot
compressed air. Diesel fuel releases more energy on combustion than equal volumes of
gasoline, so diesel engines generally produce better fuel economy than gasoline
engines. In addition, the production of diesel fuel requires fewer refining steps than
gasoline, so retail prices of diesel fuel traditionally have been lower than those of
gasoline.

On the other hand, the diesel can be varies by grades. The grades that are able to
be found in Malaysia are Euro 2 and Euro 5. The main difference between Euro 5
Diesel and Euro 2 Diesel in Malaysia is the total sulfur content in both fuels. Euro 5
Diesel has a maximum sulfur content limit of 10 ppm whereas Euro 2 Diesel has a
maximum sulfur content limit of 500 ppm. Last but not least, the diesel can be applied
in other ways such as electricity generators for portable and emergency power supply,
construction machinery, farming equipment, and agricultural machinery.

1.2.2.3 Application of Fuel Gas (By-Product)

The fuel gas is also known as propane gas. Propane gas is one of the gases that
fits the definition of LPG – Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Propane is a flammable
hydrocarbon gas that is liquefied through pressurisation and commonly used for fuel in
heating, cooking, hot water and vehicles. It is made during natural gas processing and
oil refining which is extracted from heated crude oil using a distillation tower. The gas
is then pressurized and stored as a liquid in cylinders and tanks.

Propane is mainly used as a fuel because of its portability and high energy
density. In addition, it only requires modest pressure for liquefication maintaining a
practical vessel weight. So, propane is used as a fuel for transportation and in areas
without natural gas reticulation. Propane uses in everyday life include home heating,
cooking, hot water heaters, gas fireplaces and clothes drying. Home everyday outdoor
life uses include patio heaters, pool heaters, backup generators, and as BBQ fuel. For
some people, it also includes vehicle fuel, with LPG cars and vehicles. Propane gas
heating systems provide instant warmth and are available in flued gas heaters and

14
portable gas heaters. Propane can also be used for refrigerants, aerosol propellants and
petrochemical feedstock.

1.2.2.4 Application of Residual Fuel Oil (By-Product)

Residual fuel oil (RFO) is generally a classification for the heavier oils that
remain after the distillate fuel oils and lighter hydrocarbons are distilled away in
refinery operations. It is one of the lowest-value petroleum products from a refinery.
RFO is essentially a by-product of producing the light products that are the primary
focus of a refinery.

The primary end use for residual fuel oil is as a fuel in simple furnaces such as
power plants and industrial boilers. It is used to burn in a furnace or boiler to generate
heat and power. It is also the primary fuel used on ocean-going ships, where it is called
bunker fuel due to its relatively low cost compared to cleaner fuel sources. Because of
the low quality of bunker fuel, when burnt it is especially harmful to the health of
humans, causing serious illnesses and deaths.

1.2.2.5 Application of Char (By-Product)

Char also known as carbon black is a solid product that can be used as a solid
fuel, as an adsorbent or even as a soil amendment (Martín-Lara et al., 2021). Carbon
black produced by pyrolysis process is more economical compared to carbon black
produced primarily from petroleum and is more price-efficient to be used as an
ingredient in the industries such as briquetting for cement factory, brick factory, and
cement factory while grinding for paint and ink, and rubber products.

First of all, the calorific value of carbon black is more than 6000 kcal, which can
replace coal as a heating fuel and be sold to some coal-fueled factories, and it can also
be used as a heating fuel for pyrolysis equipment to save fuel.

Next, carbon black is usually used as colouring agent for ink and paints. This is
due to the higher tinting strength than iron black or organic pigments, is widely used in
newspaper inks, printing inks, India inks, and paints. It is also a black pigment used in
inkjet inks and toners.

15
 Furthermore, carbon black particles have a crystalline structure similar to
graphite, resulting in excellent electrical conductivity. As a result, carbon black is
commonly used as a conductive filler in plastics, elastomers, paints, adhesives, films,
and pastes. Automobile fuel caps and fuel-introducing pipes, for example, must have
electric conductivity to prevent static electricity. As a result, carbon black is an
excellent antistatic agent.

1.3 Market Survey

A market survey is an initial survey and research analysis of the market for the
product that is going to produce and together with the product demand, consumption,
and production in the world. Gasoline which is a main product in this project that is
consumed worldwide and one of the sectors that become one of the biggest contributors
is the automotive mobile engine for daily essentials.

In dealing with the plastic wastes, there are several ways to reduce the plastic
wastes such as reduce, reuse, and recycle. Alternatively, the plastic wastes can be used
as a feedstock to make it becoming more valuable products such as pyrolysis liquid oil.
Commonly, the plastic wastes that are going to recycle and produce an all new product
are coming from municipal solid waste that has been collected by the recycling center
of the area. From all municipal solid waste per site 12% of it are plastic waste and
contain all type of plastic such as plastic fill, rigid plastic, and plastic foam.

Gasoline is one of the liquid oil products that can be produced from the
pyrolysis process and undergone several separation processes. The gasoline market has
steadily increased as the world has discovered another alternative to replace gasoline in
the application. To fight for the marketplaces in the world, many companies have done
some improvisation in their oil and take care of the quality as higher competition right
now. Other than that, COVID-19 is also one of the factors decreasing the amount as
there is less amount of gasoline that has been used as the world undergoes pandemic
and less movement in the from the application. Then, during this endemic phase,
gasoline does show a steady increase in use as many sectors have Intelligence (Mordor
Intelligence, n.d.).

16
1.3.1 Plastic Production and Plastic Waste

Plastic is a variety of synthetic molecule chains from polymer plastic which

been produced in different strengths, flexibility that was developed in 1907. Plastic
become an essential part of human life which majority of the properties, equipment,
basic storage have come from plastic. Whether on the consumer side of industries side
there are diverse sets and types of plastic that have been used that are appropriate to the
circumstances that have been used. As the times move, the application of plastic has
become excessive and sometimes it becomes pollution. More than a hundred million
metric tons of plastic waste are dumped in the 1% was thrown in the ocean which harms
aquatic life.

Malaysia can be said is a country where the people are still having very low
awareness in the plastic wastes management. Mismanaged of plastic wastes such as
improper disposal is actually contributed to many kind of pollution. For example, air
pollution, water pollution, smell pollution, and so on. The people in the urban and rural
area are mostly preferring to burn their waste rather than dispose in a correct way. It is
endangered not only for flora, fauna, and aquatic life but for humans too. Malaysian
have generated 200,000 tons of municipal waste monthly within 2020. The contribution
of plastic is mostly from the plastic industry in Malaysia. Figure 1 .6 shows the
percentage of the plastic production in various applications in Malaysia. Nearly half of
the plastic is used for packing purposes such as food packaging, parcels packaging, and
stored packaging.

17
 Figure 1.6 The percentage of the plastic production in various applications in
Malaysia

In the food packaging, Tupperware, detergent packaging, parcel packaging are

made of different types of polymers which are having different purpose of application.
It may need in lighter plastic, stretchable plastic, and hard plastic. For plastic
packaging, these are several types of polymers that have been used to make low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) followed by polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene
(HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS),
polyamide (PA), and other plastics (Kaiser et al., 2018). Honestly, the recycle
consciousness in plastic waste management are still required to raise among the
Malaysian. In Malaysia, the most common ways of dealing with these plastic wastes are
landfill, incineration and domestic burning. Recycling waste usually has been collected
by scavengers and waste collectors or private charity recycling centers by waste
generator (Chen et al., 2021).

Now, the recycle is not limited by face to face anymore. The phone application
which is modernized by recycle center (iClean Selangor, Trash4Cash and others) and
build inbox is developed to collect the recycled product in an urban area. There are
several places in Malaysia where the recycled plastic can be collected other than
recycling sorting areas. For example, E-waste Management, IPC Recycling & Buyback
center, L'Occitane Recycling program, Senheng e-waste recycling program, yellow bin
movement, and Taman Suria recycle center. These are the centers to intelligence the
recycled plastics to be used in the plastic pyrolysis plant.

The Table 1 .7 below shows the median prices between all the recycling
companies to buy the recycling product from the recycling area which is obtained from
the Cenviro Sdn. Bhd. The prices included PE, PP, and PS which are main raw
materials for this designed plastic pyrolysis project.

Table 1.7 Current price for recycled plastic from Malaysia in 2018

Recyclable item Price per Metric Tonne

PE RM 500 / MT

18
 PP RM 650 / MT

PS RM 500 / MT

1.3.2 Market for Gasoline

Gasoline begins with production from a simple distillation of crude oil without
using a chemical conversion process. In early 1900, gasoline began to have a
marketable value in refinery products which motor vehicles started to produce, and it
develop around that time. As time passed by, the gasoline market rapidly grows and
having specifications needed to be followed which need to undergo several processes to
be involved in the production of gasoline. Because of the limitation of crude oil supply,
plastic is one of the alternative ways to produce gasoline nowadays.

Commonly, a refinery process in the production of gasoline is starting with a

distillation process of the raw crude oil and then undergoes different stages in the
distillation column to produce a series type of products. The arrangement of products
going out from the distillation column starting from the top to bottom is light naphtha,
heavy naphtha, kerosene, light gas oil, heavy gas oil, and reduced crude. However, in
the plastic pyrolysis, the plastic is going to depolymerize and then undergoes distillation
process. The products produced from the pyrolysis process are almost similar to the
products from crude oil which are fuel gas, gasoline, diesel, residual oil, and char.

The gasoline as fuel market is expected to grow at a CAGR of more than 1.7%
during the forecast period 2020-2026 (Mordor Intelligence, n.d.) as shown in Figure
1 .7. As for the supply, the global oil supply comfortably increases as the period
increases. The United States has become one of the largest sources to produce a new
supply and assume a higher curve using the analysis. As the coronavirus outbreak
internationally, the oil and petroleum market caused an unpredicted double blow during
pandemics. When the prices fall the market, decreases as gradually. While the
Coronavirus is the cons for the oil and gas market, but it still has a generally positive
influence on demand in general.

19
 Figure 1.7 CAGR for gasoline in global from 2016 to 2026

In 2019, the total oil output will approximately drop to 165 bd/d and drop to 600
kb/d. Malaysia has had a mainstay of oil and gas production in Borneo Malaysia (Sabah
and Sarawak) and the east side of Peninsula Malaysia. Oil and gas activity has been
increasing significantly from the 1960s until now. As for Malaysia, the crude oil
continuously declines and is assumed lower than 120 kb/d than the 2019 amount.
Producers are under pressure to achieve positive cash flow while drilling new wells to
maintain output. The United States consumed 18.1 million barrels per day (b/d) of
petroleum products in 2020, a 25-year low. Petroleum usage or supply dropped in every
energy-consuming sector from 2019 to 2020, along with a record 15% decrease in the
transportation sector.

The oil demand is in a good term of consumption by-products but as the time
has passed it has become less precise with the gathering of domestic sources and
government with the different classification system in numbering by sector.
Transportation and power systems are different sectors. Sometimes it gets mixed with
the industry sector at times. The gasoline demand focused on these several sectors
which are transportation, power systems, and others. The drop-off in consumption
threatens the energy market as the coronavirus is rapidly spreading through the entire
world.

20
1.3.3 Market for Diesel

Diesel is another type of oil that has been used as a petroleum product which
compatible with compression ignition engine kinds. It can be produced from crude oil
and after a bit, there are several productions of diesel which are from biomass and
plastic. The composition is usually within C10 to C15 (Boechler, 2021). It also has a
higher mass density than gasoline and fuel gas but nearly the same volume for energy
density with gasoline which allows for the engine to run much higher compression
ratios. In diesel engines, there is no spark plug to start the engines instead of the fuel
compression itself. The market of diesel also gives higher phase globally as their
increasing of production of heavy transportation and heavy engine that been used.

From data by Kementerian Tenaga dan Sumber Asli (KeTSA) the supply or
import-export of diesel in Malaysia in 2016 is about more than 19 000 kilo tonne which
helps in covering the demand amount that has been listed (MAMPU, 2018). Several
companies in Malaysia become listed diesel suppliers for example Sunmaju Sdn Bhd,
Top Kim Oil Sdn Bhd, and others. In an article, McKinsey & Company said that diesel
remaining become one of the strong sources of oil demand globally. Figure 1 .8 shows
that the CAGR for diesel in global is more than 3.5% within 2021 – 2027 (Wood,
2021).

Figure 1.8 CAGR for diesel in global from 2016 to 2026

As for diesel, the product demand of diesel also shows an increasing trend same
as gasoline but in its percentage. From the Statista website, forecast of the diesel and

21
gasoline is expected to reach 30 million barrels per day within 2019 - 2045. For the
demand for diesel in Malaysia, Kementerian Tenaga dan Sumber Asli (KeTSA) shows
that in 2016 about 10 thousand kilo tonne of diesel demand and will be increasing for
the next few years as the global data show the increasing trend for the diesel demand
(MAMPU, 2018)

1.3.4 Market for Fuel Gas

In the separation process of distillation for hydrocarbon oil other than gasoline
and diesel is fuel gas. Fuel gas is also known as natural gas which is a flammable
hydrocarbon gaseous mixture. For natural gas, might contain CH 4 than other inert gases
which are usually produced from a by-product of the refining process placed in the
underground reserves. All these compounds are actually by-products of a control plant
or a waste incinerator since the first has the objective to convert hydrocarbon fills
(CxHy) into CO2, H2O additionally heat and control, while the moment points at
reducing a huge volume of solid or fluid waste into a little sum of strong ashes plus,
once more, CO2 and H2O from the combustion of the natural compounds.

The market of fuel gas will always be related to gasoline and other hydrocarbon
product. The growth of oil and gas in Malaysia is more than 1.08% CAGR which
gradually increases. This shows that there is increasing in demand for fuel gas which
leads to a high supply needed globally. The Star newspaper said that for the oil and gas
sector, according to the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (Opec) in
its latest monthly oil market report, world oil demand is projected to hit 100.8 million
barrels per day (BPD) in 2022 as the vaccination rates rise. The fuel gas by-product will
still be valid for sale globally and domestically.

1.3.5 Market for Char

Biochar is defined as carbonized biomass obtained from sustainable sources and

sequestered in soils to sustainably enhance their agricultural and environmental value
under present and future management. This distinguishes it from charcoal that is used as
fuel for heat, as a filter, as a reductant in iron-making, or as a coloring agent in industry
or art (Lehmann and Joseph, 2015). Biochar, a porous material, can help retain water
and nutrients in the soil for the plants to take up as they grow.

22
 Biochar is produced by heating biomass in the total or partial absence of
oxygen. Pyrolysis is the most common technique employed to produce biochar, and
also occurs in the early stages of the combustion and gasification processes. Besides
biochar, bio-oil and gas can be collected from modern pyrolyzers. These could be
refined to a range of chemicals and/or used as sources of renewable energy is derived
from sustainably produced biomass.

The pyrolysis gas is mainly a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H2) with lower quantities of CO2, CH4, H2O, and a range of volatile compounds.
Pyrolysis gas is costly to store and transport and therefore, it is usually combusted on-
site to meet the heat requirements of the pyrolyzer. However, if the heat energy released
during combustion of the pyrolysis gas exceeds the demand of a biochar system and
opportunities exist nearby the plant, then the pyrolysis gas could be used to provide heat
for external processes. If the energy provided by the pyrolysis gas is converted into
electricity, then this can be fed into the grid.

The Asia Pacific Biochar Market was worth USD 0.92 million in 2021 and is
estimated to be growing at a CAGR of 15.7% to reach USD 1.2 million by 2016.
Biochar is a type of fine-grained charcoal rich in carbon and is procured by igniting
organic mass in an oxygen-free environment. It is mostly used as a soil additive as it
enhances the soil quality which leads to larger growth of plants. The high CAGR of this
market is due to increasing food demand and decreasing soil quality due to the
excessive use of chemical fertilizers.

1.3.6 Market for Residual Fuel Oil

Residual Fuel Oil (RFO) is a category of fuel oils of a tar-like consistency. Also
known as bunker fuel, or residual fuel oil, RFO is the result or remnant from the
distillation and cracking process of petroleum. For this reason, RFO is contaminated
with several different compounds including aromatics, sulfur, and nitrogen, making
emission upon combustion more polluting compared to other fuel oils. RFO is
predominantly used as a fuel source for marine vessel propulsion due to its relatively
low cost compared to cleaner fuel sources such as distillates.

23
 According to a new report by Wood Mackenzie, oil products demand in the Asia
Pacific is expected to fall by 1.8 million barrels per day (b/d) year-on-year in 2020. But
oil demand growth in Asia has still a long way to run. By 2040, the region's oil demand
is expected to rise by 25% (9 million b/d) to 44.8 million b/d compared to 2019.

Covid-19 and a pessimistic economic outlook will have a near-term impact on

oil demand and the refining sector in the Asia Pacific. But in the long-run, demand
continues to be robust driven by a future demand for mobility and petrochemicals. The
region will account for over half of global oil demand growth by 2040.

Wood Mackenzie research director Sushant Gupta said: Although demand

continues to grow, the rate of growth in the next 20 years is less than half that of the
past 20 years, primarily because of higher fuel efficiency, penetration of electric
vehicles, and displacement of oil in the transport sector.
1.3.7 Plant Capacity Decision

The gasoline production plant is estimated to be operating around 2025. The

company was predicted to be constructed around 4 years - the production capacity of
the gasoline is decided to be 50,000 MTPA. The details of capacity calculation are
shown in the following sections.

1.3.7.1 Production of Gasoline in Global

The value for production capacity is basically based on the supply,

consumption, demand, and shortage. The value for the supply, consumption and
demand is obtained from the Oil 2020 report (Barret, 2020). Figure 1 .9 shows the
supply and consumption of the global petroleum and other liquids from 2019 to 2022.
According to Figure 1 .9, the expected total world production of crude oil is about
95.86 million barrels per day (mb/d). In average, 1 barrel of crude oil is able to produce
40% of gasoline. By converting the unit mb/d into MT, the amount of gasoline
production based on the crude oil capacity will be 1,656 million MT.

24
 Figure 1.9 The supply and consumption of the global petroluem and other liquids
from 2019 to 2022
1.3.7.2 Demand of Gasoline in Global

The demand of gasoline in global and the respective annual growth rate from
2019 to 2025 is obtained from the Oil 2020 report (Barret, 2020) as shown in Figure
1 .10. According to Figure 1 .10, the demand of gasoline in global from 2021 to 2025
is about 133.9 mb/d. By converting the unit mb/d into MT, the amount of gasoline
demand based will be 5,783 million MT.

Figure 1.10 The global oil demand by product (mb/d) and the annual growth rate

25
1.3.7.3 Shortage of Gasoline in Global

The formula to calculate the shortage is shown in eqn. ( 1 .1).

Shortage=Demand−Production (1.1)

Therefore,
Shortage=5,783 million MT −1,656 million MT =4127 million MT

1.3.7.4 Production of Gasoline in Malaysia

According to the website Index Mundi (2021), the production of gasoline in

Malaysia is only 0.47% among the 101 countries that are involving in gasoline
production. So, the shortage of gasoline that Malaysia is going to require to cover is
about 19 million MT. To annualize the shortage of gasoline during the forecast 2021 to
2025, the shortage of gasoline in Malaysia is 3.88 million MT / yr.

Next, there are more than 20 companies in Malaysia that are involving in the
main production of gasoline such as PETRONAS, Shell, Petron, Caltex, BHPetrol,
Chevron, Petro-Excel, Petro Teguh (M) Sdn. Bhd., ExxonMobil, Roc Oil (Sarawak)
Sdn. Bhd., and so on. In average, every company is going to produce 1.27 million MT /
yr.

By considering this project is a new and start-up plant, assuming 4% from the
production capacity in each company is retained for the local use in Malaysia. Hence,
about 50,000 MT / yr of gasoline is set as the targeted production capacity.

1.4 Process Technology

Gasoline is commonly produced from refining petroleum. The main resource of

refining petroleum is the crude oil. Others refining petroleum products are diesel fuel,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, kerosene, jet fuel, and fuel oils. However,
there is another resource that can be used to produce gasoline which is plastic waste.
Most of the plastic wastes are coming from food packaging, household appliances,
clothing, electronics, and automotive products. According to Plastics Europe (2019),

26
there is 48 million tons higher than the previous year which was about 396 million tons
of plastics were produced in 2018 in the global and is expected to double up in the next
20 years. There will be 53 million tons of plastic exist in the oceans, lakes, and rivers
and that’s is why the global is putting efforts to reduce the plastic waste (Recycle
Coach, 2021).

Plastic are classified into 7 types which are polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene
(LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and other. Traditionally, plastic wastes
are recycled by mechanical methods. Based on Anene et al. (2018), there are some
examples of plastic-to-fuel (PTF) technology which are gasification, pyrolysis, plasma
arc gasification, and combustion of refuse-derived fuel (RDF). Therefore, the best
synthesis route of gasoline can be identified by comparing those potential process
technologies.

In the current technology, there are few types of processes that are able to
convert plastic wastes into pyrolysis oil. After that, the pyrolysis oil will be further
purified in the separation process to obtain the targeted main and by-products. The
processes that are commonly used are hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), thermal
pyrolysis, and catalytic pyrolysis. All of these processes will be explained in details in
the following section.

1.4.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL)

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a hydrothermal process that can convert the

feedstocks into liquid products using subcritical water. HTL commonly operate at 280
to 370 °C of subcritical water and at elevated pressures at 10 to 25 MPa (Torres-
Mayanga et al., 2019). Based on Möller et al. (2011), there are several definitions and
criteria for the subcritical water where the temperature and pressure are 150 ≤ T ≤ 370
°C at 0.4 ≤ P ≤ 22 MPa, 300 ≤ T ≤ 350 °C at 10 ≤P ≤18 MPa and 250 ≤ T ≤ 450 8C at P
> Pcritical. On the other hand, subcritical water is the water above the boiling point but
below the critical point where the water at this condition is an excellent reaction
medium for depolymerization and decomposition of mixed type of plastics (Ciuffi et al.,
2021).

27
 Chen et al. (2019) studied that the oils derived from PP using HTL process can
be used as gasoline blendstocks which are having the similar chemical properties as
conventional gasoline due to the same carbon numbers, H/C and O/C ratios, boiling
point range, density, viscosity, heating value, and surface tension. Moreover, this
process is a net-energy positive process and has higher energy efficiency and lower
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than incineration and mechanical recycling. Another
key of HTL is to lowering the oxygen content inside the oil by removing the carbon
dioxide and water which can make the oil comparable to the conventional petroleum
fuels based on heating value (Naber et al., 2005).

Figure 1 .11 shows the hydrothermal liquefaction process of mixed plastic

wastes. The reactions are operated within 350 and 450 °C in a reaction time of 0.5 h or
1 h. At 350 °C, the PS started to depolymerize into oil where the ionic reactions are
dominant. When the temperature increases to 400 °C and above, PET started to
depolymerize into oil where the homolytic depolymerisation is dominant. Last but not
least, when the temperature achieves 450 °C, more PET will form oil and the PET will
undergo aromatization where the repolymerization is dominant. Crude oil is produced
when the reaction is completed.

Figure 1.11 Hydrothermal liquefaction process of the plastic wastes (Seshasayee &
Savage, 2020)

At the same time, water is then loaded into the reactor with pressure of 25 MPa
that can easily reach at supercritical setpoint temperatures based on steam tables while
the 16.52 MPa (saturation pressure) can be achieved at 350 °C with loaded of 95 % of
water. According to Seshasayee & Savage (2020), pressure at 25 MPa will provide a
good balance between having an appropriate margin of safety with the reactors and

28
having a high liquid like density at supercritical conditions. The HTM oil is then cooled
down and recovered using dichloromethane (DCM) and deionized water. The lower
layer is water and the upper layer is oil. The HTL oil finally will send to the unit
separator for further separation.

Figure 1 .12 represents the reaction scheme of converting PP via subcritical

water liquefaction. In this process, the plastic feedstock undergo few chemical process
which are depolymerization, cracking from oligomer, hydrogenation/saturation,
cyclization (cyclics), (e) aromatization (aromatics), gasification (gas), and finally
dehydrogenation.

Figure 1.12 Reaction scheme of converting PP via subcritical water liquefaction: (a)
depolymerization, (b) cracking, (c) hydrogenation/saturation, (d) cyclization, (e)
aromatization, (f) gasification, and (g) dehydrogenation (W. T. Chen et al., 2019)

However, the complexities analysis of the critical parameters such as

temperature, pressure, and the residence time for HTL of a given feedstock is a must to
ensure high yields of oil can be obtained (Gollakota et al., 2018). Furthermore, HTL is a
more expensive process than gasification and pyrolysis (Milledge et al., 2014). In
addition, it is unfavourable on energy balance if the water content exceeds 90 % (Chisti,
2019).

1.4.2 Thermal Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a common technique used to convert plastic waste into energy in the
form of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels (Rashid Miandad et al., 2019). Pyrolysis is also

29
known as thermal cracking process that happened in the absence of oxygen (Rasul et
al., 2021). Thermal pyrolysis means decomposition of polymeric materials to lower
molecules compounds using high temperature and under inert atmospheric conditions
where the temperature is commonly between 350 to 900 °C (Almeida & Marque, 2015).
Thermal pyrolysis showed that the pyrolysis oil contained significant amounts of
hydrocarbons in the ranges of C7 to C12 (gasoline range) and C13 to C20 (diesel range)
(Anene et al., 2018).

According to Rama et al. (2020), higher molecules of plastic wastes (PE, PP,
PS) are broken down into smaller molecules which are hydrogen, methane, ethane,
ethylene, propene, propane, n-butane, 1-octane, cyclo-octane, 1-octocosene and carbon
in the end of pyrolysis process. The selected components of both reactant and products
stream from the list section in the Aspen Hysys V9 simulator are shown in eqns. ( 1 .2),
( 1 .3), and ( 1 .4) which represent the thermal cracking reaction of polyethylene,
polypropylene and polystyrene.

36 C 2 H 4 → H 2+C H 4 +C 2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8+C 4 H 10 +C8 H 16 +C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +5 C

(1.2
)

24 C 3 H 6 → 3 H 2 +C H 4 +C2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+ C8 H 16+ C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +7(1.3

C
)

18 C8 H 8 →3 H 2 +C H 4 +C 2 H 6+ C3 H 6 +C3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+C 8 H 16 +C 16 H 32 +C28 H 56+ 79C

(1.4
)

The yield of thermal pyrolysis of plastic wastes is highly depends on the

temperature. The products distribution can be controlled by changing the temperature.
Based on Ibrahim (2020), lower temperatures tend to produce more liquid and solid
products while higher temperatures favour higher production of gases in the thermal
cracking reactions. Higher temperatures lead to more extensive breakdown of the input,
which in general increases the ability to handle more heterogenous inputs such as mixed
waste, reducing the need for more extensive, and costly, sorting and purification steps
(Hann & Connock, 2020).

Yan et al. (2015) had studied the thermal cracking of virgin and waste plastics
PP and LDPE in a semi-batch reactor under atmospheric pressure at 460 °C. At 460 ◦C,
the thermal pyrolysis of waste PP and LDPE 65.44 wt % and 77.07 wt % respectively in

30
oil liquid fraction. From the gas chromatography analysis of the pyrolysis oil, cracking
of PP oil contained 58 wt % of gasoline and 36 wt % of diesel while cracking of LDPE
oil contained 21.30 wt % of gasoline and 67.76 wt % of diesel.

Figure 1 .13 shows the simulation of polyethylene thermal cracking where the
waste PE is converting into petroleum products. The process consists of 2 stages which
are conversion reactor using pyrolytic reactor and condensing stage using water tube
condenser.

Figure 1.13 Polyethylene thermal cracking (Rama et al., 2020)

However, pyrolysis of plastic waste which containing impurities will form very
hazardous by-products like dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ((Hann &
Connock, 2020; Tfouni & Camargo, 2012). These toxic by-products will seriously
affected the human health, environment and also leading thermal decomposition of the
depolymerization equipment. Thus, purification is necessary to remove the contaminant
from time to time for safety issue and this is another cost to eliminate them.
Furthermore, there are some difficulties to conduct thermal pyrolysis of HDPE and
LDPE along with PP because of their crossed chain hydrocarbon structures (Achilias et
al., 2007).

1.4.3 Catalytic Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis can be either thermal or catalytic. In modern refineries, catalytic

cracking has long replaced thermal cracking due to higher yields of gasoline and octane

31
and at the same time less heavy fuel oils and light gases (Cheremisinoff & Haddadin,
2006). According to the Hann & Connock (2020), catalytic cracking is the introduction
of a catalyst (metal oxides, cobalt complexes, silicate zeolites etc.) to lower the process
temperature and increase the yields of high value products of the pyrolysis oil. Lower
the process temperature which means lower the activation energy for the reaction.
Catalytic cracking for the plastic wastes recycling is a better alternative way to solve the
polymer waste problem because the process is environmentally friendly compared to
landfilling and incineration. (Martynis et al., 2019). From the point of industrial
implementation, the use of expensive catalysts may affect the economy of the process
due to large amount of catalyst is required in a continuous process (López et al., 2011).
So, the catalytic cracking is only supported when the catalyst cost is practically low.

In plastic pyrolysis, there are 3 types of commonly used catalysts which are
silica-alumina, zeolites, and fluid cracking catalyst (FCC). Silica alumina can maintain
high yields of liquid products low yield of residue and the low price (Sahu et al., 2014).
Next, zeolite catalyst can improve the quality of liquid oil but reduce the yields where
the liquid oil can be used in modified diesel engine vehicles after upgrading its gasoline
range hydrocarbons through refining and blending with conventional fuels (Rehan et
al., 2017). On the other hand, FCC catalyst are used to improve the conversion of
plastic in the pyrolysis process (Sharuddin et al., 2018).

The overall process flow diagram of the waste plastics catalytic pyrolysis is
shown in details in Figure 1 .14. The process consists of 3 stages which are pre-
treatment process, reaction, and finally separation.

32
 Figure 1.14 Overall process flow diagram (Sahu et al., 2014)

Pre-Treatment
Waste plastics are washed in washer with feed ratio of plastic to water 1:1 in
mass. The clean waste plastics are shred into 3 mm of spherical pieces. Then, the moist
plastics are purged and dried using nitrogen gas at 176.7 °C.

Pyrolysis Reaction
The waste plastics are sent to the pyrolysis reactor and the reaction is represent
in eqn. ( 1 .5).

Waste plastic Catalyst Liquid fuel+Gases fuel (1.5)

→

In details, the chemical reaction for catalytic pyrolysis is definitely similar to the
thermal pyrolysis as shown in eqns. ( 1 .2), ( 1 .3), and ( 1 .4) but just different in the
process temperature and the application of the catalysts (Thambiyapillai & Ramanujam,
2021). The pyrolysis reactor which is operated at 500 °C, 1 atm and retention time is 30
min. Silica alumina is used as the catalyst where can be reused through cyclone to the
reactor. Furthermore, nitrogen gas is used as inert gas to purge and displace the air in
pyrolysis zone (Yan et al., 2015).

33
 Products Separation
The gaseous products are cooled down and fed to the first separator. The top
products are methane, ethane, ethylene, propene, propane, and hydrogen are separated
at top as fuel gas to heat up the reactor. The bottom products are separated at second
separator which are light fuel oil (gasoline) and heavy fuel oil (diesel). Both products
are then stored in the storage tanks.

So, it is very important to see in details on different types of synthesis routes in

the market. Thus, Table 1 .8 shows the comparison and evaluation of three different
synthesis routes that are able to produce gasoline from plastic wastes from various point
of view. The evaluation on the synthesis route are method, reaction equation, raw
material price, availability of raw materials in Malaysia, pre-treatment process,
application of catalyst, reactor details, operating pressure , operating temperature,
yields, technology and implementation, safety and environment aspect and
disadvantages.

34
 Table 1.8 Comparison of different synthesis routes
*Ranking: 1-Poor; 3-Good; 5-Excellent
Route Hydrothermal Liquefaction Thermal Pyrolysis Catalytic Pyrolysis
Method Synthesis of gasoline from PP Synthesis of gasoline, diesel, and Synthesis of gasoline, diesel, and
(Reference source) using HTL process that can be fuel gas from mixed plastic fuel gas from mixed plastic
used as gasoline blendstocks. wastes using thermal pyrolysis / wastes through catalytic pyrolysis
(W. T. Chen et al., 2019) thermal cracking. / catalytic cracking using
(Magzoub et al., 2015) amorphous silica-alumina as
catalyst.
(Sahu et al., 2014)
Reaction equation Refer to Figure 1 .12 Refer to eqns. ( 1 .2), Refer to eqns. ( 1 .2), ( 1 .3), and
( 1 .3Error: Reference source not ( 1 .4)
found), and ( 1 .4)
Raw material price PE: RM 500 / MT PE: RM 500 / MT PE: RM 500 / MT
PP: RM 650/ MT PP: RM 650/ MT PP: RM 650/ MT
PS: RM 500 / MT PS: RM 500 / MT PS: RM 500 / MT
The lower the price for raw materials, the higher the rating.
5 5 5
Availability of raw materials in 1. Chi Yang Global Recycle 1. Chi Yang Global Recycle 1. Chi Yang Global Recycle
Malaysia 2. Weiann Plastic Resources Sdn. 2. Weiann Plastic Resources Sdn. 2. Weiann Plastic Resources Sdn.

35
 Bhd. Bhd. Bhd.
3. Sri Aman Recycle Sdn. Bhd. 3. Sri Aman Recycle Sdn. Bhd. 3. Sri Aman Recycle Sdn. Bhd.
4. Ipoh S.Y. Recycle Plastic Sdn. 4. Ipoh S.Y. Recycle Plastic Sdn. 4. Ipoh S.Y. Recycle Plastic Sdn.
Bhd. Bhd. Bhd.
5. Gold Mine Polymer Enterprise 5. Gold Mine Polymer Enterprise 5. Gold Mine Polymer Enterprise
The more the availability of raw materials to be obtained, the higher the rating.
5 5 5
Pre-treatment All process are relatively required clean, homogenous waste plastics to obtain high yields of products.
The more the process required, the higher the cost, the lower the rating.
3 3 3
Application of catalyst N/A N/A Yes
Application of catalyst will required additional cost to the process, the lower the rating.
5 5 3
Reactor details - Batch reactor can be used but - Mostly using batch reactor due - Fixed beds reactor can be used
semi-batch reactor will giving to the high conversion is easily to but the reactant and catalyst are
significant higher yield of oil in achieve by leaving the reactant contacted directly that will leads
liquefaction. This is due to the inside for an extended time to blockage trouble and hard to
low-molecular weight molecules (Anuar Sharuddin et al., 2016b). obtain intimate contact over the
and the radicals derived from However, high cost is needed and whole reactor (Almeida &
mixed waste migrated to the hard to make it into large scale Marque, 2015).

36
 outside of the autoclave, and (Fogler, 2016). - Fluidized bed provides larger
these molecules - Semi-batch reactor having surface area for the reaction and
were quenched and stabilized better performance than batch then shorten the residence time.
without the production of residual reactor based on the perspective This is because the fluidizing gas
material (Sugano et al., 2009). of scale size and flexibility on passes through the reactor and
process control (Yan et al., 2015). carries the catalyst in fluid state
to well-mixed with the reactants
(Anuar Sharuddin et al., 2016b).
The more details of the reactor, the higher the rating.
3 5 5
Operating temperature 280 to 380 °C 350 to 900 °C 450 to 550 °C
The lower the temperature, the lower cost of utility, the higher the rating.
5 1 3
Operating pressure 70 to 300 atm 1 atm 1 atm
The lower the pressure, the safer the process, the higher the rating.
1 5 5
Yields > 91 % 90 to 95 % 95 %
The higher the yields, the higher the rating.
1 3 5
Technology and implementation Less common Very common Common

37
 The more common the process is, the higher the rating.
1 5 3
Safety and environment aspect N/A The toxic by-products like Contain lesser dioxins,
dioxins and polycyclic aromatic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
hydrocarbons will seriously in the flue gas, and high content
affected the human health, of volatile organic compounds
environment and also leading (VOCs) is produced.
thermal decomposition of the
depolymerization equipment.
The lower the impact of the process to the environment, the higher the rating.
3 3 5
Disadvantages - The technology has not been - Requires a homogenous plastic - Requires a homogenous plastic
demonstrated at a reasonable waste to obtain higher level of waste to obtain higher level of
scale. monomer outputs. monomer outputs.
- The complexities analysis of the - Requires high temperature - Presence of specific
critical parameters such as which mean more energy cost is contaminants will poison and
temperature, pressure, and the needed. deactivate the catalyst in the
residence time is a must to ensure - Required longer residence time reaction.
high yields of oil. for the thermal cracking reaction. - Requires additional cost to for
- The process is a more expensive - The process might leads to the application of catalyst.

38
 process than gasification and produce toxic by-products where
pyrolysis. costly purification are required to
- It is unfavourable on energy isolate usable products.
balance if the water content
exceeds 90 %.
The lesser the disadvantages of the process, the higher the rating.
3 3 5
Total score 35 43 47

1.4.4 Catalyst Selection

Table 1 .9 shows the comparison different types of catalysts that are commonly used in the current process. The catalysts are compared
technically from different perspectives such as technology, price, regeneration process, and safety and environment aspect.

Table 1.9 Comparison of different types of catalysts

*Ranking: 1-Poor; 3-Good; 5-Excellent
Route Zeolite Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Fluid Catalytic Cracking with
Amorphous Silica–Alumina
(FCC-ASA)
Catalyst technology The PE was pyrolysed at 500°C Mixed plastic waste (PP, HDPE, Amorphous silica–alumina

39
 in a fixed bed reactor and the LDPE, PS, and PET) was (ASA) is also known as FCC-SA
pyrolysis gases passed to a catalytically degraded using zinc which is one type of FCC that is
secondary reactor containing Y- oxide catalyst in a fixed bed used to crack plastic waste into
zeolite or zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst reactor (Kyaw & Hmwe, 2015). fuel oil (Sahu et al., 2014).
(Bagri & Williams, 2002).
Price $ 1,300.00 / MT $ 1,600.00 / MT $ 990.00 / MT
The cheaper the catalyst price, the lower operating cost, the higher the rating.
3 1 5
Regeneration process The catalyst can be regenerated The catalyst can be regenerated by - The catalyst can be regenerated
by removing the coke through combustion of air and steam by coke combustion, (Olazar et
oxidation, gasification, or washing methods (Pouralhosseini, al., 2009).
hydrogenation (Daligaux et al., 2013). - The catalyst can be regenerated
2021). by heating in an air-nitrogen
stream (Hughes & Shettigar,
2007).
The more the methods for catalyst regeneration, the higher the rate.
5 3 5
Safety and environment aspect Less impact on the environment - ZnO is considered less stable The untreated spent FCC catalyst
and the uses of zeolites are under environmental condition that is disposed indiscriminately
manifest, and unique since it has a strong tendency to will occupy valuable land

40
 environmental benefits are dissolve and cause air pollution resources, causes severe
offered with the multiple sorbent (Watson et al., 2015). pollution, and poses an enormous
properties (Rhodes, 2007). - Exposure to ZnO can cause threat to human health (Aisien et
“metal fume fever.” This is a flu- al., 2021). However, if manage
like illness with symptoms of the spent catalyst wisely will be
metallic taste in the mouth, no harm to the environment.
headache, fever and chills, aches,
chest tightness and cough (Naval,
2015)
The lower the impact of the process to the environment, the higher the rating.
5 1 5
Total score 13 5 15

41
1.5 Site Selection and Plant layout

Site selection is a main part that must be selected carefully as the entire
production line for every plant will strongly influence the success of an industrial
venture. For Oil Production plant to produce 50,000 MTPA, primary and secondary
factors need to be considered in order to decide the site selection such as accessibility of
raw materials, transportation facilities, site characteristics, source of utilities, climate,
availability of labor and government incentives. Moreover, the chosen plant must fit in
with and be acceptable to the local community. In order to avoid insignificant additional
risk to the community, full consideration must be given to the safe location of the point.
After do some research for the plant location, a few industrial areas have been narrowed
down to three (3) locations which are Teluk Kalong kemaman, Terengganu, Tanjung
Kidurong, Bintulu Sarawak, and Kulim Industrial Park, Kedah.

1.5.1 Factors of Site Selection

In this part, there are many factors for site selection such as the accessibility of
raw material, transportation, characteristics of sites, source of utilities and etc. will be
discussed in detail.

1.5.1.1 Accessibility of Raw Material

The main reason for the site selection of a production plant is the availability of
the raw materials. The raw material for this production plant is Plastic. In Malaysia
there are many waste plastic at landfill in Malaysia but the landfill can be further or
nearer to the production plant. In order to reduce the cost of transportation and storage
charges, a nearer plantation is recommended since it provide high probability to supply
raw materials continuously in a safer condition.

1.5.1.2 Site Characteristics

The selection of cheapest land is important to start-up a construction because it

depend on the price of site selected, local building costs and living conditions. A good
land must have a good topography preferably a flat land and located near a stream or
river for wastewater discharge. The selected site for a plant should have sufficient

42
capacity and facilities for effective waste removal. In addition, the site also must have
enough space for consideration of future expansion.

1.5.1.3 Source of Utilities

At the site, it is important to provide multiple or enough sources of power in

order to meet the plant’s needs both in current and future time. For energy availability,
high power and stream are required in most industries and electricity or fuel is required
to supply utility. For water supply, process industry uses large quantities of water for
washing, cooling, steam generation and as well as raw material. The electricity and
water rates are chosen at affordable and predictable rate to ensure long term viability of
prospective site location.

1.5.1.4 Availability of Labour

For construction of plant and its operation, workers will be needed. Skilled
construction workers usually brought in from outside the site, but there should be
sufficient poor of unskilled workers available locally and workers that are suitable for
training to operate the plant. For plant maintenance, skilled tradesmen will be needed.
When assessing the availability and suitability of the workers, local trade union customs
and restrictive practices will have to be considered for requirement and training. A
company is required to analyse the availability and quality of labor in consideration to
low wages, skilled, better paid and highly mobile labor. It is important to secure a
workplace capable in order to help the company to be successful in its operations.

1.5.1.5 Government Incentives

Economic development incentives are important to help lower the construction

and operation cost. In order to promote the balanced regional development at certain
areas, the government also offers several incentives such as tax concessions, tax
holidays for number of years, cheaper power supply, factory shed, etc., to attract the
entrepreneurs to set up industries in less developed and backward areas. These factors
become the most notable in deciding the location of an industry.

43
1.5.2 Site Selection

Table 1 .10 shows the detailed and evaluation of three different sites that suitable for gasoline production plant. The evaluation for each
side of site location is made based on the specific factors such as raw materials availability, market potential, labour supply, land price and
availability, transport facilities, utilities, waste and disposal facility, politics and economics stability.

Table 1.10 Comparison of The Industrial Site

*Ranking: 1-Poor; 3-Good; 5-Excellent
Industrial site Teluk Kalong Industrial Park, Tanjung Kidurong, Bintulu Kulim Industrial Park, Kedah
Terengganu Sarawak
Raw materials 1. Chi Yang Global Recycle 1. East Seng Enterprise Sdn. Bhd. 1. Plasticycle Industries Sdn Bhd
availability (Kuantan, Pahang) (Bintulu, Sarawak) (Kulim, Kedah)
2. Weiann Plastic Resources Sdn. 2. Fosen Enterprise Sdn. Bhd. 2. Plascycle Resources (Sungai
Bhd (Johor Bahru, Johor) (Bintulu, Sarawak) Petani, Kedah)
3. Gold Mine Polymer Enterprise 3. Mega Progain (Bintulu, Sarawak) 3. Ipoh S.Y. Recycle Plastic Sdn.
(Ulu Tiram, Johor) Bhd.
4. Sri Aman Recycle Sdn. Bhd. 4. Sri Aman Recycle Sdn. Bhd.
(Shah Alam, Selangor) (Shah Alam, Selangor)
The easier the raw materials to obtain, the higher the rating.
5 3 5

44
Distance from town - 10 km from Kemaman Town -16.3 km from Bintulu Town - 9.2 km to Kulim Town
- 75 km from Kuantan Town - 63.4 km from Tatau Town - 107.7 km to Alor Setar
- 259 km from Kuala Lumpur City - 142.7 km from Sebauh Town
The shorter the distance from town, the highest the rating.
1 3 5
Land price (RM/ft2) 11.00 15.00 35.00
The lowest the price, the highest the rating.
5 3 1
Type of industry Petrochemical and General Petrochemical, gas and energy E&E , rubber-based products,
intensive industries plastic, textile, and automotive
The more choices for the type of industry, the highest the rating.
3 3 3
Infrastructure and - Availability of water and electricity - Availability of water and electricity - Easy access to highway
facilities - East Coast Highway - Easy to access to the town - Availability of water and
electricity
- Easy access to the town
The easier to access the infrastructure and facilities, the highest the rating.
3 3 3
Air transport 31.4 km to Kerteh Airport 27.7 km to Bintulu Airport 36.0 km to Kulim Airport
The shorter the distance from airport, the highest the rating.

45
 3 5 1
Land transport - East Coast Highway that links - Pan-Borneo Highway Road - Lebuhraya Seremban
Kuantan and Kuala Lumpur - Port Dickson
- Gebeng Bypass Road - North-South Expressway (NSE)
- Kuantan Bypass Road - Plus, Malaysia Berhad
- Federal Road (Kuantan-Kertah-
Kuala Terengganu)
The more choices for the land transport, the highest the rating.
5 1 3
Water transport 4.4 km to Pelabuhan Kemaman 4.9 km to Bintulu port 24.1 km to Penang Port
The shorter the distance to access the water transport, the highest the rating.
5 3 1
Electricity supply Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) Sarawak Electricity Supply Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB)
Electric Tariff for industrial RM Corporation (SESCO) Electric Tariff for industrial RM
0.337/kWh Electric Tariff for industrial RM 0.337/kWh
0.28/kWh
The lower the price for the electrical supply, the highest the rating.
3 5 3
Water supply Syarikat Air Terengganu (SATU) Jabatan Bekalan Air Luar Bandar Syarikat Air Darul Aman (SADA)
Water Tariff Rates RM 0.95/m3 (JBALB) Bintulu Water Tariff Rates Water Tariff Rates RM 2.10/m3

46
 RM 1.21/m3
The lower the price for the water supply, the highest the rating.
5 3 1
Man power (statistic -Labor force available based on -Labour force available based on -Labour force available based on
based on 2020) Pahang statistic is 484,900 labour Sarawak statistics is 1,161,600 labour Kedah statistic is 932,700 labour
-Employed labour force in the -Employed labour force in the statistic -Employed labour force in the
statistic shows about 465,000 labour shows about 1,131,700 labour already statistic shows about 906,300
already -Unemployed labour force is 3,000 is labour already
-Unemployed labour force is 19,800 available in Sarawak -Unemployed labour force is
is available in Pahang 26,500 is available in on Kedah
The more the price man power supply, the highest the rating.
5 1 3
Waster and disposal - Qulaitest Engineering Sdn Bhd - Kuching Integrated Waste - Chin Ho Global Resources
facility - Indah Water Konsortium (Unit Management Park (KIWMP) (CHGR)
Terengganu) - Trienekens Sarawak Sdn. Bhd. - Environment Idaman Sdn. Bhd.
- Indah Water Konsortium (Unit (Trienekens) (ENVI)
Chendering) - Sarawak Waste Management Sdn. - National Solid Waste
- Quantum Hydromech Sdn Bhd Bhd. (SWM) Management Corporation
(NSWMC)
The more choices for the water and disposal facility, the highest the rating.

47
 5 3 3
Research and - International Islamic University of - Curtin University, Miri -University Utara Malaysia
development authorities Malaysia (IIUM) - Universiti Teknologi Mara (UITM), (UUM)
- University Malaysia Terengganu Kota Samarahan - Universiti Teknologi Mara
- Universiti Teknologi Mara (UITM) - Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UiTM)
(UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan - Kedah AIMST University
- Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
The more the research and development authorities, the highest the rating.
3 3 3
Government and Pioneer Status Incentive for R&D Pioneer Status Incentives for Research Pioneer Status Incentive for R&D
incentives Five key economic clusters, namely & Development (R&D) 100% Tax exemption of 100% of the
Manufacturing, Oil, Gas & Investment Tax Allowance (ITA) on statutory income for a period of 10
Petrochemicals,Tourism, Agriculture the qualifying capital expenditure years Investment Tax Allowance
and Human Capital Development incurred within a period of 5 years. of 100% on the qualifying capital
will drive the development of ECER Free to offset Reinvestment Allowance expenditure incurred within a
in line with the Government (RA) against 100% of statutory period of five years.
Transformation Programme (GTP) income. Infrastructure Allowance of
and Economic Transformation 100% of the qualifying expenditure.
Programme (ETP) Income tax Double deduction on freight charges
exemption on SI for 10 years. incurred for exporting rattan and

48
 wood-based products (excluding sawn
timber and veneer). Double deduction
on sea freight charges incurred for
shipping goods from Sarawak to
Peninsular Malaysia via ports in
Peninsular Malaysia.
The more the government’s incentives, the highest the rating.
5 5 3
Total score 45 40 33

49
1.5.3 Justification of Site Selection

Table 1 .10 above shows the detailed and evaluation of three different sites that
suitable for Oil production plant. Based on the above study, Teluk Kalong Industrial
Park, Terengganu is the most suitable for oil production plant because it has many
features compared to other sites. Their land price is cheaper and reasonable compared
other land sites with RM 11/ft2. It also located near to Kemaman port where it can
reduce time and cost for transportation of product to the customer. Since the location is
situated near to East – Coast Highway and Federal Road (Kuantan - KertehKuala
Terengganu), the large amount of oil can be transfer easily. Furthermore, there are
many educational institutes that provide space for Research and Development (R&D)
work such as UMT, UiTM Terengganu, and IIUM. Pahang, Terengganu and Kuala
Lumpur will be our supplier for raw material since they have a lot of waste plastic.
They also have Income tax exemption on SI for 10 years or income tax exemption
equivalent to 100% of QCE incurred for 5 years. In addition, Syarikat Air
Terengganu(Satu)and Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) are also offer various of facilities
in term of services and quality by providing treated water and high power of electricity
to the Teluk Kalong industrial park where the price for water supply is cheaper than
another place. Therefore, it is a good choice since this plant used a lot of water in
production site.

1.5.4 Plant Layout

Based on the factors stated before, below are a few concerned factors to design
plant layout for the ethanol production.

Cost
Adopting shortest run of connecting pipe between equipment can minimize the
construction cost by having the least amount of structural steel work and best
arrangement for operation and maintenance.

Convenience of Operation
To ease the operator’s job, equipment such as valves, sample points and instruments
should frequently be located not far away from control room and placed at the suitable

50
positions and heights. To allow easy access to equipment, adequate working and
headroom space are provided.

Convenience of Maintenance
Some considerations were made regarding maintenance work when laying out the plant.
For examples, all equipment is accessible to crane / lift truck. Compressors and pump
are located under cover since they require dismantling for maintenance. Enough space
is allocated for heat exchanger for withdrawing the bundle purposes.

Health and Safety Consideration

When laying out the plant, there are some safety considerations which are:
 Place the flammable handling process units separately from each other in order
to minimize fire from spreading.
 Provide two escape routes if anything occurs at the main process unit.
 Located process vessels with flammable liquid at further section.
 Provide at least one stairway at elevated areas.
 Provide ballast walls to isolate hazardous equipment and confine the effect of an
explosion.
 Stores the flammable materials storage far away from the main process area.

Future Plant Expansion

Equipment should be located at the suitable place so that it can conveniently tie in with
any future expansion of the process.

Site Layout
The site layout can be divided into two parts. Process Area – consists of all processing
units and equipment of ethanol production. Non-Process Area – area where there is no
processing and production activity and has low risk and hazard to the workers.

A. Process Area
A hazardous area which all production and processing equipment are placed. Therefore,
the safety precaution needs to be applied at all time without any consideration. The
buildings or units that are located at process area are:

1. Control Room Building

The control room is designed with blast proof construction and has emergency
backup power and is air conditioned in order to save and secure the vital documents of

51
the process during emergency. All the control valves for the whole process will be
monitored and controlled from the central control building. Thus, the room does not
locate at the place that is exposing to the fire or explosion.

2. Assembly Point
Assembly point must be located further from the ethanol plant and at each point
area where accident expected to be happened.

3. Waste Treatment Plant

The treatment plant is placed far away from the separation unit to prevent the
waste release from contaminating the product and also further from the personnel in the
process area. The waste stream from the separation area will flow into the waste
treatment plant to separate the contaminant from the water. Therefore, the treatment
plant is placed near to the main stream for treated water drainage.

4. Oil Production Plant

This area is the major processing unit where there is a reactor used for the
production of oil. To ensure the area is safe, consideration from different aspects such
as operability and maintenance have been made. Moreover, sufficient space between
the equipment is considered to minimize or avoid the spreading of fire in case it
happened. Thus, the reactor is placed far from the storage to minimize domino effect
that can give effect to hazardous materials and vital product.

5. Research & Development Laboratory

The purity of oil is tested after the product is recovered in order to determine
whether it meet the specifications or not. The results will be sent to the control room
and some adjustment in controlling will be made, if needed. Before being channelled to
wastewater treatment plant and flare system or being released to atmosphere, laboratory
staffs will also perform analysis of the waste of the process.

On the other hand, the plant layout is the physical arrangement of equipment
and facilities within a plant. Optimizing the layout of a plant can improve productivity,
safety and quality of products. Based on Figure 1 .15 below, the plant layout includes
all necessaries buildings for processing, administration which allow smooth operation
and maintenance in a good condition in order to give all the basic needs of employee.

52
The buildings are listed below: Administration office, Product and raw material storage,
Production area, Plant utility, Control room, Prayer room, Cafeteria, Clinic, Waste
treatment/storage, Fire station, Expansion area, Warehouse, Loading area, Assembly
point and parking area, Security guard, Storage R&D.

Figure 1.15 Plant Layout

B. Non-Process Area
The area that occupies a smaller fraction of the overall plant site area. All the facilities
in the area should be placed in a logical manner that consider site terrain, accessibility
to roads, soil bearing capability and other unusual weather condition. It is important to
prevent any undesired incident due to explosion or fire from the process area that will
be easily spread to the non process area. The buildings and units of non-process area
consists of:

53
 1. Guard Posts
There two guard posts situated at the crucial entrance and exit in the plant. It is
located at the entrance and exit of the plant to ensure that only authorized personnel get
access into the plant area.

2. Administration Building
Based on the plant layout, the administration building is located further from the
process area in order to protect the workers and visitors from any potential hazard. It is
a parking area which also acts as assembly area for workers to ensure the workers can
arrive faster at the assembly point during the emergency situation.

3. Cafeteria
It is located across the administration building for easy access to the employees
and visitors in order to ensure the safety of the public including cafeteria operators and
non-technical workers and also to avoid from the food being exposed to the process
area. There are also other facilities including parking lot and clinic.

1.6 Project Objectives

This project is designed to valorise the plastic wastes that are increasing in a
significant amount and having the greatest potential to harm the environment, wildlife
and humans. Therefore, the objectives of this project are:

 To produce 50,000 metric tons per annum of gasoline from mixed plastic wastes
using catalytic pyrolysis.

 To develop and enhance the current technology of catalytic pyrolysis by using

various types of plastic wastes as raw materials.

 To improve on plastic waste management system in Malaysia by reducing the

plastic wastes problem.

54
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 Level 1 Decision

2.1.1 Screening of Synthesis Routes

This section compares synthesis routes in term of reaction information,

availability of the raw materials, safety and environmental aspect of the reaction and
components and technologies employed for the synthesis including the requirement of
utilities.

Gasoline as discussed in the process technology can be produced through

different synthesis routes and technologies from plastic wastes. In this part, comparison
between three most common commercialized processes is listed as follow for selection:

1. Hydrothermal Liquefaction

2. Thermal Pyrolysis

3. Catalytic Pyrolysis

2.1.2 Decision on Synthesis Routes

Based on our research, the most suitable process to be used for our design is the
catalytic pyrolysis process (also known as catalytic depolymerization) from plastic
wastes. This is because the mentioned process was ranked the most preferable process
with a score of 42 in Chapter 1.

The catalyst involved in this process is heterogeneous as compared to the

homogeneous catalyst involved in catalytic pyrolysis process. This nature structure of
the catalyst enable the process to eliminate the need separation unit for the separation of
catalyst and products after the reactor. Moreover, the yields and the conversion of
plastic wastes to the liquid pyrolysis oil (which can be processed later into gasoline and
diesel) in the catalytic process is the highest compared to hydrothermal liquefaction and
thermal pyrolysis. Furthermore, the catalytic pyrolysis can be operated at the medium
range of temperature and at atmospheric temperature due to involving of catalyst in the
process. The process is also can be considered safer and less disadvantages from the

55
environment and safety aspects. Hence, the most suitable process to be implemented is
the catalytic pyrolysis process.

2.1.3 Decision on Catalyst

In order to produce gasoline from mixed plastic wastes, a suitable catalyst is

strongly required to increase the rate of reaction and selectivity. There are several
options of catalysts that can be utilised in the catalytic depolymerization reaction. The
production of gasoline is performed and designed with the utilisation of amorphous
silica alumina (ASA). ASA samples are heterogeneous compounds that contain a silica
alumina mixed phase as well as aluminum clusters and pure silica zones (Crepeau et al.,
2006). This heterogeneous catalyst can be used in different type of reactors. In this
process, the fluidized bed reactor which is one of a continuous reactor. Based on Table
1 .9, there are 3 types of catalysts that have been given score according to the pro and
cons.

For the zeolite, the catalyst has the least impact on the environment and can greatly
improve the quality of liquid pyrolysis oil by upgrading it into gasoline range through
refining and blending with conventional fuels. However, the oil yield will decrease and
gas yield will increase when the temperature increases from 400 to 600 °C. For the zinc
oxide, the catalyst can beneficially increase the rate of polymer degradation and
decreasing the boiling point of liquid products where the pyrolysis oil obtained does not
contain any wax from the pyrolysis. But, it is the most expensive catalyst compared to
others and is less stable under environmental condition since it has a strong tendency to
dissolve and cause air pollution. Finally is the ASA. This fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
catalyst is widely used in petroleum refinery to break the heavier chain in crude oils.
The FCC silica alumina catalyst increases the rate of breaking chains to produce a high
liquid and gas yield. It is also the cheapest catalyst compared to others. Thus,
amorphous silica alumina is selected for the catalytic pyrolysis process.

2.1.4 Decision on Process Mode

The decision mode of operation consists of two types of mode which are batch
and continuous. Batch mode is typically used for small scale operations such as tests on
laboratory scale. Continuous mode, on the other hand, is suitable for large operating

56
scale and enables a stable operating state. According to Fogler (2016), the guidelines
for the decision on the mode of operation can made based on Table 2 .11. Table 2 .11
shows the details of the process requirement with the preferable operation mode and the
respective technical description.

Table 2.11 Mode of Operation and Description

Process Requirement Operation Mode Description
A continuous reactor is highly
Capacity Continuous recommended for the production of
50,000 MTPA of gasoline.
Mix plastic wastes are delivered to plant
Raw materials delivery Batch
by trucks.
Gasoline is delivered to customers or
Products delivery Batch
port by tanker trucks.
Easier to set up and introduce process
Operational flexibility Batch
variation or change unit operations.
More effective when dealing with larger
Process efficiency Continuous
production capacity in less time.
Easier to maintain due to no downtime
Maintenance & operating
Batch limit but required more operating labor
labor
in the operation.
Equipment cost Batch Low cost equipment.
Inconsistent supply of feedstock will
Feedstock availability Batch
favour batch mode.
Continuous processing allows for rapid
Rate of reaction Continuous
analysis and scale-up chemical reaction.
Safety Batch Lower risk in handling the process.
Controllability Batch Can be controlled easily.

The catalytic pyrolysis process consists of 3 main processes which are pre-
treatment, reaction and separation. The suitable operation mode for each process are
described as below:

57
a) Pre-treatment: The plastic wastes are delivered to the plant by trucks by batch. Due to
the limited amount of the desired type of plastic wastes, it is hard to ensure that the
supply of the feedstock is consistent. Before entering the reactor, there is an
intermediate feed tank to collect all the feedstock temporary to make sure that the raw
material is sufficient to carry on the next process. So, this process is more suitable to
operate in batch mode.

b) Reaction: Based on the Table 2 .11, a continuous reactor is highly recommended for
the production of 50,000 MTPA of gasoline. This is because the process will be more
effective when dealing with larger production capacity in lesser time. Besides that,
continuous processing allows for rapid analysis and scale-up chemical reaction which
means the rate of reaction is increased. Thus, this process is more suitable to operate in
continuous mode.

c) Separation: Although it is safer, more flexible in operation, easier to control and

maintenance, more operating labor is required in the batch operation. In contrast, the
separation process is more suitable in continuous mode when the reaction is in
continuous mode. This is to shorten the production period when involving with large
production capacity. Hence, continuous mode is more appropriate in this process.

For overall, the process is decided to be operated in semi-batch mode after

taking into consideration of batch mode for pre-treatment process and continuous mode
for reaction and separation process.

2.1.5 Profit Margin and Economic Potential 1 Calculation for Each Synthesis
Routes

Process selection is the crucial part of the production of gasoline, this is because

the comparison of margin profit from 3 different synthesis routes gives a different
outcome. 3 synthesis routes available in producing gasoline that has been compared
were Hydrothermal liquefaction, Thermal pyrolysis, and Catalytic pyrolysis.

Economical Potential 1 (EP1) is one of the needed parts to see the possibilities
in gasoline production from a chosen synthesis route. There are several criteria for
gasoline production need to follow. In economic potential for the production of

58
gasoline, the raw material availability and sorting part is considered. The assumption
that has been made are:

i. 50,000 MTPA of gasoline production produce

ii. 8,000 plant operation hours per year

iii. Conversion of gasoline produced from mixed plastic waste is 100 %

The formula that has been used in profit margin starts by calculation from the
Economical Potential 1 which is:

EP 1=Revenue−Cost of Raw Materials (2.6)

In order to obtain EP1, the profit margin equation is used:

Revenue−Cost of Raw Materials (2.7)

Profit Margin= × 100 %
Revenue

These are several types of molecular weight of the raw materials that has been
used for all three syntheses and its price. All prices are following the Malaysia standard
recycling price. The margin is calculated as the raw material needed to produce the
50,000 MTPA of gasoline as the main product in all reactions (assume 100 %
conversion). 

MT 1,000 kg 1 kmol kmol gasoline

50,000 × × =437,713.39
yr MT 114.23 kg yr

2.1.5.1 Economic Potential 1 for Hydrothermal Liquefaction

The chemical reaction of the hydrothermal liquefaction process can be referred

to Figure 1 .12.

59
Figure 1.12 Reaction scheme of converting PP via subcritical water liquefaction: (a)
depolymerization, (b) cracking, (c) hydrogenation/saturation, (d) cyclization, (e)
aromatization, (f) gasification, and (g) dehydrogenation (W. T. Chen et al., 2019)

Next, Table 2 .12 represents the price for each raw materials and products that
will be used in hydrothermal liquefaction process, including the molar mass and the
respective reference sources which will be used to calculate EP1.

Table 2.12 Raw material for Hydrothermal Liquefaction Synthesis

Component Price  Molar Mass  Reference
(RM / MT) (g / mol)

Raw Polyethylene (PE) 500 -(28)n- Cenviro Sdn.

materials  Bhd.

Polypropylene (PP) 650 -(42)n- Cenviro Sdn.

Bhd.

Polycarbonate (PC) 934 -(272)n- Cenviro Sdn.

Bhd.

Polyethylene 600 -(222)n- Cenviro Sdn.

Terephthalate (PET) Bhd.

Products  Gasoline 2562.50 114.23 (“Malaysia

Gasoline prices,
08-Nov-2021”)

60
 Diesel 2687.50 226 (“Malaysia
Gasoline prices,
08-Nov-2021”)
Fuel gas 1502.40 44.1 Gas Malaysia
Bhd.

*Assume 1 mol of each plastic wastes will produce 1 mol of gasoline, 1 mol of diesel,
and 1 mol of fuel gas.
EP1=Revenue−Cost of Raw Materials

¿
[( 437,713.39 kmol gasoline RM 2562.50 114.23 kg 1 MT
yr
x
MT
x
kmol
x
1000 kg
+ )(
437,713.39kmol diesel R
yr
x

EP1=RM 442,285,400 / yr −RM 187,581,198/ yr =RM 254,704,203/ yr

RM 442,285,400/ yr−RM 187,581,198 / yr

Profit Margin (%)= x 100 %=57.59 %
RM 442,285,400 / yr

2.1.5.2 Economic Potential 1 for Thermal Pyrolysis

The chemical reaction of thermal pyrolysis can be referred to eqns. ( 1 .2),

( 1 .3), and ( 1 .4).

36 C 2 H 4 → H 2+C H 4 +C 2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8+C 4 H 10 +C8 H 16 +C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +5 C

(1.2
)

24 C 3 H 6 → 3 H 2 +C H 4 +C2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+ C8 H 16+ C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +7(1.3

C
)

18 C8 H 8 →3 H 2 +C H 4 +C 2 H 6+ C3 H 6 +C3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+C 8 H 16 +C 16 H 32 +C28 H 56+ 79C

(1.4
)

Next, Table 2 .13 represents the price for each raw materials and products that
will be used in thermal pyrolysis process, including the molar mass and the respective
reference sources which will be used to calculate EP1.

61
 Table 2.13 Raw material for Thermal Pyrolysis Synthesis
Component Price  Molar Mass  Reference
(RM/MT) (g/ mol)

Raw Polyethylene (PE) 500 -(28)n- Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

materials 
Polypropylene (PP) 650 -(42)n- Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

Polystyrene (PS) 500 -(104)n- Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

Products  Gasoline 2562.50 114.23 (“Malaysia Gasoline

prices, 08-Nov-
2021”)
Diesel 2687.50 226 (“Malaysia Gasoline
prices, 08-Nov-
2021”)
Fuel gas 1502.40 44.1 Gas Malaysia Bhd.

*Assume 1 mol of each plastic wastes will produce 1 mol of gasoline, 1 mol of diesel,
and 1 mol of fuel gas.
EP1=Revenue−Cost of Raw Materials

¿
[( 437,713.39 kmol gasoline RM 2562.50 114.23 kg 1 MT
yr
x
MT
x
kmol
x
1000 kg
+ )(
437,713.39kmol diesel R
yr
x

EP1=RM 442,285,400 / yr −RM 40,838,659.30/ yr =RM 401,446,741/ yr

RM 442,285,400/ yr−RM 40,838,659.30/ yr

Profit Margin (%)= x 100 %=90.77 %
RM 442,285,400/ yr

2.1.5.3 Economic Potential 1 for Catalytic Pyrolysis

The chemical reaction of this process is similar to the Thermal Pyrolysis where
the equation used are eqns. ( 1 .2), ( 1 .3), and ( 1 .4)

36 C 2 H 4 → H 2+C H 4 +C 2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8+C 4 H 10 +C8 H 16 +C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +5 C

(1.2
)

24 C 3 H 6 → 3 H 2 +C H 4 +C2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+ C8 H 16+ C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +7(1.3

C

62
 )

18 C8 H 8 →3 H 2 +C H 4 +C 2 H 6+ C3 H 6 +C3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+C 8 H 16 +C 16 H 32 +C28 H 56+ 79C

(1.4
)

Next, Table 2 .14 represents the price for each raw materials and products that
will be used in catalytic pyrolysis process, including the molar mass and the respective
reference sources which will be used to calculate EP1.

Table 2.14 Raw material for Catalytic Pyrolysis Synthesis

Component Price  Molar Mass  Reference
(RM/MT) (g/ mol)

Raw Polyethylene (PE) 500 -(28)n- Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

materials 
Polypropylene (PP) 650 -(42)n- Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

Polystyrene (PS) 500 -(104)n- Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

Products  Gasoline 2562.50 114.23 (“Malaysia Gasoline

prices, 08-Nov-
2021”)
Diesel 2687.50 226 (“Malaysia Gasoline
prices, 08-Nov-
2021”)
Fuel gas 1502.40 44.1 Gas Malaysia Bhd.

*Assume 1 mol of each plastic wastes will produce 1 mol of gasoline, 1 mol of diesel,
and 1 mol of fuel gas.
EP1=Revenue−Cost of Raw Materials

¿ ([ 437,713.39 kmol
yr
gasoline RM 2562.50 114.23 kg 1 MT
x
MT
x
kmol
x
1000 kg ) +(
437,713.39kmol diesel R
yr
x

EP1=RM 442,285,400 / yr −RM 40,838,659.30/ yr =RM 401,446,741/ yr

RM 442,285,400/ yr−RM 40,838,659.30/ yr

Profit Margin (%)= x 100 %=90.77 %
RM 442,285,400/ yr

63
 Based on the profit margin from each synthesis route, we can conclude that the
thermal pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis shows the highest EP1 which is RM
401,446,741 and profit margin which is 90.77% in a year. This due to lesser raw
materials are used in thermal pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis process and also the
prices are lower compared to liquefaction hydrolysis. However, this project is designed
to carry out catalytic pyrolysis where this process is safer from the perspective of
temperature and more economical from the perspective of utilities compared to thermal
pyrolysis.

2.2 Level 2 Decision: Input-Output Structure

2.2.1 Input: Raw Material Selection

The raw materials (mixed plastic wastes) which used in this process are
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). All raw materials can be
obtained locally in Malaysia from Ipoh S.Y. Recycle Plastic Sdn. Bhd with price of PE
= RM 500 / MT, PP = RM 650 / MT, and PS = RM 500 / MT.

2.2.2 Output Materials Determination and Decision of Their Destinations

According to Douglas (1998), the heuristics of the destination code for all
components in the process are classified based on their boiling point as shown in Table
2 .15. Table 2 .15 shows the chemical formula, boiling point, and the decision
destination code for each products for Level 2 input and output structure decision in this
catalytic pyrolysis process.

Table 2.15 The Boiling Point of Output Components and Their Destinations
Components Formula Boiling Point Destination
Fuel gas 1 (Hydrogen) H2 - 252.9 °C Valuable by-product
Fuel gas 2 (Propane) C3H8 - 42.1 °C Valuable by-product
Gasoline (Octane) C8H18 125.6 °C Primary product
Diesel (Hexadecane) C16H34 286.9 °C Valuable by-product
Residual fuel oil (1-Octacosene) C28H56 423.5 °C Valuable by-product
Char (Carbon) C - Valuable by-product

64
 On the other hand, Table 2 .16 shows the current average market’s price for
each products in the unit of RM / MT that will be involved in the calculation of
economic potential 2 (EP2) later.

Table 2.16 Price For Each Products

Components Product Price
Hydrogen Fuel gas RM 1502.40 / MT
Propane
Octane Gasoline RM 2562.50 / MT
1-Hexadecene Diesel RM 2687.50 / MT
1-Octacosene Residual fuel oil RM 1095.45 / MT
Carbon Char RM 532 / MT

2.2.3 Block Flow Diagram of Level 2

Figure 2 .16 represents the block flow diagram (BFD) for the Level 2 decision
where the raw materials which are PE, PP, and PS are entering together inert gas,
nitrogen into the process. After that, the outputs in the process are hydrogen and
propane (fuel gas), inert nitrogen, gasoline (main product), diesel (by-product), residual
fuel oil (by-product), and char (by-product).

5. FD (H2)
6. FE (C3H8)
7. FN (N2)

8. FF (C8H18)
1. FA0 (PE) 9. FG (C16H34)
2. FB0 (PP) Process
3. FC0 (PS)
10. FH (C28H56)

4. FN0 (N2)
11. FI (C)
Figure 2.16 Overall Block Flow Diagram at Level 2 Decision

65
2.2.4 Level 2 Degree of Freedom Analysis

The Degree of Freedom (DOF) analysis have to be done so that material balance
calculations of input-output structure in Level 2 decision can be performed, to see if
there will be no problem (when DOF = 0), underdetermined (DOF > 0) or
overdetermined (DOF < 0) to solve equations to know the unknowns. There are 8
unknowns which are FA, FB, FC, FD, FF, FG, FH, and FI. However, the nitrogen gas (N2) is
not involved in the reaction which just provide the inert condition and FN0 is equal to FN
= 2.98 mol/s where the flowrate is known. Degree of freedom at Level 2 is calculated as
follows in Table 2 .17.

Table 2.17 Degree of Freedom of the Overall Process at Level 2

Unknown variables (FA0, FB0, FC0, FD, FE, FG, FH, FI) 8
Independent reactions +3
Stoichiometric balance (FA0, FB0, FC0, FD, FE, FF, FG, FH, FI) 9
Feed composition -0
Variables need to be specified 2

Based on the calculation above, the degree of freedom obtained is 2 categorized

in the underdetermined section where there is not enough information to solve the
equation in order to know the unknowns. Therefore, the remaining information such as
conversion of limiting reactant (X), and feed ratio must be specified to solve the
question that can be obtaining from Polymath software to assist in the unknown
findings.

2.2.5 Mole Balance in Term of Extent of Reaction

To analyse the molar flow rates of each stream in the catalytic reaction, the
extent of reaction method is used where the extent of reaction’s symbol is 𝜉̇. The mole
balance of all chemical species is generally computed using the correlation as follows:

ṅi =ṅ̇ i 0+ v i ξ i (2.8)

Where n ̇ i is inlet molar flow rate of the species i, n ̇ ̇ i0 is the inlet molar flow rate
of the species i, vi is the stoichiometric coefficient, and ξ i is the extent of reaction.

66
 Hence, the catalytic pyrolysis of PE, PP, and PS are shown in eqns. ( 2 .9), ( 2 .10),
and ( 2 .31). Assume the raw materials are having 100 % of conversion in the reaction.
The components in the chemical reactions are representing fuel gas (H2 & C3H8),
gasoline (C8H16), diesel (C16H32 & C28H56), and char (C).

( C 2 H 4 )30 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18+C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5 C --- ξ 1 (2.9)

( C 3 H 6 ) 20 →2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5C --- ξ 2 (2.1

0)

( C 8 H 8 )15 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +65 C --- ξ 3 (2.1

1)

The mole balance in term of extent of reaction is the tabulated in Table 2 .18 based on
the eqns. ( 2 .9), ( 2 .10), and ( 2 .31) which will be used to identify the flowrate of
each reactants and products in the process.

Table 2.18 Mole Balance in Term of Extent of Reaction

No. Species Formula Inlet Change Outlet
1 Polyethylene (PE) (C2H4)30 FA0 - ξ1 FA = FA0 - ξ1 = 0
2 Polypropylene (C3H6)20
FB0 - ξ2 FB = FB0 - ξ2 = 0
(PP)
3 Polystyrene (PS) (C8H8)15 FC0 - ξ3 FC = FC0 - ξ3 = 0
4 Fuel gas 1 H2 0 +2ξ1 + 2ξ2 + 2ξ3 FD = 2ξ1 + 2ξ2 + 2ξ3
5 Fuel gas 2 C3H8 0 + ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3 FE = ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3
6 Gasoline C8H18 0 + ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3 FF = ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3
7 Diesel C16H34 0 + ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3 FG = ξ 1 + ξ 2 + ξ 3
8 Residual Oil C28H56 0 + ξ1 + ξ2 + ξ3 FH = ξ 1 + ξ 2 + ξ 3
9 Char C 0 + 5ξ1 + 5ξ2 + 65ξ3 FI = 5ξ1 + 5ξ2 + 65ξ3
10 Nitrogen N2 FN0 0 FN = FN0

67
2.2.6 Stoichiometry and Yield Calculations for Different Conversions

The production of gasoline (C8H18) is 50,000 MTPA by assuming 8,000 plant

operating hours per annum. The molecular weight of gasoline is 114.23 kg/kmol.
Hence, the flowrate of gasoline is equal to 911.9 mol/min.

MT 1 yr 1 hr 1,000 kg 1 kmol 1000mol

F E =50,000 × × × × × =911.9 mol /min
yr 8,000 hrs 60 min MT 114.23 kg 1 kmol

Based on eqns. ( 2 .9), ( 2 .10), and ( 2 .31), 1 mol of gasoline required 1 mol
of PE + 1 mol of PP + 1 mol of PS. Hence, the flowrate of PE, PP and PS are equal to
the flowrate of gasoline which is 303.97 mol/min respectively. Next, the rate laws for
this catalytic process are set as shown in Table 2 .19. According to Fogler (2016), the
rate constant can be found using Arrhenius equation as shown in eqn. ( 2 .12).

−Ea / RT
k A ( T )= A e (2.12)

Where A = Pre-exponential factor or frequency factor

Ea = Activation energy, J/mol or cal/mol
R = Gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.K = 1.987 cal/mol.K
T = Absolute temperature, K

All the respective parameters such as pre-exponential factor and activation

energy are obtained from the reaction kinetic properties of thermal cracking of different
polymers in Fuels (2006) are tabulated in Table 2 .19.

Table 2.19 Rate Model Parameters of Catalytic Pyrolysis Porcess

Rate law A (min-1) Ea (kJ/mol)
PE k1CA 1.71 x 1017 250
PP k2CB 2.04 x 108 125
PS k3CC 2.32 x 1013 185

Furthermore, the selectivity tells us how one product is favoured over another
when we have multiple reactions (Fogler, 2016). The yield is the fraction of raw
materials (PE, PP, and PS) that are converted into gasoline. Therefore, the terms

68
 selectivity and yield in this process are described in eqns. ( 2 .13) and ( 2 .14) as
follows:

Moles of desired product

Selectivity , S= (2.13)
Moles of undesired product (by product)
r Gasoline
¿
r Fuel Gas 1+ r Fuel Gas2 +r Diesel +r Residual FuelOil +r Char
rF
¿
r D + r E + r G +r H + r I

Moles of desired product

Yield , Y = (2.14)
Moles of limiting reactant reacts∧no side reactions
F Gasoline
¿
( F PE 0−F PE ) + ( F PP 0−F P ) + ( F PS 0 −F PS )
FF
¿
( F A 0−F A ) + ( F B 0 −F B ) + ( F C 0−FC )

Last but not least, stoichiometry table is set up based on the process chemical
equation as shown in Table 2 .20 that will be used later while solving the remaining
information from the DOF in Polymath software to assist in the unknown findings.

Table 2.20 Stoichiometry Table

Species Formula Inlet Change Outlet
PE (C2H4)30 FA0 - FA0X1 FA = FA0 (1 - X1)
PP (C3H6)20 FB0 - FA0X2 FB = FA0 (ΘB - X2)
PS (C8H8)15 FC0 - FA0X3 FC = FA0 (ΘC - X3)
Fuel gas 1 H2 0 +2FA0X1 + 2FA0X2 + 2 FA0X3 FD = FA0 (2X1 + 2X2 + 2X3)
Fuel gas 2 C3H8 0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FE = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Gasoline C8H18 0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FF = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Diesel C16H34 0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FG = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Residual C28H56
0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FH = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Oil
Char C 0 + 5FA0X1 + 5FA0X2 + 65FA0X3 FI = FA0 (5X1 + 5X2 + 65X3)

69
Nitrogen N2 FN0 0 FN0 = FN

2.2.7 Desired Condition Determination

In this section, the desired condition for production of gasoline via catalytic
pyrolysis of mixed plastic wastes over amorphous silica alumina catalyst is determined
using simulation software. The test is conducted by using the Polymath and Excel
software. The temperature, pressure and feed ratio were tested to ensure the process can
achieve the highest production rate under the desired condition with the consideration
of economic potential.

2.2.7.1 Temperature Determination

Several temperatures from range 723 to 773 K were tried using Polymath and
their respectively selectivity (S) of gasoline, yield (Y) of gasoline and conversion of
plastic wastes (XA) are obtained. Below are the conditions that are set as constant
throughout the test as shown in Table 2 .21 where temperature is the manipulated
variable.

Table 2.21 Operating Conditions for Temperature Determination

Pressure 1 atm
PE:PP:PS 1:1:1

The data generated from the Polymath software are plotted in Figure 2 .17.
Figure 2 .17 shows the selectivity and yield of gasoline against the conversion of
plastic wastes at 3 different temperatures which are 723 K, 750 K, and 773 K.

70
 1
0.95
0.9

Selectivity, S
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XA

723K 750K 773K

(a)

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Yield,Y

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XA

723K 750K 773K

(b)
Figure 2.17 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of plastic wastes at
different temperature and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion plastic wastes at
different temperature

Therefore, Table 2 .22 below are the final selectivity of gasoline, final yield of
gasoline and final conversion of plastic wastes that were obtained upon trying using
Polymath with different operating temperature.

Table 2.22 Final Selectivity (S) of Gasoline, Yield (Y) of Gasoline & Conversion of
Plastic Wastes (XA) at Respective Temperature
T (K) XA Y S
723 0.6780795 1.0 0.7349226
750 0.9856756 1.0 0.7276225

71
 773 0.9999973 1.0 0.728717

According to Figure 2 .17, the selectivity of gasoline decrease when the

conversion of plastic wastes increase at different temperature while the yield remain
constant at 1. Based on Table 2 .22, the conversion of plastic waste and the selectivity
of gasoline at 773 K is the highest and then followed by 750 K and 723 K. To
determine the best process temperature, a comparison is made to determine which
temperature can give the highest conversion. Hence, temperature of 773 K is chosen for
further discussion since it has the highest conversion compared to the others.

2.2.7.2 Pressure Determination

Several pressure which are 1, 1.5 and 2 atm were tried using Polymath and their
respectively selectivity (S) of gasoline, yield (Y) of gasoline and conversion of plastic
wastes (XA) are obtained. Below are the conditions that are set as constant throughout
the test as shown in Table 2 .23 where pressure is the manipulated variable.

Table 2.23 Operating Conditions for Pressure Determination

Temperature 773 K
PE:PP:PS 1:1:1

The data generated from the Polymath software are plotted in Figure 2 .18.
Figure 2 .18 shows the selectivity and yield of gasoline against the conversion of
plastic wastes at 3 different pressure which are 1 atm, 1.5 atm, and 2 atm.

1
0.95
0.9
Selectivity, S

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XA

1 atm 1.5 atm 2 atm

72
 (a)

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

Yield,Y
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XA

1 atm 1.5 atm 2 atm

(b)

Figure 2.18 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of plastic wastes at

different pressure and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion plastic wastes at different
pressure

Therefore, Table 2 .24 below are the final selectivity of gasoline, final yield of
gasoline and final conversion of plastic wastes that were obtained upon trying using
Polymath with different operating pressure.

Table 2.24 Final Selectivity (S) of Gasoline, Yield (Y) of Gasoline & Conversion of
Plastic Wastes (XA) at Respective Pressure
P (atm) XA Y S
1 0.9999973 1.0 0.728717
1.5 1.0 1.0 0.728907
2 1.0 1.0 0.728500

According to Figure 2 .18, the selectivity of gasoline decrease when the

conversion of plastic wastes increase at different pressure while the yield remain
constant at 1. Based on Table 2 .24, the conversion of plastic wastes and the selectivity
of gasoline at all pressure are almost similar. However, 1 atm is the suggested operating
pressure and commonly used in many industries. Hence, pressure of 1 atm is chosen for
further discussion.

73
2.2.7.3 Feed Ratio Determination

Several pressure which are 1:1:1, 3:2:1, and 2:2:1 were tried using Polymath and
their respectively selectivity (S) of gasoline, yield (Y) of gasoline and conversion of PE
(XA), PP (XB), and PS (XC) are obtained. Below are the conditions that are set as
constant throughout the test as shown in Table 2 .25 where pressure is the manipulated
variable.

Table 2.25 Operating Conditions for Feed Ratio Determination

Temperature 773 K
Pressure 1 atm

The data regarding the PE are generated from the Polymath software and plotted
in Figure 2 .19. Figure 2 .19 shows the selectivity and yield of gasoline against the
conversion of PE at 3 different feed ratio which are 1:1:1, 3:2:1, and 2:2:1.

1
0.95
0.9
Selectivity, S

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XA

Ratio 1:1:1 Ratio 3:2:1 Ratio 2:2:1

(a)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Yield,Y

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XA

Ratio 1:1:1 Ratio 3:2:1 Ratio 2:2:1

74
 (d)
Figure 2.19 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of PE at different feed ratio
and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion of PE at different feed ratio

On the other hand, the data regarding the PP are generated from the Polymath
software and plotted in Figure 2 .20. Figure 2 .20 shows the selectivity and yield of
gasoline against the conversion of PP at 3 different feed ratio which are 1:1:1, 3:2:1,
and 2:2:1.

1
0.95
0.9
Selectivity, S

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XB

Ratio 1:1:1 Ratio 3:2:1 Ratio 2:2:1

(a)

1.05
1
0.95
0.9
Yield, Y

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XB

Ratio 1:1:1 Ratio 3:2:1 Ratio 2:2:1

(b)

Figure 2.20 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of PP at different feed ratio
and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion of PP at different feed ratio

Last but not least, the data regarding the PS are generated from the Polymath
software and plotted in Figure 2 .21. Figure 2 .21 shows the selectivity and yield of

75
gasoline against the conversion of PS at 3 different feed ratio which are 1:1:1, 3:2:1,
and 2:2:1.

1
0.95
0.9
Selectivity, S

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XC

Ratio 1:1:1 Ratio 3:2:1 Ratio 2:2:1

(a)
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
Yield, Y

0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Conversion, XC

Ratio 1:1:1 Ratio 3:2:1 Ratio 2:2:1

(b)

Figure 2.21 (a) Selectivity of gasoline versus conversion of PS at different feed ratio
and (b) Yield of gasoline versus conversion of PS at different feed ratio

Therefore, Table 2 .26 below are the final selectivity of gasoline, final yield of
gasoline and final conversion of PE (XA), PP (XB), and PC (XC) that were obtained upon
trying using Polymath with different feed ratio.

Table 2.26 Final Selectivity (S) of Gasoline, Yield (Y) of Gasoline & Conversion of
PE (XA), PP (XB), and PC (XC) at Respective Feed Ratio
Feed XA XB
XC Y S
Ratio

76
 1:1:1 0.9999973 0.9862177 1.0 1.0 0.728717
3:2:1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.7344566
2:2:1 1.0 0.9968937 1.0 1.0 0.7312043

According to Figure 2 .19, Figure 2 .20, and Figure 2 .21, the selectivity of
gaoline decrease when the conversion of PE (XA), PP (XB), and PC (XC) increase at
different feed ratio. Based on Table 2 .26, the selectivity of gasoline are almost similar
and yield of gasoline are similar at all feed ratio. However, the conversion for each raw
materials at feed ratio 3:2:1 is the highest and then followed by 2:2:1, and 1:1:1. Hence,
feed ratio at 3:2:1 is chosen since it has the highest conversion among the tested feed
ratios.

2.2.8 Economic Potential 2 Calculation

The economic potential is the most essential parameter to measure the practical
value of a plant design project. Therefore, the economic potential for Level 2 (EP 2) is
required to consider the detail costs of each raw materials, main product, and by-products.
The price for each raw materials and products that will be used in catalytic pyrolysis
process, including the molar mass and the respective reference sources for EP 2 are
listed in Table 2 .27.

Table 2.27 Price For Each Components

Component Price  Molar Mass  Reference
(RM / MT) (kg/ kmol)

Raw Polyethylene (PE) 500 840 Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

materials  (C2H4)30

Polypropylene (PP) 650 840 Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

(C3H6)20

Polystyrene (PS) 500 1560 Cenviro Sdn. Bhd.

(C8H8)15

Products  Gasoline 2562.50 114.23 (“Malaysia Gasoline

(C8H18) prices, 08-Nov-

77
 2021”)
Diesel 2687.50 226 (“Malaysia Gasoline
(C16H34) prices, 08-Nov-
2021”)
Fuel gas RM -2 Gas Malaysia Bhd.
- H2 1502.40 - 44.1
- C3H8
Residual fuel oil RM 392 U.S. Energy
(C28H56) 1095.45 Information
Administration
Char RM 832 12 (Shackley et al.,
(Carbon) 2011)

This EP 2 formula is shown in eqn. ( 2 .15)

EP 2=Product +Byproduct −Raw Materials (2.15)

[(
EP 2= F F
mol RM 2562.50 114.23 kg 1 MT
min
x
MT
x
kmol
x
1000 kg
x
60 min 8000 hrs
1 hr
x
1 yr
+ FG
min
x)(
mol RM 2687.50 226
MT
x
km

The eqn. ( 2 .15) is then inserted into Polymath to calculate the EP2. The data
generated from the Polymath are plotted as shown in Figure 2 .22. Figure 2 .22
represents the EP2 against the conversion of 3 plastic wastes which are PE (X A), PP
(XB), and PC (XC).

78
 4.00E+10

3.00E+10

2.00E+10
EP2, RM/yr

1.00E+10

0.00E+00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-1.00E+10

-2.00E+10

-3.00E+10
Conversion, X

XA XB XC

Figure 2.22 Graph of Economic Potential 2 versus Conversion

Referring to , the EP 2 increases when the conversion of 3 plastic wastes which
are PE (XA), PP (XB), and PC (XC) increase. This is because the feed flow of the reactants
increase and the conversion of products increase from time to time. The highest conversion
for each PE, PP and, PS is at 1.0 which means all the reactants are fully reacted where the
profit is RM 3.577 x 10 10 per year. At EP 2, only the main process will be considered
without recycle and purge stream.

2.3 Level 3 Decision: Recycle Structure

2.3.1 Block Flow Diagram of Level 3

For Level 3 recycle structure, material balance, reactor design, equipment

costing as well as economic potential (EP3) are designed. Recycle is to re-use raw
materials emerging from a process unit back to the unit to see if it is convenient for the
process to recycle its raw materials. However, there is no recycle stream designed in
this process. This is because all the reactants which are of 3 plastic wastes which are
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) are fully reacted which
means 100 % conversion under the desired condition of feed ratio (3:2:1), temperature
(773 K), and pressure (1 atm). These desired condition are identified upon trying using
Polymath in Level 2 decision. Hence, the block flow diagram (BFD) in Level 3 decision
is shown in Figure 2 .23.

79
 Figure 2 .23 shows the BFD of catalytic pyrolysis process without recycle
stream in Level 3. The raw materials which are PE, PP, and PS are entering together
inert gas, nitrogen into the reactor. After that, the products from the reactor are sent to
the separators for further separation. Finally, the products obtained from this catalytic
pyrolysis process are hydrogen and propane (fuel gas), inert nitrogen, gasoline (main
product), diesel (by-product), residual fuel oil (by-product), and char (by-product).

FD (H2)
FE (C3H8)
FN (N2)

FF (C8H18)

FG (C16H34)
Pre- Reactor Separators
FA0 (PE) Treatment FA0 (PE) FN (N2) FH (C28H56)
FB0 (PP) FB0 (PP) FD (H2)
FC0 (PS) FC0 (PS) FE (C3H8)
FN0 (N2) FF (C8H18) FI (C)
FG (C16H34)
FH (C28H56)
Figure 2.23 Block Flow Diagram at Level 3 FI (C) Decision
FN0 (N2)

2.3.2 Level 3 Degree of Freedom Analysis

Before solving the material balance calculations in Level 3 decision, the

unknown variables must be determined by using specifications and equations available
from the process at Level 2. The Degree of Freedom analysis is first to be done as it is
very crucial to ensure that every unknown variable presented in Figure 2 .23 can be
determined. Degree of freedom at Level 3 is calculated as follows in Table 2 .28.

Table 2.28 Degree of Freedom at Level 3

Unknown variables (FA0, FB0, FC0, FD, FE, FG, FH, FI) 8
Independent reactions +3

80
 Stoichiometric balance (FA0, FB0, FC0, FD, FE, FF, FG, FH, FI) -9
Feed composition -0
Information from the Level 2 decision (Feed Ratio, Conversion) -2
Variables need to be specified 0

DOF is 0 means all the information is obtained and the reaction is ready to solve.

2.3.3 Material Balance for Level 3

In order to proceed with the material balance for Level 3, the information
obtained from Polymath in Level 2 play an important role in the further calculation.
Table 2 .29 shows the information obtained from Level 2. The important information
includes fee ratio, conversion for each plastic wastes, selectivity, yield, operating
temperature and pressure, and finally the flowrate of the gasoline.

Table 2.29 Information obtained from Level 2

Feed ratio FA0 : FB0 : FC0 = 3 : 2 : 1
Conversion, X XA = 1.0, XB = 1.0, XC = 1.0
Selectivity 0.734457
Yield 1.0
Temperature 773 K
Pressure 1.0 atm
FF (gasoline) 911.9 mol/min = 15.20 mol/s

2.3.3.1 Reactor

The material balances in the reactor can be solved by referring to the chemical
reaction of the catalytic pyrolysis process that involving eqns. ( 2 .9), ( 2 .10), and
( 2 .31), and Table 2 .20.

( C 2 H 4 )30 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18+C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5 C --- ξ 1 (2.4

)

( C 3 H 6 ) 20 →2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5C --- ξ 2 (2.5

81
 )

( C 8 H 8 )15 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +65 C --- ξ 3 (2.6

)

Table 2.10 Stoichiometry Table

Species Formula Inlet Change Outlet
PE (C2H4)30 FA0 - FA0X1 FA = FA0 (1 - X1)
PP (C3H6)20 FB0 - FA0X2 FB = FA0 (ΘB - X2)
PS (C8H8)15 FC0 - FA0X3 FC = FA0 (ΘC - X3)
Fuel gas 1 H2 0 +2FA0X1 + 2FA0X2 + 2 FA0X3 FD = FA0 (2X1 + 2X2 + 2X3)
Fuel gas 2 C3H8 0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FE = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Gasoline C8H18 0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FF = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Diesel C16H34 0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FG = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Residual C28H56
0 + FA0X1 + FA0X2 + FA0X3 FH = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3)
Oil
Char C 0 + 5FA0X1 + 5FA0X2 + 65FA0X3 FI = FA0 (5X1 + 5X2 + 65X3)
Nitrogen N2 FN0 0 FN0 = FN

* Feed ratio is FA0 : FB0 : FC0 = 3 : 2 : 1

FA0 : FB0 : FC0 = 8.96 mol/s : 5.97 mol/s : 2.99 mol/s

* Assume that PE, PP, and PP are having 100 % conversion

FA = 0 mol/s, FB = 0 mol/s, FB = 0 mol/s

Therefore,
FD = FA0 (2X1 + 2X2 + 2X3) = 45.0924 mol/s
FE = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3) = 22.5462 mol/s
FF = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3) = 22.5462 mol/s
FG = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3) = 22.5462 mol/s
FH = FA0 (X1 + X2 + X3) = 22.5462 mol/s
FI = FA0 (5X1 + 5X2 + 65X3) = 379.4034 mol/s
FN0 = FN = 2.98 mol/s

82
 During the reaction, the reactants (PE, PP, and PS) will enter the reactor in solid
flakes form. The reactants will be mixed together with the amorphous silica alumina
(ASA) catalyst in the fluidized reactor. Since the feed is greatly consisted of PE which
is the main reactant and the rate of disappearance of PE is as a function of conversion.
So, the calculation of the reactor’s volume is based on the data obtained from the
Polymath which is shown graphically in the Levenspiel plot graph in Figure 2 .24.
Figure 2 .24 shows the relationship between 1/(-rA) and the conversion of PE along
the process.

140

120

100

80
1/-rA

60

40

20

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
XA

Figure 2.24 1/(-rA) vs Conversion

The data from the Levenspiel plot is tabulated and modified as shown in Table
2 .30 to apply on the Simpson’s 3/8 Rule in order to find the volume of the reactor
(Fogler, 2014). The value calculated (area under the curve) from the Simpson’s 3/8
Rule is then multiply with the feed flowrate of PE to get the volume. The calculated
volume of the reactor is 182.7746 m3.

Table 2.30 Data for Simpson’s 3/8 Rule Calculation

Conversion, 0 0.5 1.0
XA
1/-rA 0.05804 1.9043 136.6363

83
2.3.4 Reaction Kinetic

A fluidized bed reactor is chosen for the catalytic pyrolysis of mixed plastic
wastes (PP, PE, and PS) to produce gasoline. During the reaction, the plastics are fed in
solid phase and mixed together with the amorphous alumina silica catalyst in the form
of small beads in the fluidized bed reactor. In the most heterogeneous kinetics reaction,
the rate-limiting step is the surface reaction. The reaction of the production can be seen
as follows:

r1: ( C 2 H 4 )30 k 1 2 H 2+ C3 H 8 +C8 H 18+ C16 H 34+ C28 H 56+5 C (2.4

→ )

r2: ( C 3 H 6 ) 20 k 2 2 H 2+C 3 H 8+C 8 H 18+C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5 C (2.5

→ )

r3: ( C 8 H 8 )15 k 3 2 H 2+C 3 H 8+ C8 H 18+ C16 H 34+ C28 H 56+65 C (2.6

→ )

Rate law reaction of each reaction that shown above in power-law model:
r1 = k1CA
r2 = k2CB
r3 = k3CC

The specific reaction rate constant, k in Arrhenius equations are:

−Ea 1
RT
k 1=A 1 e
−Ea 2
RT
k 2=A 2 e
−Ea 3
RT
k 1=A 3 e

Where R = 8.31434 J/mol.K. CA, CB, and CC are the concentration of raw materials
entering the reactor. Different raw materials are having the different activation energy
and pre-exponential factor. The operating temperature is 773 K and the pressure is 1
atm. According to Fuels (2006), the activation energy and pre-exponential factor that
are required to complete the reaction rate constant are:

84
A1 = 1.71 × 1017 min-1 Ea1 = 250000 J/mol
A2 = 2.04 × 108 min-1 Ea2 = 125000 J/mol
A3 = 2.32 × 1013 min-1 Ea3 = 185000 J/mol

Therefore, the overall rate laws are:

rA = -r1
rB = -r2
rC = -r3
rD = 2r1 + 2r2 + 2r3
rE = r 1 + r 2 + r 3
rF = r 1 + r 2 + r 3
rG = r 1 + r 2 + r 3
rH = r 1 + r 2 + r 3
rI = 5r1 + 5r2 + 65r3

2.3.5 Heat Effect

The thermal effect of reactor can be observed from the energy balance
calculation. Heat capacities of the involving components are not constant and change
with the absolute temperature of reaction. Therefore, it is important to calculate the heat
effect of the reactor determine the reaction of the reactor in order to optimization
purposes. Table 2 .31 below shows the capacities of the involved components taken
from Perry’s Handbook (W.Green & H.Perry, 2008). The data included in Table 2 .31
are the empirical constants (C1, C2, C3, C4 & C5) that are required to calculate the heat
capacity (Cp), minimum temperature (Tmin), maximum temperature (Tmax), and the
Cp at Tmin and Tmax.

85
86
 Table 2.31 Heat Capacity of Components
Components Formula C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Tmin. Cp at Tmin Tmax. Cp at Tmax
K x 10-5 K x 10-5
Fuel gas 1 H2 64979 -788.17 5.8287 -1845.9 216400 50 0.3797 250 0.2834
x 10-5 x 10-10
Fuel gas II C3H8 26675 147.04 0 - - 50 0.5608 200 0.5608
Gasoline C8H18 224830 -186.63 0.95891 - - 216.38 2.2934 460.00 3.4189
Diesel C16H34 370350 231.47 0.68632 - - 297.31 4.9602 560.01 7.1521
Nitrogen N2 0.2910 0.086149 1.7016 0.0010347 909.79 50 0.2911 1500 0.3484
x 105 x 105 x 105 x 105

Eqn. ( 2 .16) is used to calculate the heat capacities Cp° for fuel gas 1 & 2, gasoline, and diesel while Cp° for nitrogen is calculated using eqn.
( 2 .17).

0 2 3
C p=C 1+C 2 T +C 3 T + C4 T +C5 T
5
(2.16)

( ) ( )
C3
2
C5
2
(2.17)
0 T T
C p=C 1+C 2 +C 4 ,unit:J.kmol-1k-1
C3 C5
sinh cosh
T T

87
88
The heat capacity of polyethylene (PE) is calculated by using eqn. ( 2 .18) (Heat
Capacity of polymers, n.d).

0 −3
C p (T )=C p (298 K )[1+3 ×10 ( T −298 ) ] (2.18)
Where Cp (298K) = 43400 J/kmol

The heat capacity of polypropylene (PP) is calculated by using eqn. ( 2 .19) (Gaur &
Wunderlich, 1982).

0
C p (T )=(0.151291T + 42.956) ×1000 (2.19)

The heat capacity of polystyrene (PS) is calculated by using eqn. ( 2 .20) (Judovits et
al., 1986).

0
C p ( T )=95.12+0.2653 T (2.20)

The heat capacity of residual oil is obtained from Joback Method.

0
C p= 1319.64 J/mol.K

The heat capacity of char is calculated by using eqn. ( 2 .21).

C 0p ( T )=6285.4335 T (2.21)

The energy balance for multiple reactions is used to decide the heat effect of the reactor.
The adiabatic (no heat transfer) condition is expressed as follows:

dT ∑ r ij Δ H Rxj r 1 Δ H Rx 1+ r 2 Δ H Rx 2+r 3 Δ H Rx3 (2.22

= =
dV ∑ F i C pi F A C P A + F B C P B + FC C PC + F D C P D + F E C P E + F F C P F + F G C P) G + F H C PH + F I C

Where the ∆ H rxn ( T )=∆ Hᵒ RX + ∫ ∆ C p dT and the C pi will be the heat capacity of each
0

Tref

component present in the reaction with respective to the change of temperatures.

89
Heat effect of the reactor is decided based on X-T plot. The ODE polymath, the
independent variable using for PBR reactor is weight of catalyst, W. The enthalpy of
reaction is determined by eqn. ( 2 .23).

T
∆ H Rx i . j=∆ H ᵒ Rx i . j +∫ ∑ V i C pi dT (2.23)
T0

Rearranging the equation will become

V i C pi ∆ H Rx i . j (0)=∆ H ᵒ Rx i . j

The heat of reaction at reference temperature, TR is expressed as below

∆ H ᵒ Rx 1=2 H ᵒ D + H ᵒ E + H ᵒ F + H ᵒ G + H ᵒ H +5 H ᵒ I −H ᵒ A
∆ H ᵒ Rx 2=2 H ᵒ D + H ᵒ E + H ᵒ F + H ᵒ G + H ᵒ H +5 H ᵒ I −H ᵒ B
∆ H ᵒ Rx 3=2 H ᵒ D + H ᵒ E + H ᵒ F + H ᵒ G + H ᵒ H +65 H ᵒ I −H ᵒ C

The heat of reaction is then can be calculated by the heat of formation of the reacting
species. The heat of formation for each components are shown in respective tables.

Table 2.32 Heat of Formation of Fuel Gas I & II, Gasoline, Diesel and Char
(W.Green & H.Perry, 2008)
Components Formula Heat of Formation (J/kmol×10-7)
Fuel Gas I H2 0
Fuel Gas II C3H8 -10.468
Gasoline C8H18 -20.875
Diesel C16H34 -37.417
Char C 0

Table 2.33 Heat of Formation of PE, PP and PS (Parks and Mosher, 1963)
Components Formula Heat of Formation (J/kmol)
Polyethylene (C2H4)30 -55981.92
Polypropylene (C3H6)20 -83721.84
Polystyrene (C8H8)15 -120567.62

90
 Table 2.34 Heat of Formation of Residual Oil (Joback Method)
Components Formula Heat of Formation (J/kmol×10-7)
Residual Oil C28H56 -49.582

Based on ODE solver, the enthalpy for the pyrolysis reaction between the
temperature from 298 K to 773 K is expressed as the following equations:

The heat capacity of catalytic pyrolysis reaction of polyethylene (∆Cp°1),

polypropylene (∆Cp°2), and polystyrene (∆Cp°3) are shown in the eqns. ( 2 .24),
( 2 .25), and ( 2 .26).

8 6
∆ Cpᵒ 1=−1.184 ×10 −1.249 ×10 T +5772.04 T
2
(2.24)
8 6
∆ Cpᵒ 2=−1.059 ×10 −1.288× 10 T +5762.459 T
2
(2.25)

∆ Cpᵒ 3=−1.253 ×10 8−1.246 ×106 T +5838.132 T 2 (2.26)

The heat capacity of catalytic pyrolysis reaction of polyethylene (∆Hrx1),

polypropylene (∆Hrx2), and polystyrene (∆Hrx2) are shown in the eqns. ( 2 .27),
( 2 .28), and ( 2 .29).

8
∆ Hrx 1=−1.191× 10 −1768.645 T + 5772.814 T
2
(2.27)
8
∆ Hrx 2=−1.069 ×10 −903.4261T +5763.126 T
2
(2.28)
8
∆ Hrx 3=−1.275 ×10 +3607.46 T +5835.304 T
2
(2.29)

The heat effect of the reaction is then determined by using the Polymath ODE
solver based on the relationship between temperature and conversion of the limiting
reactant. The data obtained from Polymath are graphically present in Figure 2 .27.

91
 900
800
700
600
Temperature, K 500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00E+00 5.00E-07 1.00E-06 1.50E-06 2.00E-06 2.50E-06
Conversion, XA

Figure 2.25 Temperature vs Conversion of Limiting Reactant

Based on Figure 2 .25, the temperature decrease significantly when the

conversion of the limiting reactant increase throughout the reaction. This means that the
reaction is endothermic. In order to maintain high conversion of limiting reactant into
the products, the process temperature must be obtained at high temperature at all the
time. Hence, the temperature that favours the conversion of limiting reactant is 773 K.
In conclusion, isothermal reactor is the best choice for the reactor design which can
maintain the desire temperature in the process.

2.3.6 Reactor Cost

Cost of reactor plays an important role in the economic potential in Level 3. So,
Table 2 .35 shows the summary of the reactor design that will be used in this project
where the volume of the reactor is obtained from the Levenspiel plot.

Table 2.35 Summary of Reactor Design

Term Specification
Reactor Isothermal Fluidized Reactor
Catalyst Amorphous Silica Alumina
Temperature 500 °C
Pressure 1 atm
Inert gas Nitrogen (N2)

92
 Volume 182.7746 m3
Height 8 m (assume)
Diameter 5.3935 m

From Process Engineering Economics Handbook (Turton et al., 2001), the

equation for the purchased cost is shown in eqn. ( 2 .30) and the values of K are
referring to Table A.1 in the handbook which are shown in Table 2 .36.

0
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( A ) + K 3 ¿ ¿ ¿ (2.30)

Table 2.36 Reactor Cost Data

Equipment Type K1 K2 K3
Reactor Process 3.4974 0.4485
0.1074
vessels

log 10 C0p =3.4974+0.4485 log10 ( 182.7746 ) +0.1074 ¿ ¿ ¿

Purchased cost, Cp02001 = $ 115,174.39

To determine the bare module cost and material factors

0
C BM =C P (B1 + B2 F M F P ) (2.31)

To determine the pressure factors for the process vessels

( P+1 ) D (2.32)
+0.00315
2[850−0.6 ( P+1 ) ]
F P , vessel=
0.0063
Where P is pressure in barg unit.

From Table A.4 B1 = 2.25, B2 = 1.82

From Table A.3 ID = 20 (SS)
From Figure A.8 FM = 3.1

Therefore,

93
FP,Vessel = 0.7714 ≈ 1 (if less than 1)
CBM, 2001 = $ 908,956.31

To determine the purchased cost based on time

( )
I2 (2.33)
C p 2=C p 1
I1

where Subscripts 1 refers to base time (2001) when cost is known while 2 refers to
current time (2021) when cost is desired where Cp = purchased cost. The index (I)
values with the respective years can be found in Table 2 .37.

Table 2.37 The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index for different year (Jenkins,
2018)
Year Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI)
2001 397
. .
2016 542
2017 568
2018 593
2019 607.5
2020 644.9
2021 670.7

Hence, the cost for reactor is

I 2021
C BM ,2021 =C BM ,2001 ×
I 2001

670.7
C BM ,2021 =$ 908,956.31×
397

CBM, 2021 = $ 1,391,367.12

CBM, 2021 = RM 5,899,396.60 (1 USD = RM 4.20)

Assume a payback period of 3 years,

ROI for 3 years = RM 5,899,396.60 / 3 yr

94
 = RM 1,966,465.53 / yr
2.3.7 Catalyst

2.3.7.1 Weight of Catalyst

The fluidized reactor was chosen to be the reactor for the process. The reactants
are PE, PP, and PS. The reactants enter in solid phase and will be mixed together with
catalysts in fluidized reactor. The weight of amorphous silica alumina catalyst that
required for the reaction are obtained from the Polymath. The data obtained are then
plotted in Figure 2 .26 with flowrate of gasoline against weight of catalyst.

1000
900
Flowrate of Gasoline, mol/min

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Weight of Catalyst, W

Figure 2.26 Flowrate of Gasoline vs Weight of Catalyst

2.3.7.2 Cost of Catalyst

For the catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes, the amorphous silica alumina
catalyst was chosen to be used in the reaction. The price for catalyst is RM 990 / MT.
The total mass of catalysts needed for direct hydration process is 10,000 kg. Thus, the
total cost of catalysts is 𝑅𝑀 9,900.

RM 990 1 MT
Cost of catalyst= ×10,000 kg × =RM 9,900
MT 1,000 kg

Assume the catalyst can be used for 1 year,

Cost of catalyst per year = RM 9,900 / 1 yr

95
 = RM 9,900 / yr
2.3.8 Economic Potential 3 Calculation

The EP 3 formula is shown in eqn. ( 2 .34):

EP 3=EP 2−Reactor Cost / yr −Catalyst Cost / yr (2.34)

Therefore,
10
EP 3=EP 2−RM 1,966,465.53/ yr −RM 9,900/ yr =RM 3.5768 x 10 / yr

The eqn. ( 2 .14) is then inserted into Polymath to calculate the EP3. The data
generated from the Polymath are plotted as shown in Figure 2 .27. Figure 2 .27
represents EP 3 against the conversion of the raw materials. The conversion of X A, XB,
and XC are PE, PP, and PS respectively.

4.00E+10

3.00E+10

2.00E+10
EP3, RM/yr

1.00E+10

0.00E+00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-1.00E+10

-2.00E+10

-3.00E+10
Conversion, X

XA XB XC

Figure 2.27 Graph of Economic Potential 3 versus Conversion

Based on Figure 2 .27, EP 3 increases when the conversion main products and
by-products increase. The EP 3 will slightly drop and lesser than the EP 2. This is due
to some of the profit is used to recover the cost of the reactor and catalyst. The highest

96
profit that can be achieved is RM 3.5768 x 10 10 per year at conversion of PE (1.0), PP
(1.0), and PS (1.0).

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Process Flow Diagram & MEB

3.1.1 Process Description

Pre-Treatment
Plastic wastes like polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS)
are fed together at ratio of 3:2:1 into a shredder (S-101) to shred into small spherical
pieces having mean particle size of 3 mm. at 25 °C and 1 atm. Next, the feed will enter
a washing tank (W-101) to clean and remove all the impurities that contained on the
plastic. The water to plastic feed ratio is 1:1 in mass at 25 °C and 1 atm. The water used
for cleaning will be treated and recycled back to W-101. After that, the clean plastics
will enter a dryer (D-101) before collected into an intermediate feed tank (TK-102).

Reaction
Clean and dry plastics are fed to the pyrolysis reactor (R-101). The reactor used
is fluidized reactor with amorphous silica alumina catalyst. The catalytic
depolymerization is carried out at 500 °C and 1 atm. At the same time, pressurized and
heated inert gas (N2) enters the fluidised bed vessel through numerous holes via a plate
known as a distributor plate, located at the bottom of the fluidised bed. The gas form
bubbles while passing through the bed flows upward and causing the solid particles to
be suspended.

Separation
The gaseous products from the reactor are fed to a cyclone (CYC-101) to
remove the solid particles (char). The gaseous products are then cooled down from 500
°C to 25 °C at 1 atm before entering the first separator, flash column (V-101).
Hydrogen (H2) and propane (C3H8) are separated as top fuel gas under vacuum
condition while the bottom products are sent to the second separator, distillation column
1 (T-101). The bottom products are separated into light fuel oil and heavy fuel oil
products in T-101. Light oil is classified as gasoline (C8H18) where the 99 wt % is

97
targeted as distillate products. The bottom products of T-101 are then sent to distillation
column 2 (T-102) to further separate the heavy fuel oil products. Targeted 99 wt % of
diesel (C16H34) as distillate product and the remaining of residual oil (C28H56) as bottom
product.

3.1.2 Unit Operation Description Summary

Equipment is one of the most important element that is used to build up a

particular process. For better visualization, a process flow diagram (PFD) is set up.
Each equipment are having their identification code to easily recognize the equipment
and location. Therefore, Table 3 .38 tabulated all the equipment used in the PFD with
the respective description.

Table 3.38 Description for Each Equipment Used

Equipment Unit Operation Description
S-101 Shredder To shred plastic wastes into mean particle size
of 3 mm.
W-101 Washing Tank To wash and clean the plastic flakes with water
to plastic ratio at 1:1 in mass.
M-101 Mixer To mix the treated and fresh water.
D-101 Dryer To dry moist plastic flakes.
R-101 Reactor To carry out catalytic depolymerisation of
plastic with the use of catalyst at 500 °C and 1
atm.
CYC-101 Cyclone The remove the solid particles (char) in
gaseous products coming out from the reactor.
V-101 Flash Column To separate fuel gas from condensate pyrolysis
oil under vacuum pressure.
T-101 Distillation Column 1 To separate 99 wt % of light fuel (gasoline) oil
and heavy fuel oil (diesel & residual oil) from
the pyrolysis oil.
T-102 Distillation Column 2 To separate 99 wt % of diesel and 99 wt %
residual oil.
C-101 Compressor 1 To increase the pressure of air from 1 to 1.5

98
 atm.
C-102 Compressor 2 To increase the pressure of nitrogen from 1 to
1.5 atm.
C-103 Compressor 3 To increase the pressure of fuel gas from V-101
from 0.05 to 1 atm.
E-101 Heater (Air) To heat air from 25 to 600 °C.
E-102 Heater (Nitrogen) To heat nitrogen from 75.78 to 500 °C.
E-103 Cooler (Gaseous To cool down the gaseous products from the R-
Products) 101 from 500 to 25 °C.
E-104 Cooler (Char) To cool down gasoline from 500 to 25 °C
E-105 Cooler (Fuel Gas) To cool down residual oil from 232.51 to 25
°C.
E-106 Heater (Pyrolysis To cool down residual oil from -16 to 100 °C.
Oil)
E-107 Cooler (Gasoline) To cool down gasoline from 92.82 to 25 °C.
E-108 Heater (Bottom To heat up the bottom products from T-101
Products T-101) from 320.54 to 350 °C.
E-109 Cooler (Diesel) To cool down diesel from 285.17 to 25 °C.
E-110 Cooler (Residual Oil) To cool down diesel from 422.64 to 25 °C.
P-101 A/B Pump 1 To transport the treatment water into the inlet
of washing water.
P-102 A/B Pump 2 To transport the condensate pyrolysis oil to T-
101.
P-103 A/B Pump 3 To transport the heavy oil to T-102.
TK-101 Plastics Storage Tank To store plastic wastes; polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS).
TK-102 Intermediate Feed To temporary accumulate and store the clean
Tank feedstock before entering the reactor.
TK-103 Char Storage Tank To store char.
TK-104 Fuel Gas Storage To store fuel gas.
Tank
TK-105 Gasoline Storage To store gasoline.
Tank

99
TK-106 Diesel Storage Tank To store the diesel.
TK-107 Residual Oil Storage To store the residual oil.
Tank

100
 3.1.3 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

Figure 3 .28 shows the entire process of catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes from the raw materials until the final products. The process includes pre-treatment of plastic wastes, reaction and separation.

Compressor Cyclone Distillation Dryer Heat Exchanger (Cooler) Heat Exchanger (Heater) Mixer Pump Reactor Shredder Storage Tank Flash Column Washing College of Engineering
C-101 CYC-101 Column D-101 E-103 E-107 E-101 M-101 P-101 A/B R-101 S-101 TK-101 TK-105 V-101 Tank Department of Chemical Engineering
C-102 T-101 E-104 E-109 E-102 P-102 A/B TK-102 TK-106 W-101
C-103 T-102 E-105 E-110 E-106 P-103 A/B TK-103 TK-107
E-108 TK-104

Title:
Production of 50,000 MTPA Gasoline
From Mixed Plastic Wastes (PE, PP and
PS) Using Catalytic Pyrolysis

Supervisor:
AP. TS. Dr. Sumaiya Binti Zainal @
Murad

Group Members:
1. Koo Chun Hong
KA18189
2. Reniasha A/P Anballagan
KA18066
3. Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd
Tarmizi
KA18144
4. Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri
KA18176
5. Luqman Shah Bin Mohammad
Shahzar
KA18231

Stream ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Temperature,°C 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 75.65 600 273.45 49.67 49.67 25 75.78 500 500 500 25 25 25 -16 232.51 25 -16 -16 100 92.82 25 320.54 320.54 350 285.17 25 422.64 25
Pressure, atm 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.05 1 1 0.05 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1
Mass Flowrate (kg/h)
PE 27090 27090 27090 27090 27090 0 0 0 0 0 27090 0 0 27090 0 27090 27090 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PP 18060 18060 18060 18060 18060 0 0 0 0 0 18060 0 0 18060 0 18060 18060 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PS 16770 16770 16770 16770 16770 0 0 0 0 0 16770 0 0 16770 0 16770 16770 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 1 1 1 1 619.21 61302.79 61302.79 61302.79 618.21 61921 619.21 0 0 1 619.21 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel gas 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 261.92 0 0 261.92 261.92 261.92 261.92 261.92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel gas 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2579.59 0 0 2579.59 2579.59 2539.50 2539.50 2539.50 40.09 40.09 40.09 40.09 40.09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gasoline 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5355.46 0 0 5355.46 5355.46 169.77 169.77 169.77 14807.55 5185.69 5185.69 5185.69 5185.69 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0 0
Diesel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14807.55 0 0 14807.55 14807.55 0 0 0 25684.42 14807.55 14807.55 0.89 0.89 14806.66 14806.66 14806.66 14803.37 14803.37 3.29 3.29
Residual Oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25684.42 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 0 0 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 25684.42 2.31 2.31 25682.1 25682.1
Char 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13231.07 13231.07 13231.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 300 300 300 0 0 300 300 300 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Air 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 61921 61921 61921 61921 62539.21 61302.79 61302.79 61302.79 618.21 61921 62539.21 10000 10000 61921 10619.21 61921 61921 300 300 300 62220 13231.07 13231.07 48988.93 48988.93 3271.19 3271.19 3271.19 45717.74 4517.74 4517.74 5226.45 5226.45 40491.29 40491.29 40491.29 14805.90 14805.90 25685.39 25685.39

Figure 3.28 Process Flow Diagram of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes

101
3.2 Material Balance Manual Calculation

Material balance for each equipment are calculated to determine the amount of
raw material required to produce 50,000 MTPA of gasoline. Manual calculation of the
material balance result will compare later with Aspen simulation results. Some basic
mass balance equations are shown as below:

General balance equation

Input−Generation−Output −Consumption=Accumulation (3.35)

Balance for continuous steady state equation

Input +Generation=Output +Consumption (3.36)

Furthermore, several assumptions are made for the manual material balance calculation.
1. Design basis based on production of 50,000 MTPA of gasoline.
2. Operation time for the plant is 24 hours per day and 8000 hours per year.
3. Accumulation is 0 due to steady state process.
4. No leakage in pipes and vessels.
5. All components in system are in ideal the condition.
6. Total input of components in a stream entering to pump, compressor, cyclone,
dryer and heat exchanger are equal to total output where there is no reaction
happens in these equipment.

Hence, the details of material balance of all equipment will show in the following section.

102
3.2.1 Shredder (S-101)

Figure 3 .29 shows the shredder (S-101) in PFD while Table 3 .39 shows the
summary of material balance of S-101.

Figure 3.29 S-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.39 Material Balance of S-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 2 3
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) 27090 27090
Polypropylene (PP) 18060 18060
Polystyrene (PS) 16770 16770
Water 1 1
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 61921 61921

103
3.2.2 Washing Tank (W-101)

Figure 3 .30 shows the washing tank (W-101) in PFD while Table 3 .40
shows the summary of material balance of W-101.

Figure 3.30 W-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Stream 5 will contains the clean plastic flakes with 1 % of water

Table 3.40 Material Balance of W-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 4 10 5 6
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) 27090 - 27090 -
Polypropylene (PP) 18060 - 18060 -
Polystyrene (PS) 16770 - 16770 -
Water 1 61921 619.21 61302.79
Fuel Gas 1 - - - -
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - - - -
Gasoline - - - -
Diesel - - - -
Residual Oil - - - -
Char - - - -
Nitrogen - - - -
Air - - - -
Total 61921 61921 61302.79 61302.79

104
3.2.3 Pump 1 (P-101 A/B)

Figure 3 .31 shows the pump 1 (P-101 A/B) in PFD while Table 3 .41 shows
the summary of material balance of P-101.

Figure 3.31 P-101 A/B in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.41 Material Balance of P-101 A/B

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 7 8
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) - -
Polypropylene (PP) - -
Polystyrene (PS) - -
Water 61302.79 61302.79
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 61302.79 61302.79

105
3.2.4 Mixer (M-101)

Figure 3 .32 shows the mixer (M-101) in PFD while Table 3 .42 shows the
summary of material balance of M-101.

Figure 3.32 M-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.42 Material Balance of M-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 8 9 10
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) - - -
Polypropylene (PP) - - -
Polystyrene (PS) - - -
Water 61302.79 618.21 61921
Fuel Gas 1 - - -
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - - -
Gasoline - - -
Diesel - - -
Residual Oil - - -
Char - - -
Nitrogen - - -
Air - - -
Total 61302.79 618.21 61921

106
3.2.5 Compressor 1 (C-101)

Figure 3 .33 shows the compressor 1 (C-101) in PFD while Mass In = Mass
Out shows the summary of material balance of C-101.

Figure 3.33 C-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.43 Material Balance of C-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 12 13
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) - -
Polypropylene (PP) - -
Polystyrene (PS) - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air 10000 10000
Total 10000 10000

107
3.2.6 Heater - Air (E-101)

Figure 3 .34 shows the heater - air (E-101) in PFD while Mass In = Mass Out
shows the summary of material balance of E-101.

Figure 3.34 E-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.44 Material Balance of E-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 13 14
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) - -
Polypropylene (PP) - -
Polystyrene (PS) - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen
Air 10000 10000
Total 10000 10000

108
3.2.7 Dryer (D-101)

Figure 3 .35 shows the dryer (D-101) in PFD while Mass In = Mass Out shows
the summary of material balance of D-101.

Figure 3.35 D-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.45 Material Balance of D-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 11 14 15 16
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) 27090 - - 27090
Polypropylene (PP) 18060 - - 18060
Polystyrene (PS) 16770 - - 16770
Water 619.21 - 619.21 -
Fuel Gas 1 - - - -
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 - - - -
(Propane)
Gasoline - - - -
Diesel - - - -
Residual Oil - - - -
Char - - - -
Nitrogen - - - -
Air - 10000 10000 -
Total 62539.21 10000 10619.21 61920

109
3.2.8 Intermediate Feed Tank (TK-102)

Figure 3 .36 shows the intermediate feed tank (TK-102) in PFD while Mass In
= Mass Out shows the summary of material balance of TK-102.

Figure 3.36 TK-102 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.46 Material Balance of TK-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 16 17
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene (PE) 27090 27090
Polypropylene (PP) 18060 18060
Polystyrene (PS) 16770 16770
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 61920 61920

110
3.2.9 Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)

For the fluidized bed reactor, the material balance calculation are shown in few
steps. Figure 3 .37 shows the fluidized bed reactor (R-101) in PFD.

Figure 3.37 R-101 in PFD

Step1: Assumptions and considerations

 The conversion of PE, PP, and PS are 100 % based on the Polymath results.
 The selectivity of gasoline is 0.7344566 based on the Polymath results.
 The total yield of the products is 1.0 based on the Polymath results.
 The catalyst use is amorphous silica alumina and it does not involve in the mass
balance calculation.
 The feed of nitrogen gas in stream 21 is inert to forms bubbles while passing
through the bed flows upward and causing the solid particles to be suspended.

Step 2: Determination of yields

The yield is the mass fraction of the products in the output stream (stream 22). The
yield of each product in R-101 which is calculated based on the chemical reaction in
molar basis. The molar flowrate is then changed into mass flowrate based on each
product’s molecular weight and summarized in Table 3 .47

111
 Table 3.47 Yield of each product in R-101
Components Yields
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) 0.00423
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 0.04166
Gasoline 0.08646
Diesel 0.23914
Residual Oil 0.4148
Char 0.21368
Total 1

Step 3: Calculation of material balance

For the Fuel Gas 1,

Mass Flowrate=Total Mass Flowrateof Inlet ( Stream18 ) ×Yield ¿ 61920 kg /h× 0.00423
¿ 261.9216 kg /h
The remaining components are also using the same method to calculate the mass
flowrate and the results are tabulated in Table 3 .48. Table 3 .48 shows the summary
of material balance of R-101.

Table 3.48 Material Balance of R-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 17 20 21
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene 27090 - -
Polypropylene 18060 - -
Polystyrene 16770 - -
Water - - -
Fuel Gas 1 - - 261.9216
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - - 2579.5872
Gasoline - - 5355.4608
Diesel - - 14807.5488
Residual Oil - - 25684.416
Char - - 13231.0656
Nitrogen - 300 300
Air - - -
Total 61920 300 62220

112
3.2.10 Compressor 2 (C-102)

Figure 3 .38 shows the compressor 2 (C-102) in PFD while Mass In = Mass
Out shows the summary of material balance of C-102.

Figure 3.38 C-102 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.49 Material Balance of C-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 18 19
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen 300 300
Air - -
Total 300 300

113
3.2.11 Heater - Nitrogen (E-102)

Figure 3 .39 shows the heater - nitrogen (E-102) in PFD while Mass In = Mass
Out shows the summary of material balance of E-102.

Figure 3.39 E-102 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.50 Material Balance of E-102

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 19 20
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen 300 300
Air - -
Total 300 300

114
3.2.12 Cyclone (CYC-101)

Figure 3 .40 shows the cyclone (CYC-101) in PFD while Mass In = Mass Out
shows the summary of material balance of CYC-101.

Figure 3.40 CYC-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.51 Material Balance of CYC-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 21 22 24
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - - -
Polypropylene - - -
Polystyrene - - -
Water - - -
Fuel Gas 1 261.92 - 261.92
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 2579.59 - 2579.59
Gasoline 5355.46 - 5355.46
Diesel 14807.55 - 14807.55
Residual Oil 25684.42 - 25684.42
Char 13231.07 13231.07 -
Nitrogen 300 - 300
Air - - -
Total 62220.01 13231.07 48988.94

115
3.2.13 Cooler - Gaseous Products (E-103)

Figure 3 .41 shows the cooler - gaseous products (E-103) in PFD while Table
3 .52 shows the summary of material balance of E-103.

Figure 3.41 E-103 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.52 Material Balance of E-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 24 25
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) 261.92 261.92
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 2579.59 2579.59
Gasoline 5355.46 5355.46
Diesel 14807.55 14807.55
Residual Oil 25684.42 25684.42
Char - -
Nitrogen 300 300
Air - -
Total 48988.94 48988.94

116
3.2.14 Cooler - Char (E-104)

Figure 3 .42 shows the cooler - char (E-104) in PFD while Mass In = Mass Out
shows the summary of material balance of E-104.

Figure 3.42 E-104 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.53 Material Balance of E-104

Stream ID Inlet Outlet
22 23
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char 13231.07 13231.07
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 13231.07 13231.07

117
3.2.15 Flash Column (V-101)

Figure 3 .43 shows the flash column (V-101) in PFD while Table 3 .54 shows
the summary of material balance of V-101.

Figure 3.43 V-101 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

V-101 is operated under vacuum pressure (0.05 atm)

Table 3.54 Material Balance of V-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 25 26 29
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - - -
Polypropylene - - -
Polystyrene - - -
Water - - -
Fuel Gas 1 261.92 261.92 -
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 2579.59 2539.50 40.09
Gasoline 5355.46 169.77 5185.69
Diesel 14807.55 - 14807.55
Residual Oil 25684.42 - 25684.42
Char - - -
Nitrogen 300 300 -
Air - - -
Total 48988.94 3271.19 45717.75

118
3.2.16 Compressor 3 (C-103)

Figure 3 .44 shows the compressor 3 (C-103) in PFD while Mass In = Mass
Out shows the summary of material balance of C-103.

Figure 3.44 C-103 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.55 Material Balance of C-103

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 26 27
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) 261.92 261.92
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 2539.50 2539.50
Gasoline 169.77 169.77
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen 300 300
Air - -
Total 3271.19 3271.19

119
3.2.17 Cooler - Fuel Gas (E-105)

Figure 3 .45 shows the cooler - fuel gas (E-105) in PFD while Mass In = Mass
Out shows the summary of material balance of E-105.

Figure 3.45 E-105 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.56 Material Balance of E-105

Stream ID Inlet Outlet
27 28
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) 261.92 261.92
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 2539.50 2539.50
Gasoline 169.77 169.77
Diesel - -
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen 300 300
Air - -
Total 3271.19 3271.19

120
3.2.18 Pump 2 (P-102 A/B)

Figure 3 .46 shows the pump 2 (P-102 A/B) in PFD while Mass In = Mass Out
shows the summary of material balance of P-102.

Figure 3.46 P-102 A/B in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.57 Material Balance of P-102 A/B

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 29 30
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 40.09 40.09
Gasoline 5185.69 5185.69
Diesel 14807.55 14807.55
Residual Oil 25684.42 25684.42
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 45717.75 45717.75

121
3.2.19 Heater - Pyrolysis Oil (E-106)

Figure 3 .47 shows the heater - pyrolysis oil (E-106) in PFD while Mass In =
Mass Out shows the summary of material balance of E-106.

Figure 3.47 E-106 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.58 Material Balance of E-106

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 30 31
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 40.09 40.09
Gasoline 5185.69 5185.69
Diesel 14807.55 14807.55
Residual Oil 25684.42 25684.42
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 45717.75 45717.75

122
3.2.20 Distillation Column 1 (T-101)

For the distillation column, the material balance calculation are shown in few
steps. Figure 3 .48 shows the distillation column 1 (T-101) in PFD while Table 3 .63
shows the summary of material balance of T-101.

Figure 3.48 T-101 in PFD

Step 1: Assumptions and considerations

 Gasoline is light key while diesel is heavy key.
 Light component which is fuel gas 2 (propane) will be recovered at the distillate
stream while heavy component which is residual oil will leave at the bottom.
 All of the fuel gas 2, 99.99 wt% of gasoline, and 0.01 wt% of diesel are
recovered at distillate stream (stream 33) while 0.01 wt% of gasoline, 99.99 wt
% of diesel, and all of the residual oil will leave at the bottom stream (stream
35).
 The fraction of liquid feed is 0.5, so the q = 0.5.

Step 2: Calculation of dew point

The dew point is the temperature at which the vapour of a liquid forms the first bubble
of liquid or dew, commencing of vapour. In order to calculate the dew point, the
information of feed, distillate, and bottom are summarized in Table 3 .59. The

123
important information includes the flowrate and mass fraction for each components in
the feed, distillate, and bottom.

Table 3.59 Summary of Feed, Distillate, and Bottom of T-101

Feed, F Distillate, D Bottom, B
Component
xf xf F yd = xd yd D xw xw W
Fuel gas 2 0.0009 40.0868 0.0077 40.0868 0.0000 0.0000
Gasoline 5185.692 5185.47
0.1134 0.9922 0.0000 0.2177
(LK) 7 50
14807.54 14806.66
Diesel (HK) 0.3239 0.0002 0.8885 0.3657
88 03
25684.41 25684.41
Residual Oil 0.5618 0.0000 0.0000 0.6343
60 60
45717.74 5226.45 40491.29
1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
total 43 03 40

In an ideal system, Raoult’s law is used to calculate the vapour-liquid equilibrium

constant (Ki) as shown in eqn. ( 3 .37).

Pi
K i= (3.37)
P

Where Pi is vapour pressure of the component and P is the total pressure. Next, Antoine
equation is used to find the vapour for each components. The Antoine equation constant
can be obtained from the Yaws' Handbook of Thermodynamic and Physical Properties
of Chemical Compounds and as shown in Table 3 .60.

Table 3.60 Antoine equation constant

Component Formula A B C Tmin Tmax
291.82 598.72
Fuel gas 2 C3H8 6.8297 813.2008 247.99 2 2
Gasoline C8H18 7.14462 1498.96 225.874 -56.77 295.68
Diesel C16H34 7.36235 2094.08 180.407 18.17 447.45
291.82 598.72
Residual Oil C28H56 6.59359 1991.78 97.4654 2 2

124
The vapour pressure for fuel gas 2 is calculated using eqn. ( 3 .38)( 3 .39)while
gasoline, diesel and residual oil are calculated using (3.5).

B
logPsat (mmHg)= A− (3.38)
T ( K )+C

B
logPsat (mmHg)= A− (3.39)
T (° C)+C

The vapour pressure is then converted from unit mmHg to bar. After that, the
calculation to find the Tdew is shown in Table 3 .61.
Distillate T = 114 ⁰C
P= 1.5 bar   Kbase=HK    
Component yid Pi Ki α yid/α
Fuel gas 2 0.0077 532.3781 354.9187 56791.6193 0.0000
Gasoline (LK) 0.9922 1.5268 1.0179 162.8772 0.0061
Diesel (HK) 0.0002 0.0094 0.0062 1.0000 0.0002
Residual Oil 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 0.0000
Total 533.9143 0.0063
  Kbase = 0.0062 Kc = 0.0063
  Diff = 0.0001
Table 3.61 Tdew Calculation of T-101
Using 114 ⁰C gives a calculated value of Kc = 0.0063 which is nearer to the Kbase =
0.0062. Hence, the Tdew is 114 ⁰C.

Step 3: Calculation of bubble point

The bubble point is the temperature at which a solution makes the first bubble of vapour
commencing the vaporization of that solution. By repeating the procedures in Step 2,
the calculation to find the Tbubble is shown in Table 3 .62.

Table 3.62 Tbubble Calculation of T-101

353.86
Bottom T = ⁰C
Kbase =
     
P= 1.5 bar HK
Component xiw Pi Ki α α*xiw

125
 1059.51
0.0000 706.3432 286.6531 0.0000
Fuel gas 2 48
Gasoline
0.0000 48.3013 32.2009 13.0680 0.0001
(LK)
Diesel (HK) 0.3657 3.6962 2.4641 1.0000 0.3657
Residual Oil 0.6343 0.2337 0.1558 0.0632 0.0401
1111.74
Total       0.4059
61
Kbase Kc
    2.4641 2.4639
= =
Diff
       
= 0.0002
Using 353.86 ⁰C gives a calculated value of Kc = 2.4639 which is nearer to the Kbase =
2.4641 Hence, the Tbubble is 353.86 ⁰C.

Step 4: Calculation of material balance

The material balance calculation of T-101 is tabulated in Table 3 .63 based on the
assumptions and considerations made in Step 1.

Table 3.63 Material Balance of T-101

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 31 32 34
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - - -
Polypropylene - - -
Polystyrene - - -
Water - - -
Fuel Gas 1 - - -
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 40.09 40.09 -
Gasoline 5185.69 5185.47 0.22
Diesel 14807.55 0.89 14806.66
Residual Oil 25684.42 - 25684.42
Char - - -
Nitrogen - - -
Air - - -

126
 Total 45717.75 5226.45 40491.30

3.2.21 Cooler - Gasoline (E-107)

Figure 3 .49 shows the cooler - gasoline (E-107) in PFD while Mass In = Mass
Out shows the summary of material balance of E-107.

Figure 3.49 E-107 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.64 Material Balance of E-107

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 32 33
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) 40.09 40.09

127
 Gasoline 5185.47 5185.47
Diesel 0.89 0.89
Residual Oil - -
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 5226.45 5226.45

3.2.22 Pump 3 (P-103 A/B)

Figure 3 .50 shows the pump 3 (P-103 A/B) in PFD while Mass In = Mass Out
shows the summary of material balance of P-103.

Figure 3.50 P-103 A/B in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.65 Material Balance of P-103 A/B

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 34 35
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline 0.22 0.22
Diesel 14806.66 14806.66

128
 Residual Oil 25684.42 25684.42
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 40491.30 40491.30

3.2.23 Heater - Bottom Products of T-101 (E-108)

Figure 3 .51 shows the heater - bottom products of T-101 (E-108) in PFD
while Mass In = Mass Out shows the summary of material balance of E-108.

Figure 3.51 E-108 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.66 Material Balance of E-108

Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 35 36
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline 0.22 0.22
Diesel 14806.66 14806.66
Residual Oil 25684.42 25684.42
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -

129
 Total 40491.30 40491.30

3.2.24 Distillation Column 2 (T-102)

For the distillation column, the material balance calculation are shown in few
steps. Figure 3 .52 shows the distillation column 2 (T-102) in PFD while Table 3 .70
shows the summary of material balance of T-102.

Figure 3.52 T-102 in PFD

Step 1: Assumptions and considerations

 Diesel is light key while residual oil is heavy key.
 Light component which is gasoline will be recovered at the distillate stream.
 All of the gasoline, 99.98 wt% of diesel, and 0.01 wt% of residual oil are
recovered at distillate stream (stream 38) while 0.02 wt% of diesel, 99.99 wt%
of residual oil will leave at the bottom stream (stream 40).

130
  The fraction of liquid feed is 0.5, so the q = 0.5.

Step 2: Calculation of dew point

The dew point is the temperature at which the vapour of a liquid forms the first bubble
of liquid or dew, commencing of vapour. In order to calculate the dew point, the
information of feed, distillate, and bottom are summarized in Table 3 .59. The
important information includes the flowrate and mass fraction for each components in
the feed, distillate, and bottom.

Table 3.67 Summary of Feed, Distillate, and Bottom of T-102

Feed, F Distillate, D Bottom, B
Component
xf xf F yd = xd yd D xw xw W
Gasoline 0.0000 0.2178 0.0000 0.2178 0.0000 0.0000
14806.660 14803.370
Diesel (LK) 0.3657 0.9998 0.0001 3.2900
0 0
25684.420 25682.108
Residual Oil (HK) 0.6343 0.0002 2.3116 0.9999
0 4
40491.297 14805.899 25685.398
1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
total 8 4 4

By using the eqns. ( 3 .38) and ( 3 .39) based on Table 3 .60, the calculation to find
the Tdew is shown in Table 3 .68.

Table 3.68 Tdew Calculation of T-102

Distillate T = 305.33 ⁰C
P= 1.5 bar   Kbase = HK    
Component yid Pi Ki α yid/α
Gasoline 0.0000 117.6661 78.4441 78.4522 0.0000

Diesel (LK) 0.0001 15.6976 10.4651 0.0955 10.4644

Residual Oil
0.9999 1.4998 0.9999 1.0000 0.0002
(HK)
Total   134.8635     10.4645

    Kbase = 10.4651 Kc = 10.4645

131
        Diff = -0.0005
Using 305.33 ⁰C gives a calculated value of Kc = 10.4645 which is nearer to the Kbase
= 10.4651. Hence, the Tdew is 305.33 ⁰C.

Step 3: Calculation of bubble point

The bubble point is the temperature at which a solution makes the first bubble of vapour
commencing the vaporization of that solution. By repeating the procedures in Step 2,
the calculation to find the Tbubble is shown in Table 3 .69.

Table 3.69 Tbubble Calculation of T-102

455.81
Bottom T = ⁰C
Kbase =
     
P= 1.5 bar HK
Component xiw Pi Ki Α α*xiw

Gasoline 0.0000 28.0377 18.6918 434.2752 0.0000

Diesel (LK) 0.0001 1.5002 1.0001 0.0430 0.0001

Residual Oil (HK) 0.9999 0.0646 0.0430 1.0000 0.9999

Total   29.6025     1.0001

    Kbase = 1.0001 Kc = 1.0001

        Diff = 0.0000
Using 455.81 ⁰C gives a calculated value of Kc = 1.0035 which is nearer to the Kbase =
1.0001. Hence, the Tbubble is 455.81 ⁰C.

Step 4: Calculation of material balance

The material balance calculation of T-102 is tabulated in Table 3 .70 based on the
assumptions and considerations made in Step 1.

132
 Table 3.70 Material Balance of T-102
Inlet Outlet
Stream ID 36 37 39
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - - -
Polypropylene - - -
Polystyrene - - -
Water - - -
Fuel Gas 1 - - -
(Hydrogen)
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - - -
Gasoline 0.22 0.22 -
Diesel 14806.66 14803.37 3.29
Residual Oil 25684.42 2.31 25682.10
Char - - -
Nitrogen - - -
Air - -
Total 40491.30 14805.90 25685.39
3.2.25 Cooler - Diesel (E-109)

Figure 3 .53 shows the cooler - diesel (E-109) in PFD while Table 3 .71
shows the summary of material balance of E-109.

Figure 3.53 E-109 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.71 Material Balance of E-109

Stream ID Inlet Outlet
37 38
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -

133
 Gasoline 0.22 0.22
Diesel 14803.37 14803.37
Residual Oil 2.31 2.31
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 14805.90 14805.90

3.2.26 Cooler - Residual Oil (E-110)

Figure 3 .54 shows the cooler - residual oil (E-110) in PFD while Mass In =
Mass Out shows the summary of material balance of E-110.

Figure 3.54 E-110 in PFD

Mass In = Mass Out

Table 3.72 Material Balance of E-110

Stream ID Inlet Outlet
39 40
Mass flowrate kg/h kg/h
Component
Polyethylene - -
Polypropylene - -
Polystyrene - -
Water - -
Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen) - -
Fuel Gas 2 (Propane) - -
Gasoline - -
Diesel 3.29 3.29

134
 Residual Oil 25682.10 25682.10
Char - -
Nitrogen - -
Air - -
Total 25685.39 25685.39

3.3 Energy Balance Manual Calculation

Energy balance for each equipment are calculated to determine the amount of
raw material required to produce 50,000 MTPA of gasoline. Manual calculation of the
energy balance result will compare later with Aspen simulation results. Some basic
energy balance equations are shown as below:

General balance equation

Energy ∈+Generation−Energy Out−Consumption= Accumulation (3.40)

Law of conservation of energy equation

Energy ∈+Generation−Consumption−Accumulation=Energy Out (3.41)

Furthermore, several assumptions are made for the manual energy balance calculation.
1. Design basis based on production of 50,000 MTPA of gasoline.
2. Operation time for the plant is 24 hours per day and 8000 hours per year.
3. All equipment and unit operations are in steady state.
4. All components are in ideal state with ideal properties.
5. Potential energy and kinetic energy are neglected and only the enthalpy change is
taken into consideration.

135
 6. Temperature 298.15 K and 1 atm is taken as datum or reference state for
enthalpy, where ΔH = 0 KJ.
7. No heat of mixing and pressure effect on ΔH.

Hence, the details of energy balance of all equipment will show in the following
section.

In order to calculate the enthalpy, the information of heat capacity for every
components are required for a non-reactive system. On the other hand, the heat of
formation for every components are required for a reactive system. The heat capacity
for each component can be calculated by using the eqn. ( 3 .42).

Cp ( kmol
kJ
)=a+bT +c T −2
+ d T −3 +e T −4 (3.42)

The information of heat capacity constant for each components that will be utilised to
calculate the heat capacity are summarized in Table 3 .73, Table 3 .74, and Table
3 .75. Table 3 .73 shows the heat capacity constant for each components in gas state,
Table 3 .74 shows the heat capacity constant for each components in liquid state, and
Table 3 .75 shows the heat capacity constant for each components in solid state. This
is due to the heat capacity for each components are different in different state.

Table 3.73 Gases State Heat Capacity for Each Components

Components a b c x 105 d x 108 e x 1012

Fuel Gas I 28.84 x 10-3 - 0.00765 0.3288 -0.8698
Fuel Gas II 28.277 0.11600 1.9597 x 101 -2.327 x 101 6.8669 x
101

136
Gasoline 4.108 70.567 x 10-3 -22.208 x 10- - -
1

Diesel 131.75 0.67397 8.7770 x 101 -1.243 x 102 3.9785 x

102
Residual Oil -25.555 2.64380 -1.5223 x 102 3.394 x 101 -
Nitrogen 29 x 10-3 0.2199 x 10-5 0.5723 x 10-3 -2.871 x 10-4 -

Table 3.74 Liquid State Heat Capacity for Each Components

Components a b c x 104 d x 1012

Polyethylene (PE) - - - -
Polypropylene (PP) - - - -
Polystyrene (PS) - - - -
Fuel Gas I 3.249 0.422 x 10-3 - 0.083 x 107
Fuel Gas II 68.032 x 10-3 22.59 x 10-5 -13.11 x 10-4 31.71
Gasoline 4.108 70.567 x 10-3 -22.208 x 10-1 -
Diesel 89.101 2.7062 -6.1478 x 10-1 -5.7520 x 106
Residual Oil 1.549 5.1322 -9.9646 x 10-1 7.3315 x 106

Table 3.75 Solid State Heat Capacity for Each Components

Components a x 103 b x 105 c x 108

Polyethylene (PE) 125 x 103 0 0
Polypropylene (PP) 111.8 x 103 0 0
Polystyrene (PS) 126.5 x 103 0 0
Char 11.18 1.095 -4.891 x 1010

For a reactive system, the heat of formation is required to obtain the accurate
enthalpy. The enthalpy is a summation of heat capacity and heat of formation for each
components. Thus, the heat of formation for each components are summarized in Table
3 .76.

Table 3.76 Heat of Formation of Chemical Species at Standard Condition

Chemical Species, i Formula Physical Enthalpy of Formation (∆ H fi ),

137
 State kJ/kmol
Polyethylene (PE) (C2H4)30 Solid -55.98192
Polypropylene (PP) (C3H6)20 Solid -83.72184
Polystyrene (PS) (C8H8)15 Solid -120.56762
Nitrogen N2 Gas 0
Fuel Gas I H2 Gas 0
Fuel Gas II C3H8 Gas -10.468
Gasoline C8H18 Gas -20.875
Diesel C16H34 Gas -37.417
Residual Oil C28H56 Gas -49.582
Char C Solid 0

3.3.1 Shredder (S-101)

Figure 3 .55 shows the schematic diagram of shredder (S-101) while Table
3 .77 shows the summary of energy balance of S-101. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.1)
PE (s)
PP (s)
PS (s)
25 °C 2 Water (l)
1 atm
S-101

PE (s) 25 °C
PP (s) 3 1 atm
PS (s)
Water (l)

Figure 3.55 Schematic Diagram of S-101

Table 3.77 Summary of Energy Balance of S-101

Components Inlet Outlet

138
 ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Stream 4 Stream 5
PE (s) 8.95833 0 8.95833 0
PP (s) 5.97222 0 5.97222 0
PS (s) 2.986111 0 2.986111 0
Water (l) 0.015419 0 0.015419 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ 0 kW

3.3.2 Washing Tank (W-101)

Figure 3 .56 shows the schematic diagram of washing tank (W-101) while
Table 3 .78 shows the summary of energy balance of W-101. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.2)

25 °C PE (s)
1 atm PP (s)
4 PS (s)
Water (l)
25 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
10 5
Water (l) W-101 Water (l)

PE (s)
25 °C PP (s)
6
1 atm PS (s)
Water (l)

Figure 3.56 Schematic Diagram of W-101

Table 3.78 Summary of Energy Balance of W-101

Components Inlet Outlet

139
 ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Stream 4 Stream 6
PE (s) 8.95833 0 8.95833 0
PP (s) 5.97222 0 5.97222 0
PS (s) 2.986111 0 2.986111 0
Water (l) 0.015419 0 9.54745 0
Stream 10 Stream 5
Water (l) 954.745 0 945.213 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ 0 kW

3.3.3 Pump 1 (P-101 A/B)

Figure 3 .57 shows the schematic diagram of pump 1 (P-101 A/B) while Table
3 .79 shows the summary of energy balance of P-101. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.3)

25 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
7 8
Water (l) Water (l)
P-101 A/B

Figure 3.57 Schematic Diagram of P-101 A/B

Table 3.79 Energy Balance of P-101 A/B

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Water (l) 945.213 0 954.213 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

140
3.3.4 Mixer (M-101)

Figure 3 .58 shows the schematic diagram of mixer (M-101) while Table
3 .80 shows the summary of energy balance of M-101. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.4)

25 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
9 10
Water (l) Water (l)

25 °C
8 Water (l)
1.5 atm

Figure 3.58 Schematic Diagram of M-101

Table 3.80 Summary of Energy Balance of M-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )
^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 8 Stream 10
Water (l) 945.213 0 954.745 0
Stream 9
Water (l) 9.532 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

3.3.5 Compressor 1 (C-101)

Figure 3 .59 shows the schematic diagram of compressor 1 (C-101) while

Table 3 .81 shows the summary of energy balance of C-101. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.5)

25 °C 75.65 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
12 13
Air (g) Air (g)
C-101

141
 Figure 3.59 Schematic Diagram in C-101

Table 3.81 Summary of Energy Balance of C-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Air (g) 96.2821 0 96.2821 1.4768

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q=¿ 142.1894 kW

3.3.6 Heater - Air (E-101)

Figure 3 .60 shows the schematic diagram of heater - air (E-101) while Table
3 .82 shows the summary of energy balance of E-101. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.6)
25 °C 600 °C
1.5 atm 1.5 atm
13 14
Air (g) Air (g)
E-101

Figure 3.60 Schematic Diagram of E-101

Table 3.82 Summary of Energy Balance of E-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Air (g) 96.2821 0 96.2821 62000

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿14923.725 kW

3.3.7 Dryer (D-101)

Figure 3 .61 shows the schematic diagram of dryer (D-101) while Table 3 .83
shows the summary of energy balance of D-101. (*The detail calculations are shown in
Appendix D.7)

142
 273 °C Air (g)
1 atm Water (g)
15
25 °C 50 °C
1 atm 1 atm
11 D-101 16
PE (s) PE (s)
PP (s) PP (s)
PS (s) PS (s)
Water (l)
14
600 °C
1.5 atm Air (g)

Figure 3.61 Schematic Diagram of D-101

Table 3.83 Summary of Energy Balance of D-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^
( )
kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
PE (s) 8.95833 0 8.95833 0.0017
PP (s) 5.97222 0 5.97222 0.0032
PS (s) 2.986111 0 2.986111 0.0064
Water (g) 9.54745 0 9.54745 0.3066
Air (g) 96.2821 0.0176 96.2821 0.2620

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿26.5120 kW

3.3.8 Reactor (R-101)

Figure 3 .62 shows the schematic diagram of fluidized bed reactor (R-101)
while Table 3 .84 shows the summary of energy balance of R-101. (*The detail
calculations are shown in Appendix D.8)
500 °C
1 atm

143
 H2 (g)
21 C3H8 (g)
50 °C
C8H18 (g)
1 atm
C16H34 (g)
17 C28H56 (g)
PE (s) R-101
N2 (g)
PP (s)
C (s)
PS (s)

500 °C
1.5 atm
20
N2 (g)

Figure 3.62 Schematic Diagram of R-101

Table 3.84 Summary of Energy Balance of R-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
PE (s) 8.95833 -0.05598 - -
PP (s) 5.97222 -0.08372 - -
PS (s) 2.986111 -0.1206 - -
H2 (g) - 0 36.0914 -0.021
C3H8 (g) - 0 16.2496 -6.3945
C8H18 (g) - 0 13.023 -14.8344
C16H34 (g) - 0 18.1642 -32.3085
C28H56 (g) - 0 18.1655 -51.408
C (s) - 0 305.994 -0.021
N2 (g) 2.97476 13.5155 2.97476 13.5155

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-1823.63 kW

3.3.9 Compressor 2 (C-102)

Figure 3 .63 shows the schematic diagram of compressor 2 (C-102) while

Table 3 .85 shows the summary of energy balance of C-102. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.9)

25 °C 75.78 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
18 19

144
 N2 (g) N2 (g)
C-102

Figure 3.63 Schematic Diagram in C-102

Table 3.85 Summary of Energy Balance of C-102

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 1.4790

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q=¿ 4.3997 kW
3.3.10 Heater - Nitrogen (E-102)

Figure 3 .64 shows the schematic diagram of heater - nitrogen (E-102) while
Table 3 .86 shows the summary of energy balance of E-102. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.10)
75.78 °C 500 °C
1.5 atm 1 atm
19 20
N2 (g) N2 (g)
E-102

Figure 3.64 Schematic Diagram of E-102

Table 3.86 Summary of Energy Balance of E-102

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 1424.2796

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿4236.89 kW

145
3.3.11 Cyclone (CYC-101)

shows the schematic diagram of cyclone (CYC-101) while Table 3 .87 shows
the summary of energy balance of CYC-101. (*The detail calculations are shown in
Appendix D.11)

26
H2 (g)
C3H8 (g)
500 °C
C8H18 (g)
1 atm
C16H34 (g)
25
H2 (g) C28H56 (g)
C3H8 (g) N2 (g)
C8H18 (g) CYC-101
500 °C
C16H34 (g)
1 atm
C28H56 (g) 29
N2 (g) N2 (g)
C (s)
Figure 3.65 Schematic Diagram of CYC-101

Table 3.87 Summary of Balance of CYC-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 0
C3H8 (g) 16.2496 0 16.2496 0
C8H18 (g) 13.023 0 13.023 0
C16H34 (g) 18.1642 0 18.1642 0
C28H56 (g) 18.1655 0 18.1655 0
C (s) 305.994 0 305.994 0
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿0 kW

3.3.12 Cooler - Gaseous Products (E-103)

Figure 3 .66 shows schematic diagram of cooler - gaseous products (E-103)

while Table 3 .88 shows the summary of energy balance of E-103. (*The detail
calculations are shown in Appendix D.12)

500 °C 25°C
1 atm 1 atm

146
 24 25
H2 (g) H2 (g)
C3H8 (g) E-103 C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g) C8H18 (g)
C16H34 (g) C16H34 (g)
C28H56 (g) C28H56 (g)
N2 (g) N2 (g)

Figure 3.66 Schematic Diagram of E-103

Table 3.88 Summary of Energy Balance of E-103

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 -0.0042
C3H8 (g) 16.2496 0 16.2496 -8.6303
C8H18 (g) 13.023 0 13.023 -19.5499
C16H34 (g) 18.1642 0 18.1642 -43.6722
C28H56 (g) 18.1655 0 18.1655 -68.1404
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 -0.0042

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-2679.032 kW

3.3.13 Cooler - Char (E-104)

Figure 3 .67 shows schematic diagram of cooler - char (E-104) while Table
3 .89 shows the summary of energy balance of E-104. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.13)

500 °C 25°C
1 atm 1 atm
22 23
C (s) C (s)
E-104

Figure 3.67 Schematic Diagram of E-104

Table 3.89 Summary of Energy Balance of E-104

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol

147
 Char (s) 305.994 0 305.994 -6.5021

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-1989.60 kW

3.3.14 Flash Column (V-101)

Figure 3 .68 shows the schematic diagram of flash column (V-101) while
Table 3 .90 shows the summary of energy balance of V-101. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.14)
-16 °C
0.05 atm H2 (g)
26 C3H8 (g)
25 °C C8H18 (g)
1 atm N2 (g)

25 V-101
H2 (g)
C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g)
C3H8 (l)
C16H34 (g)
C8H18 (l)
C28H56 (g) 29
-16 °C C16H34 (l)
N2 (g)
0.05 atm C28H56 (l)
Figure 3.68 Schematic Diagram of V-101
Table 3.90 Summary of Energy Balance of V-101
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 25 Stream 26
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 -0.00093
C3H8 (g) 16.2496 0 16.2496 -0.9579
C8H18 (g) 13.023 0 13.023 -1.6229
C16H34 (g) 18.1642 0 - -
C28H56 (g) 18.1655 0 - -
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 -0.00093
Stream 29
H2 (g) - -

148
 C3H8 (l) 0.2525 -0.9672
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 -84.5227
C16H34 (l) 18.1642 -4.5124
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 -0.4092
N2 (g) - -

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-1192.29 kW

3.3.15 Compressor 3 (C-103)

Figure 3 .69 shows the schematic diagram of compressor 3 (C-103) while

Table 3 .91 shows the summary of energy balance of C-103. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.15)
-16 °C 232.51°C
0.05 atm 1 atm
26 27
H2 (g) H2 (g)
C3H8 (g) C3H8 (g)
C-103
C8H18 (g) C8H18 (g)
N2 (g) N2 (g)

Figure 3.69 Schematic Diagram in C-103

Table 3.91 Summary of Energy Balance of C-103

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 7.1822
C3H8 (g) 15.9971 0 15.9971 22.4576
C8H18 (g) 0.4128291 0 0.4128291 63.3877
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 7.2878

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ 666.3199 kW

3.3.16 Cooler - Fuel Gas (E-105)

Figure 3 .70 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - fuel gas (E-105) while
Table 3 .92 shows the summary of energy balance of E-105. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.16)

149
 232.51 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
27 28
H2 (g) H2 (g)
C3H8 (g) C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g) E-105 C8H18 (g)
N2 (g) N2 (g)
Figure 3.70 Schematic Diagram of E-105

Table 3.92 Summary of Energy Balance of E-105

Inlet Outlet

Components ṅ¿ ( mols ) ^

( )
H˙ ¿
kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 -5.9997
C3H8 (g) 15.9971 0 15.9971 -19.6275
C8H18 (g) 0.4128291 0 0.4128291 -49.6772
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 -6.0984

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ -569.0727 kW

3.3.17 Pump 2 (P-102 A/B)

Figure 3 .71 shows the schematic diagram of pump 2 (P-102 A/B) while Table
3 .93 shows the summary of energy balance of P-102. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.17)

-16 °C -16 °C
0.05 atm 1.5 atm
29 30
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) P-102 A/B C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l) C28H56 (l)
Figure 3.71 Schematic Diagram of P-102 A/B

Table 3.93 Summary of Energy Balance of P-102 A/B

Inlet Outlet
Components ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol

150
 C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 0.0042
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 0 12.6101709 0.0237
C16H34 (l) 18.1642 0 18.1642 0.0426
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 7.05×10-6

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

3.3.18 Heater - Pyrolysis Oil (E-106)

Figure 3 .72 shows the schematic diagram of heater - pyrolysis oil (E-106)
while Table 3 .94 shows the summary of energy balance of E-106. (*The detail
calculations are shown in Appendix D.18)

-16 °C 100 °C
1.5 atm 1.5 atm
30 31
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-106 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l) C28H56 (l)

Figure 3.72 Schematic Diagram of E-106

Table 3.94 Summary of Energy Balance of E-106

Inlet Oulet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 22.5
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 0 12.6101709 49.5
C16H34 (l) 18.1642 0 18.1642 69.75
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 83.25

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ 3409.116 kW

151
3.3.19 Distillation Column 1 (T-101)

Figure 3 .73 shows the schematic diagram of distillation column 1 (T-101)

while Table 3 .95 shows the summary of energy balance of T-101. (*The detail
calculations are shown in Appendix D.19)

92.82 °C
1 atm C3H8 (l)
32 C8H18 (l)
100 °C C16H34 (l)
1.5 atm C28H56 (l)

31 T-101
C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C3H8 (l)
C28H56 (l) C8H18 (l)
34
320.54 °C C16H34 (l)
1 atm C28H56 (l)
Figure 3.73 Schematic Diagram of T-101

Table 3.95 Summary of Energy Balance of T-101

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 31 Stream 32
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 -56.4829
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 0 12.58573717 -127.567
C16H34 (l) 18.1642 0 0.0011 -224.991
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 - -
Stream 34
C3H8 (l) - -
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 91.391
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 190.098
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 308.511

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ QCondenser =¿ -1620.04 kW (for stream 33)

Q Reboiler=¿ 9059.261 kW (for stream 35)

152
3.3.20 Cooler - Gasoline (E-107)

Figure 3 .74 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - gasoline (E-107) while
Table 3 .96 shows the summary of energy balance of E-107. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.20)

92.82 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
32 33
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-107 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)

Figure 3.74 Schematic Diagram of E-107

Table 3.96 Summary of Energy Balance of E-107

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 -5.4828
C8H18 (l) 12.58573717 0 12.58573717 -21.4015
C16H34 (l) 0.0011 0 0.0011 -5006.0555

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-256.2440 kW

3.3.21 Pump 3 (P-103 A/B)

Figure 3 .75 shows the schematic diagram of pump 3 (P-103 A/B) while Table
3 .97 shows the summary of energy balance of P-103. (*The detail calculations are
shown in Appendix D.21)

320.54 °C 320.54 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
34 35
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) P-103 A/B C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l) C28H56 (l)
Figure 3.75 Schematic Diagram of P-103 A/B

153
 Table 3.97 Summary of Energy Balance of P-103 A/B
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 0.0042
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 0 18.16311015 0.0426
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 7.05×10-6

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

3.3.22 Heater - Bottom Products of T-101 (E-108)

Figure 3 .76 shows the schematic diagram of heater - bottom products of T-101
(E-108) while Table 3 .98 shows the summary of energy balance of E-108. (*The
detail calculations are shown in Appendix D.22)

320.54 °C 350 °C
1.5 atm 1.5 atm
35 36
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-108 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
Figure 3.76 Schematic Diagram of E-108

Table 3.98 Summary of Energy Balance of E-108

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 13.35
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 0 18.16311015 284.8
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 47.17

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿3397.587 kW

154
3.3.23 Distillation Column 2 (T-102)

Figure 3 .77 shows the schematic diagram of distillation column 2 (T-102)

while Table 3 .99 shows the summary of energy balance of T-102. . (*The detail
calculations are shown in Appendix D.23)

285.17 °C
1 atm C8H18 (l)
37 C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l)
350 °C
1.5 atm
36 T-102
C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l)
C16H34 (l)
39
422.64 °C C28H56 (l)
1 atm
Figure 3.77 Schematic Diagram of T-102

Table 3.99 Summary of Energy Balance of T-102

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )
^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 36 Stream 37
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 -107.748
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 0 18.09775683 -232.797
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 0.06629635103 -389.455
Stream 39
C8H18 (l) - -
C16H34 (l) 0.06535332233 123.288
C28H56 (l) 18.09920365 206.712

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ QCondenser =¿ -2957.56 kW (for stream 38)

Q Reboiler=¿ 3757.545 kW (for stream 40)

155
3.3.24 Cooler - Diesel (E-109)

Figure 3 .78 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - diesel (E-109) while
Table 3 .100 shows the summary of energy balance of E-109. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.24)

285.17 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
37 38
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-109 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)

Figure 3.78 Schematic Diagram of E-109

Table 3.100 Summary of Energy Balance of E-109

Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out (
mol
s
) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 -90
C16H34 (l) 18.09775683 0 18.09775683 -165
C28H56 (l) 0.06629635103 0 0.06629635103 -250

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-3004.9 kW

3.3.25 Cooler - Residual Oil (E-110)

Figure 3 .79 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - residual oil (E-110) while
Table 3 .101 shows the summary of energy balance of E-110. (*The detail calculations
are shown in Appendix D.25)

422.64 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
39 40
C16H34 (l) C8H18 (l)
C28H56 (l) E-110 C28H56 (l)

Figure 3.79 Schematic Diagram of E-110

156
 Table 3.101 Energy Balance of E-110
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C16H34 (l) 0.06535332233 0 0.06535332233 -292.5
C28H56 (l) 18.09920365 0 18.09920365 -457.5

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿-8299.5 kW

3.4 Comparison between Manual Calculations and Simulation Results

There must be a differences between manual and simulation calculation. The

differences between the simulation (Aspen Plus V11) and the manual calculation for
material and energy balance are calculated using eqn. ( 3 .43).

Error ( % )=| ( Simulation Result −Manual Calculation )

Simulation Result
× 100 % | (3.43)

3.4.1 Material Balance

The differences between manual calculation and simulation results of material balance
are tabulated in Table 3 .102. If the error between manual and simulation calculation is
less than 5 %, the calculation is considered not much different.

Table 3.102 Differences Between Manual Calculation And Simulation Results of

Material Balance
Manual Simulation Error %
Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
1 61921.00 1 61921.00 0
2 61921.00 - -  -
3 61921.00 - -  -
4 61921.00 2 61921.00 0
5 62539.21 3 62539.20 0
6 61302.79 4 61302.80 0
- - 5 61302.80 0
7 61302.79 6 61302.80 0
8 61302.79 7 61302.80 0
9 618.21 8 618.20 0.0016
10 61921.00 9 61921.00 0

157
 11 62539.21 - -  -
12 10000.00 10 10000.00 0
13 10000.00 11 10000.00 0
14 10000.00 12 10000.00 0
15 10619.21 13 10619.20 0.0001
16 61920.00 14 61920.00 0
17 61920.00 - -  -
18 300.00 15 300.00 0
19 300.00 16 300.00 0
20 300.00 17 300.00 0
21 62220.01 18 62220.00 0
22 13231.07 19 13231.07 0
23 13231.07 20 13231.07 0
24 48988.94 21 48988.93 0
25 48988.94 22 48988.93 0
26 3271.19 23 3271.08 0.0034
27 3271.19 24 3271.08 0.0034
28 3271.19 25 3271.08 0.0034
29 45717.75 26 45717.86 0.0002
30 45717.75 27 45717.86 0.0002
31 45717.75 28 45717.86 0.0002
32 5226.45 29 5240.27 0.2637
33 5226.45 30 5240.27 0.2637
34 40491.30 31 40477.58 0.0339
35 40491.30 32 40477.58 0.0339
36 40491.30 33 40477.58 0.0339
37 14805.90 34 14832.28 0.1779
38 14805.90 35 14832.28 0.1779
39 25685.39 36 25645.31 0.1563
40 25685.39 37 25645.31 0.1563

Based on Table 3 .102, there are no stream which contain the error difference
more than 5 %. The calculation is considered almost similar.

3.4.2 Energy Balance

The differences between manual calculation and simulation results of energy

balance are tabulated in Table 3 .103. If the error between manual and simulation
calculation is less than 5 %, the calculation is considered not much different.

158
 Table 3.103 Differences Between Manual Calculation And Simulation Results of
Energy Balance
Equipment Enthalpy (kW) Error %
Manual Simulation
S-101 0 0 0
W-101 0 0 0
M-101 0 4.84E-06 ≈ 0 0
D-101 26.512 24 10.47
R-101 -1823.63 -1582.61 15.23
CYC-101 0 0 0
V-101 -1192.29 -1066.22 11.82
T-101 (Condenser) -1620.04 -1483.16 9.23
T-101 (Reboiler) 9059.261 8215.87 10.27
T-102 (Condenser) -2957.56 -2636.33 12.18
T-102 (Reboiler) 3757.545 3247.26 15.71
C-101 142.1894 142.422 0.16
C-102 4.3997 4.40136 0.04
C-103 666.32 663.52 0.42
E-101 14923.725 15923.925 6.28
E-102 4236.89 3788 11.85
E-103 -2679.032 -2364.87 13.28
E-104 -1989.60 -2085.888 4.65
E-105 -569.0727 -569.19 0.02
E-106 3409.116 3046.64 11.90
E-107 -256.244 -224.18 14.30
E-108 3397.587 3251.919 11.85
E-109 -3004.9 -2764.55 8.69
E-110 -8299.5 -7696.6 7.83
P-101 0 -4.89E-06 ≈ 0 0
P-102 0 -1.5751 E-04 ≈ 0 0
P-103 0 -1.35E-04 ≈ 0 0

Based on Table 3 .103, there are no stream which contain the error difference
more than 30%. The calculation is considered almost similar.

159
3.4.3 Process Flow Diagram in Aspen V11

Figure 3 .80 shows the simulation process of catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes from the raw materials until the final products. The process
includes pre-treatment of plastic wastes, reaction and separation.

Figure 3.80 Process Flow Diagram of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes in Aspen V11

160
 3.5 Estimated Utilities

Table 3 .104 shows the summary of briefly estimated cost of utilities. The utilities
included electricity, steam (high pressure steam - hps), and cooling water. The cost for
each utilities are estimated using the results of power obtained from the Aspen
simulation. Finally, the cost is calculated in the unit of RM/Year.

Table 3.104 Estimation Cost of Utilities

Utilities Unit Price Cost
(RM/Year)
D-101, P-101 A/B, P- Power:
Electricity 102 A/B, P-103 A/B, C- 841. 45 kW 0.337 / kWh 2,537,808.52
101, C-102, C-103
E-101, E-102, E-106, Mass flowrate:
E-108, R-101, V-101, 287,125.71 kg/h RM 102.23 / MT
Steam 214,445,933.02
T-101 (Reboiler), T-102
(Reboiler)
E-103, E-104, E-105, Mass flowrate:
Cooling E-107, E-109, E-110, 131,241.28 kg/h RM 0.95 / m3
997,433.73
Water T-101 (Condenser), T-
102 (Condenser)
Total 217,981,175.27

161
 CHAPTER 4

4.1 Introduction of Heat Integration

Heat integration is a method in designing a process in order to decrease the

utilization of energy as well as to maximize heat recovery. This section focuses on the
heat integration work done dependent on the design of the plant. Heat integration was
done using pinch technology which enables process designers to decide the best course
of heat exchange in order to accomplish maximum heat recovery. When the pinch was
resolved, the hot and cold utilities were calculated, and the heat exchange network was
drafted on the process flow diagram. The fundamental concept of heat integration is to
find matches between heat additions and heat removals within the process to minimize
the total utilities that are used to perform these energy transfers (Turton et al., 2013).

4.2 Heat Exchange Network (HEN)

Heat integration is performed using HEN method, which the current energy
required are identified to obtain the possible network which energy can be saved. The
main purpose of the HEN is to reduce energy consumption and hence increase
economic potential. The exchangers can be integrated. Thus, the heat is transferred in
between of main streams instead of using utility streams such as cooling water,
refrigerants or steam. The reduction of utilities usage can decrease the operation cost of
a plant, thus increase the annual net profit. In this method, the heating and cooling
energy required is calculated to find out the maximum energy recovery (MER) which
this target will be approached by stream splitting, elimination smaller heat exchanger,
etc.

4.2.1 Pinch Analysis

Pinch analysis is a methodology for minimizing energy consumption of

chemical processes and optimizing heat recovery with consideration of thermodynamic
limitation. Pinch analysis enables process designers to determine best arrangement of
heat exchange to achieve maximum heat recovery. Whenever a driving force for mass
or heat transfer getting smaller, the equipment requires a larger transfer area and the
design is said to have a pinch. When considering many transfer equipment such as heat

162
exchanger network, there is a point where the driving force is minimum. This is known
as the pinch point.
Pinch technology establishes a temperature difference, designated as the pinch
point, which separates the overall operating temperature region observed in the process
into two temperature regions. Once the pinch point is identified, heat from external
sources that must be supplied to the process at temperature above the pinch whereas
heat removed from the process by cooling media only at temperatures below the pinch
can all be determined. This analysis approach will maximize heat recovery in the
process with the establishment of a heat exchanger network. After the analysis, an
engineer must decide on the trade-off between the energy recovered and the capital cost
involved in the heat recovery system in order to maximise economic potential.

The objective of pinch technology is to develop a heat exchanger network

(HEN) in a plant to optimize the use of energy, thus minimizing the operating cost. The
concepts behind pinch technology that should be abided when performing pinch design
are
1. Common values for ΔTmin in the industry:
• Oil refining = 20 - 40 °C
• Petrochemical = 10 - 20 °C
• Chemical = 10 - 20 °C
• Low temperature processes = 3 - 5 °C
2. The minimum heating requirement, ǪHmin and minimum cooling requirement, ǪCmin
and the pinch temperature are determined from the cascade diagram.
3. When performing pinch design, there are two pinches known as above pinch, the
Cp.cold should always be greater than or equivalent to C p,hot. Do the same vice-versa for
below pinch design. The stream pairing should always start with the biggest Cp value.
4. Comparison of utility consumption before and after minimum energy requirement
(MER) is done to determine the MER efficiency.

4.2.2 Construction of Steam Table

The stream and heat exchanger involved in the HEN integration are defined in
Table 4 .105. Table 4 .105 includes the operating temperature of cold and hot

163
 streams, heat duty of each streams, and targeted steam temperature to be achieved. The
𝐶𝑝 is calculated using eqn. ( 4 .44).

ΔH (4.44)
CP=
T Target −T Supply

Table 4.105 Summary of Hot and Cold Streams

Heat Stream Supply Target Heat Duty Stream CP (kW/°C)
Exchanger Number Temperature Temperature (kW) Type
(°C) (°C)
E-101 13 25 600 14,923.725 Cold 31.4184
E-102 19 75.78 500 4,236.89 Cold 9.9875
E-103 24 500 25 -2,679.0317 Hot 5.6401
E-104 22 500 25 -1,989.6 Hot 4.1886
E-105 27 233 35 -569.0727 Hot 2.8741
E-106 30 -16 100 3,409.116 Cold 29.3889
E-107 32 93 25 -256.244 Hot 3.7683
E-108 35 320.54 350 3,397.587 Cold 115.3288
E-109 37 285.17 25 -3,004.9 Hot 11.5498
E-110 39 422.64 25 -8,299.5 Hot 20.8719

4.2.3 Selection of Minimum Approach Temperature

Minimum approach temperature the smallest gap in temperature across which

heat transfer will occur in the system. This often only occurs at the pinch. Typical
values ranges are from 10 °C to 20 °C. The rule of thumb for the common minimum
approach temperature (ΔTmin) is 10 °C. Table 4 .106 shows the shift temperature of the
supply temperature and target temperature for each stream. The shifted temperature
for both hot and cold steam is calculated using eqn. ( 4 .45).

1 (4.45)
T Hot Stream=T − Δ T min
2

1
T Cold Stream=T + Δ T min
2
Table 4.106 Summary of Shifted Temperature for Both Hot and Cold Streams
Heat Supply Target Supply Shift Target Shift
Exchanger Temperature Temperature (°C) (°C)
(°C) (°C)
E-101 25 600 30 605
E-102 75.78 500 80.78 505
E-103 500 25 495 20
E-104 500 25 495 20

164
 E-105 233 35 228 30
E-106 -16 100 -11 105
E-107 93 25 88 20
E-108 320.54 350 325.54 355
E-109 285.17 25 280.17 20
E-110 422.64 25 417.64 15
4.2.4 Construction of Temperature Interval Diagram

In this step, all streams are presented by a vertical line, where cold stream
(represented in blue line) and hot stream (represented in red line) are placed in the grid
diagram. The cold and heat duty for each temperature interval is calculated and shown
in in Table 4 .107. Table 4 .107 is determined by the formula that is same as the
previous one, Q = CpΔT. The difference in cold and hot duty is then calculated and the
result is represented as deficit for positive value and surplus for negative value. This
step is essential as the difference in heat duty obtained will be used to construct the
cascade diagram at the following step. The value of net heat duty for each temperature
interval is represented as surplus for positive value and demand for negative value.
Table 4 .107 shows the temperature interval diagram for this HEN network.

165
 Table 4.107 Temperature Interval Diagram
Equipment E-103 E-104 E-105 E-107 E-109 E-110 E-101 E-102 E-106 E-108 Delta T Cph - Cpc Delta H Interval Surplus /
Interval (°C) (kW/°C) (kW) Deficit
Cp 5.6401 4.1886 2.8741 3.7683 11.5498 20.8719 31.4184 9.9875 29.3889 115.3288
Type Hot Hot Hot Hot Hot Hot Cold Cold Cold Cold
605
100 -31.4184 -3,141.8368 Deficit
505
10 -41.4059 -414.0585 Deficit
495
77.36 -31.5772 -2,442.8086 Deficit
417.64
62.64 -10.7053 -670.5774 Deficit
355
29.46 -126.0341 -3,712.9639 Deficit
325.54
45.37 -10.7053 -485.6976 Deficit
280.17
52.17 0.8445 44.0574 Deficit
228
123 3.7186 1,357.3880 Deficit
105
17 -25.6703 -436.3956 Deficit
88
7.22 0.2848 2.0560 Surplus
80.78
50.78 2.3791 120.8098 Surplus
30
10 8.3149 83.1486 Surplus
20
31 29.3889 131.5710 Deficit
-11

166
4.2.5 Construction of Cascade Diagram

The construction of cascade diagram is shown in Figure 4 .81. The cascade

diagram illustrates the net heat duty for each temperature interval. If there is excess
energy in a given temperature interval, this excess energy can be cascaded down to the
next temperature interval. The heat flow from the highest temperature interval to the
lowest temperature interval has to be positive in the cascade diagram. The trial is
stopped when the heat flow is positive throughout the cascade diagram. Based on
Figure 4 .81, the first trial heat energy balance shown a largest negative flow of
12,061.25 kW at 88 ℃. In order to normalize the cascade, it is required to add a
maximum heat utility of 12,061.25 kW so that there is no negative heat flow. After the
normalization, pinch point is achieved when there is no heat flow. Thus, the feasible
design is having a pinch point at 88 ℃.

Figure 4.81 Cascade Diagram

167
4.2.6 Grand Composite Curve

Grand composite curve can provide an idea of the heat exchanger network
design before the real heat exchanger network design. It can determine there is a need
of heat integration for above pinch and below pinch. For above pinch, if the energy
cannot be integrated, then heater is added to supply heating duty, while cooler is added
to supply cooling duty for below pinch. Figure 4 .82 shows the grand composite curve
of this design.

Grand Composite Curve

700

600

500
Temperature (°C)

400

300

200

100

0
-2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
-100

Heat Duty (kW)

Figure 4.82 Grand Composite Curve

Based on the cascade diagram, the hot and cold pinch temperature are identified
using eqn. ( 4 .46) where the pinch temperature, TPinch = 88 °C.

1 (4.46)
T Hot Pinch=T Pinch + Δ T min
2

1
T Cold Pinch =T Pinch − ΔT min
2
Therefore,
Hot pinch temperature, THot Pinch = 93 °C
Cold pinch temperature, TCold Pinch = 83 °C

168
4.2.7 Heat Exchanger Network Design Based On Pinch Temperature

From the Heat Cascade as shown in Figure 4 .81,

• QHmin = 12,061.25 kW
• QCmin = 337.59 kW
• Pinch Temperature = 88 °C
• Hot Stream Pinch Temperature = 93 °C
• Cold Stream Pinch Temperature = 83 °C

In this step, the heat integration between the heat duties of each equipment are
carried out and a new heat exchanger network can be achieved. This heat integration is
done based on the pinch temperature which is 88 ℃ that was determined from the
previous step. Heat exchanger network is divided into two sections: below the pinch
and above the pinch. The hot stream is connected to cold stream to achieve maximum
heat recovery in each section based on the following criteria:
i. Above the pinch, heat capacity of hot stream (Cp H) ≤ heat capacity of cold stream
(CpC);
below the pinch, CpH ≥ CpC
ii. Integration between above pinch and below pinch temperature is not allowed.
iii. If Cp value is too large for either of the stream, consider splitting the stream.
iv. Find arrangement that meet maximum heat recovery as shown in cascade diagram.
v. Remaining heat duty is to be covered by using heater or cooler.

Based on the rules stated above, heat exchanger network (HEN) was generated
after pinch analysis as shown in Figure 4 .83 which will be applied in the new process
flow diagram. The feasible heat transfer in the same temperature interval, can cascade
the heat in the same direction from hot to cold. The heat cannot be cascaded from the
lower temperature interval (incorrect) even though there is a surplus heat.

169
Figure 4.83 Proposed Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) Design After Analysis

170
 Figure 4 .84 shows the design of heat exchanger network above the pinch
temperature while Figure 4 .85illustrated the heat integration within the streams that
are located above the pinch temperature. For the region above the pinch temperature,
there are 5 hot streams (S24, S22, S27, S37 & S39) and 4 cold streams (S13, S19, S30
& S35). E-101 is integrated with E-103, E-104, E-105, E-109, and E-110. However, the
energy supplied from E-103, E-104, and E-105 to E-101 is not enough and there is a
balance of 12,061.25 kW. Also, regarding to 2nd law of thermodynamics, the heat
always transfer from the higher temperature interval to the lower temperature interval.
So, extra heat utility which are 12,061.25 kW is required for E-101 which will be
covered by a heater. Next, E-102 is integrated and the heat duty are fully covered by E-
109 (2161.77 kW) and E-110 (646.56 kW). Finally, E-108 is integrated and the heat
duty is fully covered by the remaining heat duty from E-110. Therefore, after
performing the heat analysis, extra heat utility which is 12,061.25 kW is required for E-
101.

Figure 4.84 Design of Heat Exchanger Network Above The Pinch Temperature

171
 Figure 4.85 Heat Integration Within The Streams Above The Pinch Temperature

On the other hand, Figure 4 .86 shows the design of heat exchanger network
below the pinch temperature while Figure 4 .87 illustrated the heat integration of
streams that are located above the pinch temperature. For the region below the pinch
temperature, there are 6 hot streams (S24, S22, S27, S32, S37 & S39) and 4 cold
streams (S13, S19, S30 & S35). E-101 is integrated with E-103, E-104, E-105, E-107,
and E-109. All the heat duty is used up. Next, E-102 is integrated and the heat duty is
fully covered by E-109. Then, E-106 is integrated and the heat duty is fully recovered
by E-110 and the remaining heat duty from E-109. Finally, installation of coolers are
required to cover the heat duty of E-110 which is 337.09 kW. Therefore, after
performing the heat analysis, extra cold utility which is 337.09 kW is required for E-
110.

172
 Figure 4.86 Design of Heat Exchanger Network Below The Pinch Temperature

Figure 4.87 Heat Integration Within The Streams Below The Pinch Temperature

At last, combined the design of heat exchanger network above and below the
pinch temperature and the completed heat exchanger network is shown in Figure 4 .88.
Based on Figure 4 .88, there are total 17 heat exchangers required in this designed
catalytic pyrolysis process. The network also called as MUMNE (minimum utility,
minimum number of heat exchanger). The formula to calculate the minimum number of
heat exchanger as shown in eqn. ( 4 .47).

Min .no . exchanger =No . of hot streams+ No . of cold streams+ No .of utilities−1
(4.47)
Thus, theoretically, the minimum number of heat exchanger required is 7.

Figure 4.88 Heat Integration Within The Streams Below The Pinch Temperature

173
4.2.8 Maximum Energy Recovery (MER)

After the heat integration using pinch technology, the minimum energy recovery
(MER), cold utility and hot utility are determined. Table 4 .108 shows the summary of
heat duties before and after MER. The summary contains the cooling and heating duties
for each cooler and heater before and after MER in order to compare the differences in
term of energy saving.

Table 4.108 Summary of Heat Duties Before and After MER

Before MER After MER
Equipment Cooling Duty Heating Duty Cooling Duty Heating Duty
(kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
E-101 (S14) - 14,923.725 - 12,061.25
E-102 (S20) - 4,236.89 - -
E-103 (S25) 2,679.0317 - - -
E-104 (S23) 1,989.60 - - -
E-105 (S28) 569.0727 - - -
E-106 (S31) - 3,409.116 - -
E-107 (S33) 256.244 - - -
E-108 (S36) - 3,397.587 - -
E-109 (S38) 3,004.9 - - -
E-110 (S40) 8,299.5 - 337.59 -
Total 16,798.3484 25,967.318 337.59 12,061.25

Next, the percentage of energy saving after performing the heat integration is
calculated using eqn. ( 4 .48). Table 4 .109 summarized the hot and cold utility
consumption. The table includes the percentage of energy saving for each type of
utility.

Heat Duty ( Before HEN )−Heat Duty (After HEN ) (4.48)

Saving=
Heat Duty( Before HEN )

Table 4.109 Summary of Hot and Cold Utility Consumption

Consumption Before MER After MER Saving (%)
Cold Utility (kW) 16,798.3484 337.59 97.99
Hot Utility (kW) 25,967.318 12,061.25 53.55
Total 42,765.6664 12,398.84 71.01

174
 According to Table 4 .108 and Table 4 .109, the cooling utility required are
reduced after performed the heat analysis. The process is able to save about 71.01 % for
the total hot and cold utility consumption. All the sizing affected by the newly proposed
HEN were revised and re-updated for all equipment. The heat integration is then being
presented in the form of process flow diagram.

4.3 Utilities

Utilities nowadays is used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of
any production process. The word “utilities” is now commonly used for the ancillary
services needed in the operation of any production process. Generally, most of the
chemical processes do not take place at ambient temperature or pressures. In order to
reach these non-ambient conditions, utilities will have to be used to raise or lower
temperatures and increase pressure. These services normally be supplied from a central
site facility; and will include electricity, steam (for process heating and cooling), water
for general use, demineralized water, compressed air, inert-gas supplied and effluent
disposal facilities. Most often, utilities do not directly contact process stream. Table 4.6
shows different utilities and their uses.

4.3.1 Electricity

Electricity is the major source of energy to ensure all equipment run smoothly.
In Peninsular Malaysia, the sole electrical provider is Tenaga National Berhad (TNB).
TNB is the monopoly generator and supplier of electrical power in Peninsular Malaysia
which offering its service at different rates according to the purposes used (industrial,
residential or commercial). In this plant, electricity will be provided by TNB Gebeng,
Kuantan. The tariff and rates are listed in Table 4 .110 below. Table 4 .110 shows
different categories of tariff for industry used which included low voltage industrial
tariff, medium voltage general industrial tariff, medium voltage peak / off-peak
industrial tariff, and high voltage peak / off-peak industrial tariff.

175
 Table 4.110 Electricity Tariff Rates from TNB (2021)

shows summary of the power consumption for each equipment that are using
the electricity as power source. Assume that plant is categorised under Tariff E1
(medium voltage general industrial). The detail calculation cost of electricity for each
equipment are shown in Appendix E.1.

Table 4.111 Summary of Power Consumption and Annual Cost of Electricity

Equipment Code Power Cost
(kW) (RM/Year)
Dryer D-101 23.9968 72,374.2192
Mixer M-101 0.6170 1,860.8720
Pump 1 P-101 A/B 1.3291 4,008.4216
Pump 2 P-102 A/B 3.7034 11,169.4500
Pump 3 P-103 A/B 1.4568 4,393.6423
Compressor 1 C-101 142.4221 429,544.9872
Compressor 2 C-102 4.4014 13,274.4990
Compressor 3 C-103 663.5220 2,001,182.4274
Total 2,537,808.52

176
 4.3.2 Steam

In the current chemical engineering industry, stream is commonly used as a

source of heat energy. Water tube boilers are normally used to generate stream for
industrial grade stream as this type of equipment is able to handle the large pressure
generated by the stream. To heat up the stream to extremely high temperatures, a
superheater may also be installed. There are three type of steam in current industry such
as low-pressure steam (LPS), medium pressure steam (MPS) and high-pressure steam
(HPS). According to Swagelok Energy Advisors (2009), low pressure steam pressure is
at 5 bar and temperature of 160 °C while medium pressure steam pressure is 10 bar and
184 °C and high-pressure steam pressure is at 41 bar and 254 °C. According to Chemical
Engineering Design Handbook, the cost of each type of steam are shown in Table 4 .112.
The unit for the cost is in USD.

Table 4.112 Cost of Different Types of Steam

Type of Steam Cost
(USD/MT)
Low Pressure Steam (LPS) 14.05
Medium Pressure Steam
14.83
(MPS)
High Pressure Steam (HPS) 17.70

Table 4 .113 shows summary of the steam consumption for each equipment
that are using the steam as heating source. Since the flowrate of the stream is considered
high, high pressure steam is used instead of medium pressure and high pressure steam
to ensure that the steam supply is enough and effective for the requirement. The detail
calculation cost of steam for each equipment are shown in Appendix E.2.

Table 4.113 Summary of Steam Consumption and Annual Cost of Steam

Equipment Code Power Price Cost (RM/Year)
(kJ/h) (RM/kJ)
Heater (Bottom Products T-101) E-108 12,231,313.2000 0.00007434 7,274,206.59
Reactor R-101 5,697,411.7438 0.00007434 3,388,364.71
Flash Column V-101 3,838,409.6212 0.00007434 2,282,778.97
Reboiler T-101 25,087,135.2140 0.00007434 14,919,821.05
Reboiler T-102 11,689,060.2126 0.00007434 6,951,717.89
Total 34,816,889.21

177
 The formula below is to calculate cost of utilities in year 2021. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 607.7 and CEPCI for the base
year 2001 is 397 (Jenkins, 2018).

I 2021
C BM ,2021 =C BM ,2001 ×
I 2001

670.7
C BM ,2021 =RM 34,816,889.21×
397

CBM, 2021 = RM 53,295,273.49 / yr

4.3.3 Cooling Water

In the industrial processes, water is generally used as a convenient coolant due

to its availability and high heat capacity. Heated water may be sent to facilities such as
natural and forced-draft cooling towers to cool down and to be reused. Currently, water
is used in cooling processes by liquid cooling or evaporative cooling. Water used as a
coolant is much economical compared to other alternatives, and thus may be disposed
of after a single use. However, the facilities may also be installed to recycle the used
cooling water for other purposes to enhance heat recovery efficiency and better
environmental cleanliness. Evaporative cooling often requires extra installations to
ensure the piping systems are free from risks of fouling caused by the concentrating
action of evaporation. Water is also preferable as a natural coolant as it is non-toxic and
poses no toxic harm to the workers. In this plant, water is supplied from Pengurusan Air
Pahang Berhad (PAIP) where the price of water is RM 0.95 /m 3. Consumption of
cooling water used by the equipment are summarized in Table 4 .114 while Table
4 .115 shows the annual cost of cooling water that is processing from the cooling
tower. The detail calculation cost of cooling water for each equipment are shown in
Appendix E.3.

Table 4.114 Summary of Cooling Water Consumption

Equipment Code Power Mass Flowrate Cost
(kW) (kg/h) (RM/Year)
Cooler (Residual Oil) E-110 8,299.5000 715.2804 270,991,140.70
Condenser T-101 1,488.5260 128.2865 48,602,609.07
Condenser T-102 2,638.5606 227.4005 86,152,967.30
Total 1,070.9674 405,746,717.07

178
 Table 4.115 Annual Cost of Cooling Water of Cooling Water from Cooling Tower
Item Cost (RM/Year)
Total Water Mass Flow Rate Used (kg/hr) 1,070.9674
Cooling Tower Duty (kJ/hr) 44,766.4382
Amount of Water Evaporated from Tower (kg/hr) 185.2149
Water Makeup (kg/hr) 231.5186
Pump Power (kW) 98.9156
Fan Power (kW) 72.3
Total Cost (RM/yr) 46,425.35

4.4 Economic Potential 4 Calculation

The total utilities consumption is summarised in Table 4 .116. The total utilities cost
for the catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes process is RM 12,307,454,671.21 per year.

Table 4.116 Total Utilities Cost for the Gasoline Production Plant
Types of Utilities Cost (RM/Year)
Electricity 2,537,808.52
Steam 53,295,273.49
Cooling Water 405,746,717.07 + 46,425.35
Total 461,626,224.43

The EP 4 formula is shown in eqn. ( 4 .49):

EP 4=EP3−Cost of Utilities (4.49)

Therefore,
10
EP 4=EP3−RM 461,626,224.43/ yr=RM 3.5306 x 10 / yr

179
 4.5 Integrated Process Flow Diagram (PFD

Figure 4 .89 shows the integrated process flow diagram of catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes. The integrated process flow diagram includes the use of hot (red) and cold utility (blue) used in the process.

Compressor Cooling Cyclone Distillation Dryer Heat Exchanger Boiler Mixer Pump Reactor Shredder Storage Tank Flash Column Washing College of Engineering
C-101 Tower CYC-101 Column D-101 E-101 E-105 E-109 E-113 E- T-104 M-101 P-101 A/B R-101 S-101 TK-101 TK-105 V-101 Tank Department of Chemical Engineering
117
C-102 T-103 T-101 E-102 E-106 E-110 E-114 P-102 A/B TK-102 TK-106 W-101
C-103 T-102 E-103 E-107 E-111 E-115 P-103 A/B TK-103 TK-107
E-104 E-108 E-112 E-116 TK-104

Title:
Production of 50,000 MTPA Gasoline
From Mixed Plastic Wastes (PE, PP and
PS) Using Catalytic Pyrolysis

Supervisor:
AP. TS. Dr. Sumaiya Binti Zainal @
Murad
Group Members:
1. Koo Chun Hong
KA18189
2. Reniasha A/P Anballagan
KA18066
3. Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd
Tarmizi
KA18144
4. Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri
KA18176
5. Luqman Shah Bin Mohammad
Shahzar
KA18231

Stream ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Temperature,°C 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 75.65 600 273.45 49.67 49.67 25 75.78 500 500 500 25 25 25 -16 232.51 25 -16 -16 100 92.82 25 320.54 320.54 350 285.17 25 422.64 25
Pressure, atm 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.05 1 1 0.05 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1
Mass Flowrate (kg/h)
PE 27090 27090 27090 27090 27090 0 0 0 0 0 27090 0 0 27090 0 27090 27090 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PP 18060 18060 18060 18060 18060 0 0 0 0 0 18060 0 0 18060 0 18060 18060 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PS 16770 16770 16770 16770 16770 0 0 0 0 0 16770 0 0 16770 0 16770 16770 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 1 1 1 1 619.21 61302.79 61302.79 61302.79 618.21 61921 619.21 0 0 1 619.21 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel gas 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 261.92 0 0 261.92 261.92 261.92 261.92 261.92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel gas 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2579.59 0 0 2579.59 2579.59 2539.50 2539.50 2539.50 40.09 40.09 40.09 40.09 40.09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gasoline 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5355.46 0 0 5355.46 5355.46 169.77 169.77 169.77 14807.55 5185.69 5185.69 5185.69 5185.69 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0 0
Diesel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14807.55 0 0 14807.55 14807.55 0 0 0 25684.42 14807.55 14807.55 0.89 0.89 14806.66 14806.66 14806.66 14803.37 14803.37 3.29 3.29
Residual Oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25684.42 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 0 0 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 25684.42 2.31 2.31 25682.1 25682.1
Char 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13231.07 13231.07 13231.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 300 300 300 0 0 300 300 300 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Air 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 61921 61921 61921 61921 62539.21 61302.79 61302.79 61302.79 618.21 61921 62539.21 10000 10000 61921 10619.21 61921 61921 300 300 300 62220 13231.07 13231.07 48988.93 48988.93 3271.19 3271.19 3271.19 45717.74 4517.74 4517.74 5226.45 5226.45 40491.29 40491.29 40491.29 14805.90 14805.90 25685.39 25685.39

180
Figure 4.89 Integrated Process Flow Diagram of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes

181
 CHAPTER 5

5.1 Sizing of Equipment

Equipment design in this chapter included all the equipment in the plant and
selection of material construction. There are total 32 of equipment which includes
compressor, cyclone, distillation column, dryer, heat exchanger, mixer, pump, reactor,
shredder, storage tank, flash column, and washing tank. The material construction is
highly depended on the temperature and pressure of the equipment and the corrosive
level. Table 5 .117 shows the total quantity of each identical equipment.

Table 5.117 List of Equipment

Equipment Quantity
Compressor 3
Cooling Tower 1
Cyclone 1
Distillation Column 2
Dryer 1
Heat Exchanger 17
Mixer 1
Pump 3
Reactor 1
Shredder 1
Storage Tank 7
Flash Column 1
Washing Tank 1
Total: 41

5.1.1 Reactor (R-101)

In the production of gasoline from plastic wastes, the fluidized bed reactor is
used. The catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes process utilizes a jacketed and fluidized
bed reactor that contains amorphous silica-alumina as a catalyst. Below are the
assumptions when designing the reactor: 
 The process is in steady state operation.
 The process is non-adiabatic in the reactor, but adiabatic in pipeline transfers.
Heat energy generated in the reactor is transferred to the product outlet stream
and the reactor jacket only.
 The reaction is isothermal at 500°C.

182
  Pressure drop in the reactor is of minor significance and is negligible.
 A continuous mode reactor is used for economic considerations.

Table 5 .118 shows the specification data sheet for R-101. The detailed calculation
steps are shown in Appendix F.

Table 5.118 Design Specification Data Sheet for R-101

Reactor, R-101
Item Fluidized Bed Date 30th March 2021
Reactor
Code R-101 Design By Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt
No of Unit 1 Mohd Khamri
General
Function To produce gasoline and other by-products from mixed plastic
wastes
Type Fluidized bed Orientation Vertical
Operation Mode Batch Material of Stainless steel
Construction
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams
18 21 22
Temperature (°C) 49.6697 500 500
Pressure (bar) 1.0133 1.5199 1.0133
Mass Flow 61920 300 62220
(kg/hr)
Mass density 1473.2002 0.6620 2.6152
(kg/m3)
Composition
Polyethylene 27090 -
Polypropylene 18060 -
Polystyrene 16770 -
Fuel gas 1 - - 261.9216
Fuel gas 2 - - 2579.5872

183
Gasoline - - 5355.4608
Diesel - - 14807.5488
Residual fuel oil - - 25684.416
Char - - 13231.0656
Nitrogen - 300 300
Oxygen - -
Water - -
Operational Design
Operating Pressure 1.01325
Operating Temperature (°C) 500
Volume (m3) 292.1617
Height (m) 12.8943
Diameter (m) 5.3863
Height to diameter ratio 3:1
Wall thickness (m) 0.0248
Residence Time (hr) 6.9511
Minimum Fluidizing Velocity (m/s) 6.24E-5
Mechanical Design
Type of Catalyst Amorphous alumina silica
Volume of Catalyst (m3) 117.1475
Catalyst Bed Height (m) 5.1406
Catalyst Phase Solid 
Diameter of Catalyst (mm) 3
Bulk Density (g/cm3) 0.66
Pore Volume (g/cm3) 0.42
Wire Mesh Screen
Width Opening (mm) 0.5
Wire Diameter (mm) 0.3
Area of Mesh Screen (m2) 22.7858
Construction Type Plain mesh
Heating Design
Jacket Area (m2) 251.0607

184
 Type of heating Steam Heating Jacket
Aspen Simulation
Available
Total Estimated Cost
Cost RM 99,351.02

5.1.2 Distillation Column

There are two distillation column used in the production of gasoline from the
catalytic pyrolysis process which are T-101 and T-102. These both distillation column
sizing has been obtained after trial-and-error approach to obtain the optimum and
comprehensible design. Each design is defined using the formula and value suggested.
Detailed calculation step of these design are shown in Appendix F. These are the
summary of the column sizing in Table 5 .119 and Table 5 .120.

Table 5.119 Design Specification Sheets for T-101

Distillation Column, T-101
Item: Distillation Column Date: 20th March 2021
Code: T-101 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri
Function: To separate the gasoline from other oil combination (Diesel and Residual
Oil)
Specification
Type Sieve Plate
Operation Continuous
Design Vertical
Material of construction Stainless Steel or Titanium
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams 
32 33 35
Temperature (˚C) 141 93 321
Pressure (atm) 1.5 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 45,717.9 5,226.52 40,491.3
Composition 177.099 46.3143 130.785
(kmol/hr)

185
Polyethylene  - - -
Polypropylene - - -
Polystyrene - - -
Fuel Gas 1 - - -
Fuel Gas 2 40.0868 40.0868 -
Gasoline 5,185.6927 5,185.4749 0.2178
Diesel 14,807.5488 0.8885 14,806.6603
Residual Oil 25,684.4160 - 2,5684.416
Char - - -
Nitrogen - - -
Oxygen - - -
Water - - -
Operational Design
Operating Temperature (˚C) 141
Operating Pressure (atm) 1.5
Reflux Ratio 1.5
Feed tray from top 4
No. of Tray 8
Liquid Flow Pattern Cross Flow, Single Pass
Mechanical Design
Column:
 Column Diameter (m) 3.9185
 Column Height (m) 11.6123
8
 Number of Tray
 Wall Thickness (m)

Provisional Plate Design:

 Type of Tray Sieve
 Material of tray Stainless Steel
0.019
 Hole diameter (m)

Weir Design:
 Weir Length (m) 2.8605
 Weir Height (m) 0.5

186
Weep Point:
 Vapor Velocity (m/s) 0.7709

Plate Pressure Drop Pa, (N/m2): 123.0552

Down Comer Design:
 Residence time (s) 4.3809

Entrainment:
 Flooding velocity (m/s) 1.5868

Aspen Simulation
Available
Condenser Design
Type of Condenser Total
Heat Duty (kW) -2,,329.18
Reboiler Design
Type of Reboiler  Kettle
Heat Duty (kW) 6,911.66
Equipment Costing
Total Estimated Cost RM 1,128 599.12

Table 5.120 Design Specification Sheets for T-102

Distillation Column, T-102
Item: Distillation Column Date: 20th March 2021
Code: T-102 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri
Function: To separate Diesel to the top and Residual oil to the bottom line
Specification
Type Sieve Plate
Operation Continuous
Design Vertical
Material of construction Stainless Steel or Titanium
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams 
35 38 40

187
Temperature (˚C) 321.2 285 423
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1
Quantity (kg/hr) 40,491.3 14,805.8 25,685.6
Composition 130.785 65.38 65.4049
(kmol/hr)
Polyethylene  - - -
Polypropylene - - -
Polystyrene - - -
Fuel Gas 1 - - -
Fuel Gas 2 - - -
Gasoline 0.2178 0.2178 -
Diesel 14,806.6603 14,803.3732 3.2871
Residual Oil 25,684.416 2.3116 25,682.1044
Char - - -
Nitrogen - - -
Oxygen - - -
Water - - -
Operational Design
Operating Temperature (˚C) 306
Operating Pressure (atm) 1
Reflux Ratio 0.5758
Feed tray from top 7
No. of Tray 12
Liquid Flow Pattern Cross Flow, Single Pass
Mechanical Design
Column:
 Column Diameter (m) 3.7063
 Column Height (m) 13.7558
 Number of Tray 12
 Wall Thickness (m) 0.01247

Provisional Plate Design:

 Type of Tray Sieve Tray

188
  Material of tray Stainless Steel
 Hole diameter (m) 0.019

Weir Design:
 Weir Length (m) 1.9215
 Weir Height (m) 0.05

Weep Point:
 Vapor Velocity (m/s) 0.6815

Plate Pressure Drop Pa, (N/m2): 123.4687

Down Comer Design:
 Residence time (s) 4.78

Entrainment:
 Flooding velocity (m/s) 1.6577

Aspen Simulation
Available
Condenser Design
Type of Condenser Total
Heat Duty (kW) -2,329.18
Reboiler Design
Type of Reboiler  Kettle
Heat Duty (kW) 4,787.82
Equipment Costing
Total Estimated Cost RM 897,560.976

5.1.3 Heat Exchanger

The heat transfer always occurs between two fluids of different temperature in a
heat exchanger. The most common type is which the hot and cold fluids do not come
into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube wall or a flat or curved
surface (Geankoplis, 2003). The transfer of heat from the hot fluid to the wall or tube
surface is accomplished by convection, through the tube wall or plate by conduction,
and then by convection to the cold fluid (Geankoplis, 2003). The selection of heat
exchanger include number of factors such as thermal and hydraulic requirements,

189
material compatibility, operational maintenance, availability, cost as well as
environmental, health and safety considerations. The tables below show the summary of
heat exchanger from E-101 to E-117 where the details calculation can be referred to
Appendix F.

Table 5.121 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-101

Heat Exchanger, E-101
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-101 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 1 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 254
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 120
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 263.11
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 600
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 12,061.25
Number Of Tubes 262
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.672
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 19.86
Baffle Spacing (mm) 134.433

190
 Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness (mm) 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost RM 1,276,971.71

Table 5.122 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-102

Heat Exchanger, E-102
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-102 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 2 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 500
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 64.9
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Pressure (bar) 1.51988
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 411.72
Number Of Tubes 17
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.253
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 19.86

191
Baffle Spacing (mm) 50.667
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness (mm) 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 855,273.75

Table 5.123 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-103

Heat Exchanger, E-103
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-103 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 3 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 25
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 170.17
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 2267.31
Number Of Tubes 66
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.703
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 50.80

192
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 45.26
Baffle Spacing (mm) 140.553
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness (mm) 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 938,645.96

Table 5.124 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-104

Heat Exchanger, E-104
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-104 By: Luqman Shah bin Mohd
No of Unit: 4 Shahzar
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 500
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 55.17
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 64.9
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 305.77
Number Of Tubes 11
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.234
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32

193
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 43.99
Baffle Spacing (mm) 46.763
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness (mm) 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 915,064.52

Table 5.125 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-105

Heat Exchanger, E-105
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-105 By: Reniasha A/P Anballagan
No of Unit: 5
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 25
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 170.17
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 223.76
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 1682.83
Number Of Tubes 230
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.639

194
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 19.86
Baffle Spacing (mm) 127.832
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness (mm) 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 1,191,304.64

Table 5.126 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-106

Heat Exchanger, E-106
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-106 By: Reniasha A/P Anballagan
No of Unit: 6
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 233
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 49.41
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 55.17
Pressure (bar) 1.51988
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 388.00
Number Of Tubes 27
Number of Passes 1

195
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.293
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 45.26
Baffle Spacing (mm) 58.539
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness (mm) 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 761,460.37

Table 5.127 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-107

Heat Exchanger, E-107
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-107 By: Koo Chun Hong
No of Unit: 7
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 35
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 223.76
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 236.11
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 181.07
Number Of Tubes 37

196
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.323
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 19.86
Baffle Spacing (mm) 64.604
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 751,018.80

Table 5.128 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-108

Heat Exchanger, E-108
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-108 By: Koo Chun Hong
No of Unit: 8
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 25
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 40.65
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 49.41
Pressure 1.51988
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 275.09

197
Number Of Tubes 3
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.165
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 32.937
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost RM 1,683,922.64

Table 5.129 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-109

Heat Exchanger, E-109
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-109 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt
No of Unit: 9 Mohd Khamri
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 285.17
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 288.55
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 500
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design

198
Heat Duty (kW) 2161.77
Number Of Tubes 83
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.429
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 85.778
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost RM 820,944.32

Table 5.130 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-110

Heat Exchanger, E-110
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-110 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt
No of Unit: 10 Mohd Khamri
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 71.42
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 30
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 40.65
Pressure (bar) 1.01325

199
 Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 191.52
Number Of Tubes 10
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.215
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 43.024
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 956,397.31

Table 5.131 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-111

Heat Exchanger, E-111
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-111 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt
No of Unit: 11 Mohd Khamri
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 71.42
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 69.5
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 75.78
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 88

200
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 22.17
Number Of Tubes 4
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.172
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 34.432
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 1,479,775.01

Table 5.132 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-112

Heat Exchanger, E-112
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-112 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt
No of Unit: 12 Mohd Khamri
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 69.5
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 25
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 75.78

201
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 629.44
Number Of Tubes 84
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.431
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 86.242
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 823,627.93

Table 5.133 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-113

Heat Exchanger, E-113
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-113 By: Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt
No of Unit: 13 Mohd Khamri
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 422.64
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 259.86

202
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 320.54
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 355
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 3,397.59
Number Of Tubes 162
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.555
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 111.011
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 1,016,236. 41

Table 5.134 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-114

Heat Exchanger, E-114
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-114 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 14 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 259.86

203
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 228.88
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 100
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 646.56
Number Of Tubes 29
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.299
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 59.768
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 756,586.74

Table 5.135 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-115

Heat Exchanger, E-115
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-115 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 15 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data

204
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 228.88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 288.55
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 2052.95
Number Of Tubes 316
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.725
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 144.914
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 1,417,817.08

Table 5.136 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-116

Heat Exchanger, E-116
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-116 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 16 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel
Construction Tubes: Stainless steel

205
 Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 88
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 31.15
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) -16
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 75.78
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 1,186.56
Number Of Tubes 245
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 0.654
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 130.856
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 1,232,376.34

Table 5.137 Design Specification Sheets of Heat Exchanger, E-117

Heat Exchanger, E-117
Item: Heat Exchanger Date: 5th April 2022
Code: E-117 By: Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti
No of Unit: 17 Mohd Tarmizi
Function: To exchange temperature between two streams
Design
Type Shell and Tubes
Operation Continues
Design type Pull-through floating head
Orientation Horizontal
Material of Shell: Stainless steel

206
 Construction
Tubes: Stainless steel
Operating Data
Hot Inlet Temperature (°C) 31.15
Hot Outlet Temperature (°C) 25
Cold Inlet Temperature (°C) 21
Cold Outlet Temperature (°C) 20
Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Operating Design
Heat Duty (kW) 337.09
Number Of Tubes 1166
Number of Passes 1
Shell Inner Diameter (m) 1.259
Length of Tubes (m) 7.32
Tube Outer Diameter (mm) 25.4
Tube Inner Diameter (mm) 50.8
Baffle Spacing (mm) 251.798
Mechanical Design
Tube Wall Thickness 2.77
Equipment Cost
Estimated Cost: RM 3,899,659.15

5.1.4 Compressor

The function of compressor is to increase the pressure of gas stream to desired

pressure. There are 3 compressors used in the production of gasoline through catalytic
pyrolysis of plastic wastes which are C-101, C-102, and C-103. All detailed calculation
has been shown in Appendix F.1. The summary for the design and sizing of C-101, C-
102, and C-103 is shown in Table 5 .138 as below.

Table 5.138 Design Specification Sheets of C-101, C-102, and C-103

Compressor Specification Sheet
Date : 22 March 2022

207
By : Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd Tarmizi
Identification no. C-101 C-102 C-103
Type of equipment Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal
Material Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel
To increase the pressure, and corresponding saturation
Function
temperature (boiling point) to high enough level.
Operating Conditions
Pressure Inlet 1 bar 1 bar 0.05 bar
Temperature Inlet 25℃ 25℃ -16℃
Pressure Outlet 1.5 bar 1.5 bar 1 bar
Temperature Outlet 75.65℃ 75.78℃ 232.51℃
Design Sizing
Driver type Motor Motor Motor
−3
Volumetric flow rate 0.00278 m3/s 0.0833 ×10 m3/s 0.00091 m3/s
Efficiency 65% 65% 65%
Actual power consumption 51.892 kW 6.462 kW 137.998 kW
Equipment Estimated Cost RM 1,050,434.58 RM 109,511.09 RM 2,698,109.54
5.1.5 Pump

Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary) and

consume energy to perform mechanical work. Pumps operate via many energy sources,
including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes,
from microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial pumps. Eqn.
( 5 .50) shows the formula required to calculate the shaft power or energy that is
required for every identical pump.

Q¿ P (5.50)
W=
ρ
Where,
Q¿ = mass flow rate (kg/hr)

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)

P = Pressure difference (atm)

208
 The real shaft power that required by every pump by considering the efficiency
of pump has been calculated by using eqn. ( 5 .51) (Turton et al., 2013).

W (5.51)
Pshaft =
n

Where the n is referring to efficiency. The detailed calculation steps for the pumps (P-
101, P-102, and P-103) are shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of sizing is tabulated
in Table 5 .139, Table 5 .140, and Table 5 .141.

Table 5.139 Design Specification Sheets of P-101 A/B

Pump Specification Sheet
Equipment Pump
Tag code P-101 A/B
Designed by Reniasha A/P Anballagan
Date 11.03.2022
General
Function To transport the treatment water into
the inlet of Mixer (M-101)
Type Centrifugal
Material Stainless Steel
Operating Data
Inlet Pressure (atm) 1
Outlet pressure (atm) 1.5
Design Sizing
Mass flow rate (kg/h) 61302.79
Efficiency (%) 85
Power consumption (kW) 0.9936
Estimated cost (RM) 84,665.67

Table 5.140 Design Specification Sheets of P-102

Pump Specification Sheet
Equipment Pump
Tag code P-102 A/B
Designed by Reniasha A/P Anballagan
Date 12.03.2022
General
Function To transport the condensate pyrolysis
oil to Heater (E-106)
Type Centrifugal
Material Stainless Steel
Operating Data
Inlet Pressure (atm) 0.05
Outlet pressure (atm) 1.5
Design Sizing

209
 Mass flow rate (kg/h) 45717.75
Efficiency (%) 85
Power consumption (kW) 2.1489
Estimated cost (RM) 91,756.28

Table 5.141 Design Specification Sheets of P-103

Pump Specification Sheet
Equipment Pump
Tag code P-103 A/B
Designed by Reniasha A/P Anballagan
Date 12.03.2022
General
Function To transport the heavy oil to Heater
(E-108)
Type Centrifugal
Material Stainless Steel
Operating Data
Inlet Pressure (atm) 1
Outlet pressure (atm) 1.5
Design Sizing
Mass flow rate (kg/h) 40491.30
Efficiency (%) 85
Power consumption (kW) 0.6563
Estimated cost (RM) 83,791.04
5.1.6 Storage Tank

Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids, compressed gases or mediums
used for the short-or long-term storage of heat or cold. The term can be used for
reservoirs, and for manufactured containers. Storage tanks are often cylindrical in
shape, perpendicular to the ground with flat bottoms, and a fixed or floating roof. There
are usually many environmental regulations applied to the design and operation of
storage tanks, often depending on the nature of the fluid contained within. Above
ground storage tanks differ from underground storage tanks in the kinds of regulations
that are applied. Storage tanks are available in many shapes: vertical and horizontal
cylindrical; open top and closed top; flat bottom, cone bottom, slope bottom and dish
bottom. Large tanks tend to be vertical cylindrical, or to have rounded corners transition
from vertical side wall to bottom profile, to easier withstand hydraulic hydrostatically
induced pressure of contained liquid. In this catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes to
produce gasoline, there 7 storage tanks have been used. The detailed calculation steps
for all storage tank are shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of TK-101 to TK-107
sizing are shown in Table 5 .142 to Table 5 .148.

210
 Table 5.142 Design Specification Sheets of TK-101
Storage Tank, TK-101 Specification Sheet
Equipment Plastics Storage Tank
Tag Code TK-101
Designed by Koo Chun Hong
Date 20 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-101 To store plastic Type of storage Fixed roof
wastes; tank
polyethylene (PE), Shape of tank Cylindrical
polypropylene Storing 25 °C
(PP), and temperature
polystyrene (PS). Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 1569.8281
Height (m) 5.7722
Diameter (m) 8.3881
Height of roof (m) 0.7394
Equipment cost (RM) 811,062.59

Table 5.143 Design Specification Sheets of TK-102

Storage Tank, TK-102 Specification Sheet
Equipment Intermediate Feed Tank
Tag Code TK-102
Designed by Luqman Shah bin Mohd Shahzar
Date 20 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-102 To temporary Type of storage Fixed roof
accumulate and tank
store the clean Shape of tank Cone
feedstock before Storing 49.67 °C
entering the temperature
reactor. Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 1569.8028
Height (m) 5.7722
Diameter (m) 8.388
Height of roof (m) 0.7394
Equipment cost (RM) 811,055.69

211
 Table 5.144 Design Specification Sheets of TK-103
Storage Tank, TK-103 Specification Sheet
Equipment Char Storage Tank
Tag Code TK-103
Designed by Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd Tarmizi
Date 21 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-103 To store char. Type of storage Fixed roof
tank
Shape of tank Cylindrical
Storing 25 °C
temperature
Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 162.8439
Height (m) 2.7122
Diameter (m) 3.9413
Height of roof (m) 0.3474
Equipment cost (RM) 194,447.49

Table 5.145 Design Specification Sheets of TK-104

Storage Tank, TK-104 Specification Sheet
Equipment Fuel Gas Storage Tank
Tag Code TK-104
Designed by Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri
Date 21 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-104 To store fuel gas. Type of storage Fixed roof
tank
Shape of tank Cylindrical
Storing 25 °C
temperature
Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 198.5347
Height (m) 2.8974
Diameter (m) 4.2104
Height of roof (m) 0.3711
Equipment cost (RM) 204,499.38

212
 Table 5.146 Design Specification Sheets of TK-105
Storage Tank, TK-105 Specification Sheet
Equipment Gasoline Storage Tank
Tag Code TK-105
Designed by Reniasha A/P Anballagan
Date 22 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-105 To store gasoline. Type of storage Fixed roof
tank
Shape of tank Cylindrical
Storing 25 °C
temperature
Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 255.2064
Height (m) 3.1503
Diameter (m) 4.578
Height of roof (m) 0.4035
Equipment cost (RM) 383,502.96

Table 5.147 Design Specification Sheets of TK-106

Storage Tank, TK-106 Specification Sheet
Equipment Diesel Storage Tank
Tag Code TK-106
Designed by Reniasha A/P Anballagan
Date 22 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-106 To store the diesel. Type of storage Fixed roof
tank
Shape of tank Cylindrical
Storing 25 °C
temperature
Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 686.6506
Height (m) 4.3816
Diameter (m) 6.3673
Height of roof (m) 0.5613
Equipment cost (RM) 547,881.19

213
 Table 5.148 Design Specification Sheets of TK-107
Storage Tank, TK-107 Specification Sheet
Equipment Residual Oil Storage Tank
Tag Code TK-107
Designed by Reniasha A/P Anballagan
Date 22 March 2022
Identification No. Function Parameter Specification
TK-107 To store the Type of storage Fixed roof
residual oil. tank
Shape of tank Cylindrical
Storing 25 °C
temperature
Storing pressure 1 atm
Number of tanks 1
Material of Stainless Steel
construction
Volume (m3) 1450.4692
Height (m) 5.6221
Diameter (m) 8.1699
Height of roof (m) 0.7201
Equipment cost (RM) 778,304.8

5.1.7 Flash Column

The flash vessel provides a simple and efficient method to make use of flash
steam in the condensate recovery system. Inside the flash vessel, the condensate and the
emergent flash steam separate from each other. The steam rising to the top can be fed
into a steam line for a technical application, and therefore the steam generation is
reduced in the boiler. Additional savings are obtained through reduced expenditure on
water purification. The detailed calculation steps for the flash column is shown in
Appendix F.1. The summary of V-101 sizing is shown in Table 5 .149.

Table 5.149 Design Specification Sheets of V-101

SPECIFICATION DATA SHEET FOR FLASH COLUMN
Item : Flash Column Date : 03.04.2022
Code : V-101 Designed by : Reniasha A/P
Anballagan
General
Function : To separate fuel gas from condensate pyrolysis oil under vacuum
Type pressure.
: Vertical vessel
Operation : Continuous Orientation: Vertical
Material of : 304 Stainless Steel

214
 Construction
Operating Data
Streams Inlet Outlet
S26 S27 S30
Temperature (℃) 25 -16 -16
Pressure (atm) 1 0.05 0.05
Quantity (kg/hr) 48988.93 48988.93 45717.74
Composition
Fuel gas 1, H2 261.9216 261.9216 0
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 2579.5872 2539.500415 40.0868
Gasoline, C8H18 5355.4608 169.7681074 5185.69269
Diesel, C16H34 14807.549 0 3
Residual Oil, C28H56 25684.416 0 14807.5488
Nitrogen, N2 300 300 25684.416
0
Operational Design
Operating Temperature (℃) : -16
Operating Pressure (bar) : 0.05
Column Diameter (m) : 1.96
Column Height (m) : 3.6224
Column Area (m2) : 3.0172
Mechanical Design
Material of Construction : Stainless Steel
Height of Vapor (m) : 1.8944
Height of Liquid (m) : 1.328
Height of demister (m) : 0.4
ASPEN Simulation
Available
Estimation Cost
Estimation Cost (RM) : 560,312.49

5.1.8 Mixer

Sizing of the mixer is done based on the vessel sizing method because basically
the mixer operates like a vessel. The sizing method used is based on Lorenz T. Biegler
Systematic Methods Of chemical Process Design. The detailed calculation steps for the
mixer is shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of M-101 sizing is shown in Table
5 .150.

Table 5.150 Design Specification Sheets of M-101

Mixer (M-101) specification sheet
Item: Mixer Date: 1/4/2022
Code: M-101 By: Luqman Shah bin Mohd Shahzar

215
No. of Unit: 1
General
Function: To mixed Fresh water and treated water
Type: Impeller Mixer
Material construction: Stainless Steel (SS304)
Operating Condition
Pressure (bar) 1 bar
Temperature (ºC) 25
Component Molar Flowrate
Quantity (kmol/hr) S4 S8 S9
Water 61921 61302.8 618.2
Design specification
Diameter of mixer (m) 2.18
Blade pitch (m) 0.5949
Diameter impeller (m) 0.5949
Blade speed (rpm) 193
Power of mixer (kW) 2.2086
Estimation Cost
Equipment Estimated Cost (RM) 54,958.91

5.1.9 Washer

The washer for plastic flakes is the heart of the plastic bottle washing line
capable of getting rid of hard to remove contamination such as glues, oils, grease, and
left-over foods/liquids. For plastic recycling, the water washing process is an essential
step in producing high-quality washed plastic flakes that sell for much higher prices.
The detailed calculation steps for the washer is shown in Appendix F.1. The summary
of W-101 sizing is shown in Table 5 .151.

Table 5.151 Design Specification Sheets of W-101

Washer (W-101) Specification Sheet
Item: Washer Date: 10/4/2022
Code: W-101 By: Luqman Shah bin Mohd Shahzar
No. of Unit: 1

216
 General
Function: To wash and clean the plastic flakes with water to plastic ratio at 1:1 in
mass.
Type: Vibrating screen
Material construction: Carbon steel
Operating Condition
Pressure (bar) 1.01325 bar
Temperature (ºC) 25
Component molar flowrate
Quantity (kg/hr) S2 S3 S4 S5
PE 27090 27090 0 0
PS 18060 18060 0 0
PP 16770 16770 0 0
WATER 1 619.2 61921 61302.8
Design Specification
Length (m) 4.328
Width (m) 3.243
Height (m) 3.442
Inclination angle 50◦
Power (kW) 90
Shaft Rotation Speed (Rpm) 15
Estimation Cost
Equipment Estimated Cost (RM) RM 86,906.80

5.1.10 Shredder

An industrial shredder is a machine used for reducing the size of all kinds of
material. Industrial shredders come in many different sizes and design variations for
different applications. The industrial shredder is commonly used to process materials
into different sizes for separation or to reduce the cost of transport. The purpose for this
shredder is to shred plastic (PE, PP, and PS) into small pieces having a small size for
the next process. The double shaft shredder machine is currently the most widely used
shredder product.

217
 The characteristics of low noise, low energy consumption, and high output of
the double shaft shredder fully reflect the advantages of the low speed and large torque
shear design. The shaft shredder through cutting, tearing and squeezing to reduce the
material size. The thickness of the cutter and the number of claws can be changed
according to different materials. When crushing hollow materials, it can be equipped
with a pressing device to increase output. The low-speed operation, noise, and dust can
reach higher environmental standards. The detailed calculation steps for the shredder is
shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of S-101 sizing is shown in Table 5 .152.

Table 5.152 Design Specification Sheets of S-101

Shredder (S-101) Specification Sheet
Item: Shredder Date: 12/4/2022
Code: S-101 By: Luqman Shah bin Mohd Shahzar
No. of unit: 1    
General Specification
Orientation Horizontal  
Material of construction Carbon steel  
Type Rotary shredder  
Mode of operation Continuous  
Operating Condition
Temperature (°C) 25  
Pressure (bar) 1  
Component Mass Flowrate
 Component Inlet Outlet
  S1 S2
PE 27090 27090
PP 18060 18060
PS 16770 16770
Design Specification
Maximum tension of belt, N 1680  
Tension in tight side, N 1051.682  
Tension in slack side, N 842.653  
Shaft size, m2 0.646  
Total force on pulley, N 2134.68  

218
 Shaft volume, m3 0.07  
Shaft mass, kg 105.7904  
Equipment Estimated Cost
RM 351,607.35

5.1.11 Dryer

Rotary dryers are a highly efficient industrial drying option for bulk solids. They
are often chosen for their robust processing capabilities and their ability to produce
uniform results despite variance in feedstock. Rotary dryers work by tumbling material
in a rotating drum in the presence of a drying air. They can also be indirectly heated to
avoid direct contact between the material and processing medium. The drum is
positioned at a slight horizontal slope to allow gravity to assist in moving material
through the drum. As the drum rotates, lifting flights pick up the material and drop it
through the air stream in order to maximize heat transfer efficiency. When working
with agglomerates, the tumbling action imparted by the dryer offers the added benefit of
further rounding and polishing the granules. The detailed calculation steps for the
shredder is shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of D-101 sizing is shown in Table 5
.153.

Table 5.153 Design Specification Sheets of D-101

Dryer (D-101) Specification sheet
Item: Dryer Date: 12/4/2022
Code: D-101 By: Luqman Shah bin Mohd Shahzar
No. of unit: 1    
General Specification
Diameter of the dryer (m) 2.304  
Length of the dryer (m) 9.09  
Capacity (MTPH) 70000  
Power (kW) 1226  
Heat source Gas or Oil  
Material Construction Stainless Steel  
Speed Dryer (rpm) 2.604

219
 Equipment Estimated Cost
RM 312,948.28

5.1.12 Cyclone

One of the separator units in this plant is the gas-solid separator or cyclone (C-
101), which was designed to extract undesirable carbon solid from diesel, gasoline,
residual oil, fuel gas, and hydrogen gas. Cyclones are the most common type of gas-
solids separation that use centrifugal force. In industry, gas cyclones are commonly
employed to separate particles from gas and air streams. The centrifugal cyclone was
chosen for this plant because of its simple design, low maintenance, and cost-
effectiveness. Cyclone is an economical device for removing particulate solids from a
fluid system. Stainless steel material is used in the compressor as it is suitable for high
temperature which safe to handle and work with it. The detailed calculation steps for
the cyclone is shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of CYC-101 sizing is shown in
Table 5 .154.

Table 5.154 Design Specification Sheets of CYC-101

Cyclone separation (CYC-101) Specification Sheet
Item: Cyclone Separator Date: 1/4/2022
Code: CYC-101 By: Luqman Shah bin Mohd Shahzar
No. of Unit: 1
General
Function: To remove solid particles (char) in gaseous products coming out from the reactor.
Type: Centrifugal Separator (Cyclone)
Material construction: Stainless Steel (SS304)
Operating Condition
Pressure (bar) 1 bar
Temperature (ºC) 500
Component Molar Flowrate
Quantity (kmol/hr) S22 S23 S25
Fuel Gas 1 261.92 0 261.92
Fuel Gas 2 2579.59 0 2579.59

220
Gasoline 5355.46 0 5355.46
Diesel 14807.55 0 14807.55
Residual oil 25684.42 0 25684.42
Char 13231.07 13231.07 0
Nitrogen 300 0 300
Design Specification
Diameter of cyclone (m) 2.1
Flow inlet area (m2) 0.44059
Cylindrical length (m) 3.15
Conical section (m) 5.25
Conical end diameter 0.787
Outlet diameter (m) 1.05
Equipment Estimated Cost
Equipment Estimated Cost (RM) 1,069,827.00

5.1.13 Cooling Tower

Cooling towers are special type of heat exchanger that allows water and air to come
in contact with each other to lower the temperature of hot water. During the cooling tower
working process, small volumes of water evaporate, lowering the temperature of water
circulated in the cooling tower. In a nutshell, the purpose of cooling tower is to cool down
water that gets heated up by industrial equipment and processes. Water goes into the
cooling tower hot and leaves the cooling tower cold. The detailed calculation steps for the
cyclone is shown in Appendix F.1. The summary of T-103 sizing is shown in Table
5 .155.

Table 5.155 Design Specification Sheets of T-103

Washer (T-103) Specification Sheet
Item: Cooling Tower Date: 15/4/2022
Code: T-103 By: Koo Chun Hong
No. of Unit: 1
General
Function: To cool hot water and supply cooling water to the plant.
Operating Condition

221
Pressure (bar) 1.01325 bar
Temperature (ºC) 25
Design Specification
Cooling Water Flowarate (kg/s) 300
Column Height (m) 35
Column Base Diameter (m) 20.6949
Column Cross-Sectional Area (m2) 336.3694
Pump Power (kW) 306,895.7177
Drift Loss (kg/s) 0.0018
Evaporation Loss (kg/s) 34.9377
Windage Loss (kg/s) 0.0028
Blowdown (%) 4.02
Water Makeup (kg/s) 0.1995
Estimation Cost
Equipment Estimated Cost (RM) RM 174,900.70

5.2 Economic Potential 4 Calculation

The cost of utilities has been considered in Economic Potential 4. At the fifth
level decision, the cost of all equipment such as reactor, distillation column, pump, heat
exchangers and storage tanks are now be considered and shown in Table 5 .156. Eqn. (
5 .52) is used for the calculation of Economic Potential 5.

Table 5.156 Cost of Equipment

Equipment Cost (RM)
Compressor 3,858,055.21
Cooling Tower 174,900.70
Cyclone 1,069,827.00
Distillation Column 2,026,160.10
Dryer 312,948.28
Heat Exchanger 19,760,846.27
Mixer 54,958.91
Pump 260,212.99

222
 Reactor 99,351.02
Shredder 351,607.35
Storage Tank 3,730,754.10
Flash Column 560,312.49
Washing Tank 86,906.80
Total 32,346,841.22

The EP 5 formula is shown in eqn. ( 5 .52):

EP5=EP 4−Cost of Equipment (5.52)

Therefore,
10
EP 5=EP 4−RM 32,346,841.22=RM 2.3428 x 10 / yr

223
 CHAPTER 6

6.1 Introduction of Process Control and Safety

Process control and its safety analysis is very important for a process plant. The
process control can greatly improve on the process accuracy and precision in term of
automation in an industrial processes. The collected and interpreted information from
the equipment enables the workers to operate and control the complex processes in the
control room. In order to tackle this, however a process is required a physical
interaction with the equipment to obtain the optimum settings.

One of the most important equipment is the sensor. The sensor will received the
process data and make the decision for an effective process setting. The signal is then
sent to the controller. The controller will try to maintain the original setting of the
process which will largely reduce the deviation from the optimum setting. Furthermore,
the common variables that are related to the process controls are analytical, connectors,
flow, level, pressure, temperature and vibration.

There is a strong relationship between process control and safety. This is due to
the harmful chemical usage and risky processes in the production of mass amount of
products. Not to mention that a slight change might cause decrease in yield or runaway
of chemical reaction. As safety is a fundamental part of any chemical process, every
organization has the responsibility to take precaution actions to protect the workers,
public and environment. The main hazards in the chemical plant are toxic and corrosive
chemicals, explosions, fires and accidents where the Occupational Safety and Health
(OSHA) Act 1994 from Laws of Malaysia provided new legal administrative
framework to promote, simulate and encourage even higher standard of health and
safety at work.

In this chapter, a complete Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) for the
whole catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes plant will be drawn using Microsoft Visio.
Furthermore, safety analysis will be discussed in details such as Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) and HAZOP for all major equipment in the design plant.

224
6.2 Equipment Control

To maximize the production of gasoline from the catalytic pyrolysis of plastic

wastes, a control strategy in the production plant is to be well executed. This section
will focus on the equipment control in the production of 50,000 MTPA gasoline.
Recently, the equipment control is rapidly growing due to the high demand of energy
consumption that is increasing in the industrial sectors. With the advantage where the
automation equipment is easy to setup, reliable and cost saving, it is commonly used to
supervise the production to maintain the well accuracy and consistency performing of
the equipment.

6.2.1 Introduction of Equipment Control

Process control is the active changing of the process based on the current results
of process monitoring. Once the process monitoring tools have detected an out-of-
control situation, the person responsible for the process must take action to control the
process back to normal. The objectives of control system for this designed plant are to
ensure the safe operating process of the plant and achieve the desired amount of the
desired products. The main objectives of the control strategy for the plant are:
• To control the rate of production (50,000 MTPA) of gasoline from the plastic wastes.
• To avoid unnecessary losses in the usage of hot and cold utilities.
• To prevent accident happens and run away of the chemical reaction.
• To achieve and maintain 99 % purity of product.

6.2.2 Classification of Control Strategies

In the industry, the conventional feedback control system is commonly used as a

control system where the output results are identified by comparing the measured
controlled variable and data with the set point for the unit operations. The data is then
corrected to the desired set point that has been set earlier for each unit operation. This
means that the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of the system
input according to the targeted value. The distinguishing feature of feedback control is
that the controlled variable is measured and used to adjust the manipulated variable. For
feedback control, the disturbance variable is not measured. Figure 6 .90 illustrates the
simplified block diagrams for feedback control system.

225
 Figure 6.90 Feedback Control Loop System

Next, feedforward control system is a control strategy that measures the

disturbance variable but not the controlled variable. The advantage of the feedforward
control is the corrective action is taken before the controlled variable deviates from the
set point. Ideally, the corrective action will cancel the effects of disturbance to avoid the
controlled variable affected by the disturbance. In other words, this is the process of
replacing positive or negative feedback with future oriented solutions. Figure 6 .91
presents the simplified block diagrams for feedforward control system.

Figure 6.91 Feedforward Control Loop System

Last but not least, an alternative control is called cascade control system loop. It
can greatly improve the dynamic response to the disturbances in a process. In the
cascade control loop, there are two controllers combined together where the output of
one is the set point input for another. Cascade strategy is a faster inner loop that can
respond quicker to disturbances than the outer loop. Hence, it lower the severity of
disturbances and limits variability that would affect the process. The concept of cascade

226
control is illustrated in Figure 6 .92 which contains both primary and secondary
process, controller, and control loop.

Figure 6.92 Cascade Control Loop

Table 6 .157 shows the elements used in the control system loop. The table
includes the function and type of controller that can be used for the different processes
in the control system loop. The process parameters that are integrating with the control
loops include temperature, level, flowrate, and pressure.

Table 6.157 Control System Loop Elements

Process Unit Operation / Step of Equipment
process in a plant
Sensor devices which convert Sensor
physical parameters repeatedly Transmitter
Measurement
into a form that readable and Sensor-Transmitter
functional. Transducer (I/P) and (E/P)
Act as error identification. Valve positioner
It determined the different
between the measured Computer control system
Compressor
variables and a desired set
point. Thus, drive a control
element.
Adjust the input to the process, Control valve
bringing the output variables to Actuators (motorized
Cyclone
the value of the set points. valve)
Pneumatic control valve

On the other hand, the standard symbols of P&ID used and the arrangement of
the process equipment, piping and others are identified by ISA standard ISA-S5-1 as
shown in Table 6.2. This indicating on the circle representing the instrument-controller
by a letter code.

227
 Table 6.158 Instrumentation Idenfication Letters (Hughes, 2002)
First Letter Succeeding Letters
Measured or Modifier Readout or Output Modifier
Initiating Passive Function
Variable Function
A - Analysis - Alarm - -
B - Burner Flame - - - -
C - Conductivity - - Control -
(Electrical)
D - Density Differential - - -
E - Voltage - Sensor ( Primary - -
Element)
F - Flowrate Ratio or fraction - - -
G - Gauging - Glass - -
H - Hand - - - High
I - Current - Indicate - -
J - Power Scan - - -
K - Time or Time rate of - Control station -
schedule change
L - Level - Lamp - Low
M - Moisture Momentary - - Middle
P - Pressure - Point(Test) - -
Connection
Q - Quantity Integrate, totalize - - -
R - Radiation - Record - -
S - Speed or Safety - Switch -
frequency
T - Temperature - - Transmit -
U - Multivariable - - - -
V - Vibration or - - Valve -
viscosity
W - Weight or - Well - -
force
X - Unclassified or - - - -
X axis
Y - Event or Y axis - - Relay or -
compute
Z - Position - - Drive -

For a better understanding on P&ID in a process plant, the legends used and the
general function of control element in P&ID are listed in Table 6 .159. There are 5
main categories listed in the table which are composition control instrument, flow
control instrument, level control instrument, pressure control instrument, and
temperature control instrument. At the same time, Table 6 .160 shows the basic
symbols used to show the valves, instrument and control loops.

228
Table 6.159 Legends Used and The General Function of Control Element in P&ID
Control Element Modifier
1. Composition Control Instrument
AT (Composition Transmitter) Detects composition change in the equipment.
AC (Composition Controller) Calculation made with the set point. Signals are
sent to the final control element (valve) to do an
action.
2. Flow Control Instrument
FT (Flow Transmitter) Detects flow change in the equipment.
FC (Flow Controller) Calculation made with the set point. Signals are
sent to the final control element (valve) to do an
action.
FAH (Flow Alarm High) Detects high flow in the equipment. When flow
exceeds flow limit, it sends a signal to FC.
FAL (Flow Alarm Low) Detects low flow in the equipment. When flow is
lower than flow limit, it sends a signal to FC.
3. Level Control Instrument
LT (Level Transmitter) Detects level change in the equipment.
LC (Level Controller) Calculation made with the set point. Signals are
sent to the final control element (valve) to do an
action.
LAH (Level Alarm High) Detects high level in the equipment. When level
exceeds level limit, it sends a signal to LC
LAL (Level Alarm Low) Detects low level in the equipment. When level is
lower than level limit, it sends a signal to LC.
4. Pressure Control Instrument
PT (Pressure Transmitter) Detects pressure change in the equipment.
PC (Pressure Controller) Calculation made with the set point. Signals are
sent to the final control element (valve) to do an
action.
PAH (Pressure Alarm High) Detects high pressure in the equipment. When
pressure exceeds
PAL (Pressure Alarm Low) Detects low pressure in the equipment. When
pressure is lower than pressure limit, it sends a
signal to PC.
5. Temperature Control Instrument
TT (Temperature Transmitter) Detects temperature change in the equipment.
TC (Temperature Controller) Calculation made with the set point. Signals are
sent to the final control element (valve) to do an
action.
TAH (Temperature Alarm Detects high temperature in the equipment. When
High) temperature exceeds temperature limit, it sends a
signal to TC.
TAL ( Temperature Alarm Detects low temperature in the equipment. When
Low) temperature is lower than temperature limit, it sends
a signal to TC.

229
 Table 6.160 Symbols used to show the Valve, Instrument & Control Loops
Hardware Symbol Description
TT Temperature Transmitter
PT Pressure Transmitter
LT Level Transmitter
FT Flow Transmitter
AT Composition Transmitter
TC Temperature Controller
PC Pressure Controller
LC Level Controller
FC Flow Controller
AC Composition Controller
TAH / TAL Temperature Alarm High/Low
PAH / PAL Pressure Alarm High/Low
LAH / LAL Level Alarm High/ Low
FAH / FAL Flow Alarm High/ Low
Transmission Line Pneumatic Transmission Line
Electric Transmission Line

6.2.3 Control System of Reactor

Chemical reactor control is perhaps the most difficult chemical engineering

problem due to the chemical reactor is the centre point of many processes. Moreover,
the output of the main product is highly depended on the reactor's performance. Since
the depolymerisation process is endothermic where the chemical reaction that absorbs
heat from its environment. Endothermic reactions are usually not a great safety hazard.
However, because the reaction draws heat from its surroundings, the reaction container
may become cold and cause condensation or ice to form. This can be a safety hazard if
the control system is poorly performed and the materials involved react with water. The
designed control system for the reactor (R-101) is shown in Figure 6 .93 while Table
6 .161 summarized the control and feedback system of R-101. Table 6 .161 includes
the information such as controller, objective, measured variable, controlled variable,
manipulated variable, disturbance, type of controller, and set point.

The control objectives for the reactor are as follow:

1. To maintain the operating condition of reactor
2. To maintain the feed composition in order to achieve higher possible production rate
3. To observe the composition leaving the reactor

230
 Figure 6.93 Control System of R-101

Table 6.161 Control and Feedback System of R-101

Controller Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set
Variable Variable Variable Controller Point
PC Pressure in the Operating Flowrate of the Fluctuating of Feedback 1 atm
reactor pressure of outlet stream inlet flowrate of controller
reactor (S21) feed
TC Temperature in Operating Flowrate of the Inconsistent of Feedback 500 °C
the reactor temperature of steam temperature for controller
the reactor inlet flowrate of
reactor

6.2.4 Control System of Distillation Column

The objectives of the control system for the vapor-liquid separator are:
i. To maintain the pressure for the best separation efficiency
ii. To maintain the temperature of the distillate stream and bottom stream for best
separation efficiency
iii. To maintain level measurement in the distillation column
iv. To observe the composition at the bottom stream
v. To control the inlet flowrate entering the column

231
 The designed control system for the distillation column 1 (T-101) is shown in
Figure 6 .94 while Table 6 .162 summarized the control and feedback system of T-
101.

Figure 6.94 Control System of T-101

Table 6.162 Control and Feedback System of T-101

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
LC Level in the Level in the Flowrate of the Fluctuating of Feedback Desired
reflux drum distillation distillate stream inlet flowrate of controller level
column (S33) feed (S31)
LC Level in the Level in the Flowrate of the Fluctuating of Feedback Desired
distillation distillation bottom stream inlet flowrate of controller level
column column (S34) feed (S31)
TC Temperature of Distillate flowrate of Inconsistent of Feedback 92.82 °C
distillate stream outlet cooling water temperature for controller
temperature into the inlet flowrate
condenser (S31)
TC Temperature in Bottom stream Flowrate of Inconsistent of Feedback 320.54 °C
the bottom outlet cooling water temperature for controller
temperature into the reboiler inlet flowrate
(S31)

232
 The designed control system for the distillation column 2 (T-102) is shown in
Figure 6 .95 while Table 6 .163 summarized the control and feedback system of T-
102.

Figure 6.95 Control System of T-102

Table 6.163 Control and Feedback System of T-102

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
LC Level in the Level in the Flowrate of the Fluctuating of Feedback Desired
reflux drum distillation distillate stream inlet flowrate of controller level
column (S38) feed (S36)
LC Level in the Level in the Flowrate of the Fluctuating of Feedback Desired
distillation distillation bottom stream inlet flowrate of controller level
column column feed (S36)
TC Temperature of Distillate Flowrate of Inconsistent of Feedback 285.17 °C
distillate stream outlet cooling water temperature for controller
temperature into the inlet flowrate
condenser (S36)
TC Temperature in Bottom stream Flowrate of Inconsistent of Feedback 455.81 °C
the bottom outlet cooling water temperature for controller
temperature into the reboiler inlet flowrate

233
 (S36)

6.2.5 Control System of Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is used to transfer heat from one stream to another stream by
cooling or heating the stream that are entering. The specific temperature is set to ensure
the process is operated in the optimum condition to maximize the production of the
main product. For the control strategy, the temperature of the outlet stream will be
measured and the heating or cooling element in the heat exchanger will be manipulated
to reach the set point. The control objective of heat exchanger is to control and maintain
the temperature outlet from the heat exchanger. The designed control system for the
heat exchangers (E-101) that are using steam are shown in Figure 6 .96 while the heat
exchangers (E-117) that are using cooling water are shown in Figure 6 .97. At same
time, Table 6 .164 summarized the control and feedback system of heat exchanger.

Figure 6.96 Control System of E-101

Figure 6.97 Control System of E-117

Table 6.164 Control and Feedback System of Heat Exchanger

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
TC Temperature of Temperature Flowrate of Inconsistent of Feedback Desired
the cold outlet in the heater steam into the temperature for controller temperature
stream heater inlet flowrate

234
TC Temperature of Temperature Flowrate of Inconsistent of Feedback Desired
the hot outlet in the cooler cooling water temperature for controller temperature
stream into the cooler inlet flowrate
6.2.6 Control System of Pump

The objective of the pump control system is used to maintain the pressure of the
outlet liquid products. The pressure will be adjusted automatically by raising the
centrifugal force of the pump when the outlet pressure is deviated from the set point.
The pump will run dry is not enough liquid flowing through and the seals will quickly
get worse. Thus, the flow transmitter and the flow controller must attached to the
pump's inlet to measure and monitor the flowrate of the inlet stream to prevent pump
failure. The designed control system for the pumps (P-101, P-102, and P-103) are
shown in Figure 6 .98 while Table 6 .165 summarized the control and feedback
system of pump.

Figure 6.98 Control System of P-101, P-102, and P-103

Table 6.165 Control and Feedback System of Pump
Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
FC Flowrate of the Flowrate of the Rpm of motor Inconsistent Feedback Desired
outlet stream outlet stream for the pump inlet flowrate controller rpm of
motor

6.2.7 Control System of Compressor

The objective of the compressor control system is to maintain the outlet pressure
of the outlet gas products. The pressure will be adjusted automatically by raising the
centrifugal force of the compressor when the outlet pressure is deviated from the set
point. When not enough fluid flowing in, the compressor will run dry and the seals will
get worse. Thus, the flow transmitter and the flow controller must attached to the
compressor's inlet to measure and monitor the flowrate of the inlet stream to prevent

235
 compressor failure. The designed control system for the compressor (C-101, C-102, and
C-103) are shown in Figure 6 .99 while Table 6 .166 summarized the control and
feedback system of compressor.

Figure 6.99 Control System of C-101, C-102, and C-103

Table 6.166 Control and Feedback System of Compressor

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
PC Pressure of the Pressure in the Rpm of motor Inconsistent of Feedback Desired
outlet stream compressor for the pressure for controller rpm of
compressor inlet flowrate motor

6.2.8 Control System of Storage Tank

Storage tanks commonly are used to store the finished good including main
product and by-products. It is very important to have a good control system in place for
the storage purpose. The designed control system for the TK-103, TK-105, TK-106, and
TK-107 are shown in Figure 6 .100 while Table 6 .167 summarized the control and
feedback system of storage tank (TK-103, TK-105, TK-106, and TK-107).

Figure 6.100 Control System of TK-103, TK-105, TK-106, and TK-107

Table 6.167 Control and Feedback System of Storage Tank (TK-103, TK-105, TK-
106, and TK-107)
Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point

236
 r Variable Variable Variable Controller
LC Level inside the Level inside Flowrate of the Level change in Feedback Desired
storage tank the storage inlet stream storage tank controller level
tank
On the other hand, the designed control system for the TK-104 are shown in
Figure 6 .101 while Table 6 .167 summarized the control and feedback system of
storage tank (TK-104).

Figure 6.101 Control System of TK-104

Table 6.168 Control and Feedback System of Storage Tank (TK-104)

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
PC Pressure inside Pressure inside Flowrate of the Pressure Feedback Desired
the storage tank the storage inlet stream change in controller pressure
tank (S28) storage tank

6.2.9 Control System of Mixer

The objective of the mixer control system is to ensure the recycle water is well-
mixed with the new tap water before entering the washing tank. The designed control
system for the water mixer (M-101) is shown in Figure 6 .102 while Table 6 .169
summarized the control and feedback system of M-101.

237
 Figure 6.102 Control System of M-101

Table 6.169 Control and Feedback System of M-101

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
FC Flowrate of the Flowrate of the The flowrate of Inconsistent Feedback 61,921
outlet stream outlet stream the new tap flowrate of the controller kg/h
(S10) (S10) water inlet recycle water
stream (S9) inlet stream
(S8)

6.2.10 Control System of Flash Column

Flash column is a special operation where a liquid mixture is heated up and fed
with constant flowrate into the equipment. The resulting vapor and liquid phases enter a
phase separator (equilibrium chamber) and are drained separately. The objective of the
flash column control system is to ensure the total pressure and temperature of the
system, as well as the compositions of the two phases in equilibrium remain constant
over time. The designed control system for the flash column (V-101) is shown in Figure
6 .103 while Table 6 .170 summarized the control and feedback system of V-101.

238
 Figure 6.103 Control System of V-101

Table 6.170 Control and Feedback System of V-101

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
PC Pressure in the Operating Flowrate of the Inconsistent of Feedback 0.05 atm
flash column pressure of outlet stream pressure for the controller
flash column (S26) inlet stream
(S25)
TC Temperature in Operating Flowrate of the Inconsistent of Feedback -16 °C
the flash temperature of steam temperature for controller
column flash column the inlet stream
(S25)

6.2.11 Control System of Dryer

The objective of the dryer is to remove all the water from the plastic flakes
using hot air before entering the intermediate feed tank. The flowrate of the hot air will
be adjusted automatically by opening stream valve when the flowrate is deviated from
the set point. When not enough hot air flowing in, the wet plastic flakes will not dry
enough for the storage. Hence, the flow transmitter and the flow controller must
attached to the dryer's hot air inlet to measure and monitor the flowrate of the inlet hot
stream to ensure all the plastic flakes are dried. The designed control system for the
plastic flakes dryer (D-101) is shown in Figure 6 .104 while Table 6 .171
summarized the control and feedback system of D-101.

239
 Figure 6.104 Control System of D-101

Table 6.171 Control and Feedback System of D-101

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
FC Flowrate of the Flowrate of the Flowrate of the Inconsistent Feedback 10,000
outlet hot air outlet hot air inlet hot air flowrate of the controller kg/h
into the dryer into the dryer stream (S14) inlet stream
(S11)

6.2.12 Control System of Shredder

The objective of the shredder is to cut the plastic wastes into equal size of
flakes. The input of the plastic wastes will be adjusted automatically by opening valve
when the level of the plastic wastes inside the shredder is deviated from the set point.
When there is too much plastic wastes input over the limit height of the shredder, the
extra plastic wastes will be overflow. Hence, the level transmitter and the level
controller must attached to the shredder's inlet to measure and monitor the input of the
plastic wastes. The designed control system for the shredder (S-101) is shown in Figure
6 .105 while Table 6 .172 summarized the control and feedback system of S-101.

240
 Figure 6.105 Control System of S-101

Table 6.172 Control and Feedback System of S-101

Controlle Measured Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
r Variable Variable Variable Controller
LC Plastic wastes Plastic wastes Flowrate of the Level change Feedback Desired
level inside the level inside the inlet stream (S2) inside the controller level
shredder shredder shredder

241
 6.2.13 Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)

Figure 6 .106 shows the process and instrumentation diagram of catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes. The process and instrumentation diagram includes the details of the control system for each equipment in the catalytic
process.

Compressor Cooling Cyclone Distillation Dryer Heat Exchanger (Cooler) Heat Exchanger (Heater) Mixer Pump Reactor Shredder Storage Tank Flash Column Washing College of Engineering
C-101 Tower CYC-101 Column D-101 E-103 E-107 E-101 M-101 P-101 A/B R-101 S-101 TK-101 TK-105 V-101 Tank Department of Chemical Engineering
C-102 T-103 T-101 E-104 E-109 E-102 P-102 A/B TK-102 TK-106 W-101
C-103 T-102 E-105 E-110 E-106 P-103 A/B TK-103 TK-107
E-108 TK-104

Title:
Production of 50,000 MTPA Gasoline
From Mixed Plastic Wastes (PE, PP and
PS) Using Catalytic Pyrolysis

Supervisor:
AP. TS. Dr. Sumaiya Binti Zainal @
Murad
Group Members:
1. Koo Chun Hong
KA18189
2. Reniasha A/P Anballagan
KA18144
3. Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd
Tarmizi
KA18176
4. Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri
5. Luqman Shah Bin Mohammad
Shahzar
KA18231

Stream ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Temperature,°C 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 75.65 600 273.45 49.67 49.67 25 75.78 500 500 500 25 25 25 -16 232.51 25 -16 -16 100 92.82 25 320.54 320.54 350 285.17 25 422.64 25
Pressure, atm 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.05 1 1 0.05 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1
Mass Flowrate (kg/h)
PE 27090 27090 27090 27090 27090 0 0 0 0 0 27090 0 0 27090 0 27090 27090 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PP 18060 18060 18060 18060 18060 0 0 0 0 0 18060 0 0 18060 0 18060 18060 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PS 16770 16770 16770 16770 16770 0 0 0 0 0 16770 0 0 16770 0 16770 16770 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 1 1 1 1 619.21 61302.79 61302.79 61302.79 618.21 61921 619.21 0 0 1 619.21 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel gas 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 261.92 0 0 261.92 261.92 261.92 261.92 261.92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fuel gas 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2579.59 0 0 2579.59 2579.59 2539.50 2539.50 2539.50 40.09 40.09 40.09 40.09 40.09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gasoline 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5355.46 0 0 5355.46 5355.46 169.77 169.77 169.77 14807.55 5185.69 5185.69 5185.69 5185.69 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0 0
Diesel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14807.55 0 0 14807.55 14807.55 0 0 0 25684.42 14807.55 14807.55 0.89 0.89 14806.66 14806.66 14806.66 14803.37 14803.37 3.29 3.29
Residual Oil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25684.42 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 0 0 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 0 0 25684.42 25684.42 25684.42 2.31 2.31 25682.1 25682.1
Char 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13231.07 13231.07 13231.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 300 300 300 0 0 300 300 300 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Air 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 61921 61921 61921 61921 62539.21 61302.79 61302.79 61302.79 618.21 61921 62539.21 10000 10000 61921 10619.21 61921 61921 300 300 300 62220 13231.07 13231.07 48988.93 48988.93 3271.19 3271.19 3271.19 45717.74 4517.74 4517.74 5226.45 5226.45 40491.29 40491.29 40491.29 14805.90 14805.90 25685.39 25685.39

242
Figure 6.106 P&ID of Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes

243
6.3 Identification of Hazards

In a chemical plant, there must be consisted of hazard and safety issues in

chemical handling, processing, and storing. Hazard is a situation that has the potential
to harm a person, environment or damage property. The hazard must be identified to
minimize the potential risk that can cause loss. Risk is the probability or likelihood of
harm or damage occurring from exposure to a hazard and the likely consequences of
that harm or damage. Thus, a risk assessment is very important and required for every
process plant. Risk assessment is a process of evaluating the probability and
consequences of injury or illness resulted from exposure to an identified hazard. Last
but not least, risk control must be done to eliminate and minimize the risk associated
with an identified hazard after the risk assessment.

The plant designer must be aware of those hazards and ensure through the
application of safety engineering practice that the risks are reduced to acceptable levels.
Safety and loss prevention in process design can be considered under the following
broad headings:
1) Identification and assessment of the hazards.
2) Control of the hazards; for example, by containment of flammable and toxic
materials.
3) Control of the process. Prevention of hazardous deviation in process variables
(pressure, temperature, flow), by provision of automatic control systems,
interlocks, alarms, trips; together with good operating practices and
management.
4) Limitation of the loss. The damage and injury caused if an incident occurs:
pressure relief, plant layout, provision of fire-fighting equipment.

Hazard identification is part of process used to evaluate if any particular

situation or substance may have the potential to cause harm. Various scenarios by
which an accident can occur are determined followed by a concurrent study of the
probability and the consequence of an accident. The term often used to describe the full
process is known as risk assessment as shown in Figure 6 .107. Figure 6 .107 shows
the hazards identification and risk assessment procedures. All information acquired is
assembled into a final risk assessment. If the risk is acceptable, the study is completed,

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and the process can be operated. If the risk is unacceptable, the system must be
modified, and the procedures need to be revised.

Figure 6.107 Hazard identification and risk assessment procedure

6.3.1 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a document that contains information on

the potential hazards which are health, fire, reactivity and environmental on how to
work safely with the chemical product. As an important component of product
stewardship and workplace safety, it is intended to provide workers and emergency
personnel with procedures for handling or working with that substance in a safe
manner, and includes information such as physical data. MSDS are a widely used
system for cataloguing information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical
mixtures. There is also a duty to property label substances on the basis of physic-
chemical, health and/or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as
the European Union standard black diagonal cross on an orange background, used to

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denote a harmful substance. MSDS for a substance is more focusing on the hazards of
working with the material in an occupational setting.

The nine categories of information that must be present in an MSDS are as follows:
1. Product Information
2. Physical and Chemical data
3. Hazardous Ingredients
4. Fire or Explosion Hazard data
5. Reactivity and Stability data
6. Toxicological Properties and Health Effects
7. Preventive and First Aid measures
8. Disposal, Transport and Storage Information
9. Preparation Procedure information

The MSDS for each components that are involved in the catalytic pyrolysis of
plastic wastes are shown in Appendix G. The components are polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), nitrogen, fuel gas 1 (hydrogen), fuel gas 2
(propane), gasoline (octane), diesel (hexadecane), residual fuel oil (1-Octacosene), and
char (carbon).

6.3.2 Flammability

Flammability is a major concern with polymeric materials that are widely used
as commodities and in engineering plastics. Flammability is the ease with which a
material is ignited, the intensity with which it burns and releases heat once ignited, its
propensity to spread fire, and the rate at which it generates smoke and toxic combustion
products during gasification and burning. The occurrence of fire will impose three
things which are fuel, oxidant and source of ignition. The sources of ignition which are
feasible at a chemical facility must be determined and evacuated. Flammable gases and
volatile liquids are incredibly hazardous due to the relative ease with which they
provide a flammable mixture with air. Increased surface area of any liquid aids in
vaporisation. There is a minimum concentration of gas or vapour for each substance
below which flame propagation will not occur. There is also a concentration above
which the mixture becomes too rich to burn. Temperature and pressure have an effect

246
on the flammability limits. In overall, the greater the flammable range, the higher the
fire risk.

Flammable Prevention

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires

employers to implement fire protection and prevention programs in the workplace (Fire
Protection and Prevention – OSHA, 2019). Under Section 19 of the Safety, Health and
Welfare at Work Act 2005 (the 2005 Act) every employer shall identify hazards, assess
risks and have a written risk assessment, including any unusual or other risks. To
comply with Section 19, employers are required to carry out risk assessments and to
record these in the Safety Statement. A fire safety risk assessment should be conducted.
Fire prevention should form part of this.

Fire is a chemical reaction that requires three elements to be present for the
reaction to take place and continue. The three elements are heat, or an ignition source,
fuel and oxygen. These three elements typically are referred to as the “fire triangle” as
shown in Figure 6 .108. Fire is the result of the reaction between the fuel and oxygen
in the air. Scientists developed the concept of a fire triangle to aid in understanding of
the cause of fires and how they can be prevented and extinguished. Heat, fuel and
oxygen must combine in a precise way for a fire to start and continue to burn. If one
element of the fire triangle is not present or removed, fire will not start or, if already
burning, will extinguish.

Figure 6.108 Fire Prevention Triangle-Heat, Oxygen and Fuel (Fire Prevention -
Health and Safety Authority, 2019)

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 Ignition sources can include any material, equipment or operation that emits a
spark or flame—including obvious items, such as torches, as well as less obvious items,
such as static electricity and grinding operations. Equipment or components that radiate
heat, such as kettles, catalytic converters and mufflers, also can be ignition sources.
Fuel sources include combustible materials, such as wood, paper, trash and clothing;
flammable liquids, such as gasoline or solvents; and flammable gases, such as propane
or natural gas. Oxygen in the fire triangle comes from the air in the atmosphere. Air
contains approximately 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. OSHA describes a hazardous
atmosphere as one which is oxygen-deficient because it has less than 19.5% oxygen, or
oxygen enriched because it has greater than 23.5% oxygen. Either instance is regarded
by OSHA as an atmosphere immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) for
reasons unrelated to the presence of fire. Depending on the type of fuel involved, fires
can occur with much lower volume of oxygen present than needed to support human
respiration.

Fire Extinguisher

Removal of one of the corners of the fire triangle normally results in

extinguishment of a fire. There are different types of fire extinguishers designed to put
out the different classes of fire. Selecting the appropriate fire extinguisher is an
important consideration for a roofing contractor. The wrong extinguisher actually may
make a fire emergency worse. There are four classification of fires shows in Table
6 .173 which are:

Table 6.173 Classification of Fires

Class Types
Fires involving ordinary combustibles, such as paper, trash, some
A
plastics, wood and cloth.
Fires involving flammable gases or liquids, such as propane, oil and
B
gasoline
C Fires involving energized electrical components
D Fires involving metal
K Fires involving vegetable or animal cooking oils or fats

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Fire Protection

Before each project begins, the project manager or designee will contact the
local fire department and determine whether any variations from the company’s
standard fire-prevention procedures are required. No-smoking signs will be posted in all
regulated areas and only approved containers will be used to store flammable or
combustible materials. All containers will be bonded together and grounded when
transferring flammable or combustible liquids. All work areas will be kept free of debris
and other combustible materials. Inside company-owned or leased buildings, fire
extinguishers will be spaced no more than 100 feet apart and will have no less than a
2A rating for every 3,000 feet of protected building.

Handling Flammable and Combustible Liquids

During refuelling operations, all engines and motors will be turned off and
allowed to cool. Open flames or other ignition sources must be kept at least 50 feet
away from flammable or combustible liquids. No smoking will be permitted during the
fuelling process. Containers being filled will be placed directly on the ground or a
grounding strap attached to form a connection to ground. No flammable liquid or gas
will be used unless it has been positively identified beforehand. Health and physical
hazards will be communicated to employees in accordance with OSHA’s Hazard
Communication Standard before the product is used. When flammable liquids and gases
are being transported, all Department of Transportation rules will be followed.

6.3.3 Toxicity

Toxicity is the degree to which a substance (a toxin or poison) can harm humans
or animals. Acute toxicity involves harmful effects in an organism through a single or
short-term exposure. Sub chronic toxicity is the ability of a toxic substance to cause
effects for more than one year but less than the lifetime of the exposed organism.
Chronic toxicity is the ability of a substance or mixture of substances to cause harmful

249
effects over an extended period, usually upon repeated or continuous exposure,
sometimes lasting for the entire life of the exposed organism.

6.3.3.1 Toxicity of Polyethylene (PE)

Polyethylene or polythene (PE) is the most common plastic in use today. It is a

polymer, primarily used for packaging such as plastic bags, plastic films,
geomembranes and containers including bottles. Polyethylene is toxic if its components
leak into beverages and products that could cause health risks. Polyethylene may be
toxic through different manipulations of the plastic (Dhakal et al., 2020). The summary
of toxicity of PE is shown in Table 6 .174.

Table 6.174 Summary of Toxicity of Polyethylene (PE)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation
Exposure Limits TWA: 1190 μg/m³
Chronic Effects Not harmful
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects Inhaling polyethylene dust developed mild
inflammatory changes in the lungs. Prolonged
inhalation of thermal
degradation products from polyethylene caused
neurological effects

6.3.3.2 Toxicity of Polypropylene (PP)

Polypropylene (PP) is a common thermoplastic used throughout geosynthetics

due to large part to its cost-effectiveness. Workers should follow the recommended
safety measures contained within the MSDS and on any product packaging (if
applicable). Employees should be trained in the appropriate work processes and safety
equipment to limit exposure to chemical substances or release of chemical substances.
Occupational use of this substance is considered to be safe provided the recommended
safety measures given in the MSDS are followed. The summary of toxicity of PP is
shown in Table 6 .175.

Table 6.175 Summary of Toxicity of Polypropylene (PP)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation

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 Exposure Limits TWA: 1625 μg/m3
Chronic Effects Prolonged inhalation of thermal degradation products
from polyethylene caused neurological effects
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects Inhaling polyethylene dust developed mild
inflammatory changes in the lungs.

6.3.3.3 Toxicity of Polystyrene (PS)

Polystyrene (PS) has a low potential to bio accumulate in the environment.

Therefore, it is not considered hazardous to the environment. It has no acute toxicity
after repeat-dose for inhalation. It has no carcinogenic and mutagenic effect and also
does not affect reproductive parameters. The summary of toxicity of PS is shown in
Table 6 .176.

Table 6.176 Summary of Toxicity of Polystyrene (PS)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation
Exposure Limits TWA: 100 -200 ppm
Chronic Effects Not harmful
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects Shall not be classified as acutely toxic

6.3.3.4 Toxicity of Nitrogen (N2)

Nitrogen (N2) is a colourless, odourless gas and nitrogen is important to the

chemical industry. It is used to make fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes and explosives.
Toxic effect upon exposure to very high levels of pure nitrogen can cause to feel dizzy
and lightheaded and replaces oxygen in the air causing loss of consciousness and death.
Contact with liquefied nitrogen can cause frostbite. The summary of toxicity of N 2 is
shown in Table 6 .177.

Table 6.177 Summary of Toxicity of Nitrogen (N2)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation
Exposure Limits TWA: 5 ppm

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 Chronic Effects Exposure to very high levels of pure nitrogen can
cause to feel dizzy and lightheaded and replaces
oxygen in the air causing loss of consciousness and
death.
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects Contact with liquefied nitrogen can cause
frostbite.

6.3.3.5 Toxicity of Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen)

Hydrogen is colourless, odourless, tasteless, non-toxic, and highly combustible.

There are no specific exposure limits for hydrogen because hydrogen is a simple
asphyxiant (SA). High levels of this gas can result in an oxygen-deficient environment.
Individuals exposed to such an environment may experience symptoms such as
headaches, ringing in the ears, dizziness, drowsiness, unconsciousness, nausea,
vomiting, and sensory depression. The summary of toxicity of fuel gas 1 is shown in
Table 6 .178.

Table 6.178 Summary of Toxicity of Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through inhalation
Exposure Limits Hydrogen is a simple asphyxiant (SA).
Chronic Effects Not harmful
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects High concentrations of this gas can cause an oxygen-
deficient environment. Individuals breathing such an
atmosphere may experience symptoms which include
headaches, ringing in ears, dizziness, drowsiness,
unconsciousness, nausea, vomiting and depression of
all the senses.

6.3.3.6 Toxicity of Fuel Gas 2 (Propane)

Propane colourless, flammable gas, C3H8, of the alkane series, occurring in

petroleum and natural gas: used chiefly as a fuel and in organic synthesis. Toxic effect
upon exposure includes nausea and vomiting, collapse, convulsions, coma also

252
death can occur. It can cause burns similar to frostbite when contact with eye. The
summary of toxicity of fuel gas 2 is shown in Table 6 .179.

Table 6.179 Summary of Toxicity of Fuel Gas 2 (Propane)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation

Exposure Limits TWA:1000 ppm
Chronic Effects  Nausea and vomiting, collapse, convulsions,
coma and death also occur
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects Eye contact: Liquid can cause burns similar to
frostbite
Inhalation: No known significant effects or critical
hazards.
Ingestion: Ingestion of liquid can cause burns similar
to frostbite.
Skin contact: Dermal contact with rapidly evaporating
liquid could result in freezing of the tissues or
frostbite

6.3.3.7 Toxicity of Gasoline (Octane)

Symptoms of intoxication by ingestion of octane (gasoline) can range from

vomiting, vertigo, drowsiness and confusion to loss of consciousness, convulsions,
haemorrhaging of the lungs and internal organs, and death due to circulatory failure.
Other than that, two years of exposure to gasoline vapours can result in liver and kidney
cancer. The summary of toxicity of gasoline is shown in Table 6 .180.

Table 6.180 Summary of Toxicity of Gasoline (Octane)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation

Exposure Limits TWA: 300 ppm
Chronic Effects Can cause permanent organ damage, coma, or
death
Carcinogenicity Exposure to gasoline vapours for 2 years can
cause liver and kidney cancer.

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 Acute Toxicity Effects Harmful if swallowed. Excessive exposure may cause
irritations to the nose, throat, lungs and respiratory
tract.

6.3.3.8 Toxicity of Diesel (Hexadecane)

Diesel and the products of its combustion represent one of the most common
toxins to which people living in both urban and rural areas of the world are exposed.
Long-term exposure may cause dermatitis (itching, irritation, pain and swelling).
Inhalation may cause irritation and significant or long-term exposure could cause
respiratory insufficiency and pulmonary edema. Ingestion may cause aspiration,
gastrointestinal disturbance, and CNS effects. The summary of toxicity of diesel is
shown in Table 6 .181.

Table 6.181 Summary of Toxicity of Diesel (Hexadecane)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation

Exposure Limits TWA: 0.05 mg/m3
Chronic Effects Cough, sputum production and lung function
decrements.
Carcinogenicity Increased risk of lung cancer
Acute Toxicity Effects Acute effects of diesel exhaust exposure include
irritation of the nose and eyes, lung function changes,
respiratory changes, headache, fatigue and nausea.

6.3.3.9 Toxicity of Residual Fuel Oil (1-Octacosene)

Residual fuel oil also has a low potential to bio accumulate in the environment.
Therefore, it is not considered hazardous to the environment. It has acute toxicity after
repeat-dose for inhalation where prolonged exposure of the skin for many hours may
cause skin irritation. It has no carcinogenic and mutagenic effect and also does not
affect reproductive parameters. The summary of toxicity of residual fuel oil is shown
inTable 6 .181Table 6 .182.

Table 6.182 Summary of Toxicity of Residual Fuel Oil (1-Octacosene)

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 Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation
Exposure Limits TWA: 1000 ppm
Chronic Effects Not harmful
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects These materials are not eye irritants or skin
sensitisers. Prolonged exposure of the skin for many
hours may cause skin irritation.

6.3.3.10 Toxicity of Char (Carbon)

Carbon is used in some way in most every industry in the world. It is used to
make all sorts of materials including plastics and alloys such as steel (a combination of
carbon and iron). Carbon has a low bioaccumulation potential in the environment. As a
result, it is not considered environmentally hazardous. It has no acute toxicity after
repeated inhalation doses. It is not carcinogenic or mutagenic, and it has no effect on
any organ system parameters. The summary of toxicity of char is shown inTable
6 .181Table 6 .182.

Table 6.183 Summary of Toxicity of Char (Carbon)

Routes of Entry Absorbed through eye, skin contact and inhalation

Exposure Limits TWA: 15 mg/m3
Chronic Effects Not harmful
Carcinogenicity Not a carcinogen
Acute Toxicity Effects Shall not be classified as acutely toxic

6.3.4 Dow Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI)

Dow's Index is a quantitative risk analysis technique that has been utilized for
hazard identification at plant level. This strategy was introduced by Dow Chemical
Company to analyze the potential event of fire and explosion hazard by the Dow Index.
The insurance expenses of the explosion and fire can be evaluated and estimated based
on the losses assessed by this technique. There are few reasons in performing the F&EI
as below:

255
 1) Dow's Index is the most widely utilized strategy which has been applied in the
process industries where flammable, combustible or reactive agents are stored,
transported or processed.
2) Fire and explosion losses can be assessed financially and proficiently through
this index.
3) It is an easy-to-understand method to assess the fire and explosion hazards in
chemical process industries based on available parameters such as temperature,
pressure, and energy of chemical substances.
4) It is a useful instrument for inherent safety assessment and more secure design.

The process and safety engineers can be more aware of the hazards in each
process unit while making any decision through F&EI by lowering the probability of
the potential incident. Table 6 .184 shows the F&EI range and each degree of hazard
in the assessment of hazard. The larger the value of index, the more hazardous the
process is.

Table 6.184 Assessment of Hazard (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)

Controller Degree of Hazard
1 to 60 Light
61 to 96 Moderate
97 to 127 Intermediate
128 to 158 Heavy
159 and above Severe

At the same time, Figure 6 .109 shows the Dow fire and explosion index
calculation form. There are some important systematic approach for the independent of
judgement factors:
1) Break the process down into units or sections, e.g. the reactor, storage tank or a
pump
2) Use experience to select the units or sections that have the highest likelihood of
a significant hazard
3) Define the material factor (MF) on the chemicals being used; in general, higher
the value the more flammable or explosive
4) Adjust this with various penalties based on conditions such as storage above the
normal boiling point, exothermic reaction, etc

256
5) Then, take credits for safety procedures and safety systems
6) Finally, compare the number that rates the hazard with the table or experience

Figure 6.109 Dow Fire and Explosion Index Calculation Form

257
6.3.4.1 Calculation Steps of Fire & Explosion Index

Figure 6.110 Procedure for calculating fire and explosion index and other risk
analysis information (Dow, 1994)

Step 1: Select Pertinent Process Units

The first step in making the F&EI calculation requires using an effective and
logical procedure to determine which units should be studied. A designation of the
Process Unit must be entered in the given space on the F&EI form. It is quite clear that
most manufacturing units may have many process units. However, to calculate the
F&EI, only process units that could have an impact from a loss prevention standpoint
should be evaluated. These are known as Pertinent Process Units.
Important factors for selecting Pertinent Process Unit includes: 282
1. Chemical energy potential (Material Factor)
2. Quantity of hazardous material in the Process Unit
3. Process pressure and process temperature

258
 4. Units critical to plant operation
5. Handles a minimum of 2,268 kg of a flammable, combustible, or reactive
material

Step 2: Determine Material Factor

The Material Factor (MF) is the basic starting value in the computation of F&EI
and other risk analysis values. The MF is a measure of the intrinsic rate of potential
energy release from fire or explosion produced by combustion or chemical reaction.
The MF is obtained from NF and NR which are the NFPA ratings expressing
flammability and reactivity respectively. If there is a mixture of materials in a Process
Unit with different values of MFs, usually the material with the highest MF should be
used as the basis for MF. The MF determination is shown in Table 6 .185.

The Dow Index guide has included a list of material factors for commonly used
chemicals in its Appendix A. The MF can also be obtained from the flammability and
instability rankings according to NFPA 325M or NFPA 49 adjusted for temperature. If
Appendix A, NFPA 49, nor NFPA 325M does not contains values for the substance,
mixture or compound in question or the heat of combustion is unknown, these values
will have to be determined from the flammability ranking or dust class.

259
 Table 6.185 Material Factor Determination Guide

Step 3: Calculate Process Unit Hazards

After the appropriate Material Factor has been determined, the next step is to
calculate the Process Unit Hazards Factor (F3), which is the term that is multiplied by
the Material Factor to obtain the F&EI. The numerical value of the Process Unit
Hazards Factor is determined by first determining the General Process Hazards Factor
and Special Process Hazards Factor listed on the F&EI form. Each item which
contributes to the Process Hazards Factors contributes to the development or escalation
of an incident that could cause a fire or an explosion.
When calculating the penalties comprising the Process Unit Hazards Factor, F3:

260
 i. Pick a single specific instant in time during which the material under
consideration is in the most hazardous normal operation state associated with
the Process Unit, such as start-up, continuous operation, and shutdown.
ii. Only one hazard may be evaluated at a time. If the MF is based on a flammable
liquid present in the Process Unit, do not take penalties relating to other
substances.

General Process Hazards – plays a primary role in determining the magnitude of a

loss incident. The six items listed in this section as contributing hazards are applicable
to most process situations. Although it may not be necessary to take penalties for each
part of this section, these items have historically played large roles in fire and explosion
incidents, and careful evaluation of the Process Unit in question is of paramount
importance.
1. Exothermic Chemical Reactions - Take this penalty only if the Process Unit in
question is a reactor in which a chemical reaction takes place. The reactivity
hazard of the material being evaluated is inherent in the Material Factor. The
penalties vary from 0.30 for mild exotherms to 1.25 for particularly sensitive
exotherms.
2. Endothermic Chemical Reactions - A penalty of 0.20 is taken for any
endothermic process taking place in a reactor. This penalty applies only to
reactors. When the energy input for the endothermic process is provided by the
combustion of a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel, the penalty is increased to 0.40.
3. Material Handling and Transfer - This penalty is evaluated in regard to the fire
potential involving the pertinent Process Unit during the handling, transfer and
warehousing of materials.
4. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units - This penalty takes account for the additional
hazard where ventilation is restricted.
5. Access Areas not having adequate access are penalised. Minimum requirement
is access from two sides.
6. Drainage and Spill Control Penalises design conditions that would cause large
spills of flammable material adjacent to process equipment, such as inadequate
design of drainage.

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 Special Process Hazards – Special process hazards are factors that contribute
primarily to the probability of a loss incident. They consist of specific process
conditions that have shown themselves to be major causes of fire and explosion
incidents. There are twelve items listed in this section as follows:
1. Toxic Material (s): The presence of toxic substances after an incident will make
the task of the emergency personnel more difficult. The factor applied ranges
from 0 for non-toxic materials, to 0.8 for substances that can cause death after
short exposure.
2. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure: Allows for the hazard of air leakage into equipment.
It is only applied for pressure less than 500 mmHg (0.68 bar).
3. Operation In or Near Flammable Range: Covers for the possibility of air mixing
with material in equipment or storage tanks, under conditions where the mixture
will be within explosive range.
4. Dust Explosion: Covers for the possibility of a dust explosion. The degree of
risk is largely determined by the particle size. The penalty factor varies from
0.25 for particles above 175m, to 2.0 for particles below 75m.
5. Relief Pressure: This penalty accounts for the effect of pressure on the rate of
leakage, should a leak occur. Equipment design and operation becomes more
critical as the operating pressure is increased. The factor to apply depends on the
relief device setting and the physical nature of the process material. It is
determined from Figure 6.13 in the Dow Guide.
6. Low Temperature: This factor allows for the possibility of brittle fracture
occurring in carbon steel, or other metals, at low temperatures.
7. Quantity of Flammable Material: The potential loss will be greater the greater
the quantity of hazardous material in the process or in storage. The factor to
apply depends on the physical state and hazardous nature of the process
material, and the quantity of material. It varies from 0.1 to 3.0, and is
determined from Figures 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14 in the Dow Guide.
8. Corrosion and Erosion: Despite good design and materials selection, some
corrosion problems may arise, both internally and externally. The factor to be
applied depends on the anticipated corrosion rate. The severest factor is applied
if stress corrosion cracking is likely to occur.
9. Leakage – Joints and Packing: This factor accounts for the possibility of leakage
from gaskets, pump and other shaft seals, and packed glands. The factor varies

262
 from 0.1 where there is the possibility of minor leaks, to 1.5 for processes that
have sight glasses, bellows, or other expansion joints.

10. Use of Fired Equipment: The presence of boilers or furnaces, heated by the
combustion of fuels, increases the probability of ignition should a leak of
flammable material occur from a process unit. The risk involved will depend on
the siting of the fired equipment and the flash point of the process material. The
factor to apply is determined with reference to Figure 6.13 in the Dow Guide.
11. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System: Most special heat exchange fluids are
flammable and are often used above their flash points; so, their use in a unit
increases the risk of fire or explosion. The factor to apply depends on the
quantity and whether the fluid is above or below its flash point; see Table 5 in
the Guide.
12. Rotating Equipment: This factor accounts for the hazard arising from the use of
large pieces of rotating equipment: compressors, centrifuges, and some mixers.
As a result, after the appropriate Material Factor has been determined and the
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F3) is calculated, the term (F3) is multiplied by
the Material Factor to obtain the F&EI.

6.3.4.2 Calculation for DOW Fire & Explosion Index

After the calculation, the summary of DOW and FEI for the each equipment
with the identification of degree of hazard is shown in Table 6 .186. The details of the
calculation are shown in Appendix H.

Table 6.186 Summary of Dow, Fire & Explosion Index for Each Equipment
Equipment Fire & Explosion Index Degree of Hazard
R-101 127.44 Severe
T-101 299.46 Heavy
T-102 378.00 Heavy
TK-101 91.52 Severe
TK-102 91.52 Severe
TK-103 63.8 Severe
TK-104 217.14 Heavy

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 TK-105 217.14 Heavy
TK-106 217.14 Heavy
TK-107 217.14 Heavy

6.3.5 Toxicity Index

Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. The

toxicity index of each equipment can be calculated based on the information obtained
from DOW F&EI, such as the General Process Hazard (GPH), Special Process Hazard
(SPH), NFPA Health Rating (Nh) and Threshold Limit Value (TLV). The toxicity index
(TI) equation is shown in eqn. ( 6 .53).

Th+ Ts(1+ F 1+ F 2) (6.53)

TI =
100

Where, Th = Toxicity factor based on the NFPA hazard index (0 - 4)

Ts = Correction factor (additional penalty) for toxicity based on maximum allowable
concentration (MAC) value in ppm
GPH = General process hazard
SPH = Special process hazard

The toxicity number (Th) is derived from NFP A health factor, Nh which is an
integer number ranging from 0 to 4. The relative Th to the health factor is shown in
Table 6 .187.

Table 6.187 Determination of Toxicity Number

NFPA Health Factor (Nh) Toxicity Number (Th)
0 0
1 50
2 125
3 250
4 325

The penalty factor (Ts) is the second toxicity index parameter used to determine
the TI. The Ts value is derived from the Threshold Limit Values (TLV). The TLV-
values are drawn up by the American Conference of Governance Industries Hygienist.

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TLV represent a time weighted 372 average (TWA) air concentration to which workers
can be exposed during a normal working week without ill effects. TLV often indicated
as a TWA-value, both are the same. The penalty factors are determined from Table
6 .188.

Table 6.188 Penalty Factor (Ts) based on Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
Threshold limit value (TLVs) Penalty factor (Ts)
< 50 125
5-50 75
<5 < 50

The equipment with higher or moderate level of toxicity as measured by the TI

is fitted with alarms and extra sensors to enhance personnel safety. Table 6 .189 shows
the toxicity index for every equipment in plant.

Table 6.189 Toxicity Index and Qualitative Hazard Level

Toxicity Index Quality Hazard Level
1-5 Light
6-9 Moderate
10+ High

The calculation for toxicity index is as shown in Appendix H and a summary of

the results obtained is tabulated as shown in Table 6 .190.

Table 6.190 Summary of Toxicity Index

Equipment Toxicity Index Degree of Hazard
R-101 6.24 Moderate
T-101 9.03 Moderate
T-102 10.45 High
TK-101 4.85 Light
TK-102 4.85 Light
TK-103 3.25 Light
TK-104 8.43 Moderate
TK-105 8.43 Moderate
TK-106 9.18 Moderate

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 TK-107 8.44 Moderate

6.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)

6.4.1 HAZOP Definition

Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic

technique for system examination and risk management. In particular, HAZOP is often
used as a technique for identifying potential hazards in a system and identifying
operability problems likely to lead to nonconforming products. Figure 6 .111
illustrates the detail procedures of HAZOP study. The HAZOP is based on a theory that
assumes risk events are caused by deviations from design or operating intentions.
Identification of such deviations is facilitated by using sets of “guide words” as a
systematic list of deviation perspectives. This approach is a unique feature of the
HAZOP methodology that helps stimulate the imagination of team members when
exploring potential deviations (Product Quality Research Institute, 2015). Hence,
HAZOP is best suited for accessing hazards in facilities, equipment and processes and
is capable of assessing systems from multiple perspectives such as design, physical and
operational environments and operational and procedural controls.

266
Figure 6.111 HAZOP Study Procedure

267
6.4.2 HAZOP Objectives

The objectives of carrying out the HAZOP study on the process plant are listed as
follows:
i. To identify causes and consequences of perceived mal operations of equipment
and associated operator interfaces and context of the complete system.
ii. To identify hazards or deficiency and potential operability problems which may
lead to hazards such as fire, explosion, toxic release or reduce productivity.
iii. To identify and prevent hazards in process plants that are growing in complexity
with standards are no longer adequate.
iv. To meet the legislative requirements of law and regulation.
v. To identify the need for emergency procedure to mitigate or prevent the event
from happening.
vi. To critically examine the inadequacies in systems by considering it as a fully
integrated dynamic unit rather than the “ad hoc” design approach.

6.4.3 HAZOP Techniques

HAZOP has been used to identify potential hazards and operability problems
caused by deviations from the design intent of the process plants. The study to discuss
the combination of a “Property Words” and “Guide Words” to apply on various part of
the process design equipment. The HAZOP study is very important where it involves
taking a full description of a process and systematically questioning every part of it to
establish deviations from the design intent can arise. Table 6 .191 shows the HAZOP
guide words that will be applied to all considered unit operations. It should contain the
important features such as “item”, “study node”, “guide words”, “deviations from
design intention”, “causes”, and “consequences”.

Table 6.191 HAZOP Guide Words

Guide Words Meaning Comment
No, Not The complete negation of No part of the intentions is
these intentions achieved but nothing else
happens.
More, Greater Quantitative increases Applies to quantities such as flow
rate and temperature and to

268
 activities such as heating and
reaction.
Less, Lower Quantitative increases Applies to quantities such as flow
rate and temperature and to
activities such as heating and
reaction.
As well as Quantitative increases All the design and operating
intentions are achieved together
with some additional activity.
Part of Quantitative increases Only some of the attention
achieved; some are not.
Reverse The logical opposite of This is more applicable to
the intention activities for example reverse
flow or chemical reaction. It can
also be applied to substances such
as “Poison” instead of “Antidote”.
Other than Complete substitution No part of the original intentions
is achieved. Something quite
different happens.
Sooner than Too early or in the wrong Applies to process steps or
order actions.
Later than Too late or in the wrong Applies to process steps or
order actions.
Where else In additional location Applies to process location, or
location in operating procedures

In addition, each guide word can be used to combine with the relevant process
parameters and applied in each study node, process, section, or operating step). Table
6 .192 shows the deviation and some typical causes. The typical type of causes
involved in system are:
i. Equipment failure in which a mechanical, structural or operating failure results
in the release of hazardous or flammable material.

269
 ii. Human error which is acts of omission or commission by an operator, designer,
constructor or other person creating a hazard that could possibly result in a
release of hazardous or flammable material.

iii. External Events such as fire or explosion.

iv. Extreme environmental events.

v. Control system and supply failure.

Whereas the consequences of the identified deviation typically fall into the following
categories:
i. Effect on other sub-system or system
ii. Effect on operators
iii. Environmental impact
iv. Damage to property
v. Efficiency in productivity

Table 6.192 Deviation and Some Typical Causes

Deviation Meaning
No flow Isolation in error wrong routing, blockage, equipment failure
(control valve, isolation valve, pump, vessel)
Reverse flow Incorrect differential pressure causes two way flow, incorrect
operation, pump reversed.
Less flow Line restriction, partial blockage, defective pumps, cavitations,
fouling of vessels, valves restrictor or orifice plates, density or
viscosity problems, incorrect specification of process fluid,
process turndown.
More flow Increase pumping capacity, increased suction pressure, reduced
delivery head, greater fluid density, exchanger tube leaks,
restriction orifice plates deleted, cross connection of system,
control faults, control set wrong.
More pressure Gas breakthrough, inadequate venting, failed open control
valves, heating of blocked in system explosion, fire imbalance
of input and output, external pressure.

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 Less pressure Vacuum condition, condensation, gas dissolving in liquid,
restricted pump/compressor suction line, leakage, vessel
drainage imbalance of input and output
More temperature Failed exchanger tubes, cooling water failure, failure connected
to source, energy from machines.
Less temperature Failed exchanger tubes, loss of heating, weather, failure
connected to source.
Density viscosity Incorrect material, incorrect temperature, extra phase.
Composition Phase change, incorrect feed, incorrect or reversed ratio,
separation failures, change in reaction, emergency discharge.
Contamination Incorrect routing, interconnected systems, effect of corrosion,
wrong additives, accumulation of solid.

6.4.4 HAZOP Studies on Major Equipment

The HAZOP study on the major equipment is to perform in the HAZOP analysis
forms and the guide words are applied to the study node of the unit with the designated
operating parameter to improve safety process. The major equipment’s for the studies
are:
1. Reactor (R-101)
2. Heat Exchanger (E-101, E-102, E-103, E-104, E-105, E-106, E-107, E-108, E-
109, and E-110)
3. Pump (P-101 A/B, P-102 A/B, P-103 A/B)
4. Compressor (C-101, C-102, C-103)
5. Storage Tank (TK-101, TK-102, TK-103, TK-104, TK-105, TK-106, TK-107)
6. Distillation Column (T-101, T-102)
7. Flash Column (V-101)
8. Cyclone (CYC-101)

6.4.4.1 HAZOP of Reactor

The detailed HAZOP for the reactor (R-101) is shown in Table 6 .193.

Table 6.193 HAZOP of Reactor (R-101)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action Required

parameter Consequences

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Pressure Less Reactor or pipeline Chemical spills out Install gas detector to trace
leakage and affect the leakage according to the
whole reaction chemical type

More Inlet/outlet pipeline Pressure builds up Install a pressure vacuum

blockage rapidly and reactor relief valve and a high-
may explode pressue indicator-triggered
emergency shutdown.

Temperature Less Low feed flow rate or Production rate -Consider installing
low feed temperature decreased additional heater before
the reactor
-Regular check and
maintenance of heat
exchanger

More High feed flow rate Runaway reaction/ Regular check and
or high feed cause rapid maintenance of heat
temperature increase in exchangers
temperature which
may lead to
explosion and fire

Flow No Low reactor pressure/ No reaction occurs -Regular maintenance of

leakage or blockage and cause control valves.
in the pipeline production loss -Consider emergency
shutdown system

Less Minor leakage at Desired -Constant monitoring in

feed line/ partial conversion not feed flow rate.
blockage in piping achieved thus -Regular check and
system/ inlet valve causing production maintenance of valves.
not fully open/ feed loss
the pipeline is
clogged

More Control valve failure -Flooding of liquid -Constant monitoring of

level feed flow rate.
-Product does not -Regular check and
meet the specific maintenance of valves.
requirements
-Build up in
pressure might
lead to posible
runway reaction
and also explosion.

Reverse Reverse pressure No reaction/ back Regular inspection of

differential mixing valve

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Composition Less -Incorrect feedstock Low quality of Regular inspection and
specification product maintenance of analyzer
More -Improper reaction sensor and transmitter

6.4.4.2 HAZOP of Heat Exchanger

The detailed HAZOP for the heat exchanger (E-101 to E-110) is shown in Table
6 .194.

Table 6.194 HAZOP of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-110)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action Required

parameters Consequences

Pressure Less Leakage in heat Insufficient heat -Install extra

exchanger transfer rate compressor/pump
-Install downstream
pressure regulating valve

More -Higher feed flow -Off spec product -Valve maintenance

rate. -Possible runaway -Check pressure relieve
-Valve fails reaction valve

Temperature Less -Faulty temperature -Heat exchanger -Controller valve

controller network affected. maintenance.
-Controller valve -Operating condition -Check temperature
malfunction of production line controller regularly
-Too much cooling affected.
water supply for heat -Desired temperature
exchanger. not achieved

More -Temperature -Heat exchanger Carry out controller

controller valve network affected. maintenance constantly
malfunction. -Operating condition
-Not enough of of production line
cooling water supply affected.
for the heat
exchanger

Flow No -Blockage of inlet -No inlet to the heat -Immediately stop the
pipe exchanger flow of the inlet stream
-Blockage in the -Heat exchanger will -Repair the pipes or
pipeline get overheated and replace if severely
damaged damaged

Less -Partial blockage in -Insufficient heat Conduct proper

inlet pipeline transfer rate. maintenance of heat
-Corrosion or scaling -The inlet feed to the exchanger
occur in pipeline heat exchanger will

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 -Faulty of the flow be less than
controller anticipated and it
could cause
overheating

More Valve malfunction Flow velocity -Check maintenance

increases that can procedures and schedule
causing unnecessary -Check the valve system
pressure in built that frequently
will damage the
equipment
6.4.4.3 HAZOP of Pump

The detailed HAZOP for the pump (P-101 A/B to P-103 A/B) is shown in Table
6 .195.

Table 6.195 HAZOP of Pump (P-101 A/B to P-103 A/B)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action Required

parameters Consequences

Pressure Less -Leakage in the inlet -Disturbed the Do maintenance

stream. production procedures on the piping
-The controller fails and process. system.
partially closes valve -Materials have
not pump to
desired pressure

More -The controller fails and Possible Valve maintenance.

open valve runaway -Check the pressure
-Valve malfunction reaction controller from time to
time

Flow Less -Leakage at the inlet -Interrupted the Proper maintenance on the
pump stream. operation piping system,
-Inlet line pump blocked process
-The target
pressure does
not achieve

More -Pump over speed. Can leads to Include the emergency

-Too high pressure at runaway shutdown the plant if the
feed pump reaction and pressure exceeds the
explosion critical point

6.4.4.4 HAZOP of Compressor

The detailed HAZOP for the compressor (C-101 to C-103) is shown in Table 6 .196.

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 Table 6.196 HAZOP of Compressor (C-101 to C-103)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action required

Parameters Consequence

Pressure Less -Blockage at inlet -Operation failure. -Carry out maintenance

line stream -Cause changes in procedure on compressor
-Speed of motor reaction and its motor regularly
lesser than required conversion -Check pressure controller
-Pressure controller frequently and do
fails maintenance

More -Faulty pressure -Possible damage -Replace pressure controller

controller to compressor. or do maintenance
-Outlet pressure -install interlock system to
obtained is higher trigger emergency shutdown
than required to plant if pressure is too
high

Flow Less -Blockage at inlet -Operation fails. -Do maintenance to the

piping system -Possible no piping system.
-Control valve reaction occurs. -Check flow control valve
malfunction. -Production regularly
-Leakage at inlet process
line stream interrupted.
-Low conversion
of reaction

More Control valve -Runaway reaction Carry out maintenance

malfunction and may occur procedure on flow control
fails to open -Possible damage valve from time to time
to the compressor

6.4.4.5 HAZOP of Storage Tank

The detailed HAZOP for the storage tank (TK-101 to TK-107) is shown in Table
6 .197.

Table 6.197 HAZOP of Storage Tank (TK-101 to TK-107)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action Required

Parameters Consequences

Level Low -Inconsistent of inlet Production rate -Regular check and

flow rate and outlet could not be maintenance of valve and
flow rate achieved piping line at least once a
-Control faulty month
measurement. -Regular cleaning of the
-Inlet flow stop or tank to ensure the detection

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 blockage/ pipe leakage of level is accurate.
-Regular maintenance of
High Faulty level sensor or -Product overflow tank to repair leakages
level controller in the tank
malfunction -Spill of liquid
down external
tank walls

Pressure High Uncontrollable high Overpressure may Install pressure release

pressure lead explosion valve.
and cause release
of hazardous
chemicals

Low Pipeline leakage Loss of product -Install a pressure alarm.

due to the leakage -Regular inspection and
of the tank maintenance must be
carried out

6.4.4.6 HAZOP of Distillation Column

The detailed HAZOP for the distillation column (T-101 to T-102) is shown in Table
6 .198.

Table 6.198 HAZOP of Distillation Column (T-101 to T-102)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action Required

Parameters Consequences

Temperature High Higher feed flow rate -Possible runaway or -Install temperature
-The heating system of explosion indicator and controller
the reboiler provides too -Off spec product -Install a high/low
much heat. -Column might dry temperature alarm
-Condenser failure due out system.
to low flow of cooling
water.
-More steam flows in
the reboiler.

Low Low temperature in -Low feed flow rate

column and at the -Low steam flow in
surface reboiler

Pressure High -Pressure controller fails Possible runaway and -Install high/low
-High feed flow rate explosion pressure indicator and
through reboiler alarm system at outlet
-Flooding occurs at the stream and emergency
column shutdown system
-Install pressure relieve

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 valve to release the
pressure when pressure
is too high column

Low -Pressure controller fails Inefficient separation -Instal high/low

-Partially closed of specific pressure indicator and
pressure valve product/off spec alarm system at outlet
-Leakage in the pipeline product stream and emergency
entering distillation -Chemical spill out shutdown system
column and cause incident -Install pressure relieve
valve to release the
pressure when pressure
is too high in column

Level High -Blocked outlet of pipe -Desired removal not -Install high/low level
-Outlet flow less than achieved and off spec detector alarm system
inlet flow product to maintain the level of
-Chemical spill out product with high and
Low -Inlet valve (for high level) low level cut off system
blockage/malfunction -Higher impurities -Install emergency
shutdown system.
-Install an emergency
drain valve function to
drain out the
components when the
level is too high
-Install air-to-open
control valve in order to
adjust the outlet liquid
flow of column

Flow Low -Partial blockage in -Column dries out -Install flow indicator
piping system. -Column temperature and control valve
-Minor leakage in piping increase -Instal high/low flow
system -Off spec product alarm with automatic
shutdown fit/with
High -Air- to-open control -Column flooding high/low cut off system
valve failure at feed -Pressure build up
column and runaway reaction
-Low efficiency of
separation
-Off spec product
-Column temperature
decrease

No -Total blockage in -Operation failure

piping system -Pipe Explosion due
-Major leakage in piping to accumulation of
system pressure
-No feed supply -Breakdown of pump

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 at reboiler and
condenser
-Off spec product

Reverse -Too low pressure of -Off spec product Install one way valve
feed -Accumulation of
materials in column

Composition High Incorrect feedstock -Reduce the product -Install on stream

specification purity process analyzer at
Low -Improper reaction -Low quality of distillate and bottom
-Reboiler failure product -Install air-to-close
control valve at reflux
return line and air-to-
open control valve at
steam inlet of reboiler

6.4.4.7 HAZOP of Flash Column

The detailed HAZOP for the flash column (V-101) is shown in Table 6 .199.

Table 6.199 HAZOP of Flash Column (V-101)

Process Guideword Possible Cause Possible Action Required

Parameter Consequences

Level Low -Blockage or -Temperature in the -Clear the blockage or

leakage on pipeline column increase replace the leaking
-Valve failed to open -Reaction cannot occur pipeline
-Repair and do
maintenance on control
valve regularly

High -Sensor failed to -Mixture in the column -Replace and do

detect the level will spill out. maintenance on level
-Valve failed to -The product out does sensor and control valve
close not meet the frequently
specification stated -Frequent supervision on
content level in the
column

Temperatur Low -Heating system -Rate of reaction -Do maintenance on

e failed to supply heat decrease heating system and
-The content level in -Low condition of temperature and controller
the column too high reaction regularly.
-Frequent supervision on
High -Cooling system -Rate of reaction level content in the
failed to operate increase column
-Temperature -High condition of

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 controller reaction
malfunction

Pressure Low -The column leaked The pressure inside the Repair or replace the
-The column column increase leaking column and
pipeline is leaked pipeline

High -The pressure The column will leak or -Repair and do

controller failed explode maintenance on pressure
-The temperature in controller regularly
the column will -Check the pressure
increase content and measure the
temperature of column
frequently
6.4.5 HAZOP Studies on Minor Equipment

The HAZOP study on the major equipment is to perform in the HAZOP analysis
forms and the guide words are applied to the study node of the unit with the designated
operating parameter to improve safety process. The minor equipment’s for the studies
are:
1. Dryer (D-101)
2. Washer (W-101)
3. Mixer (M-101)

6.4.5.1 HAZOP of Dryer

The detailed HAZOP for the dryer (D-101) is shown in Table 6 .200.

Table 6.200 HAZOP of Dryer (D-101)

Process Guideword Possible cause Possible Action required
Parameter consequences
Moisture More Feed flowrate too Product moisture Increase feed flowrate
content high due to pressure content increase of air stream
different failure
Moisture Less Blockage due to Output target for Regular inspection and
content solid stuck in production cannot be maintenance
pipeline achieved

6.4.5.2 HAZOP of Mixer

The detailed HAZOP for the mixer (M-101) is shown in Table 6 .201.

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 Table 6.201 HAZOP of Mixer (M-101)
Process Guideword Possible cause Possible Action required
Parameter consequences
Level High -Blocked outlet of Overflow of the -Install flow alarm to
pipe chemical in the mixer detect the level of
-High Inlet flow rate chemical with high
of feed level cut off system

Low -Valve malfunction -Operation -Install flow indicator

-Pipe leakage or influenced and controller.
blockage

6.4.5.3 HAZOP of Shredder

The detailed HAZOP for the shredder (S-101) is shown in Table 6 .201.

Table 6.202 HAZOP of Shredder (S-101)

Process Guideword Possible cause Possible Action required
Parameter consequences
Level High Feed flow rate too Shredder overload -Install flow alarm to
high detect the level of
plastic in the shredder
-periodic maintenance
of the level controller
and detector
-Install flow indicator
and controller.
Low -blockage due to -Operation
solid stuck in hopper influenced
or between blade

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 CHAPTER 7

7.1 Introduction of Waste Management & Pollution Control

Waste management is a very important part in every single manufacturing process

as unprofessional waste handling might cause deterioration of environment. Waste is any
matter prescribe to be scheduled waste or any matter whether in a solid, semisolid or liquid
form or in the form of a gas or vapor which is emitted, discharge or deposited in the
environment in such volume, composition or manner as to cause pollution if they are not
treated or handled carefully. Furthermore, storage of waste typically incurs financial or
other disadvantage to the owner. Hence, a good waste management is a must to prevent
shocking environmental effect before the waste is releasing to the environment where the
waste should not exceed requirement safety levels set by Department of Environment
(DoE). Each of the effluents from the process must be following the Environment Quality
Act (1974) requirement.

According to Abdel-Shafy & Mansour (2018), waste management today is made

difficult and costly by increasing volumes of waste produced, by the need to control
potential serious environmental and health effects of disposal. Many of the mathematical
models were developed, and still continue to be developing to study the treatment of
hazardous wastes through physical, chemical, and biological processes. Before taking any
action for the waste management, there are many aspects, planning, and goals such as
community, environmental control and much more must be taking into consideration.

281
 In Malaysia, the Department of Environment (DoE) is responsible to ensure all the
chemical plants must be designed a waste treatment unit to treat the waste to an acceptable
form or level before discharging to the environment. Generally, there are two approaches to
deal with waste produced from the industry which are waste minimization and end-of-pipe
treatment. Waste minimization is to remove or reduce the waste generated at the source or
by not producing it in the first place. It will eliminate any problems in treating it and at the
same time to save more on capital cost. Next, end-of-pipe treatment means to transform the
generated waste into another kind of materials or components that is harmless so that it can
be released to the environment by using any physical, chemical and biological or the
combination of three method. Waste treatments are done to ensure it is complied with the
Malaysia Environmental Quality Act 1974.

In this chapter, the waste treatment strategy for the production of gasoline plant
has been planned carefully in order to meet the regulation of Environmental Quality Act
1974, Regulations, Rules and Order for Malaysia. Before the wastes are discharged to
the environment, some consideration must be done:
i. Consider the economic aspect, whether the waste can be recovered and sell as a
product or not.
ii. Consider the waste properties, whether it can be discharged directly to the
environment or we need to treat it first.
iii. Consider from the safety reason, whether it is dangerous to the environment or not.

7.2 Objective of Waste Management & Pollution Control

The objective of waste management hierarchy is to achieve optimal environment

outcomes which is uniformly accepted guide for prioritising waste management
practices. Waste management hierarchy is an important tool that reflects the relative
sustainability of each waste management options. Waste minimization and treatment
plant must be full-filled the objectives as below:
i. Protect the public health and workers’ health.
ii. Reduce potential environment liabilities.
iii. Save money by reducing waste treatment and disposal cost, and other operating
costs including utility costs.

282
iv. Meet state and national waste minimization policy goals.

7.3 Wastes From The Production Of Gasoline

Table 7 .203 shows the summary of wastes produced from the production of
gasoline through catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes. The table includes the type and
physical form of the wastes.

Table 7.203 Summary of Wastes

Form of Waste Type of Waste
Gas Hydrogen + Propane
Liquid Wastewater
Solid Amorphous Silica Alumina

7.4 Related Environmental Act

7.4.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 or EQA 1974

The Malaysian government has put in place the required legal and institutional
arrangements to ensure that environmental considerations are considered in the early
stages of project planning. This is done in order to encourage environmentally friendly
and long-term development. Before they can legally begin operating, businesses must
first obtain those types of licences.

Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA, 1974) is viewed as the most extensive
of legislation in managing environmental protection and pollution control in Malaysia.
The Act likewise shapes the fundamentals for accomplishing environmental policy
objectives. Pollution was controlled by the mechanism of licences issued by the
Department of Environment (DOE). Presently, 16 sets of regulations had been
implemented by the Department of Environment (DOE) under EQA 1974. The
following are the listed law and regulation that are strictly enforced by DOE:

1. Control of municipal and industrial wastewater pollution

● Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979

283
 ● Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use of Controlled Substances in
Soap, Synthesis Detergent and Other Cleaning Agents) Order, 1995
● Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations, 200

2. Control of industrial emissions

● Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978
● Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offenses) Rules, 1978

3. Control of toxic and hazardous waste management

● Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations, 1989
● Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989
● Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Regulation, 1989
● Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 2005

4. Control of municipal and industrial wastewater pollution

● Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979
● Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use of Controlled Substances in
Soap, Synthesis Detergent and Other Cleaning Agents) Order, 1995

Therefore, surveillance capability is strengthened to monitor and enforce the laws

and regulations. The penalty structure related to the environment offences are revised to
ensure a more effective deterrent especially for the repeat offenders. DOE, Health
Department, Pesticide Board and local authorities are rationalized, and sufficient
training are provided for their enforcement staff.

7.4.2 Sewage Service Act 1993 (Act 508)

Sewage Service Act 1993 is an act to amend and consolidate the laws regarding
sewerage systems and sewerage services throughout Malaysia for the purpose of
improving sanitation and the environment together with promoting public health where
it is

284
i. Prohibition from discharging any industrial effluent, or allow communicating with
any public sewer or public treatment works.
ii. Prohibition from discharging any noxious, volatile or inflammable substance or any
other matter likely to damage or impair the functioning or any public sewer or public
treatment works or to interfere with the free flow of it.
iii. Contents or to affect prejudicially the treatment or disposal of its contents.

7.4.3 Gaseous Emission and Effluent Standards

Waste from the industries are required to comply with both air emission and
effluent discharge standard before being released to the environment as stated in the
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation, 1978 and the Environmental Quality
(sewage and Industrial Effluent) Regulation, 1979. Table 7-4 and Table 7-5 shows the
quality standards that are required by the industries before discharged their wastes to
the environment.

Table 7.204 Stack Gas Emission Standards in Malaysia (Environmental Quality

(Clean Air) Regulations, 1978)

Pollutions Emission Sources Standards

Dark Smoke - Solid Fuel Equipment to Facilities - Ringlemann Chart No.2

- Equipment using other types of fuel - Ringlemann Chart No.1

Dust - Facilities used for the heating of metal - 0.2gm/Nm3

other than Cold Blast Foundry Cupola

- Facilities discharging dust containing - 0.12 gm/Nm3

asbestos and free silica

- Portland Cement Manufacturing:

● Kiln - 0.2 gm/Nm3
● Clinker, Cooler, Grinder, Others - 0.1 gm/Nm3

Asphalt concrete/bituminous mixing plant :

● Stationery Plant - 0.3 gm/Nm3
● Mobile Plant - 0.4 gm/Nm3
● Other sources - 0.4 gm/Nm3

Metal - Mercury Industry - 0.01 gm/Nm3

Metallic - Cadmium Industry - 0.015 gm/Nm3
Compound - Lead Industry - 0.025 gm/Nm3
- Antimony Industry - 0.025 gm/Nm3
- Arsenic Industry - 0.025 gm/Nm3

285
 - Zinc Industry - 0.1 gm/Nm3
- Copper Industry - 0.1 gm/Nm3

Gases -Acid Gases from Sulphuric Acid - 3.5 gm of SO3/Nm3 and

Manufacturing no persistent mist
-Sulphuric Acid, MIst or SO3 from any - 0.2 gm of SO3/Nm3 and
other sources no persistent mist
-Chlorine gas from any sources - 0.2 gm of HCl/Nm3
-HCl from any sources - 0.2 gm of HCl/Nm3
-Fluorine, Hydrofluoric acid and inorganic - 0.2 gm of Hydrofluoric
compound from aluminium manufacturing acid/Nm3
-Hydrogen sulphide from any sources - 5 ppm (vol%)
-NOx from any sources - 1.7 gm of SO3/Nm3
-SOx from any sources - 2.0 gm SO3/Nm3

All type of pollution is shown in Table 7 .205 which the allowable to exceed
standard not longer than 5 minutes in any period of one hour and 15 minutes in any
period of 24 hours. The Air Quality Guidelines adopts 5 existing air pollutants which
are ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter
with the size of less than 10 micron together with the average time and Malaysia
guidelines. They are listed in Table 7 .205.

Table 7.205 Recommended Malaysia Air Quality Guidelines (at 25℃ and 101.13
kPa) Adopted in Air Pollutant Index Calculation (Legislation, 1978)

Pollutant and Method Averaging Time Malaysia Guidelines

(ppm) (ug/m3)

Ozone 1 Hour 0.10 200

8 Hours 0.06 120

Carbon Monoxide 1 Hour 30 35

8 Hours 9 10

Nitrogen Dioxide 1 Hour 0.17 320

Sulfur Dioxide 10 Minutes 0.19 500

1 Hour 0.13 350
24 Hours 0.04 105

PM10 24 Hours 150

1 Year 50

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7.4.4 Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limit of Effluents for Standard A
and Standard B

In Malaysia, there were guidelines established for the quality of effluent

discharged from treatment plants to receiving waters as stated in the Environmental
Quality Acts1972. The standards are divided into two standards; Standard A for
discharge upstream of any raw water intake, and Standard B for discharge downstream
of any raw water intake (DOE, 2017). The purpose of the effluent standards is to ensure
the effluent can meet under normal operation. Table 7 .206 shows the parameter limits
of the effluent of standard A and standard B.

Table 7.206 Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standard A and B (Legislation, 1978)

Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B

Temperature °C 40 60

pH value - 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0

BOD at 20oC mg/L 20 40

COD mg/L 50 100

Suspended solids mg/L 50 100

Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.05

Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.1

Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.1

Lead mg/L 0.1 0.5

Chromium mg/L 0.2 1

Copper mg/L 0.2 1

Manganese mg/L 0.2 1

Nickel mg/L 0.2 1

Tin mg/L 0.2 1

Zinc mg/L 2 2

Boron mg/L 1 4

Iron (Fe) mg/L 1 5

287
 Phenol mg/L 0.001 1

Free Chlorine mg/L 1 2

Sulphide mg/L 0.5 0.5

Oil and Grease mg/L Non-detectable 1

7.5 Solid Wastes Disposal

The solid waste that is produced from the production of gasoline is amorphous
silica alumina catalyst in the fluidized bed reactor. This catalyst is needed to be
replaced every year. Commonly, the solid waste of catalyst can be classified as SW 202
of the Environment Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 2005. Amorphous silica
alumina can be regenerated in few ways such as coke combustion and heating in an air-
nitrogen stream when it deactivates with time as mentioned in Chapter 1. After a small
number of cycles of regeneration and reuse, the catalyst activity may fall to very low
levels and additional regeneration may not be economically feasible. The spent catalysts
are redundant as solid waste. Therefore, the reactor will be shut down for catalyst
removal and maintenance to replace the new catalyst.

Various options such as minimizing spent catalyst waste generation generations

by regeneration and reuse, metal recovery, utilization to produce useful materials and
treatment (Marafi & Stanislaus, 2008). Incineration is one of the known methods of
industrial gas waste disposal which destroys the objectionable combustible compounds
in the waste gas rather than collecting it (Vaart et al., 1991). It might be cost ineffective
due to the equipment needed and various control mechanisms to be maintain including
the transportation of waste to the incinerator. The untreated spent amorphous alumina
silica catalyst that is disposed indiscriminately will occupy valuable land resources,
causes severe pollution, and poses an enormous threat to human health. However, if
manage the spent catalyst wisely will be no harm to the environment.

There are still companies designated to treat spent catalyst by implementing the
Environment Quality Regulations. Thus, it is recommended to store the waste catalyst
safely according to the scheduled waste regulations and handover to Kualiti Alam Sdn.

288
Bhd. for final processing and disposal. A certain amount of charges are imposed for
every tonne of waste disposed as shown in Table 7 .207.

Table 7.207 Disposal Method With The Recpective Price by Kualiti Alam Sdn. Bhd.

Disposal Method Price Per Tonne

Landfill Disposal RM 500

Incineration RM 810 to RM 3,600

Physical or Chemical Treatment RM 1,440 to RM 3,780

Solidification RM 770 to RM 810

The total weight of catalyst per year is 10,000 kg and the incineration method is
chosen for better waste treatment. Thus, the total cost for incineration of amorphous
alumina silica catalyst is RM 36,000 per year.

7.6 Gaseous Waste Treatment

Flare is a method of safely releasing waste gases by combustion. The

combustion of an elevated flare takes place at the top of a pipe or stack, where the
burner and igniter are located. A ground flare is similarly equipped, with the exception
that combustion takes place at or near ground level. Generally, there are four basic
types of gas incineration system which are direct flame incineration, flares, catalytic
incineration, and thermal incineration. In this design, open flaring will be used since the
compounds in this system can rapidly oxidize at high temperature. Flare towers are
employed as the last line of defence in the safe emergency relief systems to minimize
the emission of toxic and dangerous substances as it is designed to enable the reaction
to completion. Open Disposal System is a disposal system that discharges directly from
the relieving device to the atmosphere with no containment other than a short tail pipe.
In the combustion process, the gaseous hydrocarbon reacts with atmospheric oxygen to
form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. Several by-products such as carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, and others dependent upon substances being burnt will be produced. Table
7 .208 shows the composition of stream 21.

Table 7.208 Stream composition of Stream Fuel

Component Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)

289
 Hydrogen ( H 2) 261.9216
Propane ¿ ¿ ) 2,579.5872
Nitrogen ( N 2) 300
Gasoline (C ¿ ¿ 8 H 18)¿ 5,355.4608
Diesel (C ¿ ¿ 16 H 34)¿ 1,4807.5488
Char (C) 1,3231.0656
Residual Oil (C ¿ ¿ 28 H 56 )¿ 25,684.416
Total 62,220

In this process design, only propane and hydrogen gaseous will be sent to flare
for the combustion process. Gasoline and diesel wouldn’t be sent as it is the main
product and by product respectively. Therefore, assume only small amount of 10% of
stream 21 will be sent to flare as gaseous waste since it has the high amount of propane
and hydrogen as referring from Table 7 .208. Table 7 .209 shows the amount of
gaseous waste sent to flare tower.

Table 7.209 Amount of Gaseous Waste Sent to Flare Tower

Component Mass Flowrate (kg/hr)
Propane ¿ ¿ ) 2,579.5872
Hydrogen ¿) 261.9216
Total 2,841.5088

7.6.1 Calculation of Effective Stack Height

The minimum elevated flare height normally used is 30 ft (Sorrels, August

2019). The effective height, H of the flare stack is calculated with the assumptions
below based on the assumptions for the calculation of flare tower height as shown in
Table 7 .210.

Table 7.210 Assumptions for The Calculation of Flare Tower Height

No Details Assumptions Reference
1 Stack height (ft) 90 (Sorrels, August 2019)
2 Stack gas velocity, G (ft/s) 0.25
3 Wind velocity (m/s) 4 (Asian wind energy association, 2020)

290
4 Air temperature 30 (Jamaludin, August 2014)
5 Barometric pressure (mm bar) 1013.25 (Atmospheric pressure, 2017)
6 Stack gas temperature 100 (Chunshan Song, 2004)

Vent Stream Flow Rate, Q

Mass flow from table 7.2: 2841.5088 kg/hr × 0.0367= 104.4076 lb/min
Mass flow gas
Q=
Density vapor
104.4076 lb/min
Q= 3
0.2433lb / ft
Q=¿429.1311 ft 3 /min
Stack gas velocity:
lb
Liquid density, ρl =35.2
ft 3

lb
Vapor density, ρ v =0.2433
ft 3

U =G
√ ρl−ρ v
ρv

U =0.25
√ 35.2−0.2433
0.2433

U =2.9966 ft / s

Minimum vessel cross-sectional area:

Q
A=
s
60 ×U
min

429.1311 ft 3 /min
A=
s
60 × 2.9966 ft / s
min

A=¿ 2.3868 ft 2

Vessel Diameter:

291
Dmin =13.5 √ A

Dmin =13.5 √ 2.3868

D min=20.8565 ft

Dmin =6.3571 m

Dmin =¿250.278 inch

The vessel thickness will be determined from the following:

Table 7.211 Vessel Thickness based on Diameter (inch)

Diameter, d (inches) Thickness, t (inches)
d < 36 0.25
36 < d < 72 0.37
72 < d < 108 0.55
108 < d < 144 0.75
d > 144 1.0

Based on Table 7 .211, the thickness vessel, t is 1.0 inch or 0.0254 m since our
minimum diameter, d > 144 which is 250.278 inch.
Effective Height, Δh = 3 × D = 3 x 6.3571m = 19.0713 m
Physical stack height = 90 ft = 27.432 m
Effective stack height = h + Δh = 27.432 + 19.0713 = 46.5033 m
Hence, the effective flare stack height will be 46.5033 m.

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 Figure 7.112 Self-Supported Flare

The type of flare tower to be used will be self-supported flare tower as shown in
Figure 7 .112 since it is suitable for the height 30 to 100 m. So, it can be accepted as
consideration in designing because our flare height only 46.5033 m. Also, it does not
require wide land space and is significantly more economical than Derrick-supported
flare towers. The summary of the designed flare tower is shown in Table 7 .212.

Table 7.212 Summary of Flare System Design

Summary
Vent Stream Flow Rate, Q 429.1311 𝑓𝑡3/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Minimum Diameter, D 6.3571 m
Thickness of Vessel, t 0.0254 m
Type of Stack Self-Supported
Height of Stack, h 46.5033 m

7.6.2 Costing of Flare

The volume of the flare tower:

π D2 H
V= =π ¿ ¿
4

293
The cost of the flare tower is calculated based on Turton book by using information
below (Turton, 2013):
Table 7.3: Purchased Cost Information of Tower
Equipment K1 K2 K3
Tower 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074

Cost of flare tower:

log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.4974 + 0.4485¿A) + 0.1074¿

A = 1476.0183
log 10 Cp°=¿ 3.4974 + 0.4485log 10 ¿) + 0.1074[log 10(1476.0183)]2

Cp ° = $ 993,965.13

From Table A.7 (Turton, 2013), the bare module factor for carbon steel reactors is F BM
= 1.0.
C BM = Cp ° F BM

C BM = ($ 993,965.13) (1.0)

C BM = $ 993,965.13

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the flare tower in the year 2021.
The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 (Chemical
Engineering, 2018) and CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397. By using the current
exchange of $1 equivalent to RM 4.21.

C 2022= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 993,965.13 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 1,679,225.22

Therefore, the cost for the flare tower is;

Cost of flare tower = $ 1,679,225.22 x 4.21 = RM 7,069,538.18

294
7.7 Conceptual Design of Waste Treatment

7.7.1 Waste Treatment Process

Waste treatment in production plant is the most crucial things need to be

considered to control the environmental pollution to reduce the impact towards the
environment. Different country has a different law and regulation to treat the waste
before transfer to the surrounding or send to the waste collection centre.

Water treatment system that designed that suits the removal specification for
water follow the law regulation before it discharges to the water resource which are sea
water or river nearby. The chemical, oil, suspended solid need to be remove. Different
type of production plant has a different water treatment system to be highlighted. The
water treatment technologies are like water filter screening, activated sludge system,
aerated lagoon, dissolved air flotation and sand filter.

7.7.2 Waste Management Hierarchy

Waste management hierarchy as shown in Figure 7 .113 is a tool used in the

evaluation of processes that protects the environment alongside resource and energy
consumption from most favorable to least favorable actions. The hierarchy establishes
preferred program priorities based on sustainability. To be sustainable, waste
management cannot be solved only with technical end-of-pipe solutions and an
integrated approach is necessary.

Figure 7.113 Hierachy of Waste Management

295
 The waste management hierarchy indicates an order of preference for action to
reduce and manage waste, and is usually presented diagrammatically in the form of a
pyramid. The hierarchy captures the progression of a material or product through
successive stages of waste management, and represents the latter part of the life-cycle
for each product.

The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits
from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. The proper application of
the waste hierarchy can have several benefits. It can help prevent emissions of
greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants, save energy, conserves resources, create jobs and
stimulate the development of green technologies.

Based on the Figure 7 .113, the higher activity moves up the waste
management hierarchy, the more greenhouse achievements there are to be made. Reuse
needs less energy than recycling, although designs which are both flexible and durable
are crucial to its success. Other causes, such as the end user desire for brand “new” can
conspire compared to reuse. Reduce also requires less energy, by designing out waste
before it is generated. Waste, in all its pretenses, is a pointer that systems and processes
could be planned better. It is illogical to pay both financial and energy costs for waste
twice which is first to create it, then to dispose of it.

Furthermore, avoid is the vital zero waste challenge; the top point on the
hierarchy. The rate and volume at which resources are being guided through the human
economy needs to be slow down, alongside with an acknowledgment that all our
material goods have an energy 'price tag'. To successfully get zero waste and climate
change agenda, there needs to be a step further than recycling into the largely
uncultivated territory of the higher end of the hierarchy, to reduce and avoid, with a
specific importance on eco efficiency (the same or greater utility from less material
input).

7.7.3 Description of Wastewater Treatment Plant

The wastewater from the washing tank will be sent to a wastewater treatment
plant. The wastewater might contain plastic wastes, oil, sand, food residual and so on.

296
In the present work, combined physical, chemical and biological methods were utilized
to handle the wastewater. The detail of wastewater treatment will be described in the
following section.

Wastewater For Drain System Before Discharge To The Surrounding

Figure 7.114 Process Flow Diagram for Wastewater from Drain System before
Discharge

Process Description

1. Filter screening
The filter screening used is a mechanical bar screen. This screening works to
eliminate plastics, sticks and other bigger suspended solid in drain system
wastewater before entering the treatment. The design specification for the filter
screening is shown in Table 7 .213.

Table 7.213 Design Specification for Filter Screening

Design Specification
Identification Mechanical Cleaned Bar Screen
Function To remove plastics, sticks and other
bigger suspended solid
Material of construction Stainless steel
Design
Velocity in the channel (m/s) 0.7
No. of screen 2
Spacing between bar (cm) 2
Thick of bar (mm) 10

297
 Number of bar in the screen 28
Cost
Estimated Cost RM 18,471.60 (Alibaba)

2. Wastewater Pit Tank

At wastewater pit, wastewater hold before entering the SBR system for further
treatment. The wastewater will be mixed into one before entering treatment
area. Wastewater will be stored here to avoid overflowing in the SBR reactor.
The design specification for the wastewater pit tank is shown in Table 7 .214.

Table 7.214 Design Specification for Wastewater Pit Tank

Design Specification
Identification Wastewater Pit Tank
Function To hold wastewater before entering
SBR
No of tank 2
Design
Dimension of pit (L x W x H) 20 m x 12 m x 5 m
Peak flow (m3/day) 70 000
Volume holding in one time (m3) 980
Residence time 30 min
Cost
Estimated Cost RM 43,980.00 (Alibaba)

3. Sequence Batch Reactor (SBR)

Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is equalization, aeration, and clarification tank
in one system where it can all be achieved using a single batch reactor and
similar to activated sludge system for wastewater treatment. Plant designs of
SBR should have a minimum of two basins and one flow equalization basin;
however, every design is unique, and one configuration does not fit all
situations. One basin for the treatment and another basin is for, when the first
basin is in a maintenance, overflow when monsoon season or when the effluent
did not reach the standard. The design specification for the sequencing batch
reactor is shown in Table 7 .215.

298
 Table 7.215 Design Specification for Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
Design Specification
Identification Sequencing Batch Reactor
Function To reduce COD in the wastewater
No reactor 2
Design
Influent CODin 1200 mg/L
Effluent CODout < 120 mg/L
Duration cycle 4 – 24 hr
MLSS 3,000 mg/L
Depth of liquid 7m
Dimension (L x W x H) 40m x 40m x 10m
Volume of reactor (m) 16 000
Cost
Estimated Cost RM 22,603.84 (IndiaMart)

4. Chlorination
Lastly, the treated water must be disinfected to make sure harmful pathogens are
killed, while not all pathogens are required to be killed, what is required is
pathogens to be inactivated so they do not replicate or reproduce. The water
must travel a long way to end users, thus, to ensure it is pathogen-safe until then
a certain amount of chlorine is added. Water is stored in storage tanks and ready
for use. The design specification for the chlorination dosing tank is shown in
Table 7 .216.

Table 7.216 Design Specification for Chlorination Dosing Tank

Design Specification
Identification Chlorination Dosing tank
Function To remove unwanted pathogen in
wastewater
Material of construction Stainless steel
Design
Diameter of tank (m) 1.3889
Height of tank (m) 2.0833

299
 Residence time 30 min
Cost
Estimated Cost RM 4,979.10 (Alibaba)

5. Decanter
Sludge from the various stages of treatment is collected in decanter. Sludge from
digesters is a dark-colored, homogeneous, nearly odorless substance with a high
moisture content of 94 to 97 percent. It is dewatered in a decanter centrifuge
extrusion, which produces a solid phase about one-eighth the volume of the
original. The dewatered sludge can subsequently be used as fertilizer or disposed
of in a landfill, or it can simply be discarded as waste. The design specification
for the sludge decanter centrifuge is shown in Table 7 .217.

Table 7.217 Design Specification for Sludge Decanter Centrifuge

Design Specification
Identification Sludge decanter centrifuge
Function To thicken the sludge and eliminate
the sludges
No of lagoon 3
Design
Main drive size 11 kW / 15 hp
Maximum volume of sludge (kg) 375
Dimension (L x W x H) 2m x 0.5m x 0.7m
Cost
Estimated cost RM 28,250.99 (IndiaMart)

7.8 Summary of Total Cost for Waste Treatment

Table 7 .218 shows the summary of cost for solid, gaseous, and wastewater
treatment in the design project.

Table 7.218 Summary of Cost for Solid, Gaseous, and Wastewater Treatment
Solid Waste Treatment
Incineration of Catalyst RM 36,000.00 / year

300
 Gaseous Waste Treatment
Flare Tower RM 7,069,538.18
Wastewater Treatment Design
Filter Screening RM 18,471.60
Wastewater Pit Tank RM 43,980.00
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) RM 22,603.84
Chlorination Dosing Tank RM 4,979.10
Sludge Decanter Centrifuge RM 28,250.99

CHAPTER 8

8.1 Introduction of Economic Analysis

Economic analysis essentially entails the evaluation of costs and benefits. It starts
by ranking projects based on economic viability to aid better allocation of resources.
Engineering economics is the application of economic techniques to the evaluation of
design and engineering alternatives. A major part of chemical engineering design
projects is carried out to provide information from which capital and operating cost
estimates can be made. Chemical plants are built to make a profit, and an estimate of
the investment and production costs is required before the profitability of a project can
be determined. Cost estimation is a specialized subject and a separate profession, but

301
the design engineer must be able to make rough cost estimates in order to choose
between project alternatives and optimize the design.

The profitability analysis of this plant is estimated in this section to better

understand into its income. Previously, the economic potential (EP) calculated in
Chapter 2 was intended to provide a rough approximation of project profitability.
Nevertheless, because it does not consider the time value of money, plant lifetime, or
international and local trade regulations, EP estimation does not accurately predict
actual economic performance. As a result, estimation of the investment with the value
of cost production is required before the profitability analysis of this project can be
assessed.

This segment's calculations are all pre-calculations for the cash flow diagram and
discounted cash flow. In order to analyses the economic performance of this plant, fixed
capital investment, total capital investment, total production cost, and revenue from
sales must be calculated. In Chapter 5, the bare module method was used to estimate the
cost of all the equipment. The profitability analysis is then carried out, which includes
an analysis of the Discounted Cash Flow, Payback Period, Discounted Break-even
Period, Net Present Value, and Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return.
8.2 Grass Root Capital

The term grass roots refer to a completely new facility in which start the
construction on essentially undeveloped land, a grass field. The term total module cost
refers to the cost making small-to-moderate expansions or alterations to an existing
facility.

The total module cost can be evaluated from eqn. ( 8 .54)

C TM =1.18 ΣC BM (8.54)

and the grass roots cost can be evaluated from eqn. ( 8 .55)

C GR=C TM +0.50 ΣC BM (8.55)

302
 The bare module cost for all equipment in the production of Gasoline from
Mixed Plastic Waste is listed in Table 8 .219. The substitutions from Table 8 .219 are
made into eqn. ( 8 .54) and ( 8 .55) to determine the total module cost and the grass
root cost as shown in Table 8 .220.

Table 8.219 Bare Module Cost for All Equipment

Equipment Tag No. CBM° (RM)
Reactor R-101 99,351.02
Distillation Column T-101 1,128 599.12
T-102 897,560.976
Heat Exchanger E-101 780,415.33
E-102 755,677.65
E-103 932,206.06
E-104 3,140,438.74
E-105 827,073.26
E-106 960,894.48
E-107 770,571.68
E-108 844,855.79
E-109 876,713.39
E-110 1,332,602.67
E-111 1,479,775.01
E-112 823,627.93
E-113 1,016,236. 41
E-114 756,586.74
E-115 1,417,817.08
E-116 1,232,376.34
E-117 3,899,659.15
Compressor C-101 1,050,434.58
C-102 109,511.09
C-103 2,698,109.54
Pump P-101 A/B 84,665.67
P-102 91,756.28
P-103 83,791.04
Storage Tank TK-101 811,062.59

303
 TK-102 811,055.69
TK-103 194,447.49
TK-104 204,499.38
TK-105 383,502.96
TK-106 547,881.19
TK-107 778,304.80
Flash Column V-101 560,312.49
Mixer M-101 54,958.91
Washer W-101 86,906.80
Shredder S-101 351,607.35
Dryer D-101 312,948.28
Cyclone CYC-101 1,069,827.00
Cooling Tower T-103 174,900.70
Total Cost 31,218,242.10

Table 8.220 Estimation of Grass Roots Capital Cost

Investment Cost (RM)
Total Bare Module Cost, CBM 31,218,242.10
Total Module Cost, CTM 36,837,525.67
Grass Roots Capital Cost, CGR 52,446,646.72

8.3 Fixed and Total Capital Investment

The fixed capital investment is the total cost of designing, constructing, and
installing a plant and the associated modifications needed to prepare the plant site. The
fixed capital investment is made up of
1. Direct Cost
2. Indirect Cost
3. Working Capital

The direct cost is the cost of purchasing and installing equipment, including all
piping and control systems, as well as expenses for land and service facilities, whereas

304
the indirect cost is the cost paid to contractors and others. Working capital, on the other
hand, was used to keep the plant running. Working capital is the additional money
needed, above what it cost to build the plant, to start the plant up and run it until it starts
earning income. Working capital can vary from as low as 5% of the fixed capital for a
simple, single product process, with little or no finished product storage, to as high as
30% for a process producing a diverse range of product grades for a sophisticated
market, such as synthetic fibres. A typical figure for petrochemical plants is 15% of the
fixed capital cost. Table 8 .221 shows the FCI range direct and indirect cost.

Table 8.221 FCI Range Direct and Indirect Cost

Component Range of FCI (%)
Direct Costs (Onsite)
Purchased equipment 15-40
Purchased equipment installation 6-14
Instrumentation and controls
2-12
installation
Piping installation 4-17
Electrical system installation 2-10
Direct Costs (Inside)
Buildings 2-18
Yard Improvements 2-5
Service facilities installation 8-30
Land 1-2
Indirect Costs
Engineering and supervision 4-20
Construction expenses 4-17
Legal expenses 1-3
Contractor’s fee 2-6
Contingency 5-15

The fixed capital investment cost can be estimated by multiplying the range by
the CGR after selecting the range. Using eqn. ( 8 .56), Table 8.4 summarizes the direct
and indirect costs of fixed capital investment.

305
 Normalized percentage × CGR (8.56)
Cost =
Normalized percentage of purchased equipment

Table 8.222 Total Direct and Indirect Cost

Component Selected Range (%) Cost (RM)
Direct Costs (Onsite)
Purchased equipment 15 7,866,997.01
Purchased equipment installation 6 3,146,798.80
Instrumentation and controls
3
installation 1,573,399.40
Piping installation 5 2,622,332.34
Electrical system installation 3 1,573,399.40
Direct Costs (Inside)
Buildings 6 3,146,798.80
Yard Improvements 3 1,573,399.40
Service facilities installation 10 5,244,664.67
Land 0 0.00
Indirect Costs
Engineering and supervision 10 5,244,664.67
Construction expenses 8 4,195,731.74
Legal expenses 2 1,048,932.93
Contractor’s fee 3 1,573,399.40
Contingency 7 3,671,265.27
Total 42,481,783.84

Next, Table 8 .223 shows the total Fixed Capital Investment by calculated
using eqn. ( 8 .57):

FCI=Total Direct∧Indirect Cost +Working capital (8.57)

Table 8.223 Fixed Capital Investment

Component Cost (RM)
Total Direct and Indirect Cost 42,481,783.84

306
 Grass Root Capital 52,446,646.72
Total Fixed Capital Investment 94,928,430.57

For the working capital, it is estimated to be 15% of the grass-root capital and
the formula is shown as eqn. ( 8 .58):

Working capital=0.15 CGR (8.58)

The total capital investment (TCI) is defined as the sum of fixed capital
investment (FCI) and working capital. The formula is shown as eqn. ( 8 .59):

TCI =FCI+ Workingcapital (8.59)

Table 8.224 Total Capital Investment

Component Cost (RM)

Working Capital 7,866,997.01
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) 94,928,430.57
Total Capital Investment (TCI) 102,795,427.57

8.4 Manufacturing Cost and Total Cost Production

8.5 Cash Flow Analysis

8.6 Profitability Analysis (Financial Ratios)

307
 CHAPTER 9

Conclusion

The plant design for the production of 50,000 MTPA of gasoline via catalytic
pyrolysis of plastic wastes which are polyethylene (PE), poly propylene (PP), and
polystyrene (PS) using amorphous silica alumina catalyst has been discussed
thoroughly in this report. The proposed plant design is accompanied by several
supporting sections such as market survey, site study, screening of synthesis route,
material and energy balance, process synthesis and equipment sizing. This report also
includes process control, HAZOP studies, proposed waste treatment and economic
analysis. Through our market survey, gasoline has a good potential with market
demand. The current market demand and competitors have been also surveyed to
confirm the appropriate place for gasoline production plant. The site selection had been
chosen by applying the scoring method. For this production plant, it is consisting of
reactor, distillation columns, heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, flash column and

308
storage tank as the major equipment while dryer, mixer, and shredder as minor
equipment.

Chapter 1

Extensive market survey was done and it can be estimated that the shortage of
gasoline in Malaysia during the forecast 2021 to 2025 is 3.88 million MT / yr. Next,
there are more than 20 companies in Malaysia that are involving in the main production
of gasoline and every company is going to produce 1.27 million MT / yr. By
considering this project is a new and start-up plant, assuming 4% from the production
capacity in each company is retained for the local use in Malaysia. Therefore, it has
been decided that the production rate to be set at 50,000 MTPA. Catalytic pyrolysis has
been selected as the best method to produce gasoline from the plastic wastes due to the
highest score obtained based on detail evaluation from many aspects. The catalyst
selected is amorphous silica alumina for the process. Furthermore, the mode of
operation selected is semi-batch mode where the pre-treatment is in batch mode and the
production is in continuous mode. After intensive comparison done among 3 site
locations, Teluk Kalong Industrial Park, Terengganu is selected as our plant site
location. This is due to the availability raw materials at close proximity, transportation,
road facilities, cheap land prices as well as reasonable incentives. Besides, detailed
drawing of plant layout is constructed where the plant consists of production area,
warehouses, loading area and waste management plant and all these facilities were
drafted.

Chapter 2

Level 1-3 decision was done based on heuristics. Screening of synthesis routes,
decision of synthesis route, decision on catalyst, decision on process mode were done to
estimate the profit margin for level 1. Based on the profit margin from each synthesis
route, we can conclude that direct hydration of propylene shows the highest EP1 which
is RM 401,446,741 and profit margin which is 90.77% in a year. For level 2 decision,
input and output materials are determined by constructing Block Flow Diagram. Degree
of Freedom (DOF) analysis, Mole Balance in terms of Extent of Reaction,
Stoichiometry and Yield Calculations for Different Conversions are done. From the
graph of selectivity against conversion, it is found that on the catalytic pyrolysis has the

309
most optimum production at 500 ℃, 1 atm, and feed ratio of 3:2:1 (polyethylene to
polypropylene to polystyrene) as the feed reactant ratio. The economic potential 2 is
increased with the conversion of plastic wastes. The highest conversion is that can be
reached at 1.0 conversion with the profit RM 3.5770 x 1010 per year. For level 3 recycle
structure, material balance, reactor design, equipment costing as well as economic
potential 3 are designed. The economic potential 3 is slightly drops down than the
economic potential 2 because some of the profit is used to recover the cost of the
reactor and catalyst based on formula of Economic potential 3. The highest profit that
can be achieved at conversion 1.0 at RM 3.5768 x 1010 per year.

Chapter 3

The process flow diagram was drafted and the selection of separation equipment
is decided upon based on heuristics and research industrial applications. The finalized
separation units are cyclone, flash column and distillation column. The operating
parameters are identified. To ensure that the material and energy balances are accurate,
the simulation were run on Aspen Plus. By comparing the manual calculation with
Aspen Plus simulation, the error for material balance is less than 5% while energy
balance has high deviation with maximum 15.71% error because ideal gas law was
performed on manual calculation and only heat aspect was measured while the
simulation was calculated based on the criteria of compressibility factor of real gas in
different temperature and pressure conditions.

Chapter 4

Heat integration was done based on the pinch technology where the pinch
temperature is 88 °C. During the construction of cascade diagram, the maximum heat
utility required, QH, min is 12,061.25 kW while QC, min is 337.59 kW. Next, a heat
exchanger network was designed and it is found that 71.01% of energy can be
savedThere are total of 17 heat exchangers required to achieve this energy saving. On
the other hand, the cost for electricity was determined to be RM 2,537,808.52 per year,
hot steam which is high pressure steam was calculated to cost about RM 53,295,273.49
per year, and lastly the cost of utility for cooling water plus cooling tower was RM
405,746,717.07 plus RM 46,425.35 per year. Hence, the EP 4 is RM 3.5306 x 10 10 per
year.

310
Chapter 5

All the detailed equipment sizing was done for all the major equipment involved
in the design project. The equipment involved are 1 reactor, 2 distillation columns, 17
heat exchangers, 3 compressor, 3 pumps, 7 storage tanks, 1 flash column, 1 mixer, 1
washer, 1 shredder, 1 dryer, 1 cyclone and 1 cooling tower. Assumption, theoretical
framework was well discussed and the mechanical sizing and rough dimensions of
equipment were obtained. Specification and design of equipment required to carry out
the function of these process units are clearly stated in this chapter along with detailed
calculations attached as appendix.

Chapter 6

Based on the completed PFD, necessary equipment control was identified and
placed onto major equipment. A complete Process & Instrumentation Diagram for the
whole production plant will be drawn by using Microsoft Visio. Furthermore, safety
analysis is summarized and discussed in details such toxicity and flammability of
components involved in the process, Dow Fire & Explosion Index (FEI), Toxicity Index
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) and HAZOP for all major equipment in the design
plant. Possible deviations, causes, consequences and opportunities were identified
through HAZOP. Necessary action or safeguard such as temperature indicator was
recommended on necessary equipment.

Chapter 7

In the production of gasoline, there are 3 types of industrial waste generated are
solid, liquid and gas. The solid waste is came from the catalyst (amorphous alumina
silica) that is used in the fluidized packed bed reactor. The selected method for the
disposal of solid waste is incineration which the cost about RM 36,000 every year. On
the other hand, the wastewater from stream 6 which is washing water from washer will
be sent to a wastewater treatment plant. The filter screen, wastewater pit tank, sequence
batch reactor (SBR), disinfection/chlorination dosing tank, and sludge decanter
centrifuge are designed and the cost is estimated. For gaseous waste which consisted of
hydrogen and propane will be sent to flare tower for the combustion process. The flare

311
tower is designed with specifications such as Vent Stream Flow Rate, Q = 429.1311
ft3/min, Minimum Diameter, D = 6.3571 m, Thickness of Vessel, t = 0.0254 m, Type of
Stack = Self-Supported, and Height of Stack, h = 46.5033 m. The cost of flare tower is
estimated at RM 7,069,538.18.

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Energy and Fuels, 29(4), 2289–2298. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef502919f

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Polymath Code and Results

A1. Polymath Report for Reactor (R-101)

POLYMATH Report
Ordinary Differential Equations

Calculated values of DEQ variables

  Variable Initial value Minimal value Maximal value Final value
1 A1 1.71E+17 1.71E+17 1.71E+17 1.71E+17
2 A2 2.04E+08 2.04E+08 2.04E+08 2.04E+08
3 A3 2.32E+13 2.32E+13 2.32E+13 2.32E+13
4 CA 7.882655 2.388E-09 7.882655 2.388E-09
5 CB 5.255161 0.0004607 5.255161 0.0004607
6 CC 2.627494 4.526E-29 2.627494 4.526E-29
7 CD 0 0 1.500991 1.500991
8 CE 0 0 0.7504955 0.7504955
9 CF 0 0 0.7504955 0.7504955
10 CG 0 0 0.7504955 0.7504955
11 CH 0 0 0.7504955 0.7504955
12 CI 0 0 12.15085 11.26188
13 CT0 15.76531 15.76531 15.76531 15.76531
14 Ea1 2.5E+05 2.5E+05 2.5E+05 2.5E+05
15 Ea2 1.25E+05 1.25E+05 1.25E+05 1.25E+05
16 Ea3 1.85E+05 1.85E+05 1.85E+05 1.85E+05
17 FA 455.95 2.9E-06 455.95 2.9E-06
18 FA0 455.95 455.95 455.95 455.95

319
19 FB 303.97 0.5594774 303.97 0.5594774
20 FB0 303.97 303.97 303.97 303.97
21 FC 151.98 5.496E-26 151.98 5.496E-26
22 FC0 151.98 151.98 151.98 151.98
23 FD 0 0 1822.681 1822.681
24 FE 0 0 911.3405 911.3405
25 FF 0 0 911.3405 911.3405
26 FG 0 0 911.3405 911.3405
27 FH 0 0 911.3405 911.3405
28 FI 0 0 1.368E+04 1.368E+04
29 FJ 178.8 178.8 178.8 178.8
30 FT 911.9 911.9 1.914E+04 1.914E+04
31 k1 2.185732 2.185732 2.185732 2.185732
32 k2 0.7293409 0.7293409 0.7293409 0.7293409
33 k3 7.317665 7.317665 7.317665 7.317665
34 P0 1. 1. 1. 1.
35 R 8.31434 8.31434 8.31434 8.31434
36 r1 17.22937 5.219E-09 17.22937 5.219E-09
37 R1 8.206E-05 8.206E-05 8.206E-05 8.206E-05
38 r2 3.832803 0.000336 3.832803 0.000336
39 r3 19.22712 3.312E-28 19.22712 3.312E-28
40 rA -17.22937 -17.22937 -5.219E-09 -5.219E-09
41 rB -3.832803 -3.832803 -0.000336 -0.000336
42 rC -19.22712 -19.22712 -3.312E-28 -3.312E-28
43 rD 80.57859 0.0006721 80.57859 0.0006721
44 rE 40.28929 0.000336 40.28929 0.000336
45 rF 40.28929 0.000336 40.28929 0.000336
46 rG 40.28929 0.000336 40.28929 0.000336
47 rH 40.28929 0.000336 40.28929 0.000336
48 rI 1355.074 0.0016802 1355.074 0.0016802
49 rJ 0 0 0 0
50 S 0.9243066 0.7273286 0.9243066 0.7344566
51 T 773. 773. 773. 773.
52 W 0 0 10000. 10000.
53 XA 0 0 1. 1.
54 XB 0 0 0.9981594 0.9981594
55 XC 0 0 1. 1.
56 Y 1. 1. 1. 1.
57 y 1. 1. 1. 1.

Differential equations
1 d(FA)/d(W) = rA
  Polyethylene

320
2 d(FB)/d(W) = rB
  Polypropylene
3 d(FC)/d(W) = rC
  Polystyrene
4 d(FD)/d(W) = rD
  Fuel gas 1
5 d(FE)/d(W) = rE
  Fuel gas 2
6 d(FF)/d(W) = rF
  Gasoline
7 d(FG)/d(W) = rG
  Diesel
8 d(FH)/d(W) = rH
  Residual Oil
9 d(FI)/d(W) = rI
  Char
10 d(FJ)/d(W) = rJ
  Nitrogen

Explicit equations
1 FT = FA+FB+FC+FD+FE+FF+FG+FH+FI
2 T = 773
  K
3 R1 = 8.205745e-5
  m3.atm/mol.K
4 R = 8.31434
  J/mol.K
5 A2 = 2.04e8
  min-1
6 P0 = 1
  atm
7 CT0 = P0/(R1*T)
8 y=1
9 CA = CT0*(FA/FT)*y
10 A1 = 1.71e17
  min-1
11 Ea2 = 125000
  J/mol
12 CB = CT0*(FB/FT)*y
13 rJ = 0
14 Ea1 = 250000
  J/mol
15 k1 = A1*exp(-Ea1/(R*T))
  m3/kg.min
16 CC = CT0*(FC/FT)*y
17 r1 = k1*CA
  mol/kg.min
18 k2 = A2*exp(-Ea2/(R*T))

321
19 A3 = 2.32e13
  min-1
20 rA = -r1
21 r2 = k2*CB
22 Ea3 = 185000
  J/mol
23 rB = -r2
24 k3 = A3*exp(-Ea3/(R*T))
25 r3 = k3*CC
26 rC = -r3
27 rD = (2*r1)+(2*r2)+(2*r3)
28 rE = r1+r2+r3
29 rF = r1+r2+r3
30 rG = r1+r2+r3
31 rH = r1+r2+r3
32 rI = (5*r1)+(5*r2)+(65*r3)
33 CD = CT0*(FD/FT)*y
34 CE = CT0*(FE/FT)*y
35 CF = CT0*(FF/FT)*y
36 CG = CT0*(FG/FT)*y
37 CH = CT0*(FH/FT)*y
38 CI = CT0*(FI/FT)*y
39 S = (rF+rG+rH+rI+0.0001)/(rD+rE+rF+rG+rH+rI+0.0001)
40 FC0 = 151.98
  mol/min
41 FA0 = 455.95
  mol/min
42 FB0 = 303.97
  mol/min
43 Y = (FF+0.0001)/((FA0-FA)+(FB0-FB)+(FC0-FC)+0.0001)
44 XA = (FA0-FA)/FA0
45 XB = (FB0-FB)/FB0
46 XC = (FC0-FC)/FC0

General
Total number of equations 56
Number of differential equations 10
Number of explicit equations 46
Elapsed time 1.157 sec
Solution method RKF_45
Step size guess. h 0.000001
Truncation error tolerance. eps 0.000001

322
A2. Polymath Report for DeltaCp

POLYMATH Report
Ordinary Differential Equations

Calculated values of DEQ variables

  Variable Initial value Minimal value Maximal value Final value
1 deltaCp1o 2.686E+06 2.686E+06 2.399E+09 2.399E+09
2 deltaCp2o 2.641E+06 2.641E+06 2.376E+09 2.376E+09
3 deltaCp3o 2.729E+06 2.729E+06 2.434E+09 2.434E+09
4 deltaCpa 4.34E+04 4.34E+04 3.535E+07 3.535E+07
5 deltaCpb 8.804E+04 8.804E+04 5.897E+07 5.897E+07
6 deltaCpc 174.1794 174.1794 1.128E+05 1.128E+05
7 deltaCpd 2.988E+04 2.988E+04 2.495E+08 2.495E+08
8 deltaCpe 7.049E+04 7.049E+04 5.014E+07 5.014E+07
9 deltaCpf 2.544E+05 2.544E+05 1.988E+08 1.988E+08
10 deltaCpg 5.003E+05 5.003E+05 3.349E+08 3.349E+08
11 deltaCph 1319.64 1319.64 6.281E+05 6.281E+05
12 deltaCpi 1.873E+06 1.873E+06 1.601E+09 1.601E+09
13 deltaCpj 2.913E+04 2.913E+04 1.423E+07 1.423E+07
14 T 298. 298. 773. 773.

Differential equations
1 d(deltaCpa)/d(T) = 43400*(1+3e-3*(T-298))
  PE J/kmol
2 d(deltaCpb)/d(T) = (0.151291*T+42.956)*1000
  PP J/kmol
3 d(deltaCpc)/d(T) = 95.12+(0.2653*T)
  PS J/kmol
4 d(deltaCpd)/d(T) = 64979-788.17*T+5.8287*(T^2)-0.018459*(T^3)+2.164e-5*(T^4)
  Fuel Gas I J/kmol
5 d(deltaCpe)/d(T) = 26675+147.04*T
  Fuel Gas II J/kmol
6 d(deltaCpf)/d(T) = 224830-186.63*T+0.95891*(T^2)
  Gasoline J/kmol
7 d(deltaCpg)/d(T) = 370350+231.47*T+0.68632*(T^2)
  Diesel J/kmol
8 d(deltaCph)/d(T) = 1319.64
  Residual Oil J/kmol
9 d(deltaCpi)/d(T) = 6285.4335*T
  Char J/kmol
d(deltaCpj)/d(T) =
10 0.29105e5+0.086149e5*(1.7016e3/T/sinh(1.7016e3/T))^2+0.0010347e5*(909.79/T/
cosh(909.79/T))^2
  Nitrogen J/kmol

323
Explicit equations
1 deltaCp1o = deltaCpd+deltaCpe+deltaCpf+deltaCpg+deltaCph+deltaCpi-deltaCpa
2 deltaCp2o = deltaCpd+deltaCpe+deltaCpf+deltaCpg+deltaCph+deltaCpi-deltaCpb
3 deltaCp3o = deltaCpd+deltaCpe+deltaCpf+deltaCpg+deltaCph+deltaCpi-deltaCpc

General
Total number of equations 13
Number of differential equations 10
Number of explicit equations 3
Elapsed time 0.000 sec
Solution method RKF_45
Step size guess. h 0.000001
Truncation error tolerance. eps 0.000001

324
A3. Polymath Report for Heat Effect

POLYMATH Report
Ordinary Differential Equations

Calculated values of DEQ variables

  Variable Initial value Minimal value Maximal value Final value
1 A1 1.71E+17 1.71E+17 1.71E+17 1.71E+17
2 A2 2.04E+08 2.04E+08 2.04E+08 2.04E+08
3 A3 2.32E+13 2.32E+13 2.32E+13 2.32E+13
4 CA 7.882655 7.882655 15.28371 15.28371
5 CB 5.255161 5.255161 10.18882 10.18882
6 CC 2.627494 2.627494 5.094352 5.094352
7 CD 0 0 0.001191 0.001191
8 CE 0 0 0.0005955 0.0005955
9 CF 0 0 0.0005955 0.0005955
10 CG 0 0 0.0005955 0.0005955
11 CH 0 0 0.0005955 0.0005955
12 CI 0 0 0.0099384 0.0099384
13 Cpa 105.245 56.48637 105.245 56.48637
14 Cpb 159.9039 103.2469 159.9039 103.2469
15 Cpc 0.3001969 0.2008446 0.3001969 0.2008446
16 Cpd 2138.88 54.09476 2138.88 54.09476
17 Cpe 140.3369 85.27187 140.3369 85.27187
18 Cpf 653.5415 302.7406 653.5415 302.7406
19 Cpg 959.3724 571.5875 959.3724 571.5875
20 Cph 1.31964 1.31964 1.31964 1.31964
21 Cpi 4858.64 2504.806 4858.64 2504.806
22 Cpj 31.24622 29.24987 31.24622 29.24987
23 CT0 15.76531 15.76531 30.58039 30.58039
24 deltaCp1o 3.329E+09 7.97E+08 3.329E+09 7.97E+08
25 deltaCp2o 3.336E+09 8.079E+08 3.336E+09 8.079E+08
26 deltaCp3o 3.362E+09 8.006E+08 3.362E+09 8.006E+08
27 deltaH1o 55.41381 55.41381 55.41381 55.41381
28 deltaH2o 83.15373 83.15373 83.15373 83.15373
29 deltaH3o 119.9995 119.9995 119.9995 119.9995
30 deltaHrx1 3.329E+09 7.97E+08 3.329E+09 7.97E+08
31 deltaHrx2 3.336E+09 8.079E+08 3.336E+09 8.079E+08
32 deltaHrx3 3.362E+09 8.006E+08 3.362E+09 8.006E+08
33 Ea1 2.5E+05 2.5E+05 2.5E+05 2.5E+05
34 Ea2 1.25E+05 1.25E+05 1.25E+05 1.25E+05
35 Ea3 1.85E+05 1.85E+05 1.85E+05 1.85E+05
36 EP2 -2.285E+11 -2.285E+11 -2.285E+11 -2.285E+11

325
37 EP3 -2.285E+11 -2.285E+11 -2.285E+11 -2.285E+11
38 FA 455.95 455.949 455.95 455.949
39 FA0 455.95 455.95 455.95 455.95
40 FB 303.97 303.9567 303.97 303.9567
41 FB0 303.97 303.97 303.97 303.97
42 FC 151.98 151.9765 151.98 151.9765
43 FC0 151.98 151.98 151.98 151.98
44 FD 0 0 0.0355314 0.0355314
45 FE 0 0 0.0177657 0.0177657
46 FF 0 0 0.0177657 0.0177657
47 FG 0 0 0.0177657 0.0177657
48 FH 0 0 0.0177657 0.0177657
49 FI 0 0 0.2964844 0.2964844
50 FJ 178.8 178.8 178.8 178.8
51 FT 911.9 911.9 912.2853 912.2853
52 hfoa -5.598E+04 -5.598E+04 -5.598E+04 -5.598E+04
53 hfob -8.372E+04 -8.372E+04 -8.372E+04 -8.372E+04
54 hfoc -1.206E+05 -1.206E+05 -1.206E+05 -1.206E+05
55 hfod 0 0 0 0
56 hfoe -1.047E-06 -1.047E-06 -1.047E-06 -1.047E-06
57 hfof -27.875 -27.875 -27.875 -27.875
58 hfog -44.417 -44.417 -44.417 -44.417
59 hfoh -495.82 -495.82 -495.82 -495.82
60 hfoi 0 0 0 0
61 k1 2.185732 2.914E-16 2.185732 2.914E-16
62 k2 0.7293409 8.421E-09 0.7293409 8.421E-09
63 k3 7.317665 1.308E-11 7.317665 1.308E-11
64 P0 1. 1. 1. 1.
65 R 8.31434 8.31434 8.31434 8.31434
66 R1 8.206E-05 8.206E-05 8.206E-05 8.206E-05
67 r1 17.22937 4.453E-15 17.22937 4.453E-15
68 r2 3.832803 8.58E-08 3.832803 8.58E-08
69 r3 19.22712 6.665E-11 19.22712 6.665E-11
70 rA -17.22937 -17.22937 -4.453E-15 -4.453E-15
71 rB -3.832803 -3.832803 -8.58E-08 -8.58E-08
72 rC -19.22712 -19.22712 -6.665E-11 -6.665E-11
73 rD 80.57859 1.717E-07 80.57859 1.717E-07
74 rE 40.28929 8.586E-08 40.28929 8.586E-08
75 rF 40.28929 8.586E-08 40.28929 8.586E-08
76 rG 40.28929 8.586E-08 40.28929 8.586E-08
77 rH 40.28929 8.586E-08 40.28929 8.586E-08
78 rI 1355.074 4.333E-07 1355.074 4.333E-07
79 rJ 0 0 0 0

326
80 S 0.9243066 0.9144559 0.9974483 0.9974483
81 T 773. 398.5097 773. 398.5097
82 W 0 0 10000. 10000.
83 XA 0 0 2.11E-06 2.11E-06
84 XB 0 0 4.389E-05 4.389E-05
85 XC 0 0 2.277E-05 2.277E-05
86 Y 1. 1. 1. 1.
87 y 1. 1. 1. 1.

Differential equations
1 d(FA)/d(W) = rA
  Polyethylene
2 d(FB)/d(W) = rB
  Polypropylene
3 d(FC)/d(W) = rC
  Polystyrene
4 d(FD)/d(W) = rD
  Fuel gas 1
5 d(FE)/d(W) = rE
  Fuel gas 2
6 d(FF)/d(W) = rF
  Gasoline
7 d(FG)/d(W) = rG
  Diesel
8 d(FH)/d(W) = rH
  Residual Oil
9 d(FI)/d(W) = rI
  Char
1
d(FJ)/d(W) = rJ
0
  Nitrogen
d(T)/d(W) =
1
-(r1*deltaHrx1+r2*deltaHrx2+r3*deltaHrx3)/(FA*Cpa+FB*Cpb+FC*Cpc+FD*Cpd+FE*Cpe+
1
FF*Cpf+FG*Cpg+FH*Cph+FI*Cpi+FJ*Cpj)

Explicit equations
1 y=1
2 FT = FA+FB+FC+FD+FE+FF+FG+FH+FI
3 R1 = 8.205745e-5
  m3.atm/mol.K
4 Ea1 = 250000
  J/mol
5 R = 8.31434
  J/mol.K
6 P0 = 1
  atm
7 CT0 = P0/(R1*T)

327
8 CA = CT0*(FA/FT)*y
9 CB = CT0*(FB/FT)*y
10 A1 = 1.71e17
  min-1
11 A2 = 2.04e8
  min-1
12 CC = CT0*(FC/FT)*y
13 rJ = 0
14 k1 = A1*exp(-Ea1/(R*T))
  m3/kg.min
15 Ea2 = 125000
  J/mol
16 k2 = A2*exp(-Ea2/(R*T))
17 r1 = k1*CA
  mol/kg.min
18 r2 = k2*CB
19 A3 = 2.32e13
  min-1
20 rA = -r1
21 rB = -r2
22 Ea3 = 185000
  J/mol
23 k3 = A3*exp(-Ea3/(R*T))
24 r3 = k3*CC
25 rC = -r3
26 rD = (2*r1)+(2*r2)+(2*r3)
27 rE = r1+r2+r3
28 rF = r1+r2+r3
29 rG = r1+r2+r3
30 rH = r1+r2+r3
31 rI = (5*r1)+(5*r2)+(65*r3)
32 CD = CT0*(FD/FT)*y
33 CE = CT0*(FE/FT)*y
34 CF = CT0*(FF/FT)*y
35 CG = CT0*(FG/FT)*y
36 CH = CT0*(FH/FT)*y
37 CI = CT0*(FI/FT)*y
38 S = (rF+rG+rH+rI+0.0001)/(rD+rE+rF+rG+rH+rI+0.0001)
39 FC0 = 151.98
  mol/min
40 FA0 = 455.95
  mol/min
41 FB0 = 303.97
  mol/min
42 Y = (FF+0.0001)/((FA0-FA)+(FB0-FB)+(FC0-FC)+0.0001)
43 XA = (FA0-FA)/FA0
44 XB = (FB0-FB)/FB0
45 XC = (FC0-FC)/FC0

328
46 hfod = 0
  J/kmol
47 hfoe = -10.468e-7
  J/kmol
48 hfof = -20.875-7
  J/kmol
49 deltaCp1o = -1.184e8-1.249e6+5772.04*(T^2)
  J/mol
50 deltaCp2o = -1.059e8-1.288e6+5762.459*(T^2)
  J/mol
51 deltaCp3o = -1.253e8-1.246e6+5838.132*(T^2)
  J/mol
52 hfog = -37.417-7
  J/kmol
53 hfoh = -495.82
  J/kmol
54 hfoi = 0
  kJ/kmol
55 hfoa = -55981.92
  J/kmol
56 hfob = -83721.84
  J/kmol
57 hfoc = -120567.62
  J/kmol
58 deltaH1o = ((2*hfod + hfoe + hfof + hfog + hfoh + 5*hfoi) - hfoa) / 1000
  J/mol
59 deltaH2o = ((2*hfod + hfoe + hfof + hfog + hfoh + 5*hfoi) - hfob) / 1000
  J/mol
60 deltaH3o = ((2*hfod + hfoe + hfof + hfog + hfoh + 65*hfoi) - hfoc) / 1000
  J/mol
61 deltaHrx1 = deltaH1o + deltaCp1o
  J/mol
62 deltaHrx2 = deltaH2o + deltaCp2o
  J/mol
63 deltaHrx3 = deltaH3o + deltaCp3o
  J/mol
64 Cpa = (43400*(1+3e-3*(T-298))) / 1000
  PE J/mol
65 Cpb = (0.151291*T+42.956)*1000 / 1000
  PP J/mol
66 Cpc = (95.12+(0.2653*T)) / 1000
  PS J/mol
67 Cpd = (64979-788.17*T+5.8287*(T^2)-0.018459*(T^3)+2.164e-5*(T^4)) / 1000
  Fuel Gas I J/mol
68 Cpe = (26675+147.04*T) / 1000
  Fuel Gas II J/mol
69 Cpf = (224830-186.63*T+0.95891*(T^2)) / 1000
  Gasoline J/mol

329
70 Cpg = (370350+231.47*T+0.68632*(T^2)) / 1000
  Diesel J/mol
71 Cph = 1319.64 / 1000
  Residual Oil J/mol
72 Cpi = 6285.4335*T / 1000
  Char J/mol
Cpj = (0.29105e5+0.086149e5*(1.7016e3/T/sinh(1.7016e3/T))^2+0.0010347e5*(909.79/
73
T/cosh(909.79/T))^2) / 1000
  Nitrogen J/mol
EP2 = (FF*114.23*2562.50*60*8000/1000) + (FG*226*2687.50*60*1/1000) +
(FD*2*1502.40*60*1/1000) + (FE*44.1*1502.40*1/1000) +
74 (FH*392*1095.45*60*8000/1000) + (FI*12*832*60*8000/1000) -
(FA*840*500*60*8000/1000) - (FB*840*650*60*8000/1000) -
(FC*1560*500*60*8000/1000)
75 EP3 = EP2 - 5899396.60 - 9900

General
Total number of equations 86
Number of differential equations 11
Number of explicit equations 75
Elapsed time 1.157 sec
Solution method RKF_45
Step size guess. h 0.000001
Truncation error tolerance. eps 0.000001

Appendix B: Process Simulation Report

SEMESTER 1 2021/2022

BKC4913 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN I

330
 SIMULATION REPORT

PRODUCTION OF 50,000 MTPA GASOLINE FROM MIXED PLASTIC

WASTES (PP, PE AND PS) USING CATALYTIC PYROLYSIS

SUPERVISOR: AP. TS. DR. SUMAIYA BINTI ZAINAL ABIDIN @ MURAD

GROUP: A06

NAME STUDENT ID
1. Koo Chun Hong KA18189
2. Reniasha A/P Anballagan KA18066
3. Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti Mohd Tarmizi KA18144
4. Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd Khamri KA18176
5. Luqman Shah Bin Mohammad Shahzar KA18231

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

331
 TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION

TITLE PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENT i

CHAPTER 1 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Plastic Waste Issues 1

1.1.2 Background of Gasoline 2

1.1.3 Application of Gasoline 2

CHAPTER 2 3

2.1 Literature Review 3

2.1.1 Production of Gasoline Via Catalytic Pyrolysis 3

2.1.2 Reaction Kinetics 4

CHAPTER 3 5

3.1 List of Chemical Components Definition 5

CHAPTER 4 7

4.1 Selection of Thermodynamics Model 7

CHAPTER 5 9

5.1 Process Flowsheet Design 9

CHAPTER 6 10

6.1 Raw Material Input 10

6.2 Products Output 11

CHAPTER 7 12

7.1 Summary of Major Unit Operation Model Specification - Reactor 12

CHAPTER 8 19

8.1 Summary of Major Unit Operation Model Specification - Separations 19

8.1.1 Dryer (D-101) 19

8.1.2 Cyclone (CYC-101) 21

8.1.3 Flash Column (F-101) 23

8.1.4 Distillation Column 1 (T-101) 25

8.1.5 Distillation Column 2 (T-102) 29

CHAPTER 9 33

9.1 Model Simulation and Convergence 33

9.2 Simulation Results 36

REFERENCES 38

APPENDICES 43
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

Aspen Plus process simulator is used for the purpose of modelling the process.
Process simulators are used to show the actual processes of the designed processes,
although it is far from reality. Advanced computing technologies, extensive
thermodynamic packages and large component libraries offer process simulators
accurate information on process design and activity. Defining chemical components,
choosing thermodynamics model and method, designing process flow diagram sheets
by selecting proper operating units, evaluating plant capacity and setting input
parameters are the basic steps in the process of modelling and simulation using Aspen
Plus.

1.1.1 Plastic Waste Issues

Plastics are made from synthetic organic polymers and are durable, lightweight,
versatile, and relatively inexpensive to produce, making them one of the most utilised
materials and due to this, the consumption of plastic is increasing worldwide at an
alarming rate of 4% per year (Ivleva et al., 2017; Miandad et al., 2017). Plastic
constitutes the third highest waste source globally, with the total volume of plastic
waste growing in-line with increases in the global population and per capita
consumption (Chen et al., 2021). The plastic manufacturing industry has one of the
highest growth rates of all industries since 2000.

However, the waste plastics had created a very serious environmental challenge
because of disposal of huge quantity. Plastics are not presently biodegradable and are
extremely troublesome components for land filling. Their destruction by incineration
poses serious air pollution problems due to the release of airborne particles and carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Several disposal techniques can impel plastic waste
generation, but they have some limitations. Still, plastic wastes are extensively being
landfilled. These techniques have adverse effects on the environment and release
harmful gases to the earth. Recycling has become a major response to the
environmental challenges facing the plastics industry.

1
 The thermal and catalytic cracking’s are the two different approaches of
chemical recycling, which have been recognized as ideal approaches for converting
waste feedstock to fuel. But, catalytic cracking eco-friendly approach to treat plastic
waste containing carbonaceous materials in the safer way by using catalyst
(Thambiyapillai & Ramanujam, 2021).

1.1.2 Background of Gasoline

Originally, gasoline was a waste product of the refinery process used for producing
kerosene from petroleum. Due to its high combustion energy, it became the preferred
automobile fuel (Kaltschmitt & Deutschmann, 2012). Gasoline is considered as a
crucial fuel in transportation; however, due to the rapid depletion of crude oil resources,
finding an alternative route to produce gasoline from additional resources is essential.
Gasoline is one of the most highly refined products leaving the refinery. Originating
from relatively light fractions (C4–C12), automotive gasoline is the result of blending the
products of a variety of refinery operations, including the products of isomerization,
reforming, cracking, and alkylation reactions.

Gasoline can be said is one of the crucial transportation fuel which it is still having a
high demand of gasoline for transportation even there are more alternative route that
has been discover for transportation resources such as hybrid and solar. As the time
increase, the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for gasoline increase 1.4% within
2021-2026 which the demand is still gradually increase (Mordor Intelligence, n.d.)..
This is because 47% from crude oil world consumption that use gasoline mainly in
transportation and other equipment that used gasoline.

1.1.3 Application of Gasoline

Gasoline, often known as petrol, is a clear, flammable liquid generated from

petroleum that is primarily used as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion
engines. It is primarily made up of organic compounds derived through fractional
distillation of petroleum, which are then augmented with various additions. Generally,
gasoline is used as fuel for transportation - vehicles. The fuel is mixed with air and then
inducted into the cylinder during the intake process in the vehicle’s engine. After the
piston compresses the fuel-air mixture, the spark ignites it, causing combustion. The

2
expansion of the combustion gases pushes the piston during the power stroke. This
combustion of gasoline inside the engine is able to produce the sufficient amount of
energy that is able to drive the vehicle forward. Hence, gasoline can be said is one of
the most widely used fuel since it can provide lower energy costs for consumers, and
ensures the energy security in daily life.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 Production of Gasoline Via Catalytic Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a common technique used to convert plastic waste into energy in the
form of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels (Rashid Miandad et al., 2019). Pyrolysis is also
known as thermal cracking process that happened in the absence of oxygen (Rasul et
al., 2021).Pyrolysis can be either thermal or catalytic. In modern refineries, the catalytic
cracking has long replaced thermal cracking due to higher yields of gasoline and octane
and at the same time less heavy fuel oils and light gases (Cheremisinoff & Haddadin,
2006).

Referring to the Hann & Connock (2020), catalytic cracking is the introduction
of a catalyst (metal oxides, cobalt complexes, silicate zeolites etc.) to lower the process
temperature and increase yields of high value products of the pyrolysis oil. Lower the
process temperature which means lower the activation energy for the reaction. Catalytic
cracking for the plastic wastes recycling is a better alternative way to solve the polymer
waste problem because the process is environmentally friendly compared to landfilling
and incineration. (Martynis et al., 2019). From the point of industrial implementation,
the use of expensive catalysts may affect the economy of the process due to large
amount of catalyst is required in a continuous process (López et al., 2011). So, the
catalytic cracking is only supported when the catalyst cost is practically low.

According to Rama et al. (2020), higher molecules of plastic wastes (PE, PP,
PS) are broken down into smaller molecules which are hydrogen, methane, ethane,
ethylene, propene, propane, n-butane, 1-octane, cyclo-octane, 1-octocosene and carbon
in the end of pyrolysis process. The selected components of both reactant and products

3
stream from the list section in the Aspen Hysys V9 simulator are shown in eqns. (1.1),
(1.2) and (1.3) which represent the thermal cracking reaction of polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS).

36 C 2 H 4 → H 2+C H 4 +C 2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8+C 4 H 10 +C8 H 16 +C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +5 C

(1.2
)

24 C 3 H 6 → 3 H 2 +C H 4 +C2 H 6 +C 3 H 6 +C 3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+ C8 H 16+ C16 H 32+C 28 H 56 +7(1.3

C
)

18 C8 H 8 →3 H 2 +C H 4 +C 2 H 6+ C3 H 6 +C3 H 8 +C 4 H 10+C 8 H 16 +C 16 H 32 +C28 H 56+ 79C

(1.4
)

The yield of thermal pyrolysis of plastic wastes is highly depends on the

temperature. The products distribution can be controlled by changing the temperature.
Based on Ibrahim (2020), lower temperatures tend to produce more liquid and solid
products while higher temperatures favour higher production of gases in the thermal
cracking reactions. Higher temperatures lead to more extensive breakdown of the input,
which in general increases the ability to handle more heterogenous inputs such as mixed
waste, reducing the need for more extensive, and costly, sorting and purification steps
(Hann & Connock, 2020)

2.1.2 Reaction Kinetics

In this catalytic pyrolysis process, fluidized bed that used amorphous silica
alumina catalyst is chosen as the designed reactor. The reactor is operated at 500 ℃ and
1 bar. Next, the chemical reactions used in this catalytic pyrolysis of PE, PP, and PS are
shown in eqns. (2.1), (2.2), and (2.3). The components in the chemical reactions are
representing fuel gas (H2 & C3H8), gasoline (C8H16), diesel (C16H32 & C28H56), and char
(C).

( C 2 H 4 )30 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18+C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5 C (2.1

)

( C 3 H 6 ) 20 →2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5C (2.2
)

( C 8 H 8 )15 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +65 C (2.3

)

4
 On the other hand, all of the chemical equation above are elementary type of
reaction where the rate laws for the respective chemical equation are shown in Table
2.1. According to Fogler (2016), the rate constant can be found using Arrhenius
equation as shown in eqn. (2.4).

k A (T )= A e−E / RT
a
(2.4)

Where A = Pre-exponential factor or frequency factor

Ea = Activation energy, J/mol or cal/mol
R = Gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.K = 1.987 cal/mol.K
T = Absolute temperature, K
All the respective parameters such as pre-exponential factor and activation energy are
obtained from the reaction kinetic properties of thermal cracking of different polymers
in Fuels (2006).

Table 2.1 Rate Model Parameters of Catalytic Pyrolysis Porcess

Rate law A (min-1) Ea (kJ/mol)
PE k1CA 1.71 x 1017 250
PP k2CB 2.04 x 108 125
PS k3CC 2.32 x 1013 185

CHAPTER 3

3.1 List of Chemical Components Definition

Figure shows the list of components that are used in the simulation of catalytic
process of mixed plastic waste. All of these components are called directly from built-in
Aspen pure component databanks. The components that have been listed for this
process are Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Fuel gas 1
(Hydrogen), Fuel Gas 2 (Propane), Gasoline (Octane), Diesel (Hexadecane), Residual
Fuel Oil (1-Octacosene), Char (Carbon), Nitrogen, Oxygen and Water. The PE, PP, and
PS are raw materials while the fuel gas 1, fuel gas 2, gasoline, diesel, residual fuel oil,

5
and char are products. On the other hand, nitrogen is used as inert medium in the reactor
while the air consists of nitrogen and oxygen is used as heating medium in the dryer.

Figure 3.1 List of components

Table 3.1 shows the boiling point and the respective destination of the products
in this process. The main product is gasoline where the targeted capacity to produce is
50.000 MT per year.

Table 3.1 The Boiling Point of Output Components and Their Destinations
Components Formula Boiling Point Destination
Fuel gas 1 (Hydrogen) H2 - 252.9 °C Valuable by-product
Fuel gas 2 (Propane) C3H8 - 42.1 °C Valuable by-product
Gasoline (Octane) C8H18 125.6 °C Primary product
Diesel (Hexadecane) C16H34 286.9 °C Valuable by-product
Residual fuel oil (1-Octacosene) C28H56 423.5 °C Valuable by-product
Char (Carbon) C - Valuable by-product

Since there is solid phase involves in this process, the stream class is required to
change from “Mixed” to the “MIXCIPSD” in the setup of simulation before running the
simulation as shown in Figure 3.2.

6
 Figure 3.2 Selection of Stream Class in Simulation Setup

CHAPTER 4

4.1 Selection of Thermodynamics Model

Thermodynamic models are used to predict various properties of pure

compound and mixture systems, such as enthalpy and phase equilibrium behaviour.
Model selection is influenced by a variety of factors including process species,
compositions, pressure, temperature range, and many others. As the raw materials
involving the plastic wastes which are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and
polystyrene (PS) that consists of real, hydrocarbons, and nonpolar chemical species. By
referring to the recommendations of Eric Carlson and Bob Seader as shown in Figure
4.1 and Figure 4.2 respectively, Peng-Robinson (PENG-ROB) Model is the suitable
thermodynamic model for this catalytic pyrolysis process. This property method is
particularly suitable in the high temperature and pressure and consistent in the critical
region.

7
 Figure 4.1 Guidelines for choosing a property method by using Eric Carlson’s
Recommendations

Figure 4.2 Guidelines for choosing a property method by using Bob Seader’s
Recommendations

On the other hand, the PENG-ROB method is the most suitable property method
for the process that is involving the solid. The PENG-ROB equation of state can be
used to determine the enthalpy and entropy of a fluid or fluid mixture provided that the
specific heat of the pure fluid(s) in the ideal gas state is known as a function of
temperature. Figure 4.3 shows the selection of thermodynamics model for the
simulation process.

8
 Figure 4.3 Selection of Thermodynamics Model

CHAPTER 5

5.1 Process Flowsheet Design

Figure 5.1 shows the process flowsheet design of the whole catalytic process of
the mixed plastic wastes in Aspen V11. Each stream is labelled with number,
temperature (°C) and pressure (bar).

9
 Figure 5.1 Process Flowsheet Design
According to Figure , there are total 37 streams in the process. The process
consists of 3 parts which are pre-treatment, reaction, and separations. First of all, the
pre-treatment process is to remove all the impurities and clean the plastic wastes
involving the shredder, washer, wastewater treatment process, and dryer. Next, the
cleaned plastics will be sent into the reactor for catalytic pyrolysis process. Last but not
least, the pyrolysis oil is further separated using flash column, and distillation column.

CHAPTER 6

6.1 Raw Material Input

Figure 6.1 Input of raw materials

Since the raw materials are in solid phase, the input is set at CI solid. Based on
Figure , the plastic wastes such as PE, PP, and PS are fed to the process based on the
feed ratio obtained from Polymath software which is 3:2:1. The mass flow rate are
27090 kg/h for PE, 18060 kg/h, and 16770 kg/h for PS. The raw materials are fed at 25
°C and 1 bar.

10
 Figure 6.2 Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

According to Figure 6.2, “A distribution function” is ticked and normal type of

distribution function is selected. The value for standard deviation and D50 are 5.277 x
10-6 m and 8.343 x 10-6 m respectively which are obtained from online solid handling
learning video. Then, the PSD curve is calculated and plotted as shown in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 PSD Curves

6.2 Products Output

Figure 6.4 shows the final result of the gasoline produced per year from the
distillation column 1 (T-101). The mass flowrate of the gasoline is 50,107.8 MT per
year which is successfully achieved and meet the target of the design capacity.

11
 Figure 6.4 Mass Flowrate of Gasoline Per Year

CHAPTER 7

7.1 Summary of Major Unit Operation Model Specification - Reactor

The reactor used in this process is fluidized bed reactor, R-101 where the
catalyst used amorphous silica alumina. Inert gas (nitrogen gas) is fed at 300 kg/h to the
reactor as shown in Figure 7.1 (Sahu et al., 2014). This is to create an inert fluidization
medium that is passed through the bed of solid reactants at high enough velocities to
suspend the solid and cause it to behave like a fluid. The nitrogen is then compressed to
1.5 bar and heat up to 500 °C before entering the reactor.

12
 Figure 7.1 Mass Flowrate of Inlet Nitrogen to The Reactor

The RYield is chosen and used as the fluidized bed reactor in this simulation
process. R-101 is operated under 500 C and 1 bar as shown in Figure 7.2 and the
components yield option is selected as shown in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.2 Temperature And Pressure Setting For The Reactor

13
 Figure 7.3 Component Yields Setting For the Reactor

The component yields is calculated based on the manual backward calculation

in mole basis based on the 3 chemical equations that are involving the raw materials of
PE, PP, and PS. The molar flowrate of each component is then converted into mass
flowrate based on respective molecular weight. The yields are mass fraction of each
component in the output stream of the reactor. At the same time, nitrogen is the inert
component in the reactor which does not involve in the chemical reaction.

There are 3 chemical equations involved in this process which are catalytic
pyrolysis of PE, PP, and PS as shown in eqns. (2.1), (2.2), and (2.3) respectively.

( C 2 H 4 )30 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18+C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5 C (2.1

)

( C 3 H 6 ) 20 →2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +5C (2.2
)

( C 8 H 8 )15 → 2 H 2 +C 3 H 8 +C 8 H 18 +C 16 H 34 +C 28 H 56 +65 C (2.3

)

These chemical equations are then insert to the reaction configuration as shown
in Figure 7.4. The reaction class is POWERLAW and each component is set with
respective coefficient based on the chemical eqns. (2.1), (2.2), and (2.3).

14
 Figure 7.4 Reaction Configuration Setting

The kinetic reaction for each chemical eqn. is then set-up. For the pyrolysis of
PE, the value k is 2.8333 x 1015 and E is 59,711.5 cal/mol as shown in Figure 7.5. At the
same time, the concentration exponents of the reactant and products are set based on the
chemical eqn. (2.4) as shown in Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.5 Kinetic Reaction For The Pyrolysis of PE

15
 Figure 7.6 Concentration Exponents For The Pyrolysis of PE

For the pyrolysis of PP, the value k is 3.4 x 10 6 and E is 29,855.7 cal/mol as
shown in Figure 7.7. At the same time, the concentration exponents of the reactant and
products are set based on the chemical eqn. (2.5) as shown in Figure 7.8.

Figure 7.7 Kinetic Reaction For The Pyrolysis of PP

Figure 7.8 Concentration Exponents For The Pyrolysis of PP

For the pyrolysis of PS, the value k is 3.8667 x 10 11 and E is 44,186.5 cal/mol as
shown in Figure 7.9. At the same time, the concentration exponents of the reactant and
products are set based on the chemical eqn. (2.6) as shown in Figure 7.8.

16
 Figure 7.9 Kinetic Reaction For The Pyrolysis of PS

Figure 7.10 Concentration Exponents For The Pyrolysis of PS

Hence, the output result of the products in stream 18 in unit MT/year from R-
101 is shown in Figure 7.11. Also, the summary of R-101 is shown in Figure 7.12.

17
 Figure 7.11 Stream Results for The Reactor

Figure 7.12 Summary for The Reactor

CHAPTER 8

8.1 Summary of Major Unit Operation Model Specification - Separations

8.1.1 Dryer (D-101)

In pre-treatment, the dryer, D-101 is used to remove water from mixed plastic
before entering to the fluidized bed reactor, R-101 for the catalytic pyrolysis process.
Air which consisted of 0.21 oxygen and 0.79 of nitrogen is used as the heating medium
in D-101. 10,000 kg/h of air inlet as shown in Figure is compressed at 1.5 bar and heat
up to 600 °C and then fed into D-101.

18
 Figure 8.1 Mass Flowrate of Inlet Air to D-101

According to Figure 8.2, the dryer is operated in continuous mode and the
convective dryer is chosen. The flows of hot air and the wet plastics are in co-current
direction. The length of the dryer is designed at 4 meter and the residence time is 0.5 hr.
The separation is no significant increase when the length and residence time is further
increase.

19
 Figure 8.2 Specifications of D-101

For the drying curve, dry solid moisture content basis is selected where critical
solids moisture content is 1 x 10-6 and the equilibrium solids moisture content is 1 x 10 -
9
. On the other, “Function” is selected for the normalized drying curve model and the
drying curve shape factor is 0.9 as shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3 Drying Curve Setting for D-101

Hence, almost all the water had been removed from the wet plastics in the outlet
stream (stream 14) where the optimum result is shown in Figure 8.4. Also, the summary
of the D-101 is shown in Figure 8.5.

20
 Figure 8.4 Stream Results for D-101

Figure 8.5 Summary for D-101

8.1.2 Cyclone (CYC-101)

After the pyrolysis reaction, the cyclone, C-101 is used to remove the carbon
solid which is char in the gaseous products. The gaseous products enter CYC-101 after
the reaction in R-101. In the specification tab as shown in Figure 8.6, top stream (19) is
chosen due to the gaseous products will go to the top stream and char will be removed
in the bottom stream (20) of the cyclone. The value for the split fraction is 1.

21
 Figure 8.6 Specification of CYC-101

Next, the key components for the separation is set as shown in Figure 8.7. Fuel
gas 1, fuel gas 2, gasoline, diesel, and residual fuel oil are selected for the top stream
(19) except char.

Figure 8.7 Key Components For CYC-101

Hence, all the char had been removed from the gaseous products in the outlet
stream (stream 19) where the optimum result is shown in Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8 Stream Results for CYC-101

22
8.1.3 Flash Column (F-101)

After removing the char, the flash column, F-101 is to separate fuel gas 1 and
fuel gas 2 in order to separate from the pyrolysis oil. The pressure is set at 0.05 bar
(vacuum pressure) while the vapor fraction is set at 0.53. The specification of F-101 is
shown in Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.9 Specification of F-101

For the results, the outlet stream temperature is -16 °C under 0.05 bar. By
referring to Figure A-1 in Appendices, the melting point of the pyrolysis oil is within -
30 °C to -18 °C. Thus, the pyrolysis oil in this temperature is still in liquid phase. The
result is shown in Figure 8.10 where stream 23 is fuel gas while stream 26 is the
remaining pyrolysis oil. Also, the summary of the F-101 is shown in Figure 8.11.

23
 Figure 8.10 Stream Results of F-101

Figure 8.11 Summary for F-101

8.1.4 Distillation Column 1 (T-101)

Before entering the distillation column 1 (T-101), the pyrolysis oil is reduced to
its dew point temperature which is manually calculated. In this condition, the pyrolysis
is in saturated vapour phase where the feed quantity, q = 0 (Geankoplis, 2014). In T-
101, the main product which is gasoline will be separated as distillate from the
pyrolysis oil. The components are arranged in sequence from lower to higher boiling

24
point before the light key and heavy key are set. Here, the light key is gasoline while
the heavy key is diesel. Next, the light component is fuel gas 2 while the heavy
components are diesel and residual fuel oil. Hence, light component and light key will
be removed as distillate in the top stream while heavy component and heavy key will be
removed as bottom in the bottom stream.

8.1.4.1 DSTWU (T-101)

Gasoline separation tower is first simulated by using DSTWU to determine the

number of stages, feed stage and distillate to feed fraction. The condenser and reboiler
operated at 1 bar. This distillation column is used to separate gasoline and diesel.
Therefore, gasoline is light key with recovery of 0.999 and diesel as heavy key with
recovery of 0.001. The reflux ratio is assumed as 1.5 for the first trial. Figure 8.12
shows the specification of T-101 (DSTWU) while Figure 8.13 shows the result of T-
101 (DSTWU).

Figure 8.12 Specification of T-101 (DSTWU)

25
 Figure 8.13 Result of T-101 (DSTWU)

8.1.4.2 RADFRAC (T-101)

After simulated with DSTWU, RADFRAC is used to simulate for the rigorous
model. Based on the result obtained from T-101(DSTWU), the configuration of T-101
(RADFRAC) is as shown in Figure 8.14, the feed stage is shown in Figure 8.15, and the
condenser pressure is shown in Figure 8.16.

Figure 8.14 Configuration of T-101 (RADFRAC)

26
 Figure 8.15 Feed Stage of T-101 (RADFRAC)

Figure 8.16 Condenser Pressure of T-101 (RADFRAC)

Figure 8.17 shows the result stream of T-101 (RADFRAC). According to the
result, 99.8 % of the gasoline is separated as distillate in the top stream (stream 29) and
98.77 % of mass purity is achieved.

27
 Figure 8.17 Stream Result of T-101 (RADFRAC)

The summary and details of the T-101 (RADFRAC) is then tabulated in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 The Summary of The T-101 (RADFRAC)

T-101 (RADFRAC)
Condenser / Top Stage Performance
Temperature, °C 92.8248
Heat Duty, cal/s -355,528
Distillate rate, kmol/h 46.3321
Reflux rate, kmol/h 69.4982
Reflux Ratio 1.5
Distillate to feed ratio 0.261617
Reboiler / Bottom Stage Performance
Temperature, °C 320.539
Heat Duty, cal/s 1.6443 x 106
Bottoms rate, kmol/h 130.767
Boilup rate, kmol/h 294.17
Boilup Ratio 2.24957
Bottoms to feed ratio 0.738383

28
8.1.5 Distillation Column 2 (T-102)

Before entering the distillation column 2 (T-102), the remaining oil (diesel and
residual fuel oil) is reduced to its dew point temperature which is manually calculated.
In this condition, the pyrolysis is in saturated vapour phase where the feed quantity, q =
0 (Geankoplis, 2014). In T-102, the by-product which is diesel will be separated as
distillate while residual fuel oil will be separated as bottom product. The components
are arranged in sequence from lower to higher boiling point before the light key and
heavy key are set. Here, the light key is diesel while the heavy key is residual fuel oil.
Next, the light component is gasoline. Hence, light component and light key will be
removed as distillate in the top stream while heavy key will be removed as bottom in
the bottom stream.

8.1.5.1 DSTWU (T-102)

Diesel separation tower is first simulated by using DSTWU to determine the

number of stages, feed stage and distillate to feed fraction. The condenser and reboiler
operated at 1 bar. This distillation column is used to separate diesel and residual fuel
oil. Therefore, diesel is light key with recovery of 0.999 and residual fuel oil as heavy
key with recovery of 0.001. The reflux ratio is assumed as 1.5 for the first trial. Figure
8.18 shows the specification of T-102 (DSTWU) while Figure 8.19 shows the result of
T-102 (DSTWU).

29
 Figure 8.18 Specification of T-102 (DSTWU)

Figure 8.19 Result of T-102 (DSTWU)

8.1.5.2 RADFRAC (T-102)

After simulated with DSTWU, RADFRAC is used to simulate for the rigorous
model. Based on the result obtained from T-102 (DSTWU), the configuration of T-102
(RADFRAC) is as shown in Figure 8.20, the feed stage is shown in Figure 8.21, and the
condenser pressure is shown in Figure 8.22.

30
 Figure 8.20 Configuration of T-102 (RADFRAC)

Figure 8.21 Feed Stage of T-102 (RADFRAC)

Figure 8.22 Condenser Pressure of T-102 (RADFRAC)

Figure 8.23 shows the result stream of T-102 (RADFRAC). According to the
result, 99.64 % of the diesel is separated as distillate in the top stream (stream 34) and
99.31 % of mass purity is achieved. At the same time, 99.64 % of the residual fuel oil is
separated as bottom in the bottom stream (stream 36) and 99.79 % of mass purity is
achieved.

31
 Figure 8.23 Stream Result of T-102 (RADFRAC)

The summary and details of the T-102 (RADFRAC) is then tabulated in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2 The Summary of The T-102 (RADFRAC)

T-102 (RADFRAC)
Condenser / Top Stage Performance
Temperature, °C 285.171
Heat Duty, cal/s -590,805
Distillate rate, kmol/h 65.371
Reflux rate, kmol/h 98.0568
Reflux Ratio 1.5
Distillate to feed ratio 0.499906
Reboiler / Bottom Stage Performance
Temperature, °C 422.64
Heat Duty, cal/s 1.16814 x 106
Bottoms rate, kmol/h 65.3958
Boilup rate, kmol/h 230.718
Boilup Ratio 3.52802
Bottoms to feed ratio 0.500094

32
 CHAPTER 9

9.1 Model Simulation and Convergence

The model simulation is simulated successfully, and the result is available in the
Aspen Plus Simulation V11 without errors. After trial and error, the production of MTA
gasoline has been achieved with 27,090 kg/h of PE, 18,060 kg/h of PP, 16,770 kg/h of
PS, 300 kg/h of nitrogen at 500 °C in R-101. The steps to carry out convergence are
shown in the following figures.

Figure 9.1 Plastic Wastes Feed In kg/h

Figure 9.2 Nitrogen Feed In kg/h

33
 Figure 9.3 Operating Temperature and Pressure of R-101

Figure 9.4 Stream Results of Gasoline in MT/y

Figure 9.5 shows the convergence of simulation. The convergence method is by

using Tear Stream where Wegstein Method is used. All the variables are converged
completely without errors and the error of convergence is below 1%.

34
Figure 9.5 Convergence of The Simulation

35
9.2 Simulation Results

Figures below shows the result for each of the stream in this simulation catalytic pyrolysis process.

Figure 9.6 The Summary Result of Stream 1 to Stream 9

36
Figure 9.7 The Summary Result of Stream 10 to Stream 18

Figure 9.8 The Summary Result of Stream 19 to Stream 27

Figure 9.9 The Summary Result of Stream 28 to Stream 37

37
 REFERENCES

Abdel-Shafy, H. I., & Mansour, M. S. M. (2018). Solid waste issue: Sources,

composition, disposal, recycling, and valorization. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum,
27(4), 1275–1290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2018.07.003

Abnisa, F., & Wan Daud, W. M. A. (2014). A review on co-pyrolysis of biomass: An

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APPENDICES

42
43
Figure A-1 The Material Safety Data Sheet of Pyrolysis Fuel Prepared By ILO and
WHO (2021)

Name of Panel Examiner : Dr. Liang Yong Yeow

No Comment Explanation & clarification (C10)
1. Chapter 1: -
Written well
2. Chapter 2: Will do improvement next time
Look like summary, no critical review
3. Chapter 3: -
Acceptable
4. Chapter 4: Will do improvement next time
Reason for choosing PENG ROBINSON
is not adequate
5. Chapter 5: -
Ok
6. Chapter 7: -
Ok
7. Chapter 9: Will do improvement next time
Ok but more discussion is needed

44
 Appendix C: Lesson Learned Report Presentation 1

PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN I (BKC4913)

LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT

GROUP NUMBER : A06

PRODUCTION OF 50,000 MTPA GASOLINE FROM MIXED
PLASTIC WASTES (PP, PE AND PS) USING CATALYTIC
PROJECT TITLE :PYROLYSIS

NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: PM Dr Noor Asma Fazli Abdul Samad

No Comment Explanation & clarification (C10)

[PO10, BT- P6]
1. The use of PP, PE and PS as raw - If using 1 type of raw material,
material will produce different grade there might be have the possibility
and quality of gasoline? How do you to obtain the inconsistent grade of
ensure you get consistent grade of product. This is mainly due to the
gasoline using these mixture? Provide physical and chemical
your answer with valid references. composition of raw materials
which we are dealing with the
plastic wastes.
- For example like LDPE which is
just a main type and category
only. Many products can be
categorized as LDPE such as
grocery bags, wrapping, stretch
film, flexible container lids……
Their physical and chemical
properties are various and
different. And the quality for each
product will be different too
which are highly depended on
their raw materials.
-But, we can monitor the quality
of the gasoline per batch.
2. Data given was based in waste - Will do the correction on it and
generation in Malaysia. Where is the the correction is shown in the
data of PP, PE and PS? Support your section 1.1.2.
answer with statistics of PP, PE and PS
in Malaysia.
3. How do you provide the rating for site - We have put the comprehensive
selection and synthesis route selection? justification for the ranking in
It is not clear on how the rating is each aspect in the PD report.
330
 given. Justify it with reference. - The details can be referred in the
Table 1 .10 and the description
for the ranking is including in
every aspect.
4. You compare the mode between - We agree with the comment and
continuous and batch? In the end you we have do the improvement in
choose semi batch which is confusing. the description on the decision in
You should compare three different order to make it clearer to the
modes: continuous, semi-batch and reader. The comparison is done
batch for fair comparison. Please prove based on pre-treatment process,
semi-batch application is feasible for reaction, and separation process.
gasoline production. Provide your We have highlighted the semi-
answer with valid references batch option in the section 2.1.4.
5. Manual calculation procedures - Will do the correction on it and
particularly for reactor and distillation the correction is done in step by
column are not specified and stated step to show the details of
which is confusing. calculation for the reactor and
distillation columns (dc). The step
of calculation can be referred to
the section 3.2.11 while the dc1 is
in the section 3.2.22 and dc 2 is in
the section 3.2.36.
6. Why not using the tariff in Malaysia for - Will do correction once the latest
calculating steam and cooling water? tariff in Malaysia for calculating
steam and cooling water are
found.
Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required

331
 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN I (BKC4913)
LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT

GROUP NUMBER : A06

PRODUCTION OF 50,000 MTPA GASOLINE FROM MIXED
PLASTIC WASTES (PP, PE AND PS) USING CATALYTIC
PROJECT TITLE :PYROLYSIS

NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: Ir Dr Mohd Sabri Mahmud

No Comment Explanation & clarification (C10)

[PO10, BT- P6]
1. Method of site selection is wrong - We actually have put the
comprehensive justification for
the ranking in each aspect in the
PD report and can be referred in
Table 1 .10.
- Will do correction for the
justification of location for raw
material availability in site
selection.
2. Cost of catalyst need to be divided by - We agree with the suggestion
year of use to annualize it. The cost of and will do the correction on it.
reactor should be divided by 3 years of The correction for reactor is done
RoI. in section 2.3.6 while for the
catalyst is done in section 2.3.7.
3. Discussion of input should be clear - Will do the correction on it. The
because you are dealing with waste detail for the plastic wastes for
treatment. statistics and market survey had
been done in section 1.1.2 and
1.3.1 respectively.
4. Yield of the main product is very low. - The synthesis route is not the
Revising the synthesis route should be main cause that affect the yield of
considered. main product becomes low.
- This is due to we are using the
representative component to
represent the whole range of
product. For example, C8H18 is
used to represent the gasoline (C4
to C12) while C16H34 is used to
represent diesel (C8 to C28).
- So when multiply with the molar
mass, the component with higher
332
 C will having the greater mass
flowrate.
- In reality, the chemical reaction
will be much complicated and
super long. The physical and
chemical properties will be
various that highly depended on
each raw materials. Hence, that is
already out of student’s ability to
solve this kind of project unless
the student is provided with the
references for all related
information.
Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required

333
 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN I (BKC4913)
LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT

GROUP NUMBER : A06

PRODUCTION OF 50,000 MTPA GASOLINE FROM MIXED
PLASTIC WASTES (PP, PE AND PS) USING CATALYTIC
PROJECT TITLE :PYROLYSIS

NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: Dr. Jun Haslinda Hj. Shariffuddin

No Comment Explanation & clarification (C10)

[PO10, BT- P6]
1. Plant layout: - To burn excessive and unwanted
- Why do you have flare? gaseous product.
2. Please show calculation to justify why - Will do the correction on
50,000 MTP showing the calculation for the
My suggestion- to focus on one type of capacity and the correction had
waste been done and shown in the
section 1.3.7.4.
- If using 1 type of raw material,
there might be have the possibility
to obtain the inconsistent grade of
product. This is mainly due to the
physical and chemical composition
of raw materials which we are
dealing with the plastic wastes.
- For example like LDPE which is
just a main type and category only.
Many products can be categorized
as LDPE such as grocery bags,
wrapping, stretch film, flexible
container lids……Their physical
and chemical properties are various
and different. And the quality for
each product will be different too
which are highly depended on their
raw materials.
-But, we can monitor the quality of
the gasoline per batch.
3. Site selection: - Will do correction for the
- Justify your location for raw justification of location for raw
material availability material availability in site

334
 - Put the most significant selection.
justification for selecting site - We have done the summary for
site selection regarding the most
in section 1.5.3 based on Table 1
.10.
4. PFD- maybe should modify the reactor - The recycle stream of the
part as suggested in the presentation unreacted plastics, catalyst and
char can be considered to
implement.
- But the suggestion of using sieve
type of separator after the reactor
doesn’t suitable to separate the
catalyst from the char (after
discussed with SV PD).
- Will do more study and research
on this recycle issue.
Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required

335
Appendix D: Manual Calculation of Energy Balance

D.1 Shredder (S-101)

Figure D.1 shows the schematic diagram of shredder (S-101) while Table D-1
shows the summary of energy balance of S-101.
PE (s)
PP (s)
25 °C 2 PS (s)
1 atm Water (l)
S-101

PE (s) 25 °C
PP (s) 3 1 atm
PS (s)
Water (l)

Figure D.1 Schematic Diagram of S-101

Table D-1 Energy Balance of S-101

References: PE (s), PP (s), PS (s), Water (l) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ^˙ ¿ kJ
H
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols ) ^
H out ( )
kJ
mol
Stream 4 Stream 5
PE (s) 8.95833 0 8.95833 0
PP (s) 5.97222 0 5.97222 0
PS (s) 2.986111 0 2.986111 0
Water (l) 0.015419 0 0.015419 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ 0 kW

336
D.2 Washing Tank (W-101)

Figure D.2 shows the schematic diagram of washing tank (W-101) while
Table D-2 shows the summary of energy balance of W-101.

25 °C PE (s)
1 atm PP (s)
4 PS (s)
Water (l)
25 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
10 5
Water (l) W-101 Water (l)

PE (s)
25 °C PP (s)
6
1 atm PS (s)
Water (l)

Figure D.2 Schematic Diagram of W-101

Table D-2 Energy Balance of W-101

References: PE (s), PP (s), PS (s), Water (l) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )
^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 4 Stream 6
PE (s) 8.95833 0 8.95833 0
PP (s) 5.97222 0 5.97222 0
PS (s) 2.986111 0 2.986111 0
Water (l) 0.015419 0 9.54745 0
Stream 10 Stream 5
Water (l) 954.745 0 945.213 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿ 0 kW

337
D.3 Pump 1 (P-101 A/B)

Figure D.3 shows the schematic diagram of pump 1 (P-101 A/B) while Table
D-3 shows the summary of energy balance of P-101 A/B.

25 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
7 8
Water (l) Water (l)
P-101 A/B

Figure D.3 Schematic Diagram of P-101 A/B

Table D-3 Energy Balance of P-101 A/B

References: Water (l) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Water (l) 945.213 0 954.213 0

*For liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very
small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .
a
Water (l, 25 °C, 1 atm) Water ( l , 25 °C, 1.5 atm)

^ ∆ P= 1 1 ×105 Pa J 1 kg 18 g 1 kJ
a=V × ( 1.5−1 ) atm × × × × ×
kg 1 atm Pa . m 1000 g mol 1000 J
3
1× 1000 3
m
^
H 1=0.0009 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

338
D.4 Mixer (M-101)

Figure D.4 shows the schematic diagram of mixer (M-101) while Table D-4
shows the summary of energy balance of M-101.

25 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
9 10
Water (l) Water (l)

25 °C
8 Water (l)
1.5 atm

Figure D.4 Schematic Diagram of M-101

Table D-4 Energy Balance of M-101

References: Water (l) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols )H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )
^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 8 Stream 10
Water (l) 945.213 0 954.745 0
Stream 9
Water (l) 9.532 ^
H1

*For liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very
small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .
a
Water (l, 25 °C, 1 atm) Water ( l , 25 °C, 1.5 atm)
5
^ ∆ P= 1 ( ) 1 ×10 Pa J 1 kg 18 g 1 kJ
a=V × 1.5−1 atm × × × × ×
kg 1 atm Pa . m 1000 g mol 1000 J
3
1× 1000 3
m
^
H 1=0.0009 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

339
D.5 Compressor 1 (C-101)

Figure D.5 shows the schematic diagram of compressor 1 (C-101) while Table
D-5 shows the summary of energy balance of C-101.
25 °C 75.65 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
12 13
Air (g) Air (g)
C-101

Figure D.5 Schematic Diagram in C-101

Table D-5 Energy Balance of C-101

References: Air (g) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Air (g) 96.2821 0 96.2821 ^
H
1

*For gas state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very small
so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

Air (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) Air (g, 75.65 °C, 1.5 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
Air (g, 25 °C, 1.5 atm) a

75.65
H 1= ∫ ( 28.94 × 10 ) + ( 0.4147× 10 ) T + ¿¿ ¿ 1.4768 kJ /mol
^ −3 −5

25

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q=¿Q=¿ 142.1894 kW

D.6 Heater - Air (E-101)

Figure D.6 shows the schematic diagram of heater - air (E-101) while Table
D-6 shows the summary of energy balance of E-101.
25 °C 600 °C
1.5 atm 1.5 atm
340
 13 14
Air (g) Air (g)
E-101

Figure D.6 Schematic Diagram of E-101

Table D-6 Energy Balance of E-101

References: Air (g) at 25 °C and 1.5 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Air (g) 96.2821 0 96.2821 ^
H
1

Air (g, 25 °C, 1.5 atm) Air (g, 600 °C, 1.5 atm)

600
H 1= ∫ ( 28.94 × 10 ) + ( 0.4147 × 10 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 151.8458 kJ /mol
^ −3 −5

25

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿Q=¿14923.725 kW

D.7 Dryer (D-101)

Figure D.7 shows the schematic diagram of dryer (D-101) while Table D-7
shows the summary of energy balance of D-101.

273 °C Air (g)

1 atm Water (g)
15
25 °C 50 °C
1 atm 1 atm
11 D-101 16
PE (s) PE (s)
PP (s) PP (s)
PS (s) PS (s)
Water (l) 341
 14
600 °C
1.5 atm Air (g)

Figure D.7 Schematic Diagram of D-101

Table D-7 Energy Balance of D-101

References: PE (s), PP (s), PS (s), Water (l), Air (g) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
PE (s) 8.95833 0 8.95833 ^
H2
PP (s) 5.97222 0 5.97222 ^
H3
PS (s) 2.986111 0 2.986111 ^
H4
Water (g) 9.54745 0 9.54745 ^
H5
Air (g) 96.2821 ^
H1 96.2821 ^
H6

*For gas state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very small
so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

Air (g, 25 °C, 1.5 atm) Air (g, 600 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
Air (g, 25 °C, 1 atm)

^
H 1=0.0176 kJ /mol
50
H 2=∫ ( 125 ×10−3 ) dt
^
25

¿ 0.0017 kJ /mol
50
H 3=∫ ( 111.8 × 10 ) dt
^ −3

25

¿ 0.0032 kJ /mol
50
H 4 =∫ ( 126.5 ×10−3 ) dt
^
25

¿ 0.0064 kJ /mol

^
H 5=0.3066 kJ /mol
^
H 6=0.2620 kJ /mol

342
Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿
Q= [( 8.95833× 0.0017 ) + ( 5.97222× 0.0032 ) + ( 2.986111× 0.0064 ) + ( 9.54745 × 0.3066 ) + ( 96.2821× 0.2620 )
Q=¿26.5120 kW

D.8 Reactor (R-101)

Figure D.8 shows the schematic diagram of fluidized bed reactor (R-101)
while Table D-8 shows the summary of energy balance of R-101.
500 °C
1 atm H2 (g)
21 C3H8 (g)
50 °C C8H18 (g)
1 atm C16H34 (g)
17 C28H56 (g)
PE (s) R-101 N2 (g)
PP (s) C (s)
PS (s)

500 °C
1.5 atm
20
N2 (g)

Figure D.8 Schematic Diagram of R-101

Table D-8 Summary of Energy Balance of R-101

References: H2 (g), C3H8 (g), C8H18 (g), C16H34 (g), C28H56 (g), N2 (g), C (s), PE (s), PP (s),
PS (s) at 50 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
PE (s) 8.95833 ^
H - -
1

PP (s) 5.97222 ^
H2 - -
PS (s) 2.986111 ^
H - -
3

H2 (g) - 0 36.0914 ^
H 5

C3H8 (g) - 0 16.2496 ^

H6
C8H18 (g) - 0 13.023 ^
H 7

C16H34 (g) - 0 18.1642 ^

H8
C28H56 (g) - 0 18.1655 ^
H 9

343
 C (s) - 0 305.994 ^
H 10
N2 (g) 2.97476 ^
H 2.97476 ^
H
4 11

*For gas state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very small
so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

In a reactive system, heat of formation, Hf for each components is required to

identify the enthalpy change. The Hf for each components are referring to Table
3 .76.

50
H f ) PE +∫ Cp dt
H 1=( delta ^
^
50

¿−0.05598 kJ /mol
50
H f ) PP +∫ Cp dt
H 2=( delta ^
^
50

¿−0.08372 kJ /mol
50
H f ) PS +∫ Cp dt
H 3=( delta ^
^
50

¿−0.1206 kJ /mol

N2 (g, 50 °C, 1 atm) N2 (g, 500 °C, 1.5 atm)

a ^ ∆ P≈0
N2 (g, 500 °C, 1 atm) V

500
a=∫ ( 29 ×10 ) + ( 0.2199× 10 ) T + ¿¿
−3 −5

50

H 4 =( delta H
¿ 13.5155 kJ /mol ^ ^ f ) N 2 +13.5155+0

¿ 13.5155 kJ /mol

500
^ H f ) H + ∫ Cp dt
H 5=( delta ^ 2
50

500
¿ 0+ ∫ ( 28.84 × 10 ) + ( 0.00765 ×10 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.021 kJ /mol
−3 −5

50

500
H f ) C 3 H 8 + ∫ Cpdt
H 6=( delta ^
^
50

344
 500
¿−10.468× 10 + ∫ (28.277 )+ ( 0.11600 ) T +¿ ¿¿−6.3945 kJ /mol
1

50

500
H f ) C 8 H 18 + ∫ Cp dt
H 7=( delta ^
^
50

500+273
1
¿−20.875× 10 +8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 × 10−3 ) T +¿ ¿ ¿−14.8344 kJ /mol
25 +273

500
H f ) C 16 H 34 + ∫ Cp dt
H 8=( delta ^
^
50

500
¿−37.417 ×10 + ∫ ( 131.75 )+ ( 0.67397 ) T +¿ ¿¿−32.3085 kJ /mol
1

50

500
H f ) C 28 H 56+ ∫ Cp dt
H 9=( delta ^
^
50

500
¿−495.82 ×10 + ∫ (−25.555 ) + ( 2.64380 ) T + ¿ ¿¿−51.408 kJ /mol
−6

50

500
^ f ) + ∫ Cp dt
H 10=( delta H
^
C
50

500
¿ 0+ ∫ ( 11.18 ×10 )+ ( 1.095× 10 ) T + ¿ ¿¿−0.021 kJ /mol
−3 −5

50

500
^ f ) + ∫ Cpdt
H 11=( delta H
^
N2
50

500
¿ 0+ ∫ ( 29 ×10 ) + ( 0.2199 ×10 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 13.5155 kJ /mol
−3 −5

50

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (36.0914 ×−0.021 )+ ( 16.2496×−6.3945 ) + ( 13.023×−14.8344 ) + ( 18.1642×−32.3085 )+ (18.1655 ×51
Q=¿-1823.63 kW

D.9 Compressor 2 (C-102)

Figure D.9 shows the schematic diagram of compressor 2 (C-102) while Table
D-9 shows the summary of energy balance of C-102.
25 °C 75.78 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
18 345 19
 N2 (g) N2 (g)
C-102

Figure D.9 Schematic Diagram in C-102

Table D-9 Energy Balance of C-102

References: N2 (g) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 ^
H1

*For gas state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very small
so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

N2 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) N2 (g, 75.78 °C, 1.5 atm)

^
V ∆ P≈0
N2 (g, 25 °C, 1.5 atm) a
75.78
H 1= ∫ ( 29 ×10 ) + ( 0.2199 ×10 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 1.4790 kJ /mol
^ −3 −5

25

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ ( 2.97476 × 1.4790 ) ] −0Q=¿ 4.3997 kW

D.10 Heater - Nitrogen (E-102)

Figure D.10 shows the schematic diagram of heater - nitrogen (E-102) while
Table D-10 shows the summary of energy balance of E-102.
75.78 °C 500 °C
1.5 atm 1 atm
19 20
N2 (g) N2 (g)
E-102

Figure D.10 Schematic Diagram of E-102

Table D-10 Energy Balance of E-102

References: N2 (g) at 75.78 °C and 1 atm
Components Inlet Outlet

346
 ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 ^
H1

*For gas state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very small
so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

N2 (g, 75.78 °C, 1 atm) N2 (g, 500 °C, 0.05 atm)

^ ∆ P≈0
V
N2 (g, 75.78 °C, 1.5 atm) a
500
H 1= ∫ ( 29 ×10 ) + ( 0.2199 ×10 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 1424.2796 kJ /mol
^ −3 −5

75.78

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q= [ (2.97476 ×1424.2796) ] −0Q=¿4236.89 kW

D.11 Cyclone (CYC-101)

Figure D.11 shows the schematic diagram of cyclone (CYC-101) while Table
D-11 shows the summary of energy balance of CYC-101.
500 °C
1 atm
24
H2 (g)
C3H8 (g)
500 °C
C8H18 (g)
1 atm
C16H34 (g)
21
H2 (g) C28H56 (g)
C3H8 (g) N2 (g)
C8H18 (g) CYC-101
500 °C
C16H34 (g)
1 atm
C28H56 (g) 22
N2 (g) N2 (g)
C (s)
Figure D.11 Schematic Diagram of CYC-101

Table D-11 Energy Balance of CYC-101

References: H2 (g), C3H8 (g), C8H18 (g), C16H34 (g), C28H56 (g), N2 (g), C (s) at 500 °C and
1 atm
Components Inlet Outlet

347
 ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 0
C3H8 (g) 16.2496 0 16.2496 0
C8H18 (g) 13.023 0 13.023 0
C16H34 (g) 18.1642 0 18.1642 0
C28H56 (g) 18.1655 0 18.1655 0
C (s) 305.994 0 305.994 0
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 0

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q=¿0 kW

D.12 Cooler - Gaseous Products (E-103)

Figure D.12 shows schematic diagram of cooler - gaseous products (E-103)

while Table D-12 shows the summary of energy balance of E-103.
500 °C 25°C
1 atm 1 atm
24 25
H2 (g) H2 (g)
C3H8 (g) E-103 C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g) C8H18 (g)
C16H34 (g) C16H34 (g)
C28H56 (g) C28H56 (g)
N2 (g) N2 (g)

Figure D.12 Schematic Diagram of E-103

Table D-12 Energy Balance of E-103

References: H2 (g), C3H8 (g), C8H18 (g), C16H34 (g), C28H56 (g), N2 (g) at 500 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 ^
H 1

C3H8 (g) 16.2496 0 16.2496 ^

H2
C8H18 (g) 13.023 0 13.023 ^
H 3

C16H34 (g) 18.1642 0 18.1642 ^

H4
C28H56 (g) 18.1655 0 18.1655 ^
H 5

N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 ^

H6

348
 25
H 1= ∫ ( 28.84 × 10−3 ) + ( 0.00765 ×10−5 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.0042 kJ /mol
^
500

25
H 2= ∫ ( 28.277 ) + ( 0.11600 ) T + ¿ ¿¿−8.6303 kJ /mol
^
500

25+273
^
H 3=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿
500+273

¿−19.5499 kJ /mol
25
H 4 =∫ ( 131.75 )+ ( 0.67397 ) T +¿ ¿¿−43.6722 kJ /mol
^
500

25
H 5= ∫ (−25.555 ) + ( 2.64380 ) T + ¿ ¿¿−68.1404 kJ /mol
^
500

25
H 6= ∫ ( 29 ×10 ) + ( 0.2199 ×10 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.0042 kJ /mol
^ −3 −5

500

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (36.0914 ×−0.0042)+(16.2496 ×−8.6303)+(13.023 ×−19.5499)+(18.1642 ×−43.6722)+(18.1655 ×
Q=¿-2679.032 kW

D.13 Cooler - Char (E-104)

Figure D.13 shows schematic diagram of cooler - char (E-104) while Table D-
13 shows the summary of energy balance of E-104.

500 °C 25°C
1 atm 1 atm
22 23
C (s) C (s)
E-104

Figure D.13 Schematic Diagram of E-104

Table D-13 Energy Balance of E-104

References: C (s) at 500 °C and 1 atm
Components Inlet Outlet

349
 ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Char (s) 305.994 0 305.994 ^
H1

25
H 1= ∫ ( 11.18 ×10 )+ ( 1.095× 10 ) T + ¿ ¿
^ −3 −5

500

¿−6.5021 kJ / mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q= [ (305.994 ×−6.5021) ] −0Q=¿-1989.60 kW

D.14 Flash Column (V-101)

Figure D.14 shows the schematic diagram of flash column (V-101) while
Table D-14 shows the summary of energy balance of V-101.

-16 °C
0.05 atm H2 (g)
26 C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g)
25 °C
N2 (g)
1 atm
25 V-101
H2 (g)
C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g)
C3H8 (l)
C16H34 (g)
C8H18 (l)
C28H56 (g) 29
-16 °C C16H34 (l)
N2 (g)
0.05 atm C28H56 (l)
Figure D.14 Schematic Diagram of V-101
350
 Table D-14 Energy Balance of V-101
References: H2 (g), C3H8 (g), C8H18 (g), C16H34 (g), C28H56 (g), N2 (g) at 25 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols )H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol ( ) ṅ out ( mols )
^
H out
kJ
mol ( )
Stream 25 Stream 26
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 ^
H1
C3H8 (g) 16.2496 0 16.2496 ^
H 2

C8H18 (g) 13.023 0 13.023 ^

H3
C16H34 (g) 18.1642 0 - -
C28H56 (g) 18.1655 0 - -
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 ^
H4
Stream 29
H2 (g) - -
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 ^
H5
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 ^
H 6

C16H34 (l) 18.1642 ^

H7
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 ^
H 8

N2 (g) - -

*For gas and liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is
very small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

H2 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) H2 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm)

^ ∆ P≈0
V
H2 (g, 25 °C, 0.05 atm) a
−16
a= ∫ ( 28.84 × 10−3 ) + ( 0.00765× 10−5 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 1=−0.00093 kJ /mol
25

C3H8 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) C3H8 (g, -16 °C, 0.05

^ ∆ P≈0
V atm)

C3H8 (g, 25 °C, 0.05 atm) a

−16
a= ∫ ( 28.277 )+ ( 0.11600 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 2=−0.9579 kJ /mol
25

C8H18 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) C8H18 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V 351
 C8H18 (g, 25 °C, 0.05 atm) a
−16 +273
a=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 3=−1.6229 kJ / mol
25+273

N2 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) N2 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm)

^ ∆ P≈0
V
N2 (g, 25 °C, 0.05 atm) a
−16
a= ∫ ( 29 ×10 ) + ( 0.2199 ×10 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
−3 −5
H 4 =−0.00093 kJ /mol
25

C3H8 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) C3H8 (l , -16 °C, 0.05 atm)

a
C3H8 (g, -42.07 °C, 1 atm) d

C3H8 (g, -42.07

b °C, 1 atm) c C3H8 (l, -42.07 °C, 0.05
atm)
−42.07
a= ∫ (28.277 )+ ( 0.11600 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.6469 kJ /mol
25

b=− ^
HV

¿−0.0066 kJ /mol

c=V^ ∆ P
≈ 0 kJ /mol
−16
d= ∫ ( 59.642 ) + ( 0.3283 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.2305 kJ /mol
−42.07

^
H 5=(−0.6469)+(−0.0066)+ 0+(−0.2305)

¿−0.9672 kJ /mol

352
 C8H18 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) C8H18 (l , -16
d °C, 0.05 atm)

C8H18 (g, b-249.9 °C, 1 atm)

c
C8H18 (l, -249.9 °C, 1 atm) C8H18 (l, -249.9 °C, 0.05 atm)
−249.9
a= ∫ (−53.615 ) + ( 1.06460 ) T +¿ ¿ ¿−39.2776 kJ /mol
25

b=− ^
HV
¿−0.1846 kJ /mol

c=V^ ∆ P
≈ 0 kJ /mol
−16+273
c=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 )+ ( 70.567 × 10−3 ) T + ¿¿
−249.9+273

^
H 6= (−39.2776 ) + (−0.1846 ) +0+(−37.7942)¿−84.5227 kJ /mol

C16H34 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) C16H34 (l , -16 °C, 0.05 atm)

a
C16H34 (g, -560.01 °C, 1 d
atm)

C16H34 (g, -560.01 °C, 1 c C16H34 (l, -560.01 °C, 0.05 atm)
atm)
−560.01
a= ∫ ( 131.75 )+ ( 0.67397 ) T +¿ ¿¿−2.1645 kJ /mol
25

b=− ^
HV
¿−0.0019 kJ /mol

c=V^ ∆ P
≈ 0 kJ /mol
−16
d= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 1.9577 kJ /mol
−560.01

^
H 7=¿ (−2.1646 ¿+(−0.0019)+(−1.9577)¿−4.5124 kJ /mol

a 353
 C28H56 (g, 25 °C, 1 atm) C16H34 (l , -16 °C, 0.05 atm)
c
C28H56 (g, 703.15 °C, 1 atm)

C28H56 (l, 703.15 °C, 1 atm) C28H56 (l, 703.15 °C, 0.05 atm)
703.15
a= ∫ (−25.555 ) + ( 2.64380 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.1871 kJ /mol
25

b=− ^
HV

¿−0.00002 kJ /mol

c=V^ ∆ P
≈ 0 kJ /mol
−16
d= ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿¿−0.1869 kJ /mol
703.15

^
H 8=¿ (−0.1871 ¿+ (−0.00002 ) +0+(−0.1869)¿−0.4092 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (36.0914 ×−0.00093)+(16.2496 ×−0.9579)+(13.023× 1.6229)+(2.97476 ×−0.00093)+(0.2525 ×−
Q=¿-1192.29 kW

D.15 Compressor 3 (C-103)

Figure D.15 shows the schematic diagram of compressor 3 (C-103) while

Table D-15 shows the summary of energy balance of C-103.
-16 °C 232.51°C
0.05 atm 1 atm
26 27
H2 (g) H2 (g)
C3H8 (g) C3H8 (g)
C-103
C8H18 (g) C8H18 (g)
N2 (g) N2 (g)

Figure D.15 Schematic Diagram in C-103

Table D-15 Energy Balance of C-103

References: H2 (g), C3H8 (g), C8H18 (g), N2 (g) at -16 °C and 0.05 atm
d
a 354
 Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 ^
H1
C3H8 (g) 15.9971 0 15.9971 ^
H2
C8H18 (g) 0.4128291 0 0.4128291 ^
H3
N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 ^
H4

*For gas state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very small
so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

H2 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) H2 (g, 232.51 °C, 1 atm)

^ ∆ P≈0
V
H2 (g, -16 °C, 1 atm) a
232.51
a= ∫ ( 28.84 ×10−3 )+ ( 0.00765 ×10−5 ) T +¿ ¿^H 1=7.1822 kJ /mol
−16

C3H8 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) C3H8 (g, 232.51 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
C3H8 (g, -16 °C, 1 atm) a
232.51
a= ∫ ( 68.032× 10−3 ) + ( 22.59 ×10−5 ) T +¿ ¿ ^H 2=22.4576 kJ /mol
−16

C8H18 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) C8H18 (g, 232.51 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
C8H18 (g, -16 °C, 1 atm) a
232.51+273
a=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 × 10−3 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 3=63387.7 J /mol
−16+273

^
H 3=63.3877 kJ / mol

N2 (g, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) N2 (g, 232.51 °C, 1 atm)

^ ∆ P≈0
V
N2 (g, -16 °C, 1 atm) a
232.51
a= ∫ ( 29× 10−3 ) +( 0.2199× 10−5 ) T +¿ ¿ ^H 4 =7.2878 kJ /mol
−16

355
Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿
Q= [ (36.0914 ×7.1822)+(15.9971 ×22.4576)+(0.4128291×63.3877)+(2.97476 ×7.28278) ] −0
Q=¿ 666.3199 kW

D.16 Cooler - Fuel Gas (E-105)

Figure D.16 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - fuel gas (E-105) while
Table D-16 shows the summary of energy balance of E-105.

232.51 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
27 28
H2 (g) H2 (g)
C3H8 (g) E-105 C3H8 (g)
C8H18 (g) C8H18 (g)
N2 (g) N2 (g)

Figure D.16 Schematic Diagram of E-105

Table D-16 Energy Balance of E-105

References: H2 (g), C3H8 (g), C8H18 (g), N2 (g) at 232.51 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
H2 (g) 36.0914 0 36.0914 ^
H
1

C3H8 (g) 15.9971 0 15.9971 ^

H2
C8H18 (g) 0.4128291 0 0.4128291 ^
H3

N2 (g) 2.97476 0 2.97476 ^

H4

25
^
H 1= ∫ ( 28.84 ×10−3 ) + ( 0.00765 ×10−5 ) T +¿ ¿¿−5.9997 kJ /mol
232.51

25
^
H 2= ∫ ( 68.032 ×10−3 ) +( 22.59× 10−5 ) T +¿ ¿¿−19.6275 kJ /mol
232.51

232.51+ 273
^
H 3=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿¿−49677.2423 J /mol
−16+273

¿−49.6772 kJ /mol

356
 25
^
H4= ∫ ( 29× 10−3 ) + ( 0.2199× 10−5 ) T +¿ ¿¿−6.0984 kJ /mol
232.51

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (36.0914 ×−5.997)+(15.9971 ×−19.6275)+(0.4128291 ×−49.6772)+(2.97476 ×−6.0984) ] −0
Q=¿ -569.0727 kW

D.17 Pump 2 (P-102 A/B)

Figure D.17 shows the schematic diagram of pump 2 (P-102 A/B) while Table
D-17 shows the summary of energy balance of P-102 A/B.

-16 °C -16 °C
0.05 atm 1.5 atm
29 30
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) P-102 A/B C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l) C28H56 (l)
Figure D.17 Schematic Diagram of P-102 A/B

Table D-17 Energy Balance of P-102 A/B

References: C3H8 (l), C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at -16 °C and 0.05 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 ^
H1
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 0 12.6101709 ^
H2
C16H34 (l) 18.1642 0 18.1642 ^
H3
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 ^
H4

*For liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very
small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .
a
C3H8 (l, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) C3H8 ( l , -16 °C, 1.5 atm)

^ ∆ P= 1 ( ) 1 ×105 Pa J 1kg 44.1 g 1 kJ

a=V × 1.5−1 atm× × × × ×
kg 1 atm Pa. m 1000 g
3
mol 1000 J
1.5219 ×1000 3
m
^
H 1=0.0042 kJ /mol

357
 a
C8H18 (l, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) C8H18 ( l , -16 °C, 1.5 atm)

^ ∆ P= 1 1×10 5 Pa J 1 kg 114.23 g 1 kJ
a=V × ( 1.5−1 ) atm × × × × ×
kg 1 atm Pa .m 1000 g
3
mol 1000 J
0.6986 ×1000
m3
^
H 2=0.0237 kJ /mol

a
C16H34 (l, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) C16H34 ( l , -16 °C, 1.5 atm)

^ ∆ P= 1 ( ) 1 ×105 Pa J 1kg 114.23 g 1 kJ

a=V × 1.5−1 atm× × × × ×
kg 1 atm Pa. m 1000 g
3
mol 1000 J
0.7701 ×1000 3
m
^
H 3=0.0426 kJ /mol

a
C16H34 (l, -16 °C, 0.05 atm) C16H34 ( l , -16 °C, 1.5 atm)
5
^ ∆ P= 1 1×10 Pa J 1 kg 392 g 1 kJ
a=V × ( 1.5−1 ) atm × × 3
× × ×
kg 1 atm Pa .m 1000 g mol 1000 J
0.8067 ×1000 3
m
^
H 4 =7.05 ×1 0−6 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

D.18 Heater - Pyrolysis Oil (E-106)

Figure D.18 shows the schematic diagram of heater - pyrolysis oil (E-106)
while Table D-18 shows the summary of energy balance of E-106.

-16 °C 100 °C
1.5 atm 1.5 atm
30 31
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-106 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l) C28H56 (l)
358
 Figure D.18 Schematic Diagram of E-106

Table D-18 Energy Balance of E-106

References: C3H8 (l), C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at -16 °C and 1.5 atm
Inlet Oulet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 ^
H
1

C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 0 12.6101709 ^

H2
C16H34 (l) 18.1642 0 18.1642 ^
H 3

C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 ^

H4

100
H 1= ∫ (59.642 ) + ( 0.3283 ) T + ¿ ¿
^
−16

¿ 22.5 kJ /mol
100
H 2= ∫ (122.772 ) + ( 0.7949 ) T + ¿ ¿
^
−16

¿ 49.5 kJ /mol
100
H 3= ∫ ( 89.101 )+ ( 2.7062 ) T + ¿ ¿
^
−16

¿ 69.75 kJ /mol
100
H 4 = ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿
^
−16

¿ 83.25 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.2525 ×22.5)+(12.6101709 × 49.5)+(18.1642× 69.75)+(18.1655 ×83.25) ] −0
Q=¿ 3409.116 kW

D.19 Distillation Column 1 (T-101)

Figure D.19 shows the schematic diagram of distillation column 1 (T-101)

while Table D-19 shows the summary of energy balance of T-101.

92.82 °C
1359
atm C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l)
 32
100 °C
1.5 atm

31 T-101
C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C3H8 (l)
C28H56 (l) C8H18 (l)
34
320.54 °C C16H34 (l)
1 atm C28H56 (l)
Figure D.19 Schematic Diagram of T-101

Table D-19 Energy Balance of T-101

References: C3H8 (l), C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at 100 °C and 1.5 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Stream 31 Stream 32
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 ^
H1
C8H18 (l) 12.6101709 0 12.58573717 ^
H 2

C16H34 (l) 18.1642 0 0.0011 ^

H3
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 - -
Stream 34
C3H8 (l) - -
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 ^
H4
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 ^
H 5

C28H56 (l) 18.1655 ^

H6

*For liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very
small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

C3H8 (l, 100 °C, 1.5 atm) C3H8 (l, 92.82 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C3H8 (l, 100 °C, 1 atm)
92.82
H 1= ∫ ( 59.642 ) + ( 0.3283 ) T +¿ ¿
^
100

¿−56.4829 kJ /mol

360
 C8H18 (l, 100 °C, 1.5 atm) C8H18 (l, 92.82 °C, 1 atm)

a
C8H18 (l, 100 °C, 1 atm)
92.82+273
^
H 2=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿
100+273

¿−127.567 kJ /mol

C16H34 (l, 100 °C, 1.5 atm) C16H34 (l, 92.82 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C16H34 (l, 100 °C, 1 atm)
92.82
H 3= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿
^
100

¿−224.991 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.2525 ×−56.4829)+(12.58573717 ×−127.567)+(0.0011 ×−224.991) ] −0
QCondenser =¿ -1620.04 kW

C8H18 (l, 100 °C, 1.5 atm) C8H18 (l, 320.54 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C8H18 (l, 100 °C, 1 atm)
320.54+273
^
H 4 =8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 )+ ( 70.567× 10−3 ) T + ¿ ¿
100+273

¿ 91.391 kJ /mol

C16H34 (l, 100 °C, 1.5 atm) C16H34 (l, 320.54 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C16H34 (l, 100 °C, 1 atm)
320.54
^
H 5= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿
100

¿ 190.098 kJ /mol

361
^ ∆ P≈0
V
 C28H56 (l, 100 °C, 1.5 atm) C28H56 (l, 320.54 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C28H56 (l, 100 °C, 1 atm)
320.54
^
H 6= ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿
100

¿ 308.511 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.02443373195 ×91.391)+(18.16311015 ×190.098)+(18.1655 ×308.511) ] −0
Q Reboiler=¿ 9059.261 kW

D.20 Cooler - Gasoline (E-107)

Figure D.20 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - gasoline (E-107) while
Table D-20 shows the summary of energy balance of E-107.

92.82 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
32 33
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-107 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
Figure D.20 Schematic Diagram of E-107
Table D-20 Energy Balance of E-107
References: C3H8 (l), C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l) at 92.82 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C3H8 (l) 0.2525 0 0.2525 ^
H
1

C8H18 (l) 12.58573717 0 12.58573717 ^

H2
C16H34 (l) 0.0011 0 0.0011 ^
H 3

25
H 1= ∫ ( 68.032 ×10 ) + ( 22.59 ×10 ) T + ¿ ¿
^ −3 −5

92.82

¿−5.4828 kJ /mol

362
 25+273
^
H 2=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿
92.82+273

¿−21.4015 kJ /mol
25
H 3= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿¿−5006.0555 kJ /mol
^
92.82

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.2525 ×−5.4828)+(12.58573717 ×−21.4015)+(0.0011 ×−5006.0555) ] −0
Q=¿-256.2440 kW
D.21 Pump 3 (P-103 A/B)

Figure D.21 shows the schematic diagram of pump 3 (P-103 A/B) while Table
D-21 shows the summary of energy balance of P-103 A/B.

320.54 °C 320.54 °C
1 atm 1.5 atm
34 35
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) P-103 A/B C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l) C28H56 (l)

Figure D.21 Schematic Diagram of P-103 A/B

Table D-21 Energy Balance of P-103 A/B

References: C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at 320.54 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 ^
H
1

C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 0 18.16311015 ^

H2
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 ^
H 3

*For liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very
small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .
C8H18 (l, 320.54 °C, 1 atm) C8H18 (l, 320.54 °C, 1.5
atm)

363
 a

5
^ ∆ P= 1 1×10 Pa J 1 kg 114.23 g 1 kJ
a=V × ( 1.5−1 ) atm × × 3
× × ×
kg 1 atm Pa .m 1000 g mol 1000 J
0.6986 ×1000
m3
^
H 1=0.0042 kJ /mol

a
C16H34 (l, 320.54 °C, 1 atm) C16H34 (l, 320.54 °C, 1.5 atm)
5
^ ∆ P= 1 1 ×10 Pa J 1kg 114.23 g 1 kJ
a=V × ( 1.5−1 ) atm× × × × ×
kg 1 atm Pa. m 1000 g
3
mol 1000 J
0.7701 ×1000
m3
^
H 2=0.0426 kJ /mol

a
C28H56 (l, 320.54 °C, 1 atm) C28H56 (l, 320.54 °C, 1.5 atm)
5
^ ∆ P= 1 1×10 Pa J 1 kg 392 g 1 kJ
a=V × ( 1.5−1 ) atm × × 3
× × ×
kg 1 atm Pa .m 1000 g mol 1000 J
0.8067 ×1000 3
m
^
H 3=7.05 ×1 0−6 kJ /mol

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿ Q ≈ 0 kW

D.22 Heater - Bottom Products of T-101 (E-108)

Figure D.22 shows the schematic diagram of heater - bottom products of T-

101 (E-108) while Table D-22 shows the summary of energy balance of E-108.

320.54 °C 350 °C
1.5 atm 1.5 atm
35 36
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-108 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)

Figure D.22 Schematic Diagram of E-108

Table D-22 Energy Balance of E-108

References: C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at 320.54 °C and 1.5 atm
Components Inlet Outlet
364
 ṅ¿ ( mols ) H ( )
^˙ ¿ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 ^
H1
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 0 18.16311015 ^
H2
C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 18.1655 ^
H3

350+273
^
H 1=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 ) + ( 70.567 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿
320.54 +273

¿ 13350 J /mol
¿ 13.35 kJ /mol
350
^
H 2= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 284.8 kJ /mol
320.54

350
^
H 3= ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿¿ 47.17 kJ /mol
320.54

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.02443373195 ×13.35)+(18.16311015 ×284.8)+(18.1655 × 471.7) ] −0Q=¿33
97.587 kW

D.23 Distillation Column 2 (T-102)

Figure D.23 shows the schematic diagram of distillation column 2 (T-102)

while Table D-23 shows the summary of energy balance of T-102.

285.17 °C
1 atm C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l)

365
 37
350 °C
1.5 atm
36 T-102
C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l)
C28H56 (l)
C16H34 (l)
39
422.64 °C C28H56 (l)
1 atm
Figure D.23 Schematic Diagram of T-102

Table D-23 Energy Balance of T-102

References: C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at 350 °C and 1.5 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) H˙ ¿
^
( )
kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
Stream 36 Stream 37
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 ^
H1
C16H34 (l) 18.16311015 0 18.09775683 ^
H 2

C28H56 (l) 18.1655 0 0.06629635103 ^

H3
Stream 39
C8H18 (l) - -
C16H34 (l) 0.06535332233 ^
H4
C28H56 (l) 18.09920365 ^
H5

*For liquid state, any changes in pressure, enthalpy can be neglect since it is very
small so ^
H=V^ ∆ P ≈ 0 .

C8H18 (l, 350 °C, 0.005 C8H18 (l, 285.17 °C, 1 atm)
^
atm)
V ∆ P≈0
a
C8H18 (l, 350 °C, 1 atm)
285.17+273
a=8.314 ∫ ( 4.108 )+ ( 70.567× 10−3 ) T + ¿ ¿ ^
H 1=−107.748 kJ /mol
350+273

C16H34 (l, 350 °C, 0.005 atm) C16H34 (l, 285.17 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
366
 C16H34 (l, 350 °C, 1 atm)
285.17
a= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 2=−232.797 kJ /mol
305.57

C28H56 (l, 350 °C, 0.005 atm) C28H56 (l, 285.17 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C28H56 (l, 350 °C, 1 atm)
285.17
a= ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 3=−389.455 kJ /mol
380.6

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.02443373195 ×−107.748)+(18.09775683×−232.797)+(0.06629635103 ×−389.455) ] −0
QCondenser =¿ -2957.56 kW

C16H34 (l, 350 °C, 0.005 atm) C16H34 (l, 422.64 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C16H34 (l, 350 °C, 1 atm)
422.64
a= ∫ ( 13.02 ) + ( 152.9 ×10−3 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 4 =123.288 kJ /mol
380.6

C28H56 (l, 350 °C, 0.005 atm) C28H56 (l, 422.64 °C, 1 atm)
^ ∆ P≈0
V
a
C28H56 (l, 350 °C, 1 atm)
422.64
a= ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿ ^
H 5=206.712 kJ /mol
350

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.06535332233 ×123.288)+(18.09920365 ×206.712) ] −0Q Reboiler=¿ 3757.545
kW

367
D.24 Cooler - Diesel (E-109)

Figure D.24 shows the schematic diagram of cooler - diesel (E-109) while
Table D-24 shows the summary of energy balance of E-109.

285.17 °C 25 °C
1 atm 1 atm
37 38
C3H8 (l) C3H8 (l)
C8H18 (l) E-109 C8H18 (l)
C16H34 (l) C16H34 (l)
Figure D.24 Schematic Diagram of E-109

Table D-24 Energy Balance of E-109

References: C8H18 (l), C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at 285.17 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ^
( )
H˙ ¿
kJ
mol
ṅ out (
mol
s
) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C8H18 (l) 0.02443373195 0 0.02443373195 ^
H
1

C16H34 (l) 18.09775683 0 18.09775683 ^

H2
C28H56 (l) 0.06629635103 0 0.06629635103 ^
H 3

25
^
H 1= ∫ ( 122.772 ) + ( 0.7949 ) T +¿ ¿¿−90 kJ /mol
285.17

25
^
H 2= ∫ ( 89.101 ) + ( 2.7062 ) T +¿ ¿¿−165 kJ /mol
285.17

25
^
H 3= ∫ ( 1.549 ) + ( 5.1322 ) T +¿ ¿¿−250 kJ /mol
285.17

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.02443373195 ×−90)+(18.09775683 ×−165)+(0.06629635103 ×−250) ] −0
Q=¿-3004.9 kW

D.25 Cooler - Residual Oil (E-110)

shows the schematic diagram of cooler - residual oil (E-110) while Table D-
25 shows the summary of energy balance of E-110.

422.64 °C 25 °C
368
1 atm 1 atm
 39 40
C16H34 (l) C8H18 (l)
C28H56 (l) E-110 C28H56 (l)
Figure D.25 Schematic Diagram of E-110
Table D-25 Energy Balance of E-110
References: C16H34 (l), C28H56 (l) at 422.64 °C and 1 atm
Inlet Outlet
Components
ṅ¿ ( mols ) ( )
H˙ ¿
^ kJ
mol
ṅ out ( mols ) ^
( )
H out
kJ
mol
C16H34 (l) 0.06535332233 0 0.06535332233 ^
H
1

C28H56 (l) 18.09920365 0 18.09920365 ^

H2

25
^
H 1= ∫ ( 89.101) + ( 2.7062 ) T + ¿¿ ¿−292.5 kJ /mol
422.64

25
^
H 2= ∫ (1.549 )+ (5.1322 ) T + ¿¿¿−457.5 kJ /mol
422.64

Q=∆ H=∑ ṅout Ĥ out −¿ ∑ ṅ¿ Ĥ ¿ ¿

Q= [ (0.06535332233 ×−292.5)+(18.09920365×−457.5) ] −0Q=¿-8299.5 kW

369
Appendix E: Calculation for Utilities Costs

E.1 Calculation for Cost of Electricity Consumption

According to Tenaga National Berhad (TNB), the price of the electricity is as below:
Category = Tariff E1 (medium voltage general industrial)
Price = RM 0.337 / kWh
Operating Hours = 8000 h / yr
Cost of electricity is calculated by using the formula below:
Cost of electricity = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

Dryer (D-101)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 23.9968 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 72,374.22 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Mixer (M-101)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 0.6170 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 1,860.87 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Pump 1 (P-101)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 1.3291 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 4,008.42 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Pump 2 (P-102)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 3.7034 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/y𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 11,169.45 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Pump 3 (P-103)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 1.4568 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟

370
 = 𝑅𝑀 4,393.64 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Compressor 1 (C-101)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 142.4221 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 429,544.99 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Compressor 2 (C-102)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 4.4014 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 13,274.50 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Compressor 3 (C-103)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 Electricity (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Power × Price of electricity × Operating Hours

= 663.5220 kW × RM 0.337 /kWh × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 2,001,182.43 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Total Cost of Electricity Consumption (RM/yr)

= 𝑅𝑀 72,374.22 + 𝑅𝑀 1,860.87 + 𝑅𝑀 4,008.42 + 𝑅𝑀 11,169.45 + 𝑅𝑀 4,393.64 +
𝑅𝑀 429,544.99 + 𝑅𝑀 13,274.50 + 𝑅𝑀 2,001,182.43
= 𝑅𝑀 2,537,808.52 / yr

E.2 Calculation for Cost of Steam Consumption

According to Turton 2009, the price of the steam is as below:

High Pressure Steam = $17.70/GJ × RM4.2/$1 × 1GJ/1000,000kJ =
RM0.00007434/kJ
Operating Hours = 8000 h / yr
Cost of steam is calculated by using the formula below:
Cost of steam = Heat Duty × Type of Steam × Operating Hours

Heater (E-108)
Δ𝐻ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = Δ𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Δ𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

371
 = 12,231,313.2000 𝑘𝐽/ℎ × RM 0.00007434 /kJ × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 7,274,206.59 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Reactor (R-101)
Δ𝐻reactor = Δ𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Δ𝐻reactor × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 5697411.7438 𝑘𝐽/ℎ × RM 0.00007434 /kJ × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 3,388,364.71 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Flash Column (V-101)
Δ𝐻flashcolumn = Δ𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Δ𝐻flashcolumn × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 3,838,409.6212 𝑘𝐽/ℎ × RM 0.00007434 /kJ × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 2,282,778.97 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Reboiler (T-101)
Δ𝐻reboiler = Δ𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Δ𝐻reboiler × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 25,087,135.2140 𝑘𝐽/ℎ × RM 0.00007434 /kJ × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 14,919,821.05 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Reboiler (T-102)
Δ𝐻reboiler = Δ𝐻𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = Δ𝐻reboiler × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 11,689,060.2126 𝑘𝐽/ℎ × RM 0.00007434 /kJ × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 6,951,717.89 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Total Cost of Steam Consumption (RM/yr)

= 𝑅𝑀 7,274,206.59 + 𝑅𝑀 2,282,778.97 + 𝑅𝑀 14,919,821.05 + 𝑅𝑀 6,951,717.89
= RM 34,816,889.21 / yr

E.3 Calculation for Cost of Cooling Water (CW) Consumption

Cooler (E-110)
Δ𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 = Δ𝐻CW

372
 Δ Hcooler
ṅ CW = T2

∫ Cpdt
T1

Δ𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 8,299.50 kW = 29,878,200.00 kJ/h

Temperature of cooling water is increased from 30°C to 40°C.

T2 313.15

∫ Cp dt= ∫ 276370−2090.1 T +8.125 T −0.0014116 T + ( 9.3071× 10 ) T dt

2 3 −6 4

T1 303.15

¿ 752,719 J /kmol

Δ Hcooler 29,878,200.00 kJ /h 18.02 kg

ṅ CW = = × =715.2804 kg/h
T2
752,719 J / kmol kmol
∫ Cp dt
T1

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 CW (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = ṅ CW × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 CW × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

= 715.2804 𝑘g/ℎ × RM 0.95 /m3 × m3/997 kg × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 5,419,822,813.91 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

* Since cooling water is kept circulate in the process, the cooling water of the
following year is calculated as below with an assumption of 5% loss due to
evaporation, blowdown and drift.
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 CW (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = RM 5,419,822,813.91 × 0.05 = RM 270,991,140.70 / year

Condenser (T-101)
Δ𝐻𝑐𝑜ndenser = Δ𝐻CW

Δ Hcondenser
ṅ CW = T2

∫ Cp dt
T1

Δ𝐻𝑐𝑜ndenser = 1,488.525983 kW = 5,358,693.5379 kJ/h

Temperature of cooling water is increased from 30°C to 40°C.

T2 313.15

∫ Cp dt= ∫ 276370−2090.1 T +8.125 T 2−0.0014116 T 3+ ( 9.3071× 10−6 ) T 4 dt

T1 303.15

¿ 752,719 J /kmol

373
 Δ Hcooler 5,358,693.5379 kJ /h 18.02 kg
ṅ CW = = × =128.2865 kg /h
T2
752,719 J /kmol kmol
∫ Cpdt
T1

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 CW (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = ṅ CW × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 CW × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

= 128.2865 𝑘g/ℎ × RM 0.95 /m3 × m3/997 kg × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 972,052,181.50 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

* Since cooling water is kept circulate in the process, the cooling water of the
following year is calculated as below with an assumption of 5% loss due to
evaporation, blowdown and drift.
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 CW (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = RM 972,052,181.50 × 0.05 = RM 48,602,609.07 / year

Condenser (T-102)
Δ𝐻𝑐𝑜ndenser = Δ𝐻CW

Δ Hcondenser
ṅ CW = T2

∫ Cp dt
T1

Δ𝐻𝑐𝑜ndenser = 2,638.56062 kW = 9,498,818.2306 kJ/h

Temperature of cooling water is increased from 30°C to 40°C.

T2 313.15

∫ Cp dt= ∫ 276370−2090.1 T +8.125 T −0.0014116 T + ( 9.3071× 10 ) T dt

2 3 −6 4

T1 303.15

¿ 752,719 J /kmol

Δ Hcooler 9,498,818.2306 kJ /h 18.02 kg

ṅ CW = = × =227.4005 kg/h
T2
752,719 J / kmol kmol
∫ Cp dt
T1

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 CW (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = ṅ CW × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 CW × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

= 227.4005 𝑘g/ℎ × RM 0.95 /m3 × m3/997 kg × 8000 ℎ/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑅𝑀 1,723,059,346.00 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

* Since cooling water is kept circulate in the process, the cooling water of the following
year is calculated as below with an assumption of 5% loss due to evaporation, blowdown
and drift.
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 CW (𝑅𝑀/𝑦𝑟) = RM 972,052,181.50 × 0.05 = RM 86,152,967.30 / year
374
Cost of Cooling Water Consumption (RM/yr)
= RM 270,991,140.70 + RM 48,602,609.07 + RM 86,152,967.30
= RM 405,746,717.07 / yr

The cooling water utility cost for producing a circulating cooling water stream
using a mechanical draft cooling tower. The total flowrate of cooling water required
in the plant is 1,070.9674 kg/h which is used in the cooling process of heat
exchangers (E-110) and condensers in the distillation column (T-101, and T-102). The
calculation for the actual cost including the operation of cooling tower is shown
below.

Energy removal from cooling water = 1,070.9674 kg/h × 4180 J/kg.°C × (40 − 30)°C
= 44,766,438.1923 J/h
Water evaporated from tower, Wtower = Heat load / ΔHvap
= 44,766,438.1923 J/h / 241,700 J/kg
= 185.2149 kg/h
Circulating water flowrate = 185.2149 kg/h / 1,070.9674 kg/h × 100% = 17.29%
Assumed windage loss, Wwind = 0.3%
Blowdown, WBD = Wtower circulating water/4 − Wwind = 4.02%
Water makeup, WMU = Wtower + Wwind + WBD = 17.29% + 0.3% + 4.02% =
21.62%
Water makeup = 21.62% × 1,070.9674 kg/h = 231.5186 kg/h
ΔPloop = 15 psi (pipe loss) + 5 psi (exchanger loss) + 10 psi (control valve loss) +
8.7 psi (static head of water pump to the top of the tower, estimated to be
20 ft above pump inlet)
= 38.7 psi
= 266.8 kPa
Assuming overall efficiency of pump, Ɛ is 80%.
Pump power = (1/ε) V̇ΔP
= (1/0.80) × (1,070.9674 kg/h × 997 m3/kg × 266.8 kPa)
= 356,096,131.9549 kPa.m3/h
= 98.9156 kW

375
Required surface area in the tower = 0.5 ft2/gal per min and the fan horsepower per
square foot of tower area is 0.041 hp/ft2 (Perry’s Handbook, Figure 12-14 & Figure
12-15).
Power of fan = 1,070.9674 kg/h × (1 h / 60 min) × (m3 / 997 kg) × 264.17 gal/m3 ×
0.5 ft2/gal per min × 0.041 hp/ft2
= 97.0 hp
= 72.3 kW

Using an electricity cost of RM 0.337/kWh (TNB, 2021) and process water cost of
RM 0.95/m3 (PAIP, 2021).
Cost of cooling water
= Cost of electricity + cost of makeup water
= [RM 0.337 /kWh × (98.9156 + 72.3) kW × 8000 h/yr] + [RM 0.95 /kWh ×
3,322.7857 kg/h × (m3 / 997 kg) × 8000 h/yr]
= RM 463,362.09/ yr

Appendix F: Calculation of Equipment

Reactor
Sizing of Reactor (R-101)
The cross-sectional area was calculated by using the formula below by using the
assumption of Ug = kg/hr.
Qgas
A ( m 2 )=
Ug
453.1646 m 3/hr
A ( m 2 )= =22.65823 m2
20 m/hr

The beg height, H bed is estimated by using the formula given below, where the
particle inventory, Ms divide by bed density and cross-sectional area.
Ms
Hbed =
ρCatalyst A
7,6874.4318
Hbed = =5.1406 m
(660 kg /m3 )(22.65823 m 2)

376
In order to get the Mass inventory, Ms the sand mass added with mass of solid
particle coming into the reactor. The bed volume is
Ms = Mcatalyst + Mproduct
Ms = 14,954.4318 kg + 61,920 kg (for 1 hr = 1 batch) = 76,874.4318 kg
M catalyst = ρCatalyst ×bed volume
M catalyst = 660 kg/m3 x 22.6582 m3 = 14,954.4318 kg
Bed volume = A x Hbed
Bed volume = 22.65823 m2 x 5.1406 m = 22.6582 m3

Minimum fluidization velocity

ρ catalyst = 660 kg/m3

ρ Nitrogen = 1.165 kg/m3

gravitational force = 9.81 m/s2

diameter partical = 0.003 m

μ Nitrogen gas = 1.76 kg/m.s

Umf =
( 660
kg
m3
−1.165
m3)
kg
x 9.81
m
s2
x 0.003 2

= 6.2046 x 10-5 m/s

kg
1650 x 1.76
m.s

The freeboard height, Hfb been indicated 30% higher than the bed height, then the
low velocity zone, Hlv is 70 % of the bed height. Height of truncated area, Htc
indicated 1/4 from low velocity zone, Hlv. After that, the intake product height, Hin is
1/3 of the Hbed. The total height indicated by the total of all the height.
Hfb = 0.3 x Hbed
Hfb = 0.3 x 5.1406 m = 1.5422 m
Hlv = 0.7 x Hbed
Hlv = 0.7 x 5.1406 m = 3.5984 m
Htc = Hlv / 4
Htc = 3.5984 m /4 = 0.8996 m
377
Hin = Hbed / 3
Hin = 5.1406 m / 3 = 1.7135 m
Ht = Hbed + Hfb + Hlv + Htc + Hi
Ht = 5.1406 m + 1.5422 m + 3.5984 m + 0.8996 m + 1.7135 m = 12.8943 m

Diameter of the column was indicate by using these formula below

1 2
A= π D
4
1 2
22.65823 m2= π D
4
D = 5.3863 m

Volume of reactor was calculate by area times with total height

Volume of reactor = A x H

Volume = 22.65823 m2 x 12.8943 m = 292.1617 m3

Residence time

τ = Volume / Volumetric flowrate (in aspen)

= 292.1617 m3 / 0.011675 m3/s

= 25023.9905 s  6.9511 hr

Ratio diameter to height of the reactor

Height total / Diameter = 12.8943 m / 5.3863 m = 2.3939
D : H = 1: 3
Wall thickness calculated by using the formula shown below. The design stress, J was
assumed to be 115 at 85% and reactor pressure.

PD
Thickness=
2 J F−P
(1.01325)(5.3862)
Thickness=
2(0.85)(115)−(1.01325)
Thickness=0.02806 m
378
Costing of Reactor
Catalyst

From the website, the price of 1 kg amorphous alumina silica catalyst cost about $ 1
Assume catalyst about 10,000 kg will cost about $ 10,000 excluded postage

Fluidized bed reactor

Cost of process column or vessels can be estimated using the formulas given below
(Turton, 2013). The shape of fluidized bed is cylinder give the area by using the
formula shown below:
log 10 C op =K 1+ K 2 log 10 A+ K 3 ( log 10 A )2

K1 K2 K3
4.1052 -0.468 -0.0005

2
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( 22.65823 ) + K 3 ( log 10 ( 22.65823 ) )
o

o
C p=$ 2951.45
Bare module cost ( 2001 ) ,C BM , 2021 into Bare module cost ( 2021 ) , C BM , 2021
Index 2021
C BM ,2021 =C BM ,2001 ( )
Index 2001

C BM ,2021 =931.35 ( 607.7

397 )
=$ 4517.88

o o
Baremodule cost ( 2021 ) at based condition ,C BM ,2021 =C p F BM =C p ( B1 + B2 F M F P ) and
assume Fm and Fp is equal to 1.

Bare module cost ( 2021 ) ,C BM , 2021=$ 13,598.82

The cost for both catalyst and fluidized bed reactor are RM 99,351.02.

Distillation Column
Sizing of Distillation Column 1 (T-101)
These following calculation below is related to the T-101 sizing including number of
trays, feed stages, Height of the column and Diameter of the column. The related
equation are referred from (Geankoplis, 2014).

379
 Table F- 1 Stream information for T-101
D-101 Feed,F Distillate,D Bottom,B
Component xf xf F yd=xd yd D xw xw W
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 0.0008 40.086 0.0076699 40.086 0 0
8 8 8 8
Gasoline, C8H18 0.1134 5185.6 0.9921600 5185.4 5.376 x106 0.2177
2 9 1 7
Diesel, C16H34 0.3238 14807. 0.0001700 0.8885 0.365675 14806.
9 5 0 6
Residual Oil, 0.5618 25684. 0 0 0.634319 25684.
C28H56 0 4 4
Total 1 45717. 1 5226.4 1 40491.
7 5 2

The standard pressure from each component calculated by using Antoine Equation
below:
B
log Psat(bar)= A−
T ( K )+ C
Table F- 2 Antoine Equation Calculation of T-101
Component A B C Psat Ki=Psat/P
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 6.8297 813.2008 247.99 591057.9701 394038.6
Gasoline, C8H18 (LK) 7.14462 1498.96 225.874 136934.3276 91289.55
Diesel, C16H34 (HK) 7.36235 2094.08 180.407 23714.78978 15809.86
Residual Oil, C28H56 6.59359 1991.78 97.4654 2348.993231 1565.995

Dew Point Calculation (Temperature = 141°C)

Table F- 3 Tdew for T-101
Component yid Pi Ki α yid/α
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 0.0077 532.3780 354.9187 56791.6193 0
Gasoline, C8H18 (LK) 0.9922 1.5268 1.0179 162.8772 0.0061
Diesel, C16H34 (HK) 0.0002 0.0094 0.0062 1 0.0002
Residual Oil, C28H56 0 0 0 0.0003 0
Total 0.0063

380
Bubble Point Calculation (Temperature = 353.86°C)
Table F- 4 Tbubble for T-101
Component xiw Pi Ki α α*xiw
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 0 1059.5148 706.3432 286.6531 0
Gasoline, C8H18 (LK) 0 48.3013 32.2009 13.0680 0
Diesel, C16H34 (HK) 0.3657 3.6961 2.4641 1 0.3657
Residual Oil, C28H56 0.6343 0.2337 0.1558 0.0632 0.0401
Total 0.4059
1/0.4059 = 2.4639

Minimum number for total reflux

The minimum number of stages, Nm can be indicate using Fenske equation as shown
and calculate the average value of light key, aL,av by using the equation F.1 and F.2
below:

Nm=
log ⁡[ ( xhdD )( xlwW )]
xldD xhwW
(F.1)
log ⁡( aL, av )

Nm=
log ⁡[ ( 5185.475
0.8885 )( 0.2177 )
14806.6603
]

log ⁡(46.1354)

Nm= 6 theoretical stages (5 stages)

aL , av= √(ald )(alw ) (F.2)

aL,av = 46.1354

Minimum reflux ratio using the Underwood Method

Since the feed enter at its boiling point, q=1, the average temperature between top and
bottom at 520.58 K is taken and substituted in the underwood method equation as
show below.

Table F- 5 Distribution coefficient and volatility for each component

Component xF yD=xD Ki a xw
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 0.0008768 0.00767 394038.6 24.9236015 0

381
 Gasoline, C8H18 0.1134284 0.99216 91289.55 5.774216381 5.37646E-06
Diesel, C16H34 0.3238906 0.00017 15809.86 1 0.365675157
(LK)
Residual Oil, 0.5618041 0 1565.995 0.099051826 0.634319466
C28H56 (HK)

(F.3)

1−q=1−1=0 , as the calculation need near to the 0,

(24.9236)(0.0008768) (5.7742)(0.1134) (1)(0.3239) (0.09905)(0.5618)

0= + + +
( 24.9236 )−2.69 ( 5.7742 )−2.69 ( 1 ) −2.69 ( 0.09905 )−2.69

the θ=2.62 discovered been used in the minimum reflux ratio, Rm.

(F.4)

(24.9236)(0.007669) (5.7742)(0.9922) (1)(0.00017) (0.09905)(0)

+ + + =0.866
( 24.9236 )−2.69 ( 5.7742 )−2.69 ( 1 )−2.69 ( 0.09905 ) −2.69

Number of Theoretical stages

From figure below, Erbar-Maddox correlation, been retrieve using formula
R=1.5 Rm=1.5 ( 0.866 )=1.299
Nm/N= around 0.6
N= 8 theoretical stages in the tower, and 7 theoretical trays

382
 Figure F- 1 Erbar-Maddox correlation

Location of feed tray using Kirkbride Method

By using the equation below to approximate the number of feed stages using
theoretical stages above.

[( )( )( ) ]
2
Ne xhf W xlw
log =0.206 log
Ns xlf D xhd

[( )( )( )]
2
Ne 0.3239 40491.294 0.3657
log =0.206 log
Ns 0.5618 5226.4503 0.00017
Ne= 8

Column Height
Tray spacing assumed to be 0.6 m which usually employed in industry (Sinnott,
2005). As for the Overall tray efficiency typically are around 40 - 80%
Eo= Nm/Number of Trays = 0.6459 = 64.59%
Tray spacing = 0.6 m
HETP= Eo / Tray spacing = 1.07654
Height of Column, H
Extra top=1.2 m
Extra bottom=1.8 m
H = (HETP x Number of Trays) + (1.2m) + (1.8m) = 11.6123 m

Diameter of Distillation Column

Vapour Density, ρ❑V

PM
Ρv =
RT

Table F- 6 Vapour Density for Each Component

Component P Mr R T
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 1.01325 44 0.082057 793.73 0.684512
Gasoline, C8H18 1.01325 114 0.082057 793.73 1.773508
Diesel, C16H34 (LK) 1.01325 226 0.082057 793.73 3.515901
Residual Oil, C28H56 (HK) 1.01325 392 0.082057 793.73 6.098377
Total 12.0723 kg/m3

383
Liquid Density, ρ L
n

( )
1−T
g −(
Tc
)
ρL =AB
ml

Table F- 7 Liquid Density for each Component

Component A B n TC ρ
0.228 0.269
Gasoline, C8H18 1 0.2548 4 568.83 0.072380576
0.243 0.323
Diesel, C16H34 (LK) 5 0.2544 8 720.6 0.087148514
0.247 0.285
Residual Oil, C28H56 (HK) 9 0.2634 7 861.7 0.092650319
0.252179409 g/ml
  252.1794092 kg/m3

Liquid−vapor flow factor , F LV =

Vm √
Lm ρ❑V
ρL

F LV =
√
11.2476 12.0723
1.4518 252.1794
=1.6951 K1= 0.002549 ft/s

where Lm and Vm are liquid and vapor mass flow rate respectively in kg/s. K1 is
estimated based on Figure F- 2. Assumption of tray spacing at 0.6 m is appropriate.

384
 Figure F- 2 Effect of Liquid-Vapor Flow Factor

Surface Tension

σ ( )
N
m
T n
= A(1− ) where T in (K)
Tc

Table F- 8 Surface Tension for Each Component

Component Ac Tc n Tmin Tmax σ
Fuel gas 2, C3H8 0.22151 0.27744 0.287 369.82 85.82 -0.91465
Gasoline, C8H18 52.036 568.83 1.2168 216.38 568.83 28.32589
Diesel, C16H34 (LK) 56.99 720.6 1.3929 291.32 720.6 27.08687
Residual Oil, C28H56 (HK) 46.776 861.7 1.2222 330.65 861.7 27.83688
  Total 82.33499 N/m3

( ) √ ρ L− ρV
0.2
σ
Flooding velocity , U f =K 1 ,
0.02 ρV

( ) √
0.2
82.3349 252.1794−12.0723
Uf =K 1 =0.01314 m/ s
0.02 12.0723

Based on the rule of thumb, the flow velocity (UV) of column is designed at 85% of
flooding velocity,

385
U V =0.85 U f
U V =0.85 x 0.01314=0.01117 m/s
Vm
Net area required , A n=
ρV U V
1.4518
An = =10.7685
(12.0723)( 0.01117)
Assumethat down comer areais 12% of net area , A d =0.12 A n
Ad =( 0.12 ) ( 10.7685 )=1.2922
Cross sectianal area , A C = A n+ A d
AC =10.7685+ 1.2922=12.0607

Column diameter , DC =
√ 4 AC
π

DC=
√ (4)(12.0607)
π
=3.91845 m

Hole diameter (dh) usually vary from 2.5 mm to 12 mm, which large hole are
preferable for system with fouling potential. 0.005 m holes are commonly used for
typical non-fouling system. Typical plate thicknesses used are 3 mm for stainless
steel.
Active area , A a= AC −2 A d
Aa =12.0607−( 2 ) ( 1.2922 )=9.4763
Total holearea , A h=0.10 A a
Ah =0.10 ( 9.4763 )=0.9476

Costing of T-101
Cost of distillation column and other process vessels can be estimated using the
formulas given below (Turton, 2009):
o 2
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 A+ K 3 ( log 10 A )

K1 K2 K3
3.5565 0.3776 0.0905

2
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( 35.7421 ) + K 3 ( log 10 ( 35.7421 ) )
o

o
C p=22,977.34

386
 o o
Bare module cost (2001) , C BM , 2001=C p F BM =C p ( B1+ B2 F M F P ) and assume Fm and Fp
is equal to 1.
Bare module cost ( 2021 ) ,C BM , 2021=$ 143,150.5345

Cost of sieve tray is given as:

log 10 C op =K 1+ K 2 log 10 A+ K 3 ( log 10 A )2

K1 K2 K3
2.9949 0.4465 0.3961

2
log 10 C op =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( 3.9184 ) + K 3 ( log 10 ( 3.9184 ) )
o
C p=22977.34

Then follow ∈calculatethe C BM ,2021 =C BM , 2001 ( Index2021

Index2001 )

C BM ,2021 =22977.34447 ( 607.7

397 )
=$ 35172.12

o o
Bare module cost (2001) , C BM , 2001=C p F BM =C p ( B1+ B2 F M F P ) and assume Fm and Fp
is equal to 1.

Baremodule cost ( 2021 ) ,C BM , 2021=$ 124,925.267

The total cost for distillation column T-101 is RM 1,128,599.12.

Sizing Distillation Column, T-102

These following calculation below is related to the T-102 sizing including number of
trays, feed stages, Height of the column and Diameter of the column. The related
equation are referred from (Geankoplis, 2014).

Table F- 9 Stream information for T-102

D-102 Feed,F Distillate,D Bottom,B
Component xf xf F yd=xd yd D xw xw W
Gasoline, C8H18 5.38E- 0.217799 1.40349E- 0.207799 3.89326E- 0.01
06 05 07
Diesel, C16H34 0.36567 14806.66 0.99982983 14803.37 0.00012808 3.29
5 8 8
Residual Oil, 0.63432 25684.42 0.00015612 2.311597 0.99987152 25682.1
387
C28H56
Total 1 40491.297 1 14805.889 1 25685.4
8 4 1

The standard pressure from each component calculated by using Antoine Equation
below:
B
log Psat(bar)= A−
T ( K )+ C
Table F- 10 Antoine Equation Calculation of T-102
Component A B C Psat Ki=Psat/P
Gasoline, C8H18 7.14462 1498.96 225.874 275721.181 183814.121
5
Diesel, C16H34 (LK) 7.36235 2094.08 180.407 71095.9734 47397.31563
5
Residual Oil, C28H56 (HK) 6.59359 1991.78 97.4654 8751.33164 5834.221098
8

Dew Point Calculation (Temperature = 305.33°C)

Table F- 11 Tdew for T-102
Component xiw Pi Ki α yid/α
0 28.0377 18.6918 434.275 0
Gasoline, C8H18 2

Diesel, C16H34 (LK) 0.0001 1.5002 1.0001 0.0430 0

Residual Oil, C28H56 (HK) 0.9999 0.0646 0.0430 1 0.9999

Total 0. 9999

Bubble Point Calculation (Temperature = 455.81°C)

Table F- 12 Tbubble for T-102
Component yid Pi Ki α yid/α

Gasoline, C8H18 0 117.6661 78.4441 78.4522 0

Diesel, C16H34 (LK) 0.9998 15.6976 10.4651 0.0955 10.4644

Residual Oil, C28H56 (HK) 0.0002 1.499844 0.9999 1 0.0002

388
Total 10.4645
1/10.4645 = 0.9556

Minimum number for total reflux

The minimum number of stages, Nm can be indicate using Fenske equation as shown
and calculate the average value of light key, aL,av by using the equation F.1 and F.2
below:

Nm=
log ⁡[ ( xhdD )( xlwW )]
xldD xhwW
(F.1)
log ⁡( aL, av )

Nm=
log ⁡[ ( 5185.475
0.8885 )( 0.2177 )
14806.6603
]

log ⁡(46.1354)

Nm= 7 theoretical stages (6 stages)

aL , av= √(ald )(alw ) (F.2)

aL,av = 0.06412

Minimum reflux ratio using the Underwood Method

Since the feed enter at its boiling point, q=1, the average temperature between top and
bottom at 520.58 K is taken and substituted in the underwood method equation as
show below.
(F.3)

1−q=1−1=0 , as the calculation need near to the 0,

the θ=2.255 discovered been used in the minimum reflux ratio, Rm.

(F.4)

Rm = 0.3839

Number of Theoretical stages

From figure below, Erbar-Maddox correlation, been retrieve using formula
R=1.5 Rm=1.5 ( 0.3839 )=0.5758

389
Nm/N= around 0.51
N= 12 theoretical stages in the tower, and 11 theoretical trays

Figure F- 1 Erbar-Maddox correlation

Location of feed tray using Kirkbride Method

By using the equation below to approximate the number of feed stages using
theoretical stages above.

[( )( )( ) ]
2
Ne xhf W xlw
log =0.206 log
Ns xlf D xhd
Ne= 6

Column Height
Eo= Nm/Number of Trays = 0.5378= 53.78%
Tray spacing = 0.6m
HETP= Eo / Tray spacing = 0.8963
Height of Column, H
Extra top=1.2 m
Extra bottom=1.8 m
H = (HETP x Number of Trays) + (1.2m) + (1.8m) = 13.7558 m

Diameter of Distillation Column

Vapour Density, ρ❑V

390
 PM
Ρv =
RT

Ρv = 33.0911 kg/ m3

Liquid Density, ρ L
n

( )
1−T
g −(
Tc
)
ρL =AB
ml

ρL= 252.1794092 kg/m3

Liquid−vapor flow factor , F LV =

Vm√
Lm ρ❑V
ρL
F LV =2.8064 K1= 0.002549 ft/s
where Lm and Vm are liquid and vapor mass flow rate respectively in kg/s. K1 is
estimated based on Figure F- 2. Assumption of tray spacing at 0.6 m is appropriate.

Figure F- 2 Effect of Liquid-Vapor Flow Factor

Surface Tension

( )
n
N T
σ = A(1− ) where T in (K)
m Tc

σ =76.0029

391
 ( ) √ ρ L− ρV
0.2
σ
Flooding velocity , U f =K 1 ,
0.02 ρV
Uf =0.01235

Based on the rule of thumb, the flow velocity (UV) of column is designed at 85% of
flooding velocity,
U V =0.85 U f
U V =0.85 x 0.01235=0.01049m/s
Vm
Net area required , A n=
ρV U V
An =4.1791 m
Assumethat down comer areais 12% of net area , A d =0.12 A n
Ad =0.5015 m
Cross sectianal area , A C = A n+ A d
AC =4.1791+0.5015=4.6806

Column diameter , DC =
√ 4 AC
π

DC=
√ (4)(4.6806)
π
=2.4410 m

Hole diameter (dh) usually vary from 2.5 mm to 12 mm, which large hole are
preferable for system with fouling potential. 0.005 m holes are commonly used for
typical non-fouling system. Typical plate thicknesses used are 3 mm for stainless
steel.
Active area , A a= AC −2 A d
Aa =4.6806−( 2 ) ( 0.5015 )=3.6776
Total holearea , A h=0.10 A a
Ah =0.10 ( 3.6776 )=0.36776

Costing of T-102
Cost of distillation column and other process vessels can be estimated using the
formulas given below (Turton, 2009):
o 2
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 A+ K 3 ( log 10 A )

392
 K1 K2 K3
3.5565 0.3776 0.0905

2
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( 26.3759 ) + K 3 ( log 10 ( 26.3759 ) )
o

o
C p=$ 18,877.44
o o
Bare module cost (2001) , C BM , 2001=C p F BM =C p ( B1+ B2 F M F P ) and assume Fm and
Fp is equal to 1.
Baremodule cost ( 2021 ) ,C BM , 2021=$ 86,977.77

Cost of sieve tray is given as:

log 10 C op =K 1+ K 2 log 10 A+ K 3 ( log 10 A )2

K1 K2 K3
2.9949 0.4465 0.3961

2
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( 2.4410 ) + K 3 ( log 10 ( 2.4410 ) )
o

o
C p=$ 16,88.31

Then follow ∈calculatethe C BM ,2021 =C BM , 2001 ( Index2021

Index2001 )
=$ 30865.18

o o
Bare module cost (2001) , C BM , 2001=C p F BM =C p ( B1+ B2 F M F P ) and assume Fm and
Fp is equal to 1.
Bare module cost ( 2021 ) ,C BM , 2021=$ 126,219.61
The cost for distillation column T-102 is RM 897,560.976.

Heat Exchanger
Sizing of Heat Exchanger 1, E-101
Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),
( T hi−T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 800−600 )−(120−25)
∆ T lm= =
(T −T co ) (800−600)
ln hi ln
(T ho−T ci ) (120−25)
∆ T lm=¿141.05°C
Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:
T hi −T ho 800−120
R= = = 1.18
T co −T ci 600−25
393
 T co −T ci 600−25
S= = = 0.74
T hi −T ci 800−25

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3, which gives F l=1.

Figure F- 3 Temperature Correction Factor; One Shell Pass; Two or More Even
Tube Passes

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×141.05=141.05 ℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.℃ )
Steam Gases 300

Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,

Q=UA ∆T lm
3
Q 1549.45 ×10
A= = = 36.62 m2
U ∆ T lm 300 (141.05)
Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 19.86 25.40

Surface area for single tube, At

394
 At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(25.40×10-3) = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 36.62
Nt= = = 62.69 ≈ 63 tubes
A t 0.584

Tube count tables which give an estimate of the number of tubes that can be
accommodated in standard shell sizes as shown in Table F- 13.

Table F- 13 Constants for Use in Equation for Some Typical Tube Arrangements

From Table F- 13, for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt
( )
1
n1 63
D b =d o =25.40 × 2.142
= 299.584 mm
K1 0.319

395
 Figure F- 4 Shell-bundle Clearance

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 89 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 299.584 + 89 = 388.58 mm = 0.389 m

Baffle spacing = 388.58/5 = 77.717 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-101)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 14 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(36.62) + 0.3187 [log10(36.62)]2
CP 0 = $ 19,024.75
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.

396
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 19,024.75)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
CBM = $ 114,700.23

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 114,700.23)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 195,103.83
CBM, 2021 = RM 780,415.33
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-101 is RM 780,415.33.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-102)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi−T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 510−500 ) −(30−25)

∆ T lm= =
(T −T co ) (510−500)
ln hi ln
(T ho−T ci ) (30−25)

∆ T lm=¿7.21°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

T hi −T ho 510−30
R= = = 1.01
T co −T ci 500−25
T co −T ci 500−25
S= = = 0.98
T hi −T ci 510−25

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=1.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×7.21=7.21 ℃

397
Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.℃ )
Steam Gases 300
Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,
Q=UA ∆T lm
3
Q 37.8803 ×10
A= = = 17.50 m2
U ∆ T lm 300 (7.21)

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 19.86 25.40

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(25.40×10-3) = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 17.50
Nt= = = 29.97 ≈ 30 tubes
A t 0.584

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt
( )
1
n1 30
D b =d o =25.40 × 2.142
= 211.773 mm
K1 0.319

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 89 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 211.773 + 89 = 300.773 mm = 0.301 m

Baffle spacing = 300.773/5 = 60.155 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-102)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
398
 Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(17.50) + 0.3187 [log10(17.50)]2
CP 0 = $ 18,421.70
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 18,421.70)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
CBM = $ 111,064.45

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 111,064.45)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 188,919.41
CBM, 2021 = RM 755,677.65
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-102 is RM 755,677.65.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-103)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi−T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 500−140 ) −(25−12)

∆ T lm= =
(T −T co ) (500−140)
ln hi ln
(T ho−T ci ) (25−12)

∆ T lm=¿104.48°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

399
 T hi −T ho 500−25
R= = = 3.71
T co −T ci 140−12
T co −T ci 140−12
S= = = 0.26
T hi −T ci 500−12

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=1.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×104.48=104.48℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.℃ )
Steam Gases 300

Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,

Q=UA ∆T lm

Q 2364.87 ×10 3
A= = = 75.45 m2
U ∆ T lm 300 (104.48)

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 45.26 50.80

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(50.80×10-3) =1.168 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 75.45
Nt= = = 64.58 ≈ 65 tubes
A t 1.16

From Table F- 13, for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

400
 ( )
1
Nt
( )
1
n1 65
D b =d o =50.80 × 2.142
= 606.152 mm
K1 0.319

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 91 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 606.152 + 90 = 697.152 mm = 0.697 m

Baffle Spacing = 697.152 /5 = 139.430 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-103)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(75.45) + 0.3187 [log10(75.45)]2
CP 0 = $ 22,725.06
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 22,725.06)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
CBM = $ 137,009.41

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 137,009.41)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 233,051.51
401
CBM, 2021 = RM 932,206.06
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-103 is RM 932,206.06.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-104)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi −T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 500−43.2 )−(25−10.1)

∆ T lm= =
(T hi −T co ) (500−43.2)
ln ln
(T ho−T ci ) (25−10.1)

∆ T lm=¿129.10°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

T hi −T ho 500−25
R= = = 14.35
T co −T ci 43.2−10.1

T co −T ci 43.2−10.1
S= = = 0.07
T hi −T ci 500−10.1

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l= 1

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×129.10=129.10℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2. ℃ )
Steam Gases 300

Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,

Q=UA ∆T lm
3
Q 20858.88 ×10
A= = = 538.56 m2
U ∆ T lm 300 (129.10)

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
10 3.40 43.99 50.80
402
Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(50.80×10-3) = 1.168 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 538.56
Nt= = = 461.01 ≈ 461 tubes
A t 1.168

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1

( )
1
Nt n1 461
D b =d o =50.8 × 2.142
= 1517.345 mm
K1 0.319

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 10 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 1517.345 + 10 = 1617.345 mm = 1.617 m

Baffle Spacing = 1617.345 /5 = 323.469 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-104)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(538.56) + 0.3187 [log10(538.56)]2
CP 0 = $ 76,556.76
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 76,556.76)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
403
CBM = $ 461,560.68

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 461,560.68)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 785,109.68
CBM, 2021 = RM 3,140,438.74
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-104 is RM 3,140,438.74.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-105)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi −T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 232.51−101 )−(25−15.5)

∆ T lm= =
(T −T co ) (232.51−101)
ln hi ln
(T ho−T ci ) (25−15.5)

∆ T lm=¿46.43°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

T hi −T ho 232.51−25
R= = = 2.43
T co −T ci 101−15.5

T co −T ci 101−15.5
S= = = 0.39
T hi −T ci 232.51−15

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=0.82.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=0.82 × 46.43=38.07 ℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.℃ )
Steam Gases 300
404
Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,
Q=UA ∆T lm

Q 569.189 ×103
A= = = 49.83 m2
U ∆ T lm 300( 49.83)

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 19.86 25.40

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(25.40×10-3) = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 49.83
Nt= = = 85.31 ≈ 85 tubes
A t 0.584

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt
( )
1
n1 85
D b =d o =25.40 × 2.142
= 345.140 mm
K1 0.319

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 91 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 345.140 + 91 = 436.14 mm = 0.436 m

Baffle Spacing = 436.14 /5 = 87.228 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-105)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
405
 Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(49.83) + 0.3187 [log10(49.83)]2
CP 0 = $ 20,162.17
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0 (B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 20,162.17)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
CBM = $ 1,211,557.70

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 1,211,557.70)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 206,768.31
CBM, 2021 = RM 827,073.26
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-105 is RM 827,073.26.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-106)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi −T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 420−141 )−(112+15.99)

∆ T lm= =
(T hi −T co ) (420−141)
ln ln
(T ho−T ci ) (112+15.99)

∆ T lm=¿174.41°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

406
 T hi −T ho 420−112
R= = = 1.96
T co −T ci 141+15.99
T co −T ci 141+15.99
S= = = 0.36
T hi −T ci 420+ 15.99

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=0.9.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=0.9 ×193.79=174.41℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.℃ )
Steam Gases 300

Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,

Q=UA ∆T lm

Q 1549.45 ×103
A= = = 82.12 m2
U ∆ T lm 300 (174.41)

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 45.26 50.80

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(50.80×10-3) = 1.168 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 82.12
Nt= = = 70.30 ≈ 70 tubes
A t 1.168

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

407
Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt
( )
1
n1 70
D b =d o =50.80 × 2.142
= 630.617 mm
K1 0.319

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 91 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 630.617 + 91 = 721.617 mm = 0.722 m

Baffle Spacing = 721.617 /5 = 144.323 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-106)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(82.12) + 0.3187 [log10(82.12)]2
CP 0 = $ 23,424.42
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 23,424.42)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
CBM = $ 141,225.84

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 141,225.84)(670.7/397)
408
CBM, 2021 = $ 240,223.62
CBM, 2021 = RM 960,894.48
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-106 is RM 960,894.48.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-107)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi −T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 92.77−50.5 )−( 25−15)

∆ T lm= =
(T hi −T co ) ( 92.77−50.5)
ln ln
(T ho−T ci ) (25−15)

∆ T lm=¿ 22.39°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

T hi −T ho 92.77−25
R= = = 1.91
T co −T ci 50.5−15

T co −T ci 50.5−15
S= = = 0.46
T hi −T ci 92.77−15

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=1.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×22.39=22.39℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2. ℃ )
Steam Gases 300

Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,

Q=UA ∆T lm
3
Q 223.467 ×10
A= = = 33.27 m2
U ∆ T lm 300 (22.39)

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
409
 Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 19.86 25.40
Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(25.40×10-3) = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A 33.27
Nt= = = 56.97 ≈ 57 tubes
A t 0.584

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt
( )
1
n1 57
D b =d o =25.40 × 2.142
= 285.827 mm
K1 0.319

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 89 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 285.827 + 89 = 374.827 mm = 0.375 m

Baffle Spacing = 374.827 /5 = 74.965 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-107)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 -0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(33.27) + 0.3187 [log10(33.27)]2
CP 0 = $ 18,784.79
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = ($ 18,784.79)[1.63 + (1.66)(2.65)(1.0)]
410
CBM = $ 113,253.47
The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 113,253.47)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 192,642.92
CBM, 2021 = RM 770,571.68
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-107 is RM 770,571.68.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-108)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi−T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 321.22−200 )−(305.5−25)

∆ T lm= =
(T −T co ) (321.22−200)
ln hi ln
(T ho−T ci ) (305.5−25)

∆ T lm=¿189.85°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

T hi −T ho 321.22−305.5
R= = = 0.09
T co −T ci 200−25

T co −T ci 200−25
S= = = 0.59
T hi −T ci 321.22−25

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=1.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×189.66=189.66℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2. ℃ )
Steam Gases 750
Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,

411
 Q=UA ∆T lm

Q
A= =¿ 54.39 m2
U ∆ T lm

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 50.8 25.40

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = (7.32)(𝜋)(25.40×10-3) = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A
Nt= ≈ 93 tubes
At

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt n1
Db =d o = 359.525 mm
K1

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 89 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 0.449 m

Baffle spacing = 89.705 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-108)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
412
 Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(54.39) + 0.3187 [log10(54.39)]2
CP 0 = $ 20,595.66
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = $ 124,171.25

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = RM 844,855.79
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-108 is RM 844,855.79.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-109)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi−T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 285.85−50 ) −(25−20)

∆ T lm= =
(T −T co ) (285.85−50)
ln hi ln
(T ho−T ci ) (25−20)

∆ T lm=¿59.90°C

Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:

T hi −T ho
R= =¿8.69
T co −T ci
T co −T ci
S= =¿ 0.11
T hi −T ci

413
Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the
figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=1.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm=1 ×59.90=59.90℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2. ℃ )
Steam Gases 750
Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,
Q=UA ∆T lm

Q
A= =¿ 62.25 m2
U ∆ T lm

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 50.8 25.40

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A
Nt= ≈ 107 tubes
At

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,

( )
1
Nt n1
D b =d o = 382.929 mm
K1

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 89 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 0.472 m
414
Baffle spacing = 94.386 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-109)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(62.25) + 0.3187 [log10(62.25)]2
CP 0 = $ 21,372.28
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = $ 128,853.47

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = RM 876,713.39
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-109 is RM 876,713.39.

Sizing Heat Exchanger (E-110)

Mean temperature difference (temperature driving force),

( T hi−T co )−(T ho −T ci ) ( 423.8186−50 )−(25−24 )

∆ T lm= =
(T hi −T co ) (423.8186−50)
ln ln
(T ho−T ci ) (25−24)

∆ T lm=¿62.94°C
415
Correction factor, correlation as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios:
T hi −T ho
R= =¿ 15.34
T co −T ci
T co −T ci
S= =¿0.59
T hi−T ci

Based on Coulson Richardsons Chemical Engineering, these values intercept on the

figure, for a single shell-pass exchanger, so use Figure F- 3 which gives F l=1.

∆ T lm=F l ∆T lm =1 ×189.66=189.66℃

Assumptions for typical overall coefficient, U: From Table 12.1 (Sinnot, 2005)
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2. ℃ )
Steam Gases 750
Provisional area of heat exchanger, A can be obtained through the formula,
Q=UA ∆T lm

Q
A= =¿ 165.56 m2
U ∆ T lm

Preferred length of heat exchangers tubes = 7.32 m.

From Appendix A.5-2 (Genkoplis, 2003), the dimensions of heat exchanger tubes as
information as below:
BWG Wall Thickness Inner Diameter, di Outer Diameter, do
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 2.77 50.8 25.40

Surface area for single tube, At

At = Lt𝜋do = 0.584 m2

Number of tubes, Nt
A
Nt= ≈ 283 tubes
At

From Table F- 13 for Triangular pitch 1 pass, K1 = 0.319, n1 = 2.142

Bundle diameter,
416
 ( )
1
Nt n1
D b =d o = 604.547 mm
K1

From Figure F- 4, for pull-through head, clearance = 89 mm,

Shell inner diameter,

Ds = Db + Bundle diameter clearance = 0.694 m
Baffle spacing = 138.709 mm

Costing of Heat Exchanger (E-110)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 12 Equipment Cost Data for Heat Exchanger
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Heat exchanger Floating head 4.8306 0.8509 0.3187

The cost of the heat exchanger is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 4.8306 − 0.8509log10(138.709) + 0.3187 [log10(138.709)]2
CP 0 = $ 32,485.82
For heat exchanger with stainless steel for shells and tubes as material, bare module
factor, FM is 2.65 and pressure factor, FP is 1.0. Constant for bare module, B1 is 1.63
and B2 is 1.66.
CBM = CP0(B1 + B2FMFP)
CBM = $ 195,857.03

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = RM 1,332,602.67
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger, E-110 is RM 1,332,602.67.

417
Compressor
Sizing of Compressor 1 (C-101)
Sizing
Below is compressor C-101 design:

3 3
10000 kg 1 hr 1m 0.00278 m
× × =
hr 3600 s 1000 kg s

1. Flow details
Volumetric flow rate inlet = 0.00278 m3/s
Inlet stream temperature = 398.15 K
Outlet stream temperature = 348.80 K
Inlet stream pressure = 1 bar
Outlet stream pressure = 1.5 bar

2. Power Required

Figure F- 5 Efficiency of Compressor at Various Volumetric Flow Rates

From Figure F- 5 (Turton, 2013), the efficiency of compressor is 65% with the value
of volumetric flow rates are 0.00278 m3/s.
The expression of theoretical power for ideal system
a
P2
−1
P1
Pisentropic =mz RT 1
a

For monoatomic gases: CP = 5/2R and CV = 3/2R

418
 Cp 5/2 R k−1 1.33−1
k= = =1.33 ; a= = =0.2481
Cv 3/2 R k 1.33
Where,
z = compressibility factor = 1.0 (ideal gas)
m = molar flow rate (kmol/hr)
0.2481
1.5
−1
1
Pisentropic =(346.616)(1)(8.314)(398.15)
0.2481
kJ hr
Pisentropic = 121426.317 ×
hr 3600 s
Pactual = 33.73 kW

Pisentropic 33.73
Pactual = = = 51.892 kW
efficiency of compressor 0.65

Costing of Compressor 1 (C-101)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 15 Equipment Cost Data for Compressor
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Compressor Centrifugal 2.2897 1.3604 -0.1027

The cost of the compressor is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604 log10(51.892) − 0.1027 [log10(51.892)]2
CP 0 = $ 20,932.61
CBM = CP0FBM
For centrifugal compressor with stainless steel as material, bare module factor, F BM is
7.
CBM = ($ 20,932.61)(7)
CBM = $ 146,528.27

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
419
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 146,528.27)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 249,242.99
CBM, 2021 = RM 1,050,434.58
Therefore, the cost of compressor, C-101 is RM 1,050,434.58.

Utility Cost of Compressor 1 (C-101)

Based on TNB tariff, average cost of electricity = RM 0.337/kWh
RM 0.337 8000 hr
Utility cost of C-101 = × ×51.892 kW = RM 139,900.83/yr
kWh yr

Sizing of Compressor 2 (C-102)

Below is compressor C-102 design:

300 kg 1 hr 1 m3 0.0833 ×10−3 m3

× × =
hr 3600 s 1000 kg s

1. Flow details
Volumetric flow rate inlet = 0.0833 ×10−3 m3/s
Inlet stream temperature = 398.15 K
Outlet stream temperature = 348.93 K
Inlet stream pressure = 1 bar
Outlet stream pressure = 1.5 bar

2. Power Required

420
 Figure F- 5 Efficiency of Compressor at Various Volumetric Flow Rates

From Figure F- 5 (Turton, 2013), the efficiency of compressor is 65% with the value
of volumetric flow rates are 0.0833 ×10−3 m3/s.

The expression of theoretical power for ideal system

a
P2
−1
P1
Pisentropic =mz RT 1
a

For monoatomic gases: CP = 5/2R and CV = 3/2R

Cp 5/2 R k−1 1.33−1
k= = =1.33 ; a= = =0.2481
Cv 3/2 R k 1.33
Where,
z = compressibility factor = 1.0 (ideal gas)
m = molar flow rate (kmol/hr)

1.50.2481
−1
1
Pisentropic =(10.7091)(1)( 8.314)(398.15)
0.2481
kJ hr
Pisentropic = 15121.35 ×
hr 3600 s
Pactual = 4.20 kW

Pisentropic 33.73
Pactual = = = 6.462 kW
efficiency of compressor 0.65

Costing of Compressor 2 (C-101)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:

421
 Table F- 13 Equipment Cost Data for Compressor
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Compressor Centrifugal 2.2897 1.3604 -0.1027

The cost of the compressor is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604 log10(6.462) − 0.1027 [log10(6.462)]2
CP 0 = $ 2,182.29
CBM = CP0FBM
For centrifugal compressor with stainless steel as material, bare module factor, F BM is
7.
CBM = ($ 2,182.29)(7)
CBM = $ 15,276.03

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 15,276.03)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 25,984.36
CBM, 2021 = RM 109,511.09
Therefore, the cost of compressor, C-102 is RM 109,511.09

Utility Cost of Compressor 2 (C-102)

Based on TNB tariff, average cost of electricity = RM 0.337/kWh
RM 0.337 8000 hr
Utility cost of C-102 = × ×6.462 kW = RM 17,421.55/yr
kWh yr

Sizing of Compressor (C-103)

Below is compressor C-103 design:

3 3
3271.19 kg 1 hr 1m 0.00091 m
× × =
hr 3600 s 1000 kg s
422
1. Flow details
Volumetric flow rate inlet = 0.00091 m3/s
Inlet stream temperature = 257.15 K
Outlet stream temperature = 505.66 K
Inlet stream pressure = 0.5 bar
Outlet stream pressure = 1 bar

2. Power Required

Figure F- 5 Efficiency of Compressor at Various Volumetric Flow Rates

From Figure F- 5 (Turton, 2013), the efficiency of compressor is 65% with the value
of volumetric flow rates are 0.00091 m3/s.
The expression of theoretical power for ideal system
P2 a
−1
P1
Pisentropic =mz RT 1
a

For polyatomic gases; CP = 4R and CV = 3R

Cp 4 R k−1 1.33−1
k= = =1.33 ; a= = =0.2481
Cv 3 R k 1.33

Where,
z = compressibility factor = 1.0 (ideal gas)
m = molar flow rate (kmol/hr)

10.2481
−1
0.5
Pisentropic =(199.706)(1)(8.314)(257.15)
0.2481

423
 kJ hr
Pisentropic = 322917.004 ×
hr 3600 s
Pactual = 89.699 kW

Pisentropic 89.699
Pactual = = = 137.998 kW
efficiency of compressor 0.65

Costing of Compressor 3 (C-103)

According to Turton (2013), the cost of compressor is calculated using the formula
and information as below:
Table F- 13 Equipment Cost Data for Compressor
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Compressor Centrifugal 2.2897 1.3604 -0.1027

The cost of the compressor is calculated as below:

log10CP0 = 2.2897 + 1.3604 log10(137.998) − 0.1027 [log10(137.998)]2
CP 0 = $ 53,766.77
CBM = CP0FBM
For centrifugal compressor with stainless steel as material, bare module factor, F BM is
7.
CBM = ($ 53,766.77)(7)
CBM = $ 376,367.39

The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7. As for the
CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397.

C2 = C1 (I2/I1)
Where, C2 = bare module cost for equipment at year 2021
I = cost index
CBM, 2021 = ($ 376,367.39)(670.7/397)
CBM, 2021 = $ 640,196.83
CBM, 2021 = RM 2,698,109.54
Therefore, the cost of compressor, C-103 is RM 2,698,109.54

424
Utility Cost Compressor 3 (C-103)
Based on TNB tariff, average cost of electricity = RM 0.337/kWh
RM 0.337 8000 hr
Utility cost of C-103 = × ×137.998 kW = RM 372,042.61/yr
kWh yr

Pump
Sizing of Pump 1 (P-101)
Power of P-101,
Q P
W= ¿
ρ
Q ¿ = 61302.79 kg/hr

Pressure difference, ∆ P = (1.5-1) atm

= 0.5 atm

= 1044.2715 lbf/ ft 2

1000 kg
ρ H 2O = 3
m
Actual power of pump, P-101,

( hr ( ft ) 35.145 ft
61302.79 ) 1044.2715
kg lbf
2 3 1W
1hr
W= × × × lbf = 844.5454 W
1000 kg m
3
3600 s 0.74 ft .
3
s
m

Assumed pump efficiency is 85%

844.5454
Shaft Power = = 993.5828 W = 0.9936 kW
0.85

Costing of Pump 1 (P-101)

The cost of a pump is determined by using the formula below and the information in
Table F- 16, which refers to Table A.1 in Turton (2013).
log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10¿A) + 0.1538 ¿

Table F- 16 Equipment Cost Data for Pump (P-101)

425
 Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Pump Centrifugal 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538

Centrifugal pump is chosen,

Shaft power, A = 0.9936 kW
log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10 (0.9936) + 0.1538 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 2,449.35

Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for pump is shown in
Table F- 17. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 17 Pressure Factors for Pump (P-101)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Pump Centrifugal 0 0 0

log 10 F p =¿ 0

F p=1

By using stainless steel as the material for centrifugal pump, based on Table A.4 in
(Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006) B1 = 1.89, B2= 1.35 and F M = 2.20.
C BM = Cp °( B1+ B2 F M F p ¿

C BM = $ 2449.35 (1.89+ [(1.35) (2.2) (1)])

C BM = $ 11903.85

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the pump in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 11,903.85 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 20,110.61

Therefore, the cost for the centrifugal pump, P-101 is RM 84,665.67.

426
Sizing of Pump 2 (P-102)
Power of P-102,
Q P
W= ¿
ρ
Q ¿ = 45717.75 kg/hr

Pressure difference, ∆ P = (1.5-0.05) atm

= 1.45 atm

= 3028.3874 lbf/ ft 2

388.6275 kg
ρ= 3
m
Actual power of pump, P-102,

W=
( kg
hr (
45717.75 ) 3028.3874
ft ) 35.145 ft
lbf

×
2
×
1hr 3
×
1W
lbf
1000 kg m
3
3600 s 0.74 ft .
s
m3

= 1826.5249 W

Assumed pump efficiency is 85%

1826.5249
Shaft Power = = 2148.8528 W = 2.1489 kW
0.85

Costing of Pump 2 (P-102)

The cost of a pump is determined by using the formula below and the information in
Table F- 16, which refers to Table A.1 in Turton (2013).
log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10¿A) + 0.1538 ¿

Table F- 14 Equipment Cost Data for Pump (P-102)

Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Pump Centrifugal 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538

Centrifugal pump is chosen,

Shaft power, A = 2.1489 kW

427
log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10¿2.1489) + 0.1538¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 2654.48

Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for pump is shown in
Table F- 17. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F-15 Pressure Factors for Pump (P-102)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Pump Centrifugal 0 0 0

log 10 F p =¿ 0

F p=1

By using stainless steel as the material for centrifugal pump, based on Table A.4 in
(Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006) B1 = 1.89, B2= 1.35 and F M = 2.20.
C BM = Cp °( B1+ B2 F M F p ¿

C BM = $ 2654.48 (1.89+ [(1.35) (2.2) (1)])

C BM = $ 12,900.78

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the pump in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 12,900.78 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 21,794.84
Therefore, the cost for the centrifugal pump, P-102 is RM 91,756.28.

Sizing of Pump 3 (P-103)

Power of P-103,
Q P
W= ¿
ρ
Q ¿ = 40491.3 kg/hr

Pressure difference, ∆ P = (1.5-1) atm

428
= 0.5 atm

= 1044.2715 lbf/ ft 2

517.5 kg
ρ=
m3
Actual power of pump, P-103,

W=
( kg
hr (
40491.3 ) 1044.2715
ft ) 35.145 ft
lbf

×
2
×
1hr 3
×
1W
lbf
1000 kg m3 3600 s 0.74 ft .
s
m3

= 557.8333 W

Assumed pump efficiency is 85%

557.8333
Shaft Power = = 656.2745 W = 0.6563 kW
0.85

P-103 Costing
The cost of a pump is determined by using the formula below and the information in
Table F- 16, which refers to Table A.1 in Turton (2013).
log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10¿A) + 0.1538 ¿

Table F- 14 Equipment Cost Data for Pump (P-103)

Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Pump Centrifugal 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538

Centrifugal pump is chosen,

Shaft power, A = 0.6563 kW
log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.3892 + 0.0536 log10¿0.6563) + 0.1538 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 2424.05

Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for pump is shown in
Table F- 17. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

429
 Table F-15 Pressure Factors for Pump (P-103)
Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Pump Centrifugal 0 0 0

log 10 F p =¿ 0

F p=1

By using stainless steel as the material for centrifugal pump, based on Table A.4 in
(Turton, Bailie & Whiting, 2006) B1 = 1.89, B2= 1.35 and F M = 2.20.
C BM = Cp °( B1+ B2 F M F p ¿

C BM = $ 2,424.05 (1.89+ [(1.35) (2.2) (1)])

C BM = $ 11,780.88

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the pump in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 11,780.88 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 19,902.86

Therefore, the cost for the centrifugal pump, P-103 is RM 83,791.04.

Storage Tank
Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-101)
Vessel condition
Temperature: 25°C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity
Density, ρ = 946.6667 kg/m3
Mass flow rate, m = 61921 kg/hr

430
Volume flow rate, v = 65.4095 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 65.4095 x 24
= 1569.8281 m3

[ ( )]
2
π D2 π (0.4) D 3D
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ ( )]
2
πD
2
π ( 0.4 ) D 3D
1569.8281= ×2 D + 2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 8.3881 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
8.3881
H L=4.1941 m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 4.1941 + 0.1(8.3881) = 5.0329 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
8.3881
HR = × tan 10° = 0.7394 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 5.0329 + 0.7394 = 5.7722 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=4.1941 m

Liquid density,ρ = 946.6667 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2

431
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 8.3881 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 946.6667 ) ( 4.1941 ) 8.3881
e s= ×
2 ( 120.65 ) 1000
e s=1.354 mm

Volume of cylinder roof tank, V R

V R=π r 2 H T

8.3881
¿ π× ×2 ×5.7722
2
= 152.1104m3

Costing of Storage Tank (TK-101)

Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 1569.8281 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F- 18 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-101)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed Roof 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10 ¿A) + 0.1445 ¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 -0.3973 log10 ¿1569.8281) + 0.1445 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 114,034.03

432
Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 19 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-101)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 114,034.03 (1)

C BM = $ 114,034.03

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 114,034.03 ( 670.7
397 )
= $ 192,651.45

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-101 is RM 811,062.59.

Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-102)

Vessel condition
Temperature: 49.67 °C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity
Density, ρ = 946.6667 kg/m3

433
Mass flow rate, m = 61920 kg/hr
Volume flow rate, v = 65.4084 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 65.4084 x 24
= 1569.8028 m3

[ ( )]
2
π D2 π (0.4) D 3D
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ (
π ( 0.4 ) D2 3 D
)]
2
πD
1569.8028= × 2 D +2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 8.388 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
8.388
H L=¿ 4.194 m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 4.194 + 0.1(8.388) = 5.0328 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
8.388
HR = × tan 10° = 0.7394 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 5.0328 + 0.7394 = 5.7721 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=4.194 m

Liquid density,ρ = 946.6667 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2

434
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 8.388 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 946.6667 ) ( 4.194 ) 8.388
e s= ×
2 ( 120.65 ) 1000
e s=1.3539mm

Volume of cone roof tank, V R

1 π D2
V R= × ×HR
3 4
2
1 π ( 8.388 )
¿ × ×0.7394
3 4
= 18.4199m3

Costing of Storage Tank (TK-102)

Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 1,569.8028 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F-16 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-102)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed Roof 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10¿A) + 0.1445¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10¿) + 0.1445¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 114,033.06

435
Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 17 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-102)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 114,033.06 (1)

C BM = $ 114,033.06

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 114,033.06 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 192,649.81

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-102 is RM 811,055.69.

Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-103)

Vessel condition
Temperature: 25°C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity
436
Density, ρ = 1950 kg/m3
Mass flow rate, m = 13231.07 kg/hr
Volume flow rate, v = 6.7852 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 6.7852 x 24
= 162.8439 m3

[
π (0.4) D 2 3 D
( )]
2
πD
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ ( )]
2
π D2 π ( 0.4 ) D 3D
162.8439= × 2 D +2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 3.9413 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
3.9413
H L=1.9707 m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 1.9707 + 0.1(3.9413) = 2.3648 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
3.9413
HR = × tan 10° = 0.3474 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 2.3648 + 0.3474 = 2.7122 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=1.9707 m

Liquid density,ρ = 1950 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

437
Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 3.9413 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 1950 ) (1.9707 ) 3.9413
e s= ×
2 ( 120.65 ) 1000

e s=¿0.61574 mm

Volume of cylinder roof tank, V R

V R=π r 2 H T

3.9413
¿ π× ×2 ×2.7122
2
= 33.5823m3

Costing of Storage Tank (TK-103)

Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 162.8439 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F-16 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-103)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed Roof 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 -0.3973 log10¿A) + 0.1445¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 -0.3973 log10¿) + 0.1445 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 47,758.15

438
Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 17 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-103)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 47,758.15 (1)

C BM = $ 47,758.15

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 47,758.15 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 80,683.61

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-103 is RM 194,447.49.

Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-104)

Vessel condition
Temperature: 25°C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity

439
Density, ρ = 395.44 kg/m3
Mass flow rate, m = 3271.1901 kg/hr
Volume flow rate, v = 8.2723 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 8.2723 x 24
= 198.5347 m3

[
π (0.4) D 2 3 D
( )]
2
πD
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ ( )]
2
π D2 π ( 0.4 ) D 3D
198.5347= × 2 D +2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 4.2104 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
4.2104
H L=2.1052 m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 2.1052+ 0.1(4.2104) = 2.5262 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
4.2104
HR = × tan 10° = 0.3711 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 2.5262 + 0.3711 = 2.8974 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=2.1052 m

Liquid density,ρ = 395.44 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2

440
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 4.2104 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 395.44 ) ( 2.1052 ) 4.2104
e s= ×
2 ( 120.65 ) 1000

e s=¿0.1425 mm

Volume of cylinder roof tank, V R

V R=π r 2 H T

4.2104
¿ π× × 2× 2.8974
2
= 38.3247m3

Costing of Storage Tank (TK-104)

Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 198.5347 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F-16 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-104)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed Roof 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp°=¿ 4.8509 -0.3973 log10¿A) + 0.1445 ¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10¿198.5347) + 0.1445 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 50,226.99

441
Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 17 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-104)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 50226.99 (1)

C BM = $ 50,226.99

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 50,226.99 ( 670.7
397 )
= $ 84,854.51

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-104 is RM 204,499.38.

Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-105)

Vessel condition
Temperature: 25°C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity
Density, ρ = 491.5033 kg/m3

442
Mass flow rate, m = 5226.45 kg/hr
Volume flow rate, v = 10.6336 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 10.6336 x 24
= 255.2064 m3

[ ( )]
2
π D2 π (0.4) D 3D
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ (
π ( 0.4 ) D 2 3 D
)]
2
πD
255.2064= ×2 D +2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 4.578 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
4.578
H L=¿ 2.289 m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 2.289+ 0.1(4.578) = 2.7468 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
4.578
HR = × tan 10° = 0.4035 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 2.7468 + 0.4035 = 3.1503 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=2.289 m

Liquid density,ρ = 491.5033 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2

443
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 4.578 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 491.5033) ( 2.289 ) 4.578
e s= ×
2 (120.65 ) 1000

e s=¿0.2094 mm

Volume of cylinder roof tank, V R

V R=π r 2 H T

4.578
¿ π× × 2× 3.1503
2
= 45.3089m3
Costing of Storage Tank (TK-105)
Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 255.2064 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F-16 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-105)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed roof Tank 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10 ¿A) + 0.1445 ¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 -0.3973 log10¿255.2064) + 0.1445 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 53,919.87

Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,
444
 Table F- 17 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-105)
Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 53,919.87 (1)

C BM = $ 53,919.87

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 53,919.87 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 91,093.34

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-105 is RM 383,502.96.

Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-106)

Vessel condition
Temperature: 25°C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity
Density, ρ = 517.5 kg/m3
Mass flow rate, m = 14805.9 kg/hr

445
Volume flow rate, v = 28.6104 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 28.6104 x 24
= 686.6506 m3

[ ( )]
2
π D2 π (0.4) D 3D
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ ( )]
2
πD
2
π ( 0.4 ) D 3D
686.6506= × 2 D +2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 6.3673 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
6.3673
H L=¿ 3.1837 m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 3.1837 + 0.1(6.3673) = 3.8204 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
6.3673
HR = × tan 10° = 0.5613 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 3.8204 + 0.5613 = 4.3816 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=3.1837 m

Liquid density,ρ = 517.5 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2

446
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 8.3881 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 517.5 ) (3.1837 ) 6.3673
e s= ×
2 ( 120.65 ) 1000

e s=0.4265mm

Volume of cylinder roof tank, V R

V R=π r 2 H T

6.3673
¿ π× ×2 ×4.3816
2
= 87.6481m3

Costing of Storage Tank (TK-106)

Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 686.6506 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F-16 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-106)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed roof Tank 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10 ¿A) + 0.1445 ¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10¿686.6506) + 0.1445 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 77,031.17

447
Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 17 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-106)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 77031.17 (1)

C BM = $ 77,031.17

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 77,031.17 ( 670.7
397 )
= $ 130,138.05

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-106 is RM 547,881.19.

Sizing of Storage Tank (TK-107)
Vessel condition
Temperature: 25°C
Material of construction: Stainless Steel

Tank capacity
Density, ρ = 425 kg/m3
Mass flow rate, m = 25685.39 kg/hr

448
Volume flow rate, v = 60.4362 m3/hr
Storage time, τ = 1 day = 24 hours
Volume of storage, V s = vτ
= 60.4362 x 24
= 1450.4692 m3

[ ( )]
2
π D2 π (0.4) D 3D
V storage =( ×2 D)+2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

( ) [ ( )]
2
πD
2
π ( 0.4 ) D 3D
1450.4692= ×2 D + 2 × −0.2 D
4 3 2

D = 8.1699 m
HL
= 0.5
D
HL
= 0.5
8.1699
H L=¿ 4.085m

Safety height, H s = H + 10% (D) = 4.085+ 0.1(8.1699) = 4.902 m

D
Height of roof, H R = × tan θ, where θ is set to be 10° = 0.1745 rad
2
8.1699
HR = × tan 10° = 0.7201 m
2

Hence, the total height of the storage tank, H T is:

H T = H S + H R = 4.902 + 0.7201 = 5.6221 m

Wall thickness and roof design

Liquid depth, H L=4.085 m

Liquid density,ρ = 425 kg/m3

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/ s2

Design stress for tank material, f = 120.65 N/mm2

449
http://www.oilngasprocess.com/oil-handling-surfacefacilities/mechanical-design-of-
pressure-vessels/pressure-vessels-design/pressure-vessels-maximum-allowable-stress-
values.html
Material: Stainless Steel
Tank diameter, D = 8.1699 m
g ρ HL D
e s= ×
2f 1000
( 9.81 ) ( 425 )( 4.085 ) 8.1699
e s= ×
2 ( 120.65 ) 1000

e s=¿0.5766 mm

Volume of cylinder roof tank, V R

V R=π r 2 H T

8.1699
¿ π× ×2 ×5.6221
2
= 144.2997m3

Costing of Storage Tank (TK-107)

Fixed roof storage tank will be used:
Tank volume = 1,450.4692 m3
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of tank is shown in Table F- 18 and is
calculated using the formula as below:
Table F-16 Equipment Cost Data for Storage Tank (TK-107)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Tank Fixed roof Tank 4.8509 -0.3973 0.1445

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10 ¿A) + 0.1445 ¿

Where A is volume in m3
log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.8509 - 0.3973 log10¿1450.4692) + 0.1445 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 109,428.34

450
Based on Table A.2 in (Turton, 2013), the pressure factors for tank is shown in Table
F- 19. Since pressure is less than 0.07 barg,

Table F- 17 Pressure Factors of Storage Tank (TK-107)

Equipment Description C1 C2 C3
Tank Fixed Roof 0 0 0

The pressure factor, F p is 1.0 (since Cp value 0)

According to Turton (2013), the bare module factor can be calculated by using the
formula as shown below:
C BM = Cp ° F BM

F BM = 1

C BM = $ 109428.34 (1)

C BM = $ 109,428.34

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the storage tank in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 109,428.34 ( 670.7
397 )
= $ 184,870.50

Therefore, the cost for the storage tank, TK-107 is RM 778,304.80.

Flash Column

Sizing of Flash Column (V-101)

From equation 11.82 (Chemical Engineering Volume 6, R.K. Sinnott), Liquid-Vapor

factor or flow parameter, FLV:

F LV =
√
Lw ρv
V w ρl

451
Where, Lw = liquid mass flowrate

V w =¿vapor mass flowrate

kg h kg
Liquid mass flowrate, Lw =45717.74 × =12.6994
hr 3600 s s

kg h kg
Vapor mass flowrate, V w =48988.93 × =13.6080
hr 3600 s s
kg
Liquid density, ρl =388.6275
m3

kg
Vapor density, ρ v =395.44
m3

The liquid-Vapor factor, F LV =

√
Lw ρv
V w ρl
=0.9414

To calculate Kdrum,

K drum =exp¿ ¿

Where A = -1.8555, B = -0.8146, C = -0.1871, D = -0.0145, E = -0.001

K drum =exp¿ ¿

K drum =¿ 0.1374

Calculate the vapor velocity based on cross-sectional area by using:

U perm=K drum
√ ρl − ρ v
ρv
=0.0182 m/ s

Calculate the cross-sectional area of flash vessel,

Ac =
√ V × MWv
U perm (3600) pv
×100=3.0172 m2

Calculate the internal diameter,

D=
√ 4 Ac
π
=1.96 m

Calculate the height of the drum above the centerline of the feed nozzle,

452
 D 1.96
H v =0.9144+ =0.9144+ =1.8944 m
2 2

Calculate the height of the center of the feed line above the maximum level of the
liquid pool,

D 1.96
H l=0.348+ =0.348+ =1.328 m
2 2

To achieve higher separating efficiency, a demister pad is installed in the flash vessel
and the minimum height of the demister pad is 0.4 m.

Thus, the total height of the column,

H t =H v + H l + H demister =1.8944+1.328+ 0.4=3.6224 m

Based on rule of thumb,

L/D = 3 to 5

L/D = 5

L = 9.8 m

Calculate the volume of vessel,

π D2 H
V= =π ¿ ¿
4

Cost of Flash Column (V-101)

According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2009), the cost of flash column, V-101 can be
calculated using the value as shown in Table F- 20.

Table F- 20 Equipment Cost Data of Flash Column (V-101)

Equipment Description K1 K2 K3 Capacity, Units
Process Vessel Vertical 3.4974 0.4485 0.1074 Volume, m3

°
log 10 C p =K 1+ K 2 log 10 ( ¿ A)+ K 3 ¿ ¿

Where, A = the capacity or size parameter for the equipment (Volume, m3)

453
 °
C p = the purchased cost for the base condition

Therefore, the purchased cost for base condition, bare module equipment cost, and
total cost of flash column are calculated.

°
log 10 C p =3.4974+0.4485 log10 (¿ 10.9295)+0.1074 ¿ ¿

C °p=$ 11,996.75

The bare module cost, CBM for flash column is calculated using equation below:

° °
C BM =C p F BM =C p (B1 +B 2 F M F P)

Where, FBM = the bare module cost factor

FM = the bare module cost factor

FP = the bare module cost factor

(P+1) D
+0.00315
2[850−0.6 (P+1)] 0.7651
F P= =¿
0.0063

The value of FM can be gotten from Table A.3 for process vessel using stainless steel
material construction (Turton et al, 2013) while the value for B1 and B2 are given in
Table A.4 for vertical process vessel (Turton et al, 2013). Therefore, F M for the
vertical process vessel is 3.1, B1 is 2.25 and B2 is 1.82.

Thus,

° °
C BM =C p F BM =C p (B1 +B 2 F M F P)

° °
C BM =C p F BM =C p (2.25+1.82(3.1)(0.7651))

C BM =$ 78,778.99

454
The equation below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2021 is 670.7 (Chemical
Engineering, 2018) and the CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 397. By using current
exchange of $1 equivalent to RM 4.21,

C BM =$ 78,778.99 ( 670.7
397 )
=$ 133,090.85

Therefore, the cost for the flash column, V-101 is RM 560,312.49.

Mixer

Sizing of Mixer (M-101)

Molar flow rate = 3,402.82 kmol/hr

Mass flow rate = 61,302.8 kg/hr
Pressure = 1bar
Temperature = 25 °C = 298K
Assuming ideal gas,

( 3402.82 x 82.057 x 10 x 298 )

−3
𝑣 = nRT = = 83,209. 10982 𝑚3/ℎ𝑟
P 1
Assuming the space time is in the 60s.
1hr
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = 83,209. 10982 x x 60 s =1,386.8185 m3
3600 S
Assuming height is 2 times of the tank diameter.
2 2
π D H 2πD
𝑉= =
4 4
D = 2.18 m

Impeller Design
A 3 bladed axial flow impeller is chosen as it is commonly used for homogenizing
mixtures. For mixing at high Reynolds number, the diameter of impeller (𝐷 is
suggested as:
𝐷𝑖 = 0. 4𝐷 = 0. 5949 𝑚

455
The blade pitch (p) is designed the same length of blade diameter.
𝑝 = 0. 5949 m
The off-bottom distance of the impeller is usually designed at 1 - 2 impeller diameter.
Shaft length is typically 2 - 4 impeller while impeller width is suggested at 0.25 -
0.125 impeller diameter.
𝑜𝑓𝑓 − 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖 = 0. 5949
The specific power for mixing liquid and gas mixture is 0.956 𝑘𝑊/𝑚3
Power = 0.956 x V = 2.2086 kW

Blade Speed Calculation

The typical tip speed of the mixing process is at the range of 4.5 - 6m/s. Taking the
average value of 5.25 m/s, the blade speed can be calculated as:
tip speed x 60 6 x 60
𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑁 = = =193 rpm
π x Di π x 0.5949

Costing of Mixer (M-101)

According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of mixer is shown in Table F- 21 and
is calculated using the formula as below:
Table F- 21 Equipment Cost Data for Mixer (M-101)
K1 K2 K3
3.8511 -0.2991 -0.0003

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ K1 + K2 log10 (A) + K3 ¿

Where A is the capacity of equipment, where A = Power = 2.2086 kW

log 10 Cp° =¿ 3.8511 - 0.2991 log10 (2.2086) – 0.0003 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 5,599.37

To calculate the bare module cost for process vessel, 𝐶BM, following equation is used:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝°𝐹𝐵𝑀
where 𝐹BM is bare module factor obtained from Figure A.7 (Turton, 2013).

𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 1. 38

456
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 5,599. 97 (1. 38)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 7,727. 13

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the mixer in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 7,727.13 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 13,054.37

Therefore, the cost for the mixer, M-101 is RM 54,958.91.

Washer

Sizing of Washer (W-101)

Vibrating screen
𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ×𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ×𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 4. 328 × 3. 243 × 3. 442

Inclination angle suggested at 50°

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑊 × 𝐻 = 3. 243 × 3. 442 = 11. 16 𝑚2

Screen cross section area,

Ac 11.6 2
𝐴𝑠 = = =14.57 m
sinsin θ sinsin 50
= 156 𝑓𝑡2

Costing of Washer (W-101)

From Sieder et. al (2006), the equation for purchased equipment cost will be
calculated as below
𝐶𝑝 = 890 (𝐴) 0.91
= 890 (156𝑓𝑡2) 0.91

457
 = $ 88, 543. 12

To calculate the bare module cost for process vessel, 𝐶BM, following equation is used:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝°𝐹𝐵𝑀
where 𝐹BM is bare module factor obtained from Figure A.7 (Turton, 2013).

𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 1. 34
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 88, 543. 12 (1. 38)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 12,218.95

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the mixer in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 12,218.95 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 20,642.95

Therefore, the cost for the mixer, W-101 is RM 86,906.80.

Shredder

Sizing of Shredder (S-101)

The calculations for design and sizing of plastic shredding machines is based on
(Briggs & Beneth, 2020).
Mass flow rate (inlet), m = 2625.10 kg/hr
Average density (inlet), ρ = 1530. 9756 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
2625.10 kg / hr 3
Volumetric flow rate, 𝑓 = 3
=1.7147 m /hr
1530.9756 kg/m

1. Centrifugal tension
Since the common velocity of shredder is at a range of 100 to 400 rpm, 𝑁 is set at 400
rpm. 1
458
Diameter of driver pulley, 𝑑1 = 0. 20 𝑚
Cross sectional area of belt, A = 0. 6 m2
Belt mass/length, m = 150 g/m
The centrifugal tension in the belt,
π d 1 N 1 150 g π ( 0.20 m)( 400rpm)
𝑇𝑐 = m. = = =628.318 N
60 m 60
Where, 𝑑1 = diameter of driver pulley
𝑁1 = speed of driver pulley, rpm
m = belt mass/metre length

For aramid belt, α = 2,800 N/m2, the maximum tension of the belt,
2800 N
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = α𝐴 ¿ 2
×0. 6 m 2=1680 N
m
Where, α = permissible stress of belt material
A = cross sectional area of belt material

2. Tension in tight side

𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑐 = 1680𝑁 − 628. 318 𝑁 = 1,051. 682 𝑁

3. Tension in slack side

2.3 log
( )
T1
T2
=μθ 2.3 log
(
1051.682 N
T2 )
=0.20 ( 1 ) T 2=842. 653 N

Where, μ = coefficient of friction between pulley and belt

θ = angle of lap

4. Shaft design
Since loading of shredding chamber will be steady, then combined shock and fatigue
for bending and torsion are taken to be,
𝐾𝑚 = 1. 5𝐾𝑡 = 1
The maximum tensile stress or tensile strength, σ for polypropylene plastic is 500
kg/cm2 = 49.0333 Mpa (Alvarado-Diaz et al., 2021).
The maximum bending strength is 27 Mpa (Khan et al., 2010).
459
 1
The equivalent bending strength, 𝑀e¿ ¿ 1,020.0551 MPa
2

Hence, the sizing of shaft,

𝑑𝑠 =
√
3

σbπ
=
√
32 M e 3 32(27)
1020.0551× π
=0.6460 m2

5. Forces acting on pulley

Total force acting on pulley,
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 = 1,194. 9523 𝑁 + 939. 7292 𝑁 = 2,134. 6815 𝑁

By following L/D ratio = 5.0, Length, L = 1.2 m.

Volume of shredding shaft,
𝑉 = 0. 24 (0. 24) (1. 2) = 0. 0691 𝑚3
Mass of shredding shaft,
𝑚 = ρ𝑉 = 1530. 9756 𝑘𝑔.𝑚3 x 0. 0691𝑚3 = 105. 7904 𝑘𝑔

Costing of Shredder (S-101)

According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of mixer is shown in Table F- 22 and
is calculated using the formula as below:
Table F- 22 Equipment Cost Data for Shredder (S-101)
Equipment Type K1 K2 K3
Blender (Rotary) 4.1366 -0.4928 0.0070

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ K1 + K2 log10 (A) + K3 ¿

Where A is the shaft power in unit of kW of the equipment.

log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.1366 -0.4928 log10 (0.0691) + 0.0070 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 44,138.75

To calculate the bare module cost for process vessel, 𝐶BM, following equation is used:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝°𝐹𝐵𝑀

460
where 𝐹BM is bare module factor obtained from Figure A.7 (Turton, 2013).

𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 1. 12
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 44,138.75 (1. 12)
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 49,435.40

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the mixer in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 49,435.40 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 83,517.19

Therefore, the cost for the mixer, S-101 is RM 351,607.35.

Dryer

Sizing of Dryer (D-101)

Calculation of Inside Diameter and Length The allowable mass velocity of the air
ranges from 2000 kg/hr.m2 up to 25000 kg/hr.m2 (McCabe et al, 1993). Assuming that
the mass velocity of air = 15000 kg/hr.m2. Then, the area of dryer,
62539 kg /hr 2
A= 2
=4.16 m
15000 kg /hr .m

D i=
√
4 ( 4.160 m2)
π
=2.304 m

Drying diameter ranges from 1 to 3 m (McCabe et al, 1993), thus the completed
drying diameter is accepted.
The following empirical equation is used to calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient from Perry’s Handbook with the index n = 0.67 (McCormick, 1962). The
k value falls in the range 3.75 ≤ k ≤ 5.25 as suggested by AICHE for SI unit (van’t
Land, 2012). Assuming k = 4.75,

461
Calculating the logarithmic mean temperature difference:

To calculate the length of the drier:

462
463
464
Costing of Dryer (D-101)
Based on Garrett et al., (1989), the calculations are as follow:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎: π (6. 33 𝑓𝑡) 𝑥 33. 83𝑓𝑡 = 673 𝑓𝑡2
According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of dryer is shown in Figure F- 6 and
the cost is $ 44,000 which is identified using the peripheral area.

Figure F- 6 Purchased Costs of Dryers

465
The formula below is to calculate the cost of the mixer in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 44,000 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 74,334.51

Therefore, the cost for the mixer, D-101 is RM 312,948.28.

Cyclone

Sizing of Cyclone (CYC-101)

Cyclones are the principal type of gas-solids separator employing centrifugal force
and are widely used. The advantages of cyclone are:
1. The cyclone separators are simple and inexpensive to manufacture and require
little maintenance.
2. Contains no moving parts.
3. Have the ability to operate at high temperatures and pressures.
4. Unlike the slow setting within a settling tank, the pump and cyclone separator
system yield fast separation and utilizes less space.

The detailed of gaseous products coming out from the reactor (R-101) is shown in
Table F- 23.
Table F- 23 Detailed of Gaseous Products from R-101
Parameter Value
Volumetric Flow Rate (m3/hr) 4.1366
Density (kg/m3) 2.61516
Velocity (m/s) 15

Flowrate=Mass Flowrate
m3
hr
×
1 hr
( )
3600 s
=
2,3792 m3
hr
×
1 hr
3600 s
=6.609 m3 / s

466
 3 3
m m
Flowrate 6.609
s s 2
Area of inlet duct= = =0.44059 m
m m
Velocity 15
s s

Determination of Duct Area, DC

Figure F- 7 illustrates the standard cyclone dimensions design for the determination of
duct area.

Figure F- 7 Standard Cyclone Dimensions

From Figure F- 7, we can obtain the duct area by using:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0. 5 𝐷𝐶 x 0. 2 𝐷𝐶
0. 44059 𝑚2 = 0. 5 𝐷𝐶 x 0. 2 𝐷𝐶
0. 44059 𝑚2 = 0. 1 𝐷𝐶2
𝐷𝐶 = 2. 1

Final design of cyclone separator CYC-101 can be obtained by using these formulas:
Cylindrical length of cyclone:
𝐶𝐿 = 1. 5 𝐷𝐶 = 1. 5 x 2. 1 𝑚 = 3. 15 𝑚
Conical section of cyclone:
𝐶𝑆 = 2. 5 𝐷𝐶 = 2. 5 x 2. 1 𝑚 = 5. 25 𝑚
Conical end diameter of cyclone:
𝐶𝐸𝐷 = 0. 375 𝐷𝐶 = 0. 375 x 2. 1 𝑚 = 0. 7875 𝑚
Outlet diameter of cyclone:
467
𝐶𝑂 = 0. 5 𝐷𝐶 = 0. 5 x 2. 1 𝑚 = 1. 05 𝑚

Costing of Cyclone (CYC-101)

According to Table A.1 (Turton, 2013), the cost of mixer is shown in Table F- 24 and
is calculated using the formula as below:
Table F- 24 Equipment Cost Data for Cyclone (CYC-101)
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Separator Centrifugal 4.3612 -0.1236 0.0049

The formula to calculate the cost of the storage tank is shown below:
log 10 Cp° =¿ K1 + K2 log10 (A) + K3 ¿

Where A = diameter of separator (m).

log 10 Cp° =¿ 4.3612 - 0.1236 log10 (2.1) + 0.0049 log10 ¿

𝐶𝑝° = $ 21,113.38

To calculate the bare module cost for process vessel, 𝐶BM, following equation is used:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝°𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝° x (B1 + B2 FM FP)

Where, FBM = the bare module cost factor

FM = the bare module cost factor

FP = the bare module cost factor

The value of FP can be obtained by using the formula of:

(P+1) D
+0.00315
2[850−0.6 (P+1)] 0.89271
F P= =¿
0.0063

The value of FM is 3.0 since the material use is stainless steel.

Based on Table A.4 (Turton, 2013), the constant for bare module factor 𝐵1 and 𝐵2
values are in Table F- 25.
Table F- 25 Constant for Bare Module Factor 𝐵1 and 𝐵2
Equipment Description B1 B2
Process Vessels Vertical (including towers) 2.25 1.82

468
Hence,

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 21,113.38 x (2.25 + (1.82 x 3.0 x 0.89271))

= $ 150,415.87

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the mixer in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 2001 is 397. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.

C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 150,415.87 ( 670.7
397 )

= $ 254,115.68

Therefore, the cost for the mixer, CYC-101 is RM 1,069,827.00.

Cooling Tower

Sizing of Cooling Tower (T-103)

Water entering the tower = 35˚C

Water leaving the tower = 25 ˚C
Wet bulb temperature = 11 ˚C
Air dry bulb temperature = 14 ˚C
Cooling water flow rate = 300 kg/s
Heat of vaporization = 241,700 J/kg

Range = Water entering the tower - Water leaving the tower

= 30 – 25
= 10 ˚C

Approach = Water leaving the tower - Wet bulb temperature

= 25 – 11
= 14 ˚C

Mean water temperature = (Water entering the tower + Water leaving the tower) / 2
= (35 + 25) / 2
469
 = 30 ˚C

According to Cengel & Boles (2015), the enthalpy at mean water temperature is
104.83 kJ/kg.

At dry bulb temperature, the enthalpy is 49.5 kJ/kg.

ΔT ′ = (30 − 14) = 16 ˚C
ΔH ′ = (104.83 − 49.5) = 55.33 kJ/kg
Therefore, to find the duty coefficient,
WL Δ H' 0.5
=0.00369 ( Δ T ' +0.0752 Δ H ' )
Dt ΔT '

300
Dt
=0.00369
55.33
10 ( )
( 16+0.0752 ×55.33 )0.5

Dt = 3,272.5038

To find the area for the cooling tower, taking C 1 = 5.2 and assuming as a first estimate
of tower height, Z1 is 35 m, then to find the area,
0.5
19.50 A b Z 1
Dt = 1.5
C1

(3,272.5038 ×5.21.5 )
A B= 0.5
(19.50 ×35 )
AB = 336.3694 m2

Thus, the internal diameter of the column at sill level,

2
πD
A=
4
D = 20.6949

Since this gives a height to diameter of (35:20.6949) ≈ (3:1.77), the design is

acceptable.

Energy removal from cooling water = 138,892,442.26 J/h = 131,644.63466 Btu/h

Water evaporated from tower, Wtower = Heat load / ΔHvap

= 138,892,442.26 J/h / 241,700 J/kg
= 125775.7551 kg/h

470
Circulating water flowrate = 125775.7551 kg/h / 3,322.7857 kg/h × 100 % = 17.29 %

Assume drift loss is 0.2 %

Drift loss = (0.002) (3,322.7857) = 6.6456 kg/h = 0.0018 kg/s

Assumed windage loss, Wwind = 0.3%

Wwind = (0.003) (3,322.7857) = 9.9684 kg/h = 0.0028 kg/s
Blowdown
WBD = Wtower circulating water/4 − Wwind = 4.02%

Water makeup, WMU = Wtower + Wwind + WBD = 17.29% + 0.3% + 4.02% =

21.62%
Water makeup, WMU = (0.2162) (3,322.7857) = 718.3863 kg/h

Costing of Cooling Tower (T-103)

According to (A.Leeper, 1981), Zanker has derived an equation for the estimation of
cooling tower capital cost in dollars,
2.7 × Q
C P , 1980=
C × A+ 39.2 R−586
279
C=
[1+0.335 ( 85−t wb )1.143 ]
A = Approach (˚F)
Q = Heat Load (Btu/hr)
R = Range (˚F)
twb = wet bulb temperature (˚F)

279
C= 1.143
=14.416
[1+0.335 ( 85−51,8 ) ]

2.7 × 131,644.63466
C P , 1980= =$ 16,166.71
14.416 ×57.2+39.2(50)−586

The formula below is to calculate the cost of the cooling tower in the year 2021. The
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for 2021 is 670.7 and CEPCI for the
base year 1908 is 261. By using the current exchange of $1 equivalent to RM4.21.
471
C 2021= C 2001
( )
I 2021
I 2001

C BM = $ 16,166.71 ( 670.7
261 )

= $ 41,544.11

Therefore, the cost for the mixer, T-103 is RM 174,900.70.

Appendix G: Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for Chemicals Involved in The
catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Wastes

G.1: MSDS for Polyethylene (PE)

Chemical Identification Product name: Polyethylene

Chemical name: Polyethylene
Synonyms: Polyethene; Poly(methylene)
Chemical formula: (C₂H₄)ₙ
CAS number: 9002-88-4
Hazards Identification  A clear to white, non-toxic solid sheet material
having minimal odour
 Dusts and heat-released air emissions may be
irritating to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system.
 Under fire conditions, product will readily burn
and emit a heavy, irritating smoke.
 Contact with molten material may cause serious
thermal bums.
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Remove contact lenses if it can be done safely.
 Immediately flush eyes with water for at least 15
minutes, while holding eyelids open.
 Seek medical attention if symptoms develop or
persist
First-aid after inhalation:

472
  Move affected individual to non-contaminated air.
 Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband to facilitate breathing.
 Seek immediate medical attention if the individual
is not breathing, is unconscious or if any other
symptoms persist.
 Inhalation of smoke following a fire may result in
delayed pulmonary edema; seek immediate
medical attention.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Remove dusty or contaminated clothing and
shoes.
 Wash affected area with soap and water.
 In case of contact with molten product, cool
rapidly with water and seek immediate medical
attention.
First-aid after ingestion:
 Material is not expected to be absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract. Do not induce vomiting.
 Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. Seek immediate medical attention.
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
 Use water fog, or water spray. Small fires may use
dry chemical or carbon dioxide or foam.
Emergency Actions:
 Promptly isolate the scene by removing all
persons from the vicinity of the incident if there is
a fire.
 Move containers from fire area if this can be done
without risk. Use water spray to keep fire-exposed
containers cool.
Protective Clothing:
 Wear appropriate protective equipment and self-
473
 contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full
face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions:
Measures
 Avoid standing or walking on product, or product
debris
Environmental:
 Prevent entry of small debris into ditches, sewers,
and waterways.
 Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in an
appropriate disposal or recovery container. Reuse
or recycle where possible.
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
 Handle in contained and properly designed
equipment systems.
 Avoid ingestion and inhalation.
Conditions for safe storage, including any
incompatibilities
 Store in accordance with local regulations.
 Store away from uncontrolled heat incompatible
material.
 Avoid accumulation of dust by frequent cleaning
and suitable construction of storage and handling
areas.
Exposure Control and Eye Protection:
Personal Protection
 Dust service goggles should be worn to prevent
mechanical injury or other irritation to eyes due to
airborne particles.
Footwear:
 Use appropriate footwear. Spilled debris can be a
serious slipping/falling hazard. Exercise caution
when walking on spilled material.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Solid
Properties
Colour: Translucent to opaque white
474
 Odour: Faint, mild hydrocarbon odour
Melting point: 126 to 135°C (258.8 - 275°F)
Boiling point: N/A
Auto ignition: > 300°C (572°F)
Vapor density: N/A
Density: 0.85 – 0.90 g/cm3
Molecular Weight of Repeat unit: 28.05 g/mol
Stability and Reactivity Chemical stability:
 The product is stable.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:
 Powders or dusts may form an explosive mixture
with air.
 Dusts may create static discharge.
 Risk of dust-air explosion is increased if
flammable vapours are also present.
Conditions to avoid:
 Avoid processing material over 300°C (570°F).
 Avoid accumulations of debris and dust in air and
surfaces
Incompatible materials:
 Fluorine gas, Diethyl ether, Methylene chloride,
Ethylene chloride.
 Polyethylene degrades after lengthy contact with
most Aromatic hydrocarbons; benzene, toluene,
acetone, xylenes, ammonia gas, turpentine,
naphtha, etc., and most Halogenated
Hydrocarbons; Perchloroethylene, chloroform,
trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, etc.
Hazardous decomposition products:
 At temperatures >300°C (572°F), polyethylene
may emit various oligomers, waxes and
oxygenated hydrocarbons.

Toxicology Information Eye contact:

475
  Contact of powder or fines with eye may cause
mechanical irritation. Contact with hot or molten
material may cause severe injury, including
possible blindness.
Inhalation:
 Inhalation of fine particles may cause respiratory
irritation. Fumes produced while thermal
processing may cause irritation, pulmonary edema
and a possible asthma-like response.
Skin contact:
 Contact of powder or fines with skin may cause
mild to more serious irritation that is increased by
mechanical rubbing or if skin is dry. Contact with
hot or molten material may cause severe thermal
bums.
Ingestion:
 Ingestion of this product is unlikely. However,
ingestion of product may produce mild
gastrointestinal irritation and disturbances.
Ecological Information  No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Disposal Consideration  No known significant effects or critical hazards.

G.2: MSDS for Polypropylene (PP)

Chemical Identification Product name: Polypropylene

Chemical name: Polypropylene
Synonyms: Polypropene; Propene polymers; Propylene
polymers
Chemical formula: (C3H6)n
CAS number: 9003-07-0
Hazards Identification  None
 The product is not classified as dangerous
476
 preparation
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Treat the eyes with cold water; seek immediately
special attention at hospital or medical centre, in
case of irritation caused by fine dust.
First-aid after inhalation:
 Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a
position comfortable for breathing.
 The rescuer should wear an appropriate mask or
self-contained breathing apparatus if fumes are still
present.
 If not breathing or breathing is irregular, provide
artificial respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Flush contaminated skin with plenty of water.
 Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
 Get medical attention if symptoms occur.
First-aid after ingestion:
 Get medical advice if necessary
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
 Small Fire: Use dry chemical, CO2 or water spray.
 Large Fire: Use water spray hose from a safe
location.
Emergency Actions:
 Promptly isolate the scene by removing all persons
from the vicinity of the incident if there is a fire.
 Move containers from fire area if this can be done
without risk. Use water spray to keep fire-exposed
containers cool.
Protective Clothing:
 Wear appropriate protective equipment and self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full

477
 face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions:
Measures
 No specific measures are required. Gather at safe
assembly point in case of accident.
 In case of fire, barricade the area. Use appropriate
safety equipment.
Environmental:
 Large spill: Vacuum or sweep up material and place
in a disposal container. Not biodegradable. Do not
allow environmental contamination.
 Small spill: Sweep up material and place in a
disposal container.
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
 Provide adequate ventilation.
 Relevant fire protection measures thus apply
Conditions for safe storage, including any
incompatibilities:
 Store in a cool, well-ventilated place away from
direct sunlight and at ambient temperature.
 Do not store near an open flame, heat or other
sources of ignition
Exposure Control and Body Protection:
Personal Protection
 Wear Safety glasses with side shields.
 Protective gloves are required when handling hot
polymer.
Respiratory Protection:
 Ventilation is normally required when handling this
product at high temperatures.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Solid
Properties
Colour: Granular, Translucent to white
Odour: Odourless
Melting point: 150 - 170°C (302 - 338°F)
Boiling point: N/A
478
 Auto ignition: > 300°C (572°F)
Vapour density: N/A
Density: 0.855 – 0.946 g/cm3
Molecular Weight of Repeat unit: 42.08 g/mol
Stability and Reactivity Chemical stability:
 The product is stable thermoplastic.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous reactions will not occur.
Conditions to avoid:
 Strong oxidation agents, avoid temperatures above
300°C (570°F)
Incompatibility:
 Fluorine gas, oxidizing agents (nitric acid and
perchloric acid), free halogens, benzene, petroleum
ether, gasoline and lubricating oils, and aromatic
and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Incompatible materials:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous decomposition products should not be
produced. The product burns but is not classified as
flammable. Principal toxicant in the smoke is
carbon monoxide & carbon dioxide.
Toxicology Information Eye contact:
 No eye irritation.
Inhalation:
 Presumed not toxic.
Skin contact:
 No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Ingestion:
 No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Ecological Information  Wildlife may ingest plastic pellets or bags.
Although not toxic, such materials may physically
479
 block the digestive system, causing starvation or
death. This product is not likely to move rapidly
with surface or groundwater flows because of its
low water solubility and lower density than water.
Disposal Consideration  Recycle (reprocess)
 Incineration including energy recovery of waste
material in a permitted facility in accordance with
local, state or provincial and federal regulations.
 Land filling in a licensed facility in accordance with
local, state or provincial and federal regulations.

G.3: MSDS for Polystyrene (PS)

Chemical Identification Product name: Polystyrene

Chemical name: Polystyrene
Synonyms: Polystyrene; Vinylbenzene,
Chemical formula: (C8H8)n
CAS number: 9003-53-6
Hazards Identification ● Classification of the substances or mixture
Classification according to Regulation (EC) No.
1272/2008 (CLP)
This substance does not meet criteria for
classification in accordance with regulation No,
1272/2008/EC.
● Label elements
Labelling according to Regulation (EC) No.
1272/2008 (CLP)
First Aid Measures Description of first aid measure:
● Following inhalation: Provide fresh air. In all cases
of doubt or when symptoms persist, seek medical
advice
● Following skin contact : Rinse skin with
water/shower

480
 ● Following eye contact: Rinse cautiously with water
for several minutes.
● Following ingestion: Rinse mouth. Call a doctor if
you feel unwell
Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and
delayed
● Symptoms and effects are not known to date.
Indication of any immediate medical attention and
special treatment needed
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
● Suitable extinguishing media
Co-ordinate fire fighting measures to the fire
surroundings water spray, foam, dry extinguishung
powder, carbon dioxide (CO2)
● Unsuitable extinguishing media : water jet
Special hazards arising from the substances or mixture :
Combustible.
● Hazardous combustion products : May produce
toxic fumes of carbon monoxide if burning
Advice for firefighters
● Fight fire with normal precautions from a
reasonable distance. Wear self-contained breathing
apparatus
Accidental Release Personal Precautions, protective equipment and emergency
Measures
procedures
● For non-emergency personnel : No special
measures are necessary.
Environmental:
● Keep away from drains, surface and groundwater
Methods and material for containment and cleaning up
advice on how to contain spill : covering drains
● Advice on how to clean up a spill: take up
mechanically.

481
 ● Other information relating to spills and releases:
place in appropriate container for disposal.
Ventilate affected area.
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
● Avoid dust formation. Avoid : Aerosol or mist
formation
● Advice on general occupational hygiene : Keep
away from food, drink and animal feedingstuffs
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
● SIncompatible substances or mixtures : Observe
hints for combined storage
● Consideration of other advice
● Ventilation requirements : Use local and general
ventilation
● Specific designs for storage rooms or vessels
Exposure Control and Control Parameters:
Personal Protection
● National limit values.
● Occupational exposure limit values
Exposure control
● Individual Protection measure
● Eye/face protection : use safety google with side
protection
● Skin protection : Wear suitable gloves.
● Respiratory protection
● Enviromental exposure controls : keep away from
drains, surface and ground water
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Solid
Properties
Colour: Colourless
Odour: not available
Melting point: 90°C
Freezing point: -130°C
Boiling point: not available
pH value: not available

482
 density: 1,05 g /cm³
Water solubility : practically insoluble
Decomposition temperature : >100 °C
Stability and Reactivity Reactivity
● The product in the delivered form is not dust
explosion capable; the enrichment of fine dust
however leads to the danger of dust explosion
Chemical stability
● The material is stable under normal ambient and
anticipated storage and handling conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Possibility of hazardous reactions
● Violent reaction with: Strong oxidiser
Conditions to avoid
● Keep away from heat. Decompostion takes place
from temperatures above: >100 °C
Hazardous decomposition products
● Hazardous combustion products: see section 5.
Toxicology Information Information on toxicological effects Acute toxicity : Shall
not be classified as acutely toxic
● Skin corrosion/irritation Shall not be classified as
corrosive/irritant to skin
● Serious eye damage/eye irritation Shall not be
classified as seriously damaging to the eye or eye
irritant.
● Respiratory or skin sensitisation Shall not be
classified as a respiratory or skin sensitiser
● Summary of evaluation of the CMR properties
Shall not be classified as germ cell mutagenic,
carcinogenic nor as a reproductive toxicant
● Specific target organ toxicity - single exposure
Shall not be classified as a specific target organ
toxicant (single exposure).

483
 ● Specific target organ toxicity - repeated exposure
Shall not be classified as a specific target organ
toxicant (repeated exposure).
● Aspiration hazard Shall not be classified as
presenting an aspiration hazard
Ecological Information Toxicity:
 acc. to 1272/2008/EC: Shall not be classified as
hazardous to the aquatic environment
Disposal Consideration ● Waste treatment method: Consult the appropriate
local waste disposal expert about waste disposal.
● Sewage disposal-relevant information: Do not
empty into drains.
● Relevant provisions relating to waste : The
allocation of waste identity numbers/waste
descriptions must be carried out according to the
EEC, specific to the industry and process.
● Remarks: Waste shall be separated into the
categories that can be handled separately by the
local or national waste management facilities.
Please consider the relevant national or regional
provisions.

G.4: MSDS for Nitrogen

Chemical Identification Product name: Nitrogen

Chemical name: Nitrogen
Synonyms: Nitrogen (dot); nitrogen gas; Nitrogen NF,
Nitrogen FG
Chemical formula: N2
CAS number: 7727-37-9
Hazards Identification  Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
 May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.
 May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.

484
  Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated
place.
 Keep container tightly closed. Use only with
adequate ventilation. Do not enter storage areas and
confined spaces unless adequately ventilated.
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water,
occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids.
 Continue to rinse for at least 10 minutes.
 Get medical attention if irritation occurs.
First-aid after inhalation:
 Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a
position comfortable for breathing.
 The rescuer should wear an appropriate mask or
self-contained breathing apparatus if fumes are still
present.
 If not breathing or breathing is irregular, provide
artificial respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Flush contaminated skin with plenty of water.
 Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
 Get medical attention if symptoms occur.
First-aid after ingestion:
 As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation
section.
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
 Use a suitable extinguishing agent.
Emergency Actions:
 Promptly isolate the scene by removing all persons
from the vicinity of the incident if there is a fire.
 Move containers from fire area if this can be done
without risk.
 Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers
485
 cool.
Protective Clothing:
 Wear appropriate protective equipment and self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full
face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions:
Measures
 Provide adequate ventilation.
 Wear appropriate respirator.
 Put on appropriate personal protective equipment.
Environmental:
 Ensure emergency procedures to deal with
accidental gas releases are in place to avoid
contamination of the environment.
 Inform the relevant authorities if the product has
caused environmental pollution (sewers,
waterways, soil or air).
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
 Put on appropriate personal protective equipment.
 Wear appropriate respirator.
 Do not puncture or incinerate container.
 Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure.
 Close valve after each use and when empty.
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
 Store in accordance with local regulations.
 Store away from direct sunlight in a dry, cool and
well-ventilated area, away from incompatible
materials.
 Cylinders should be stored upright, with valve
protection cap in place, and firmly secured to
prevent falling or being knocked over.
 Cylinder temperatures should not exceed 52 °C

486
 (125 °F).
 Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready
for use.
Exposure Control and Body Protection:
Personal Protection
 Personal protective equipment for the body should
be selected based on the task being performed and
the risks involved and should be approved by a
specialist before handling this product.
Respiratory Protection:
 The gas can cause asphyxiation without warning by
replacing the oxygen in the air.
 Use an air-fed respirator or self-contained breathing
apparatus in high gas concentrations.
 Respirators must be used according to a respiratory
protection program to ensure proper fitting,
training, and other important aspects of use.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Gas
Properties
Colour: Colourless gas
Odour: Odourless
Melting point: -210.01°C (-346°F)
Boiling point: -196°C (-320.8°F)
pH value: N/A
Gas density: 0.072 lb/ft3
Molecular Weight: 28.02 g/mol
Stability and Reactivity Chemical stability:
 The product is stable.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous reactions will not occur.
Conditions to avoid:
 Do not allow gas to accumulate in low or confined
areas.
Incompatible materials:

487
  No specific data.
Hazardous decomposition products:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous decomposition products should not be
produced.
Toxicology Information Eye contact:
 May cause burns or frostbite.
Inhalation:
 Can displace the normal air and cause suffocation
from lack of oxygen.
Skin contact:
 Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause
burns or frostbite.
Ingestion:
 As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation
section.
Ecological Information  No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Disposal Consideration  This material and its container must be disposed of
in a safe way.
 Do not puncture or incinerate container.

G.5: MSDS for Fuel Gas 1 (Hydrogen)

Chemical Identification Product name: Hydrogen

Chemical name: Hydrogen
Synonyms: Dihydrogen; o-Hydrogen; p-Hydrogen;
Molecular hydrogen; H2; UN 1049.
Chemical formula: H2
CAS number: 1333-74-0
Hazards Identification  Extremely flammable gas.
 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
 May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.

488
  Burns with invisible flame.
 May form explosive mixtures with air.
 Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated
place.
 Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open
flames and other ignition sources. No smoking.
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water,
occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids.
 Continue to rinse for at least 10 minutes.
 Get medical attention if irritation occurs.
First-aid after inhalation:
 Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a
position comfortable for breathing.
 If not breathing or breathing is irregular, provide
artificial respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Flush contaminated skin with plenty of water.
 Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
 Get medical attention if symptoms occur.
First-aid after ingestion:
 As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation
section.
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
 Use a suitable extinguishing agent.
Emergency Actions:
 Promptly isolate the scene by removing all persons
from the vicinity of the incident if there is a fire.
 Move containers from fire area if this can be done
without risk.
 Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers
cool.

489
 Protective Clothing:
 Wear appropriate protective equipment and self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full
face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions:
Measures
 Provide adequate ventilation.
 Wear appropriate respirator.
 Put on appropriate personal protective equipment.
Environmental:
 Ensure emergency procedures to deal with
accidental gas releases are in place to avoid
contamination of the environment.
 Inform the relevant authorities if the product has
caused environmental pollution (sewers,
waterways, soil or air).
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
 Put on appropriate personal protective equipment.
 Wear appropriate respirator.
 Do not puncture or incinerate container.
 Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure.
 Store and use away from heat, sparks, open flame
or any other ignition source
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
 Store in accordance with local regulations.
 Store away from direct sunlight in a dry, cool and
well-ventilated area, away from incompatible
materials.
 Eliminate all ignition sources.
 Cylinders should be stored upright, with valve
protection cap in place, and firmly secured to
prevent falling or being knocked over.
 Cylinder temperatures should not exceed 52 °C

490
 (125 °F).
 Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready
for use.
Exposure Control and Engineering control measures:
Personal Protection  Use only with adequate ventilation.
 Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation or
other engineering controls to keep worker exposure
to airborne contaminants below any recommended
or statutory limits.
 Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment.
Personal Protection:
 Eye - Safety eyewear complying with an approved
standard.
 Body - Personal protective equipment for the body
that should be approved by a specialist before
handling this product. When there is a risk of
ignition from static electricity, wear antistatic
protective clothing. For the greatest protection from
static discharges, clothing should include anti-static
overalls, boots and gloves.
 Respiratory - Select a respirator that meets the
appropriate standard or certification.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Gas
Properties
Colour: Colourless gas
Odour: Odourless.
Melting point: -259.15°C (-434.5°F)
Boiling point: -253°C (-423.4°F)
pH value: N/A
Gas density: 0.083 lb/ft3
Molecular Weight: 2.02 g/mol
Stability and Reactivity Chemical stability:
 The product is stable.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:

491
  Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous reactions will not occur.
Conditions to avoid:
 Avoid all possible sources of ignition.
 Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill,
grind or expose containers to heat or sources of
ignition.
 Do not allow gas to accumulate in confined areas.
Incompatible materials:
 Oxidizers
Hazardous decomposition products:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous decomposition products should not be
produced.
Toxicology Information Eye contact:
 Cause burns or frostbite.
Inhalation:
 No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Skin contact:
 Cause burns or frostbite.
Ingestion:
 Ingestion of liquid can cause burns similar to
frostbite.
Ecological Information  No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Disposal Consideration  This material and its container must be disposed of
in a safe way.
 Do not puncture or incinerate container.

G.6: MSDS for Fuel Gas 2 (Propane)

Chemical Identification Product name: Propane

Chemical name: Propane
Synonyms: Propyl hydride; n-Propane; Dimethyl methane;
492
 Bottled gas; propane in gaseous state; propane liquefied, n-
Propane; Dimethylmethane; Freon 290; Liquefied
petroleum gas; Lpg; Propyl hydride; R 290; C3H8; UN
1075; UN 1978; A-108; Hydrocarbon propellant.
Chemical formula: C3H8
CAS number: 74-98-6
Hazards Identification  Extremely flammable gas.
 Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated.
 May cause frostbite.
 May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation.
 May form explosive mixtures with air.
 Protect from sunlight. Store in a well-ventilated
place.
 Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open
flames and other ignition sources. No smoking.
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water,
occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids.
 Continue to rinse for at least 10 minutes.
 Get medical attention if irritation occurs.
First-aid after inhalation:
 Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a
position comfortable for breathing.
 The rescuer should wear an appropriate mask or
self-contained breathing apparatus if fumes are still
present.
 If not breathing or breathing is irregular, provide
artificial respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Wash contaminated skin with soap and water.
 Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
 Get medical attention if symptoms occur.

493
 First-aid after ingestion:
 Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a
position comfortable for breathing.
 Get medical attention if adverse health effects
persist or are severe.
 Maintain an open airway
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
 Use a suitable extinguishing agent.
Emergency Actions:
 Promptly isolate the scene by removing all persons
from the vicinity of the incident if there is a fire.
 Move containers from fire area if this can be done
without risk.
 Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers
cool.
Protective Clothing:
 Wear appropriate protective equipment and self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full
face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions:
Measures
 Provide adequate ventilation.
 Wear appropriate respirator.
 Put on appropriate personal protective equipment.
Environmental:
 Ensure emergency procedures to deal with
accidental gas releases are in place to avoid
contamination of the environment.
 Inform the relevant authorities if the product has
caused environmental pollution (sewers,
waterways, soil or air).
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:

494
  Put on appropriate personal protective equipment.
 Wear appropriate respirator.
 Do not puncture or incinerate container.
 Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure.
 Store and use away from heat, sparks, open flame
or any other ignition source
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
 Store in accordance with local regulations.
 Store away from direct sunlight in a dry, cool and
well-ventilated area, away from incompatible
materials.
 Eliminate all ignition sources.
 Cylinders should be stored upright, with valve
protection cap in place, and firmly secured to
prevent falling or being knocked over.
 Cylinder temperatures should not exceed 52 °C
(125 °F).
 Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready
for use.
Exposure Control and Engineering control measures:
Personal Protection  Use only with adequate ventilation.
 Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation or
other engineering controls to keep worker exposure
to airborne contaminants below any recommended
or statutory limits.
 Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment.
Personal Protection:
 Eye - Safety eyewear complying with an approved
standard.
 Body - Personal protective equipment for the body
that should be approved by a specialist before
handling this product. When there is a risk of
ignition from static electricity, wear antistatic
495
 protective clothing. For the greatest protection from
static discharges, clothing should include anti-static
overalls, boots and gloves.
 Respiratory - Select a respirator that meets the
appropriate standard or certification.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Gas
Properties
Colour: Colourless gas
Odour: Odourless. But may have skunk odour added.
Melting point: -187.6°C (-305.7°F)
Boiling point: -42.1°C (-43.8°F)
pH value: N/A
Gas density: 0.116 lb/ft3 (25°C / 77 to °F)
Molecular Weight: 44.11 g/mol
Stability and Reactivity Chemical stability:
 The product is stable.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous reactions will not occur.
Conditions to avoid:
 Avoid all possible sources of ignition.
 Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill,
grind or expose containers to heat or sources of
ignition.
 Do not allow gas to accumulate in confined areas.
Incompatible materials:
 Oxidizers
Hazardous decomposition products:
 Under normal conditions of storage and use,
hazardous decomposition products should not be
produced.
Toxicology Information Eye contact:
 Liquid can cause burns similar to frostbite
Inhalation:
496
  No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Skin contact:
 Dermal contact with rapidly evaporating liquid
could result in freezing of the tissues or frostbite.
Ingestion:
 Ingestion of liquid can cause burns similar to
frostbite.
Ecological Information  No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Disposal Consideration  This material and its container must be disposed of
in a safe way.
 Do not puncture or incinerate container.

G.7: MSDS for Gasoline (Octane)

Chemical Identification Product name: Gasoline

Chemical name: Gasoline
Chemical formula: C8H18
CAS number: 86290-81-5
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at
least 15 minutes.
 Remove contact lenses, if present and easy to do.
 Continue rinsing.
 Get medical attention.
First-aid after inhalation:
 Move to fresh air.
 If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. If not
breathing, give artificial respiration.
 Get medical attention.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash off
immediately with soap and plenty of water.

497
  Get medical attention if irritation develops or
persists.
 Wash clothing separately before reuse. Destroy or
thoroughly clean contaminated shoes.
First-aid after ingestion:
 Rinse mouth thoroughly.
 Do not induce vomiting without advice from poison
control centre.
 Do not give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If
vomiting occurs, keep head low so that stomach
content does not get into the lungs.
 Get medical attention immediately.
Fire Fighting Measures Suitable extinguishing media:
 Water spray, water fog, foam, dry chemical
powder, and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Specific hazards arising from the chemical:
 Vapor may cause flash fire.
 Vapors can flow along surfaces to distant ignition
source and flash back.
 Sensitive to static discharge.
Special protective equipment and precautions for
firefighters:
 Wear full protective clothing, including helmet,
self-contained positive pressure, or pressure
demand breathing apparatus, protective clothing,
and face mask.
Firefighting equipment/instructions:
 Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from
venting safety devices or any discoloration of tanks
due to fire.
 Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned
hose holders or monitor nozzles.
 For massive fire, use unmanned hose holders or
498
 monitor nozzles; if this is impossible, withdraw
from area and let fire burn.
 Vapours may form explosive air mixtures even at
room temperature. Prevent build-up of vapours or
gases to explosive concentrations. Some of these
materials, if spilled, may evaporate leaving a
flammable residue.
Specific methods:
 Use water spray to cool unopened containers.
General fire hazards:
 Extremely flammable liquid and vapor.
 Containers may explode when heated.
Accidental Release Personal precautions, protective equipment, and emergency
Measures
procedures:
 Keep unnecessary personnel away. Local
authorities should be advised if significant spills
cannot be contained.
 Keep upwind and out of low areas.
 Ventilate closed spaces before entering.
 Do not touch damaged containers or spilled
material unless wearing appropriate protective
clothing.
Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
 Eliminate all ignition sources (no smoking, flares,
sparks, or flames in immediate area).
 Use non-sparking tools and explosion-proof
equipment.
 Small Spills: Absorb spill with vermiculite or other
inert material, then place in a container for
chemical waste. Clean surface thoroughly to
remove residual contamination. This material and
its container must be disposed of as hazardous
waste.
499
  Large Spills: Use a non-combustible material like
vermiculite, sand, or earth to soak up the product
and place into a container for later disposal. Prevent
product from entering drains. Do not allow material
to contaminate ground water system. Should not be
released into the environment.
Environmental precautions:
 Keep all sources of ignition (flames, smoking,
flares, etc.) and hot surfaces away from release.
 Contain spill in smallest possible area. Recover as
much product as possible (e.g. by vacuuming).
 Use compatible foam to minimize vapor generation
as needed.
 Prevent spilled material from entering sewers,
storm drains, other unauthorized treatment or
drainage systems and natural waterways.
Handling and storage Precautions for safe handling:
 Eliminate sources of ignition. Avoid spark
promoters. Ground/bond container and equipment.
These alone may be insufficient to remove static
electricity.
 Wear personal protective equipment.
 DO NOT handle, store or open near an open flame,
sources of heat or sources of ignition.
 Protect material from direct sunlight.
 Take precautionary measures against static
discharges. All equipment used when handling the
product must be grounded. Use non-sparking tools
and explosion-proof equipment.
Conditions for safe storage:
 Do not handle or store near an open flame, heat, or
other sources of ignition.
 Keep container tightly closed in a cool, well-
500
 ventilated place.
 Keep away from food, drink, and animal feeding
stuffs.
Exposure Control and Eye/face protection:
Personal Protection
 Wear safety glasses. If splash potential exists, wear
full face shield or chemical goggles.
Skin protection/Hand protection:
 Wear protective gloves. Be aware that the liquid
may penetrate the gloves. Frequent change is
advisable.
 Full body suit and boots are recommended when
handling large volumes or in emergency situations.
 Flame retardant protective clothing is
recommended.
Respiratory protection:
 Use a properly fitted, air-purifying or air-fed
respirator complying with an approved standard if a
risk assessment indicates this is necessary.
Thermal hazards:
 Wear appropriate thermal protective clothing, when
necessary.
General hygiene considerations:
 Consult supervisor for special handling instructions.
 Avoid contact with eyes and with skin.
 Keep away from food and drink.
 Provide eyewash station and safety shower.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Liquid
Properties
Colour: Light straw to red clear.
Odour: Characteristic Gasoline odour (Strong).
Melting point/freezing point: 44.01 °F (6.67 °C)
Initial boiling point and boiling range: 80.06 - 440.06 °F
(26.7 - 226.7 °C)
Flash point: -40.0 °F (-40.0 °C)
501
 Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits:
Flammability limit – lower (%): 1.3 %
Flammability limit – upper (%): 7.1 %
Vapor pressure: 60.8 - 101.3 kPa (20°C)
Vapor density: 3 - 4 (Air =1)
Solubility (water): Very slightly soluble.
Auto-ignition temperature: > 500 °F (> 260 °C)
Stability and Reactivity Chemical stability:
 Stable under normal temperature conditions and
recommended use.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:
 Hazardous polymerization does not occur.
Conditions to avoid:
 Heat, flames, and sparks, ignition sources, contact
with incompatible materials.
 Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill,
grind or expose empty containers to heat, flame,
sparks, static electricity, or other sources of
ignition; they may explode and cause injury or
death.
Incompatible materials:
 Strong oxidizing agents.
Toxicology Information Skin corrosion/irritation:
 Causes skin irritation.
Germ cell mutagenicity:
 May cause genetic defects.
Reproductive toxicity:
 Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child.
Specific target organ toxicity:
 May cause drowsiness or dizziness.
 May cause damage to the following organs through
prolonged or repeated exposure such as blood,
kidneys, and livers.
502
 Aspiration hazard:
 May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways.
Chronic effects:
 Overexposure to this product or its components has
been suggested as a cause of liver abnormalities.
Ecological Information  Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term
adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
Disposal Consideration  Dispose of this material and its container to
hazardous or special waste collection point.
 Incinerate the material under controlled conditions
in an approved incinerator.
 Do not contaminate ponds, waterways, or ditches
with chemical or used container.

G.8: MSDS for Diesel (Hexadecane)

Chemical Identification Product name: Diesel

Chemical name: Diesel
Chemical formula: C16H34
CAS number: 68334-30-5
First Aid Measures First-aid after eye contact:
 Rinse immediately with plenty of water, also under
the eyelids, for at least 15 minutes.
 Get medical advice/attention.
First-aid after inhalation:
 Keep at rest and provide fresh air.
 In case of doubt or persistent symptoms, always
consult a physician. If unconscious place in
recovery position and seek medical advice.
 Give oxygen or artificial respiration if necessary.
First-aid after skin contact:
 Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
 After contact with skin, wash immediately with
503
 plenty of water and soap.
 In the event of a high-pressure injection injury,
worker should obtain immediate medical assistance.
First-aid after ingestion:
 Do NOT induce vomiting.
 Rinse mouth immediately and drink plenty of
water.
 Get immediate medical advice/attention.
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
 Water spray, alcohol resistant foam, carbon
dioxide, and dry extinguishing powder.
Specific hazards:
 Vapours are heavier than air and may spread along
floors.
 On heating there is a risk of a build-up of pressure
in hermetically sealed containers or tanks.
 Do not allow runoff from firefighting to enter
drains or water courses.
Firefighting instructions:
 In case of fire: Wear self-contained breathing
apparatus.
 Use water spray or fog for cooling exposed
containers.
 Collect contaminated fire extinguishing water
separately. This must not be discharged into drains.
Accidental Release Personal Precautions:
Measures
 Provide adequate ventilation.
 Use personal protective equipment as required.
 Avoid contact with skin, eyes, and clothing.
 Do not breathe vapour/aerosol.
 Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open
flames, and other ignition sources.

504
 Environmental:
 Do not allow to enter surface water or drains.
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
 Provide adequate ventilation.
 Use personal protective equipment as required.
 Avoid contact with skin, eyes, and clothing.
 Do not breathe vapour/aerosol.
 Take precautionary measures against static
discharges.
 Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks, open
flames, and other ignition sources.
 Take any precaution to avoid mixing with
combustibles.
 Ensure proper process control to avoid excess waste
discharge (temperature, concentration, pH, time).
Hygiene measures:
 When using do not eat, drink, or smoke.
 Wash hands and face before breaks and
immediately after handling of the product.
 Take off contaminated clothing.
 Separate working clothes from town clothes.
 Keep away from food, drink, and animal feeding
stuffs.
Technical measures:
 Protect from sunlight.
 Keep container tightly closed in a cool, well-
ventilated place.
Packaging materials:
 Keep only in the original container, stainless steel.
Exposure Control and Body Protection:
Personal Protection
 Wear suitable coveralls to prevent exposure to the
skin such as protective helmets and antistatic boots.

505
 Respiratory Protection:
 In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable
respiratory equipment.
 Half-face mask (DIN EN 140).
 Full face mask (DIN EN 136).
 Filter type: A (EN 141) / ABEK (H2S) (EN141).
 Self-contained open circuit compressed air
breathing apparatus (EN137).
Eye protection:
 Goggles and face shield (EN 166).
Hand protection:
 NBR (Nitrile rubber) with material thickness of
0,54mm and a breakthrough time of >240min.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Liquid
Properties
Colour: Yellow
Odour: petroleum hydrocarbon odour
Melting/Freezing point: -40 - 6 °C
Boiling point: 141 - 500 °C
Flash point: 55 - 75 °C - Flammable liquids
Auto-ignition temperature: > 225 °C
Vapour pressure: 0,4 kPa
Vapour density: > 1 Vapour density
Density: 800 - 910 kg/m³
Solubility: Water: NA: UVCB
Kinematic viscosity: 4,574 mm²/s @ 20°C
Stability and Reactivity Reactivity:
 Flammable liquid.
Chemical stability:
 The product is stable under storage at normal
ambient temperatures.
Possibility of hazardous reactions:
 Vapours may form explosive mixture with air.
Conditions to avoid:
506
  Keep away from sources of heat (e.g., hot surfaces),
sparks and open flames.
Hazardous decomposition products:
 Carbon oxides, H2S, SOx.
Incompatible materials:
 Incompatible with strong acids and oxidizing agents
and bases.
Toxicology Information Acute toxicity:
 Harmful if inhaled.
Skin corrosion/irritation:
 Causes skin irritation.
Carcinogenicity:
 Suspected of causing cancer.
Reproductive toxicity:
 May cause damage to organs through prolonged or
repeated exposure.
 Target organs are blood, liver and thymus.
Ecological Information  Toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
Disposal Consideration  Handle with care.
 Refer to manufacturer/supplier for information on
recovery/recycling.
 Collect and dispose of waste product at an
authorised disposal facility.
 Dispose of contaminated materials in accordance
with current regulations.
 Do not allow to enter surface water or drains.

G.9: MSDS for Residual Fuel Oil (1-Octacosene)

Chemical Identification Product name: Residual Fuel Oil

Chemical name: 1-Octacosene
Synonyms: Refinery feedstock

507
 Chemical formula: C28H56
CAS number: 18835-34-2
Hazards Identification Swallowed:
● Accidental ingestion of the material may be
damaging to the health of the individual
● Alkenes are generally of low toxicity but they are
considered aspiration hazards.
Eye:
● Although the liquid is not thought to be an irritant,
direct contact with the eye may produce transient
discomfort characterized by tearing or conjunctival
redness (as with windburn).
Skin:
● Skin contact with the material may damage the
health of the individual; systemic effects may result
following absorption.
● There is some evidence to suggest that this material
can cause inflammation of the skin on contact in
some persons.
● Medium sized alkenes can cause skin irritation and
sloughing,especially in long-term exposure.
Inhaled:
● inhalation of vapours may cause drowsiness and
dizziness. This may be accompanied by narcosis,
reduced alertness, loss of reflexes, lack of
coordination and vertigo
● There is some evidence to suggest that the material
can cause respiratory irritation in some persons.
The body's response to such irritation can cause
further lung damage.
● Inhalation of aerosols (mists, fumes), generated by
the material during the course of normal handling,
may be damaging to the health of the individual.

508
First Aid Measures Swallowed:
● If swallowed do NOT induce vomiting.
● If vomiting occurs, lean patient forward or place on
left side (head-down position, if possible) to
maintain open airway and prevent aspiration
● If spontaneous vomiting appears imminent or
occurs, hold patient's head down, lower than their
hips to help avoid possible aspiration of vomitus.
Eye:
● Wash out immediately with fresh running water.
● Ensure complete irrigation of the eye by keeping
eyelids apart and away from eye and moving the
eyelids by occasionally lifting the upper and lower
lids.
● If pain persists or recurs seek medical attention.
Skin:
● Immediately remove all contaminated clothing,
including footwear
● Flush skin and hair with running water (and soap if
available).
● Seek medical attention in event of irritation
Inhaled:
● Lay patient down. Keep warm and rested.
● Prostheses such as false teeth, which may block
airway, should be removed, where possible, prior to
initiating first aid procedures.
● Apply artificial respiration if not breathing,
preferably with a demand valve resuscitator, bag-
valve mask device, or pocket mask as trained.
Perform CPR if necessary.
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
● Foam.
● Dry chemical powder.

509
 ● BCF (where regulations permit).
● Carbon dioxide.
Fire Fighting
● Alert Emergency Responders and tell them location
and nature of hazard.
● Wear full body protective clothing with breathing
apparatus.
● Prevent, by any means available, spillage from
entering drains or water course.
● Cool fire exposed containers with water spray from
a protected location.
General Fire Hazard/Hazardous Combustible Products
● Slight fire hazard when exposed to heat or flame.
● Heating may cause expansion or decomposition
leading to violent rupture of containers.
● Mists containing combustible materials may be
explosive
Fire Incompatibility
● Avoid contamination with oxidizing agents i.e.
nitrates, oxidizing acids, chlorine bleaches, pool
chlorine etc. as ignition may result.
Accidental Release Minor Spills
Measures
● Remove all ignition sources.
● Clean up all spills immediately.
● Avoid breathing vapors and contact with skin and
eyes.
● Control personal contact by using protective
equipment.
● Contain and absorb spill with sand, earth, inert
material or vermiculite.
● Place in a suitable labeled container for waste
disposal.
Major Spills

510
 ● Chemical Class: aliphatic hydrocarbons
Moderate Hazard
● Clear area of personnel and move upwind.
● Alert Emergency Responders and tell them location
and nature of hazard.
● Wear breathing apparatus plus protective gloves.
● No smoking, naked lights or ignition sources.
Increase ventilation.
Handling and storage Procedure for Handling
● Containers, even those that have been emptied, may
contain explosive vapors.
● Do NOT cut, drill, grind, weld or perform similar
operations on or near containers.
● DO NOT allow clothing wet with material to stay
in contact with skin.
● Ensure electrical continuity by bonding and
grounding (earthing) all equipment.
Recommended Storage Methods
● Metal can or drum
● Packing as recommended by manufacturer.
● Check all containers are clearly labeled and free
from leaks.
Storage Equipments
● Store in original containers.
● Keep containers securely sealed.
● No smoking, naked lights or ignition source
Exposure Control and Material data
Personal Protection
● Cause increased susceptibility to other irritants and
infectious agents
● Lead to permanent injury or dysfunction
● Acclimate the worker to the irritant warning
properties of these substances thus increasing the
risk of overexposure. Human exposure to oil mist

511
 alone has not been demonstrated to cause health
effects except at levels above 5 mg/
Eye
● Safety glasses with side shields.
● Chemical goggles.
Physical and Chemical Physical state: liquid
Properties
Colour: Colourless combustible liquid
Odour: Solvent odour
Melting point: not available
Boiling point: 545°F - 600.8°F
pH value: N/A
Flash Point: 275°F
Molecular Weight: 252.48 g/mol
Solubility in water : Immiscible
Stability and Reactivity Conditions Contributing To Instability
● Presence of incompatible materials.
● Product is considered stable.
● Hazardous polymerization will not occur.
Storage Incompability
● Avoid reaction with strong Lewis or mineral acids.
● Reaction with halogens requires carefully
controlled conditions.
● Free radical initiators should be avoided.
Toxicology Information Carcinogenicity
● May cause cancer.
Reproductive toxicity
● Suspected of damaging the unborn child.
STOT-repeated exposure
● May cause damage to organs through prolonged or
repeated exposure.
Aspiration hazard
● May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways.
Ecological Information ● No additional information available.

512
Disposal Consideration ● Contaminated packaging : Offer rinsed packaging
material to local recycling facilities

G.10: MSDS for Char (Carbon)

Chemical Identification Product name: Char

Synonyms: Carbon Black
Chemical formula: C
CAS number: 1333-86-4
Hazards Identification Hazard statements
● Flammable solid
● Causes serious eye irritation
● May cause respiratory irritation
Precautionary statements
● If medical advice is needed, have product container
or label at hand
● Keep out of reach of children
● Read label before use
First Aid Measures Effect of Overexposure:
● Exposure to carbon should not present a health
hazard. Excessive carbon dust from handling
Biochar may produce allergenic responses in a few
sensitive individuals. Overexposure of Biochar dust
may cause skin/ eye and upper respiratory tract
irritation along with allergenic responses and
asthma.
Medical Conditions Prone to Aggravation by Exposure:
● If an allergy/ such as dermatitis, asthma, or
bronchitis develops/ it may be necessary to remove
a sensitive worker from further exposure to carbon
dust.
Eye Contact :
● Plush with water to remove dust particles from the

513
 eye. If irritation persists, get medical attention.
Skin Contact
● If a rash, or persistent irritation or dermatitis occur,
get medical advice before returning to work where
Biochar is present.
Fire Fighting Measures Extinguishing media:
● Water Spray
Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards:
● Fine dust dispersed in air in sufficient
concentrations, and in the presence of an ignition
source is a potential dust explosion hazard. The
minimum explosible concentration is 0.140 g/l.
Fire Fighting Equipment :
● Full protective equipment and self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full-face mask
operated in positive pressure modes.
Accidental Release Steps to be Taken In Case Material is Released or Spilled:
Measures
● Sweep up or vacuum up spills for recovery or
disposal. A dust respirator may be required during
clean up.
Waste Disposal:
● Dispose in accordance with federal, state and/or
local regulations
Handling and storage Precaution for safe handling:
● Storage should consider the end-use of the product
for quality concerns.
● Proper personal protective equipment to prevent
inhalation, skin, and eye contact should be utilized
when handling material in storage.
● Store away from heat sources and prevent smoking
or open flame near stored materials.
Exposure Control and Respiratory Protection:
Personal Protection
● No protection required for handling biochar unless

514
 there is excessive dust associated. Use approved
dust respirator
Eye Shields

● Appropriate eye protection should be utilized

Protective Gloves:
● Recommended to reduce skin contact.
Ventilation:
● Whenever possible/ local exhaust ventilation should
be used to meet TLV requirements
Physical and Chemical Physical state: Black Solid
Properties
Odour: Minimal odor
Melting point: N/A
Boiling point: N/A
pH value: 8 - 10
Auto ignition temperature : >400 °C
Relative Density : 10 - 15 lbs/ft3
Solubilities : Not soluble
Stability and Reactivity Reactivity:
● Contact with strong oxidizers may result in fire
Chemical stability:
● This product is stable in closed containers at room
temperature.
Incompatible Materials:
● Strong Oxidizers, Sparks, Heat, Flame
Conditions to avoid:
● Incompatible Materials, Combustible Materials
Hazardous Decomposition Products
● Carbon Oxides (CO, CO2)
Toxicology Information Eye :
● Causes eye irritation
Target Organs :
● May cause respiratory irritation (single exposure)
Ecological Information ● No additional information available
Disposal Consideration ● Dispose of contents/container in accordance with

515
 local, regional, national, international regulations

Appendix H: Fire, Explosion and Toxicity Index

Appendix H.1: FEI form for reactor (R-101)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (R-101)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Koo Chun Hong (Superintendent)
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene, Nitrogen
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 16
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.50
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.7
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.00
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
1. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.00
2. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.30
3. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.00
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.45
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
1. Liquids or Gases in Process 1.00
2. Liquids or Gases in Storage 0.00
3. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
516
 Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.00
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 2.95
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 7.97
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 127.44
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 2
Toxicity number (Th) 125
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 6.24

Appendix H.2: FEI form for Distillation Column (T-101)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (T-101)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Koo Chun Hong (Superintendent)
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Propane, Diesel, Gasoline, Residual Oil
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 21
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.50
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.90
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 3.1
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.50
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
517
 4. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
5. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.30
6. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
4. Liquids or Gases in Process 1.00
5. Liquids or Gases in Storage 0.00
6. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.10
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 4.6
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 14.26
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 299.46
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 3
Toxicity number (Th) 250
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 9.03

Appendix H.3: FEI form for Distillation Column (T-102)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (T-102)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Reniasha A/P Anballagan (Superintendent)
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Diesel, Gasoline, Residual Oil
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 21
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.90
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
518
 C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 1.00
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 3.6
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.50
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
7. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
8. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.30
9. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
7. Liquids or Gases in Process 1.00
8. Liquids or Gases in Storage 0.00
9. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.50
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.10
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 5.00
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 18.00
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 378.00
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 4
Toxicity number (Th) 325
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 10.45

Appendix H.4: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-101)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-101)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Reniasha A/P Anballagan (Superintendent)
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
PE, PP, PS, Water

519
 STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 16
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.20
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
10. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.00
11. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
12. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.00
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
10. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
11. Liquids or Gases in Storage 1.00
12. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.00
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 2.6
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 5.72
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 91.52
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 1
Toxicity number (Th) 50
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 4.85

Appendix H.5: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-102)

520
AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-102)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti (Superintendent)
Mohd Tarmizi
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
PE, PP, PS, Water
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 16
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.20
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
13. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.00
14. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
15. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.00
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
13. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
14. Liquids or Gases in Storage 1.00
15. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.00
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
521
 Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 2.6
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 5.72
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 91.52
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 1
Toxicity number (Th) 50
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 4.85

Appendix H.6: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-103)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-103)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Nurul Aimi Ayuni Binti (Superintendent)
Mohd Tarmizi
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Char
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 10
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.00
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
16. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.00
17. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
18. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.00
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.50
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
522
 F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
16. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
17. Liquids or Gases in Storage 0.00
18. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 1.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.00
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 2.9
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 6.38
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 63.8
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 1
Toxicity number (Th) 50
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) < 50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 45
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 3.25

Appendix H.7: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-104)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-104)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd (Superintendent)
Khamri
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Hydrogen, propane, gasoline, and nitrogen
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 21
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
523
 General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.50
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
19. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
20. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
21. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
19. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
20. Liquids or Gases in Storage 1.00
21. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.50
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 4.7
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 10.34
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 217.14
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 3
Toxicity number (Th) 250
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 8.43

Appendix H.8: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-105)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-105)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Nur Hanin Tasnim Bt Mohd (Superintendent)
Khamri
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Propane, gasoline, and diesel
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
524
 MATERIAL FACTOR 21
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.50
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
22. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
23. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
24. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
22. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
23. Liquids or Gases in Storage 1.00
24. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.50
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 4.7
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 10.34
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 217.14
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 3
Toxicity number (Th) 250
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 8.43

Appendix H.9: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-106)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-106)

525
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Luqman Shah Bin (Superintendent)
Mohammad Shahzar
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Gasoline, diesel, and residual oil
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 21
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.50
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
25. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
26. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
27. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
25. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
26. Liquids or Gases in Storage 1.00
27. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.50
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 4.7
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 10.34
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 217.14
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 4
526
 Toxicity number (Th) 325
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 9.18

Appendix H.10: FEI form for Storage Tank (TK-107)

AREA/COUNTRY DIVISION LOCATION DATE
Malaysia - - 12/4/2021
SITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS UNIT
- UNIT (TK-107)
PREPARED BY: APPROVED BY: BUILDING
Luqman Shah Bin (Superintendent)
Mohammad Shahzar
REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY: REVIEWED BY:
(Management) (Technology (Safety & Loss
Centre) Prevention)
MATERIALS IN PROCESS UNIT
Diesel and residual oil
STATE OF OPERATION BASIC MATERIAL(S) FOR
(_) DESIGN (_)START UP MATERIAL FACTOR
(X)NORMAL
OPERATION (_) SHUTDOWN
MATERIAL FACTOR 21
1.General Process Hazards Penalty Penalty
Factor Factor Used
Range (1)
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Exothermic Chemical Reaction 0.00 to 1.25 0.00
B. Endothermic Process 0.00 to 0.40 0.00
C. Material Handling and Transfer 0.00 to 1.05 0.50
D. Enclosed or Indoor Process Units 0.00 to 0.90 0.00
E. Access 0.00 to 0.35 0.20
F. Drainage and Spill Control 0.00 to 0.50 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) (SUM A to F) 2.2
2. Special Process Hazards
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
A. Toxic Material(s) 0.00 to 0.80 0.50
B. Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) 0.50 0.00
C. Operation In or Near Flammable
28. Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids 0.50 0.50
29. Process Upset or Purge Failure 0.30 0.00
30. Always in Flammable Range 0.80 0.80
D. Dust Explosion 0.00 to 2.00 0.00
E. Relief Pressure 0.20
F. Low Temperature 0.00 to 0.30 0.00
G. Quantity of Flammable/Unstable Material
28. Liquids or Gases in Process 0.00
29. Liquids or Gases in Storage 1.00
527
 30. Combustible Solids in Storage, Dust in 0.00
Process
H. Corrosion and Erosion 0.00 to 0.75 0.10
I. Leakage – Joints and Packing 0.00 to 1.50 0.10
J. Use of Fired Equipment 0.00
K. Hot Oil Heat Exchange System 0.00 to 1.15 0.50
L. Rotating Equipment 0.00 to 0.50 0.00
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) (SUM A to L) 4.7
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 10.34
Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF) = F&EI 217.14
NFPA Health rating (Nh) 3
Toxicity number (Th) 250
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) 5-50
Penalty Factor (Ts) 75
Toxicity Index ([Th+Ts (1+F1+F2)]/100) 8.44

528
 Appendix I: Lesson Learned Report Presentation 2

PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II (BKC4934)

25
LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT

GROUP NUMBER : A06

PROJECT TITLE: Production of 50 000 MTPA Gasoline from Mixed Plastic
Waste (Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene)
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: AP. Dr. Noor Asma Fazli Bin Abdul Samad

No Comment Explanation & clarification

.
1. Error calculations between manual and -The mistake is corrected accordingly and will be
simulation are wrong for no. of streams avoided next time.
in mass balance. Serious mistake!
2. Value of heat capacity (Cp) for E-101 -The correction has been done due to calculation
and E- 102 are too big and too small. mistake where the new Cp for E-101 is 31.4184
Strong justifications and amendment are kW/°C while E-102 is 9.9875 kW/°C.
needed since its contributing to heat
integration calculation.
3. Only 11% saving are obtained based -The new heat integration has been done and the
result of heat integration. Justify with new percent saving is 71.01 % which can be
supporting references, it is worth it to referred in Section 4.2.8 (Maximum Energy
proceed with heat integration or not? Recovery).
4. Check again the cost of steam, cooling -Some amendment has been done and can be
water and electricity for equipment referred in Section 4.3.1, 4.3.2, and 4.3.3.
because some of the cost either too cheap
or too expensive.
5. Your EP4 calculation is not affecting -There is mistake in the EP 3 calculation. The
much since the cost of utilities are too recalculated EP3 RM 3.5768 x 1010 / year is
low. Or maybe your value of EP3 is too while EP 4 is RM 3.5306 x 1010 / year.
large which is not reasonable. Justify
your values of EP4 with reliable
references
6. Why all efficiency for compressors is set -Efficiency for all compressors is assumed by
at 65%? Usually, the efficiency is calculated the volumetric flowrate and referred to
depending on the types of compressor the Figure F-5 in Appendix F. The efficiency is
and types of components or amount of 65% because the volumetric flowrate for all
flow rate. Any justification? compressors are low.
7. Justify what standard do you use when -The construction of P&ID is based on the
constructing control configuration in American National Standard (ANSI/ISA-5.1-

529
 P&ID? 2009)
Your P&ID is developed based on
different standard and confused.
8. Almost all disturbance variables in each -The correction has been done and can be
equipment in the slides is wrong. referred in Section 6.2.3.
9. Most of actions required for HAZOP in -We can improve the facility safety using
all equipment are based on conduct automation technology. This is to put a
regular inspection, check maintenance, preventative measures in place with the
or instruct operator on procedure. It is installation of artificial intelligent (AI) system.
correct but that involves the technical This kind of AI system can do the adjustment
staff. How about others action without automatically on the process parameters when
involvement of human staff? there is deviation from the set point.

Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required.

530
 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II (BKC4934)
25
LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT

GROUP NUMBER : A06

PROJECT TITLE: Production of 50 000 MTPA Gasoline from Mixed Plastic
Waste (Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene)
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: Ir. Dr. Sabri Bin Mahmud

No. Comment Explanation & clarification

1. Please state bases of modification made -The existing PFD literature is an integrated PFD,
to the existing PFD from literature such the products produced and the catalyst used are
as from heuristics, guideline, and phase different from the designed project. Also the
diagram position of the main and by-products are not very
clear.
-The separation part of the distillation column is
based on the heuristics from Seider. The final
products are removed one-by-one as distillates (the
direct sequence). Next, the sequence separation
points is decreasing relative volatility so that the
most difficult splits are made in the absence of the
other components. Last but not least, the final
separation must give the highest –purity products.
2. Please redo heat integration and heat -The wrong part has been revised back and the new
exchanger network. Heat is exchanged heat integration has been done.
between process streams in heat
exchanger network to minimize use of
utility (steam or cooling water)
3. Rule of overlapping streamline in PFD -The correction has been done. PFD can be
and P&ID must be followed: broken referred in Section 3.1.3 while P&ID in Section
vertical line and continuous horizontal 6.2.13 in the report.
line
4. Water and steam should be integrated in -The correction has been done and can be referred
a circulating system so that minimum in the Section 4.2.8 in the report. The mistake is
fresh water is used whenever cooling is due to the wrong heat integration.
done to reduce utility cost.
5. Relief valve is not a control instrument. -The amendment has been done and can be
Please do not connect it to PIC referred in Section 6.2.13 in the report.
6. Valve to control sump level of column is -The correction has been done and can referred in
bottom product stream after the reboiler, Section 6.2.13.
not before the reboiler

Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required.

531
 PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN II (BKC4934)
25
LESSON LEARNT/MINOR REPORT

GROUP NUMBER : A06

PROJECT TITLE: Production of 50 000 MTPA Gasoline from Mixed Plastic
Waste (Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene)
NAME OF PANEL EXAMINER: Dr Jun Haslinda Bt Hj Sharifuddin

No. Comment Explanation & clarification

1. Please check your design on reactor. It -We will do correction on it and add the
should have velocity, area of plate since specification that should be in the fluidized bed
you are fluidized bed reactor. The correction updated in Section 5.1.1
2. Please check slide 84, 85 on power -The calculation is checked and the mistake is
consumption for cooling tower corrected.
3. Please check slide 109 on distillation -This is the dew point through calculation to
column process control. Why do you set achieve the desired output.
the temperature at 92.84 °C
4. Hazop for distillation column. Why there -There is the discussion in the report but miss to
is no discussion on temperature include in the presentation slide. The mistake will
be avoided in next time.

Note: Additional sheets can be attached if required.

532
Appendix I: Calculation Design of Wastewater Treatment Plant

Design for screening:

Assume:
The flowrate = 70 000 m3/day
Velocity inlet = 0.7 m/s
2 screening channels
3
m day 3
Qdesign =70 000 x =0.8102 m /s
day 24 hr x 60 min x 60 s

Q each channel around 0.4051 m

Qdesign 0.8102 m3 /s
Ac= = =1.1574 m2
Vin 0.7 m/ s

Depth (d) = 1.5 width (w)

Ac = d x w
w = 0.8784 m
d = 1.3176 m
2
Ac 1.1574 m
As= = =1.4956 m2
sin θ sin 70
S 2 2
Anet= As × =1.4956× =0.9970 m
S+tbar 2+1

Continuity equation VinAc = VoutAnet

VinAc 0.6 ×1.1574 m
Vout = = =0.8126
Anet 0.9970 s

Head loss
Vout 2−Vin2 1 0.81622 −0.72 1
Hl= x = x =0.0124 m
2g 0.7 2 ×9.81 0.7

40% clogged
Anet= Anet x 0.6=0.9970 x 0.6=0.5982m 2
VinAc 0.6 ×1.1574 m
Vout= = =1.3543
Anet 0.5982 s
533
 Number bars
n tbar+ ( n−1 ) S=w−2 tboundary
n tbar+ ( n−1 ) 2=87.84−2 tboundary
n=¿28

Design for wastewater pit:

Assumptions:

o Volume hold = 100 m3

o Measurement = 20 Length x 12 Width x 5 Height =1200 m3
o Peak flow as 2.5 times as average flow
o Peak flow = 2.5 x Assumption inlet flowrate = 2.5 x 30,000 = 70,000 m3/day

Design SBR
Assumptions:

o Maximum influent = 10,000 m3/d

o Number of reactors = 2 (assumption based on research)
o Measurement = 40 m Length x 40 m Width =1,600 m3
o Liquid depth = 7 m (assume based on research)
o Volume transfer to decanter = 60%
o Peak flow as 2.5 times as average flow
o Peak flow = 2.5 x Assumption inlet flowrate = 2.5 x 30,000 = 70,000 m3/day

Design for Chlorination

Assume:

o 2,000,000 gallons of water per day = 7570.82 m3. The MGD glow is 2.
o MGD x 8.34 lbs per gallon = 16.68
o Desired concentration of 2 milligrams per liter
o Multiply the result by the desired concentration of chlorine in milligrams per
liter
o 2 mg/L x 16.68 = 33.36 pound chlorine per day.

534
o Influent flowrate = 50,000 m3/day
3 3
o Qdesign=50,000 m × day
=0.5787
m
day 24 hr × 60 min ×60 s s
m
o Vin=0.2
s

o Qdesign 0.5787 m3 /s 2
Ac= = =2.8935 m
Vin 0.2 m/ s
o Assume height to diameter ratio for tank as 1.5 m (typical value)
o Height (h) = 1.5 diameter (d)
o Ac = h x d
o d = 1. 3889 m
o h = 2.0833 m

535