Dr.

Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Chapter Five

5-1 Introduction

A reaction turbine is one in which the major portion of the pressure drop takes place
in the rotating wheel. Therefore, the proportions must be such that the fluid fills all it
necessary that the fluid be admitted to the rotor around its entire circumference (Fig.
(1-5)). Since the entire circumference of the reaction turbine is in action, its rotor
need not be as large that of an impulse wheel for the same power.
The water, under pressure, enters the runner from the guide vanes towards the center
in radial direction and discharges out of the runner axially. The Francis turbine
operates under medium heads and also
requires medium quantity of water. It is
employ in the medium head power plants.
A part of the head acting on the turbine is
transformed into kinetic energy and the
rest remains as pressure head. There is a
difference of pressure between the guide
vanes and the runner which is called the
reaction pressure, and is responsible for Fig. (5-1) Reaction Turbine
the motion of the runner. That is why a Francis turbine is also known as a reaction
turbine. In this turbine the pressure at the inlet is more than that at the outlet. This
means that the water in the turbine must flow in a closed conduit. Unlike the Pelton
type, where the water strikes only a few of the runner bucket at a time, in the Francis
turbine the runner is always full runner buckets of water. The movement of the runner
is affected by change of both the pressure and kinetic energies of water. After its
work the water is discharged to the tail race through a close tube of gradually
enlarging section known as the draft tube. It does not allow water to fall freely to the
tail race level as in the case of a Pelton turbine. The free end of the draft tube is
submerged deep in the tail water, thus, making in the entire water passage, right from
the head race, totally enclosed.

89
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

5-2 Main Components of Reaction Turbine

A reaction turbine has following main components:-
1- Penstock,
2- Spiral casing,
3- Guide mechanism,
4- Turbine runner, and
5- Draft tube.

5-2-1 Penstock
Penstock is a waterway to carry water
from the reservoir to the turbine casing.
The penstock sections were
manufactures in quarters and welded at
the site, due to transport difficulties.
Stiffening and anchor-rings and pads
were welded to the penstock at the site.
The welding seams were inspected by X- Fig. (5-2) Penstock
rays and the penstock was tested at twice the operating pressure.

5-2-2 Spiral Casing or Scroll Casing

To avoid loss of efficiency, the flow of
water from the penstock to the runner
should be such that it will not from eddy.
In order to distribute the water around the
guide ring evenly. The scroll casing is
designed with a cross sectional area
reducing uniformly around the
circumference, maximum at the entrance
and nearly zero at the tip. This gives the Fig. (5-3) spiral casing of a reaction turbine
90
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

spiral shape and hence the casing is named as spiral casing. The position of the
inlet to the spiral casing depends on the direction of water flowing out of the
penstock which may vary according to the site. The spiral casings are provided
with inspection holes and also with pressure gauge connections. Large spiral
casing are made in parts for ease in transport. The spiral casing for vertical
reaction turbine is partly or completely grounded in. in such case is not easily
accessible and dismantling is not as easy as in horizontal type turbine.
The material of scroll casing depends upon the heads which are as follows:
Concrete without steel plate lining- up to about 30 m
Welded rolled steel plate up to about 100 m
Cast steel more than 100 m
5-2-3 Guide Mechanism:
The guide vanes or wicket
gates, as they are sometime
called, are fixed between two
rings in the form of a wheel,
known as guide wheel. The
guide vanes have a cross-
section known as aerofoil section. Fig. (5-4) Regulation of Guide Vanes
This particular cross-section allows water to pass over them without forming
eddies and with minimum friction losses. Each guide vane can rotate about its
pivot center which is connected to the regulating ring by mean of a link and lever.
The ring is connected to the regulating shaft by means of regulating rods,
generally, two in runner. By rotating the regulating shaft the guide vanes can be
closed or opened thus allowing a variable quantity of water according to the
needs. The regulating shaft is operated by means of a governor whose function is
to keep the speed of the turbine constant at varying loads. With a decrease in load
the speed of the turbine always tends to increase. To bring the speed back to the
rated value, the governor is used to reduce the guide vane opening thereby

91
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

allowing less water to strike the runner. The guide vanes are generally made of
cast steel.

5-2-4 Turbine Runner

The of a reaction turbine consists of runner blades fixed either to a shaft or to ring,
depending upon the type of turbine (see Fig.(5-5)). The blades are properly
designed, in order to allow the water to enter and leave the runner without shock.
The runner is keyed to a shaft, which may by vertical or horizontal. If the shaft is
vertical, it is called a vertical turbine. Similarly, if the shaft is horizontal, it is
called a horizontal turbine.
The surface of the runner is made very smooth. The runner may be cast in one
piece or may be made of separate steel plates welded together. For low heads, the
runner may be made of cast iron. But for high heads, the runner is made of steel or
alloys. When the water is chemically impure, the runner is made of special alloys.

Fig. (5-5) Reaction Turbine Runners

5-2-5 Draft Tube

The water after doing work on the runner passes on to the
tail race through a draft tube which is a welded steel plate
or a concrete tunnel, its cross-section gradually
increasing towards the outlet. Thus draft tube is a conduit
which connects the runner exit to the tail race. The tube

92
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

should be drowned-approximately one meter below the lowest tail race level. The
functions of the draft tube are as follows:
1- It increases the head of water by an amount equal to the height of the
runner outlet above tail race.
2- It increases efficiency of the turbine.
In the reaction turbine, the kinetic energy is appreciable as the fluid leaves the
runner and enters the draft tube. The function of the draft tube is to reconvert the
kinetic head into pressure head. About (70%) conversion is possible. By
recovering pressure head in a draft tube, the pressure at the runner exit is reduced
below atmosphere. This makes it possible to install the turbine above tail race
level without any loss in the available head.
Referring to Fig. (5-6), the energy equation from (1) to (2) yields:

…(5-1)

The losses include the expansion loss, friction

loss, and velocity head loss at the exit from the Fig. (5-6) Draft Tube
draft tube, all of which are quite small. Equation (5-1) shows that considerable
vacuum is produced at section (1), which effectively increases the head across
the turbine runner. The turbine setting must not be too high, or Cavitation occurs
in the runner and draft tube.
For a reaction turbine fitted with a draft tube, the net head (Hnet) on the turbine is
the difference between the energy level just upstream of the turbine and that of
the tail race (because the draft tube is considered as an integral part of the
reaction turbine). Thus in Fig. (5-7), the net head on the reaction turbine (Hnet) is;

93
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Fig. (5-7) Net Head of Reaction Turbine

( ) ………………..(5-2)

Where, (Ve) is the water velocity in the tail race.

By comparing equation (5-2) with equation (4-3), it is apparent that, for the same
setting, the net head on a reaction turbine will be greater than that on a Pelton
wheel. The difference is of small importance in a high-head plant, but it is
important for low- head plant.
As the draft tube is considered as an integral part of a reaction turbine, thus the
head (h') that is effectively available to act on the runner of a reaction turbine is;

̅ ( ) ( ) …..(5-3)

Referring to Fig. (5-4), the energy equation between sections (1) and (e) yields;

( ) ( ) ( ) ……..(5-4)

( ) ( ) ( ) ……….(5-5)

From equations (5-3) and (5-5) we have

̅ ( ) ( ) ( ) ……..(5-6)

From equation (5-2) and (5-6) we have

94
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

̅ ( ) ……………..(5-7)

The head (h'') that is actually extracted from the water by the runner is smaller than
(h') by an amount equal to the hydraulic friction losses and shock losses in the scroll
case, guide vanes, and the runner.

Example (5-1)
A turbine has a velocity of (6 m/s) at the entrance to the draft tube and a velocity of
(1.2 m/s) at the exit. For friction losses of (0.1m) and tail water (5m) below the
entrance to the draft tube, find the pressure head at the entrance.
Solution

From equation (5-1) we have,

Losses = expansion loss + Friction loss + velocity head loss at exit from draft tube

= 0 + 0.1 +

= 0.1 + = 0.173 m

As the kinetic energy at the exit from the draft tube is lost. Hence, a suction head of
(6.66m) is produced by the presence of the draft tube.

Now, in case when the turbine is installed (5m) above the tail race level and no draft
tube is installed, the head available is (95m) (see Fig. (5-6b)). With the use of draft
tube, the water is not discharging at atmospheric pressure but at a negative pressure
that is (-5m). Therefore, the available head for the turbine will be [95-(-5) =100m].

5-3 Classification of Reaction Turbine;

The reaction turbine may be classified into the following three types, depending upon
the direction of flow of water through the wheel:-

95
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

1- Radial flow turbine,

2- Axial flow turbine, and
3- Mixed flow turbine

5-3-1 Radial Flow Turbines

In such turbine, the flow of water is radial (i. e. along the radial of the wheel). The
radial flow turbines may be further sub-division into the following two classes:

1- Inward flow turbines. In such turbine, the water enters the wheel at the outer
periphery, and then flows inwards (i. e. towards the center of the wheel).
2- Outward flow turbines. in such turbine, the water enters at the center of the
wheel, and then flows outwards (i. e. towards the outer periphery of the wheel).

5-3-2 Axial Flow Turbines

In such turbines, the water flows parallel to the axis of the wheel. Such turbines are
also called parallel flow turbines.

5-3-3 Mixed Flow Turbines

These are the latest types of turbines, in which the flow is partly radial and partly
axial.

Fig. (5-8) Type of Reaction Turbines

96
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

5-4 Inward Flow Reaction Turbine

The inward flow reaction turbine, as the name indicates, is that turbine in which the
water enters the wheel at the outer periphery and then flows inward over the vanes. It
may be noted that whenever the load on the turbine is decreased, it causes the shaft to
rotate at a higher speed. The centrifugal force, which increases due to the higher
speed, tends to reduce the quantity of water flowing over the vanes, and thus the
velocity of water at the entry is also reduced. It will ultimately tend to reduce the
power produced by the turbine. This is the advantage of an inward flow reaction
turbine that is adjusted automatically according to the required load on the turbine.
The highest efficiency is obtained, when the velocity of the leaving water is as small
as possible.

Now, the work done or any other detail of the turbine runner may be found out by
drawing the inlet and outlet velocity triangles, as usual,
as shown in Fig. ( 5-9).

From inlet triangle, we find that:

Moreover, forms outlet triangle, we find that:

Fig.(5-9) Velocity Triangles of inward

flow reaction Turbine.

And, ̿ ……………..(5-8)

97
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

[ Equation (5-9) is used for the case of a reaction turbine without a draft tube]

The ''Francis turbine'' is an inward flow reaction turbine, having ''radial discharge''
( ) at outlet. It was the first inward flow reaction turbine which was designed
by Francis (English scientist and Engineer). It is used for medium head (50-250m).
the modern Francis turbine has a mixed flow (radial + axial). The outlet velocity
triangle of a ''Francis turbine'' is show in Fig. (5-10).

5-5 Outward Flow Reaction Turbines

An outward flow reaction turbine, as the name

indicated, is that reaction turbine, in which the water
enters at the center of the wheel and then flows
outward over the vanes. It may be noted, that
whenever the load on the turbine is decreased, it
causes the shaft to rotate at a higher speed. The
centrifugal force, which increases due to the higher
Fig. (5-11) velocity Triangles
speed, tends to increase the quantity of water flowing of outward flow reaction
turbine
over the vanes, and thus the wheel tends to run faster and faster. It is the only
disadvantage of an outward flow reaction turbine. Thus, every outward flow reaction
turbine has to be governed by a turbine governor.
The efficiency or the power developed by the turbine may be found out by drawing
the inlet and outlet velocity triangles as usual, as shown in Fig. (5-11).

5-6 Kaplan Turbines

The Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine, in which the flow of water is
parallel to the shaft. It was designed by ''Kaplan victor'' (1815-1892), a German
scientist, who designed for low head and heads and large quantity of flow.

98
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

The runner of a Kaplan turbine resembles

with the propeller of a ship. That is why a
Kaplan turbine is also called a propeller
turbine. The water from the scroll casing
flows over the guide blades and then over
the vanes of the runner. The water while
gliding over the vanes exerts some force on
the runner of the turbine, which causes the
Fig.(5-12) Kaplan Turbine
shaft to revolve.
The blades (vanes) of a Kaplan turbine runner can be adjusted to adjust the passage
area between the two blades. In a ''Francis'' turbine runner, the number of blade
(vanes) is generally between (16) and (24); whereas in a ''Kaplan'' turbine runner, the
number of blades (vanes) is generally between (3) and (8). This reduces the frictional
resistance to water.
The runner of a Kaplan turbine is known as ''boss'', which is nothing but an extension
of the shaft (at its lower end) as shown in Fig. (5-12). The discharge (Q) through the
turbine is given by;
……………………………………(5-10)
Where, D = diameter of the turbine,
d = diameter of the boss (hub), and
= velocity of flow at inlet.
The following table gives the ratio of boss (hub) to the outer diameter (generally
termed as hub ratio) and the number of blades of a Kaplan turbine for the given head
of water.
Head (m) 5 20 40 50 60 70
Hub ratio (D/d) 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.7
No. of blades 3 4 5 6 8 10

99
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

The speed ratio is defined as;

Speed ratio = ……………………… (5-11)

√

And flow ratio is defined as;

Flow ratio = ………………………. (5-12)

√

Where, u = peripheral velocity of the turbine at inlet,

= velocity of flow at inlet, and

= net head.

All the notation of the Kaplan turbine is the same as that of inward or outward flow
reaction turbines. All the relations for finding out the data hold good for a Kaplan
turbine also.

5-7 Power and Efficiency of a Reaction Turbine;

In general, the term efficiency may be defined as the ratio of work done to the energy
supplied. Following are the four types of efficiencies of reaction turbine;

1- Hydraulic Efficiency (
̿
……………(5-13)

2- Mechanical Efficiency( )

…………(5-14)

3- Overall efficiency (

………………..(5-15)

4- Volumetric Efficiency ( )

………………(5-16)

Where, = leakage flow rate.

And, ……………………………………….(5-17)
100
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

The flow rate ( through a reaction turbine (for example a Francis turbine) can be
calculated from the following relation:-

But
(for no losses)

Where, n=number of blades on the runner,

t = blade thickness,

b1= width of blade at inlet,

b2 = width of blade at outlet,

D1= diameter of wheel at inlet, and

D2 = diameter of wheel at outlet.

If the vanes are radial at inlet of outlet, then the velocity of whirl at that location will
be equal to the peripheral velocity of the runner ,i.e.:

If

or if …………………………………………..(5-19)

101
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Example (5-2)

An inward flow reaction turbine is supplied with water at a rate of (600 l/sec) with a
velocity of flow of (2 m/sec). the velocity of periphery and velocity of whirl at inlet
are 24 m/sec and 18 m/sec respectively. Assuming radial discharge at outlet and the
velocity of flow to be constant, find;
1- Vane angle at inlet, and
2- Head of water on the wheel.

Solution
Q = 0.6 m3/sec, Vr1=2m/sec, u1=24 m/sec,
Vt1=18m/sec, Vr1=Vr2 m/sec
a- Since u1> Vt1 the shape of inlet, velocity
triangle (V. T.) will be as shown in figure

=18.43o

b- ̿ ( Vt2=0 for radial discharge)

Head of water on the wheel (Hnet)= ̿

Hnet= 44.04+ ( Vr2=V2)

Example (5-3)
An inward flow reaction turbine is working under a head of (25 m) and running at
(300 rpm). The peripheral velocity is (30 m/sec) and velocity of flow is (4 m/sec). if
the hydraulic losses are (20%) of the available head, and the discharge is radial, find:

1- The guide blade angle at inlet,

2- The wheel angle at inlet, and
3- The diameter of the wheel.

102
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Solution;

Hnet=25m, N= 300 rpm, u1= 30 m/sec, Vr1= 4m/sec

Hydraulic losses (H1) = 0.2 x 25 = 5 m

a- Since discharge is radial Vt2 = 0 and ̿

∴ Hnet= ̿ (assuming )

u1> the inlet velocity triangle will be as shown in figure

tanα1 = = 31.45o

b-

9.6760

c- 30 = D1=1.91m

Example (5-4)
An outward flow reaction turbine has internal and external diameter of (2.4 m)
and (3.0 m) respectively. The turbine has a radial discharge of (6 m3/sec), and is
running at (200 rpm). The total head on the turbine is (40m) and width of the
wheel at inlet and outlet is (30 cm). Neglecting thickness of the vanes, find:
1- Velocity of flow at inlet,
2- Velocity of flow at outlet,
3- Velocity of whirl at inlet, and
4- Vane angles at inlet and outlet.

103
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Solution:

a- Q = π × D1×b1×Vr1

6 = π ×2.4×0.3×Vr1 Vr1= 2.65 m/sec

b- Q = π × D2×b2×Vr2

6 = π ×3.0×0.3×Vr2 Vr2= 2.12 m/sec

c- V2=Vr2= 2.12 m/sec (radial discharge at outlet)

25.13 m/sec

u1> the inlet V. T. will be as shown in figure

d-

β1= 15.43o

31.42 m/sec

104
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Example (5-5)

Find the diameter and blade angle at inlet and outlet of an inward flow reaction
turbine of the following particulars;
Output power= 20000 hp, N=300 rpm, Hnet=120 m, Din/Dout=0.6
Axial length of blade at inlet = 0.1* corresponding diameter, flow ratio =0.15,
=88%, =85%
Assume radial discharge, velocity of flow is constant throughout and area blocked
by blade thickness as (5%) of area of flow.
Solution:

D2/D1=0.6, b1= 0.1 D1, Flow ratio =0.15 =

√

√
√

41.15 m/sec

105
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

= = 16.15o

24.66 m/sec

Example (5-6)

A ''Francis'' turbine having an overall efficiency of (75%), is required to give (180

hp) under a head of (9 m) and at (120 rpm). the velocity of periphery of the wheel
and velocity of flow at inlet is (3.47√ ) and (1.15√ ) respectively. If the
hydraulic losses in the turbine are (20%) of the available energy, find;

1- Guide blade angle at inlet,

2- Wheel vane angle at inlet and
3- Diameter of the wheel.

Solution:

, Pout = 180 hp, Hnet= 9 m, N= 120 rpm,

u1= 3.45√ , Vr1= 1.15√ , = 80 %

a- u1= 3.45√

u1= 3.45√ u1=10.41 m/sec

Vr1= 1.15√

106
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Vr1= 1.15√ Vr1= 3.45 m/sec

Vt1= 6.785 m/sec

= = 26.95o

b-

c- 41.15 m/sec

D1= 1.657 m

Example (5-7)

A ''Kaplan'' turbine, operating under a net head of (20 m), develops (50000 hp)
with an overall efficiency of (86%). The speed ratio is (2.0) and flow rate is (0.6).
the hub diameter of the wheel is (0.35) times the outside diameter of the wheel.
Find the diameter and speed of the turbine.

Solution:

Hnet=20 m, Pout=50000 hp, , d = 0.35 D

Speed ratio =
√

u1= 2 √ √

107
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Flow ratio =
√

Vr1 = √

But, and, d = 0.35D

D = 5.196 m

N= 145.63 rpm.

Example (5-8)

An outward flow reaction turbine has an outlet runner diameter of (1m), and
rotates at (300 rpm). The ratio of inlet to outlet diameter is (0.75). The turbine is
installed (2 m) below the tail race water level. The rotating vane angles at inlet
and outlet are (90o) and (20o) respectively. The velocity of flow at inlet is (4 m/s)
and the discharge is radial. Determine the guide vane angle, the pressure head at
inlet and outlet casing, the net head, and the hydraulic efficiency. If the power
outlet is (700 hp), find the specific speed.

Solution:

, , D1= 1m, N= 300 rpm,

D1/D2 = 0.75 D2= 0.75 m,

Vr1= 4m/sec

108
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Radial discharge ,

Pout= 700 hp

= = 18.76o

√ √

̿ )

̿̿̿̿̿

Applying energy equation (E.E) between runner inlet (1) and tail race (a) gives;

Applying energy equation (E.E) between runner outlet (2) and tail race (a) gives;

109
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

√ √

5-8 Draft of Tube:

It is a pipe, which connects the turbine and the tail race or outlet channel, through
which the water exhausted from the runner, and flows to the outlet channel. A draft
tube, in addition to act as a water conduit, has the following two important functions
also:-

1- It enables the turbine to be placed above the tail race, so that the turbine may
be inspected properly.
2- To convert the kinetic energy (v2/2g) of the water exhausted from the runner
into pressure energy in the tube.

5-9 Types of Draft Tubes:

There are many types of draft tubes, but the following two types are very
common: -

110
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

1- conical draft tubes, and

2- Elbow draft tubes.

5-9-1 conical draft tubes

In conical type, the diameter of the

tube gradually increases from the
outlet of the runner to the channel
as shown in Fig .(5-13)

The conical draft tube shown

in Fig. (5-13a) in commonly used in
Francis turbine. For good
efficiency, the central flaring angle
is kept about (8o). Fig. (5-13) Conical Draft Tube

Larger angles will cause separation of water from the walls of the draft tube. The
conical draft tubes with fixed solid conical core shown in Fig.(5-13b) , which
has a bell-mouthed outlet, is best suited for inward or outward flow turbines,
having helical flow which is due to the velocity of whirl at outlet of the runner.
The efficiency of conical draft tube is as large as (90%).

5-9-2 Elbow Draft Tube:

In elbow type, the bend of the draft tube

is generally (90o) and area of the tube
gradually increases from the outlet of
the runner to the channel as shown in
Fig.(5-14) (a) and (b). Fig. (5-14) Elbow Draft Tube

The elbow draft tubes are commonly used in Kaplan turbine. The elbow draft tube,
shown in Fig. (5-14a) has circular section at inlet and outlet. But the draft tube,

111
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

shown in Fig. (5-14b) has a circular at inlet and a rectangular section at outlet. The
efficiency of elbow draft tubes is generally between (60%) and (70%).

The efficiency of a draft tube may be found out from the reaction:

…………………………… (5-20)

Where V2 = velocity of water at inlet of the draft tube (dt), and

V3= velocity of water at inlet of the draft tube (dt).

Example 5-9

A Kaplan turbine develops (2000 hp) under a head of (6m). The turbine is set (2.5
m) above the tail water level. A vacuum gage, inserted at the turbine outlet, records a
suction head of (3.1). Assuming turbine efficiency to be (85%) and neglecting
friction head loss in draft tube, what will be the efficiency of a draft tube, having inlet
diameter of (3m).

Solution:

Pout=2000hp, Hnet= 6m, Z = 2.5 m, P2/γ = 3.1m (suction) = -3.1 m, o= 85%, d2=3m.

Appling Energy equation between points (2) and (3), and assuming (V o) is the
velocity of water at draft tube outlet, we have:

112
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

( )

From equation (5-20) we have:

5-10 Cavitation

The cavitation may be broadly defined as the formation of bubbles, filled with
vapor, within the body of a moving liquid. It has been observed, the vapor cavities
begin to appear, whenever the pressure at any point in a flow falls to the vapor
pressure of the liquid at that temperature. These bubbles, which are formed on
account of low pressure, are carried by the stream to the zones of high pressure. In
these zones, the vapor condenses and the bubble collapse. The space, previously
occupied by the bubbles, is filled up by the surrounding liquid. As a result of this,
some noise occurs and vibrations are produced. The pressure, which makes the
bubble to collapse, is generally of the order of (100) times the atmospheric pressure.
When the cavities collapse on the surface of a body, due to repeated hammering
action of surrounding liquid, the metal particles give way, which ultimately cause a
great deal of erosion of the metal. The erosion of material is called ''pitting ''. the
cavitation affects a hydraulic machine in the following three ways;

1- Irregular collapse of cavities causes noise and vibration of various parts.

2- As a result of pitting there is a loss of material, which makes the surface rough.
3- As a result of cavities, there is always a reduction in the discharge of a turbine.

113
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

The reduction in discharge causes sudden drop in the power output and efficiency.

After carrying out a series of experiments, Prof. D. Thoma of Germany, suggested

a cavitation factor ( ) to find out the zone, where a reaction turbine can work,
without the effect cavitation. This factor is known as ''Thoma cavitation factor''
and is given by following reaction;

Where; = Barometeric Pressure in (m) of water =

= pressure head in (m H2O) at runner outlet (height of runner outlet

above tail race)

= Atomspheric pressure head in (m H2O).

= vapor pressure of a turbine in (m H2O).

H = working head turbine in (m H2O)

The value of ( at which cavitation occurred is called the critical value of Thoma
Cavitation Factor . This value could be determined by experiments. This can be
done by varying (Hs) and noting the value of ( ) at which the power and efficiency
are started to change. The value of ( ) must be always greater than .
The following empirical relation for is suggested by Prof. F. H. Roger (USA) for
Francis turbines;

( ) ………………………..(5-22)

The cavitation in reaction turbine can be avoided to a great extent by the

following methods

1- By installing the turbine below the tail race level.

2- By providing a cavitation- free runner of the turbine.
3- By using stainless steel runner of the turbine.
4- By providing highly polished blades to the runner.
5- By running the turbine runner at the designed speed.
114
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Example ;

It is required to construct a Francis turbine for a hydraulic power plant, the available
net head is (57m), and the available discharge is (10 m3/s). The outside rotor diameter
is (5m), the running speed is (200 rpm), and the overall efficiency is 80%. Find the
maximum permissible height of the turbine above the tail race, given that the
atmospheric pressure is (Pa= 1.03 kg/cm2) and the vapor pressure (0.05 kg/cm2).

Solution;

Hnet = 57m, Q =10 m3/s, D1= 5m, N= 200 rpm,

= 80%, Pa= 1.03 kg/cm3, Pv=0.05 kg/cm2

√ √

From equation(5-22);

( ) ( )

From equation (5-21); (Hs)max=

= 8.03 m (maximum permissible height of the turbine above the tail

race)

115
Dr. Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

Sheet 5

116