Transmission Shafts - Introduction 2

MECH3110 Mechanical Engineering Design 2

• Shafts can be rotating or stationary.
• Shafts are usually of circular cross-section and used to
transmit power or motion.
• Shafts may be subjected to bending, torsion, tension or
Shaft Design compression, acting independently, or in any combination.
• Loads are typically induced by transmission components
Reference Texts:
• Budynas and Nisbett: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 9th Ed, McGraw- such as, gears, pulleys, sprockets, etc.
Hill, 2011. • Topics to be covered include:
• Machinery’s Handbook 25th Ed. Industrial Press, New York, 1996.
• Australian Standard 1403-2004 Design of Rotating Steel Shafts. • Material selection
• Juvinall and Marshek: Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, 3rd Ed. 2000. • Geometric layout
• Golka, Bolliger and Vasili, Belt Conveyors - Principles for Calculation and Design, • Transmission elements
2007. • Design for stress
Craig Wheeler • Deflection considerations
Professor, School of Engineering
The University of Newcastle

Shaft Materials 3 Shaft Materials 4

• Deflection is not affected by strength, but rather stiffness • Cold drawn steel is typically used for shafts under
as represented by the modulus of elasticity, which is Ø100mm. Nominal diameters can be left unmachined in
essentially constant for all steels. areas where components are not fitted.
• Necessary strength to resist loading stresses affects • Hot rolled steel should be machined all over.
material selection and treatments. • Material selection is also somewhat dependent on the
• Most shafts are made from low carbon, cold drawn or hot- quantity to be manufactured. For low production, turning is
rolled steel. typically the most economical method. While high
• Significant strengthening from heat treatment and high production runs may warrant hot or cold forming, or
alloy content are often not needed. casting, thus requiring minimal material removal.
• Initial designs should be based on low or medium carbon • Stainless steel is used for certain operating environments.
steel, and if strength requirements dominate over
deflection, then select higher strength materials.
 Shaft Layout 5 Shaft Layout – Axial Layout 6

• The general layout of a shaft is to accommodate shaft • Generally it is best to support load carrying components
elements, eg; gears, bearings, pulleys, couplings, etc. between bearings to avoid cantilevered loads.
• Shafts are typically stepped. • Pulleys and sprockets often need to be mounted outboard
• Shoulders are often used to axially locate shaft elements of bearings for ease of installing and removing the belt or
and provide a means to carry thrust loads. chain. Length of cantilever should be kept to a minimum.
• There are no absolute rules governing shaft layout, but the
next few slides may help.

Ref: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design, 9th Ed, McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Shaft Layout – Gear Types 7 Shaft Layout – Axial Layout 8

• In most cases only two bearings should be used. Where

long shafts require more, bearing alignment is critical.
• Shafts should be kept to a minimum length to minimise
bending moments and deflections. Some axial space is
necessary for lubricant flow and disassembly with pullers.
• The primary means of axially locating components is
against a shoulder.
Spur gears Double helical gears • Where axial loads are low; retaining rings in grooves,
sleeves between components or clamp on collars can be
used.
• Where axial loads are very small, press fits, pins or collars
Single helical gears Bevel gears
with set screws can be used.
Straight spur vs single helical?
Single helical vs double helical?
 Shaft Layout – Axial Layout 9 Shaft Layout – Axial Layout 10

• Where axial loads are not trivial it is necessary to transmit • The following are examples where the axial load is carried
loads from the shaft through the bearing to ground. by one bearing against a collar, while the other bearing is
• Generally, it is best to have only one bearing transmit the a press fit onto the shaft.
load to allow greater tolerances on the length of the shaft.

Ref: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design, 9th Ed, McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Shaft Layout – Torque Transmission 11 Torque Transmission 12

Keys and Keyways

• Where shafts are required to transmit torque they must be
sized to support the torsional stress and deflection.
• Common torque-transfer elements include:
• Keys
• Splines
• Setscrews
• Pins
• Press or Shrink Fits
• Tapered Fits
• In addition to transmitting torque many of the above are
Reproduced from: Juvinall, R. and
designed to fail if the torques exceeds acceptable levels to Marshek, K. Fundamentals of
protect other components or machinery. Machine Component Design, 3rd
Ed. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New
York, 2000.
Torque Transmission - Splines 13 Torque Transmission – Setscrews 14

Splines on the CV end of an

axle shaft

Bicycle cassette and freehub

fasteners-supplier.com
Ref: wikipedia.org
b2bscrews.com

Torque Transmission – Tapers 15 Torque Transmission – Pins 16

awtarlab3.engin.umich.edu tracepartsonline.net
Torque Transmission – Various 17 Shaft Layout – Assembly and 18

Disassembly
• Generally the largest diameter is located in the centre of
the shaft, with progressively smaller diameters towards the
ends to allow for components to be slid on from the ends.
• Where components are to be press fit, ensure they do not
need to be slid long distances along the shaft. Where
possible provide a taper for initial alignment.
• Provide sufficient axial clearance for pullers, press plates,
wedges, etc, for disassembly.
• Often shaft centres can be machined with threads for eye
bolts for safe and convenient lifting.
sscycle.com

Design for Static Loads 19 Design for Static Loads 20

The bending stress, σx and torsional stress τxy for a solid Given the yield strength in shear, Ssy is approximated by half
round shaft of diameter, d subjected to a bending moment, the normal yield strength, Sy (ie; Ssy = Sy / 2) from the
M and torque, T are given by: maximum-shear-stress theory for static failure, and using a
factor of safety, n.
32M 16T Sy 16
σx = (1) τ xy = (2) = M2 + T2 (4)
πd 3 πd 3 2n πd 3

Applying Mohr’s circle analysis the maximum shear stress, Therefore, 1

 32n 
3
τmax is given by:
d= M2 + T2  (5)
 πS y
2
 σx  2 16 
τ max =   + τ xy = M2 + T2 (3)
 2  πd 3
Remember use the above only when the stresses do not
vary.
 Design for Fluctuating Loads 21 Fluctuating Normal and Shear Stresses 22

The loads on most shafts are not constant and it is therefore Ssm ± KfsSsa
necessary to calculate the minimum shaft diameter based Sm ± KfSa Sm ± KfSa
upon the effects of fluctuating loads. Ssm ± KfsSsa

Several theories, codes and standards exist, including:

• Maximum-shear-stress theory using Soderburg’s
method. M
Gear 1 Gear 2
M

• Distortion energy theory using Goodman’s approach. T T

• Australian Standard AS1403-2004 Design of Rotating
Steel Shafts. Support Bearing

Fluctuating normal and shear stresses acting on a shaft

Maximum-Shear-Stress, Soderburg’s Method 23 Maximum-Shear-Stress, Soderburg’s Method 24

Soderburg’s equation for fluctuating normal stresses gives Similarly, the equivalent static shear stress, Ss0 is given by
the equivalent static normal strength, S0 as
 K ts S y 
 Kt S y  S s 0 = S sm +   S sa (7)
S 0 = S m +   S a (6)  Se 
 Se 
Where the subscript, “s” represents shear. Substitution
Kt = Stress concentration factor then gives
Se = Endurance limit 0.5S y
2

2
Kt S y   K ts S y 
S sy = =  S m + S a  +  S sm + S sa  (8)
n  Se   Se 
sa
For a solid circular shaft the minimum diameter, d is
Normal sr
sa smax  2 2 
1
3

Stress 16  KS   K S 
d =  M m + t y M a  +  Tm + ts y Ta   (9)
sm smin  πS sy  Se   Se  
 

Time
 Maximum-Shear-Stress, Soderburg’s Method 25 Distortion-Energy Theory – Goodman 26

Generally, it is common practice to also apply the stress Based on the Distortion-Energy Theory and the Goodman
concentration factors to the mean stress and mean torsion. criterion, for a solid circular shaft the minimum diameter, d is
1

Furthermore, fatigue stress concentration factors, Kf and Kfs  16n  1

[ ] [ ]
2 1 2 
3
1
 4(K f M a ) + 3(K fsTa ) 4(K f M m ) + 3(K fsTm )  
2 12
d = 
2 2
+ (12)
replace Kt and Kts due to lessened sensitivity to notches.  π  Se Sut 
Therefore, for a solid circular shaft the minimum diameter, d is
1
Or in terms of the safety factor, n
 2 1 2
3
 2
Ta   
 32n  2  M m M a  
2  Tm
d = Kf + + K fs + (10)

 π   S y

S e  S 
 y S e   


1 16
=
n πd 3
1
[
 4(K f M a ) + 3(K fsTa )
2 2 12
]+
1
[
4(K f M m ) + 3(K fsTm ) 
2
]
2 1 2
(13)
 Se Sut 
While, in terms of n
12
1 32  2  M m M a  T  
2 2
T
= 3 Kf + + K 2fs  m + a   (11)
n πd   S y S e  S 
  y S e  
Note: For a rotating shaft with constant bending and torsion, the
bending stress is completely reversed and torsion is steady.
Therefore; Mm = 0 and Ta = 0.

Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity 27 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity 28

The existence of irregularities such as holes, notches, etc, Notch sensitivities, q for specific materials are obtained
increase the theoretical stress significantly in the immediate experimentally. However, the following Figures provide
vicinity. However, some materials are not fully sensitive to the values for steels and aluminium.
presence of notches, and hence for these, a reduced value q - Reversed Bending or Reversed Axial Loads
of Kt and Kts can be used.

Therefore, it is convenient to refer to these as fatigue stress

concentration factors, Kf and Kfs which replace Kt and Kts
respectively.
K f = 1 + q(K t − 1) (14)
K fs = 1 + qs (K ts − 1) (15)

Ref: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design, 9th Ed, McGraw-Hill, 2011.
 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity 29 Stress Concentration Factors, K 30

Stress Concentration Factors are used to relate the maximum

qs - Reversed Torsion stress at the concentration to the nominal stress. Kt is used for
normal stresses and Kts for shear stresses.

Charts reproduced from: Shigley, J: Mechanical Engineering Design,1st Ed, McGraw-Hill, 1986.
Ref: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design, 9th Ed, McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Stress Concentration Factors, K 31 Reducing Stress Concentrations 32

In the case where the shoulder at the bearing is found to be

critical, select a bearing with a generous fillet radius, or
consider the following options.

Reproduced from: Juvinall, R. and

Marshek, K. Fundamentals of
Machine Component Design, 3rd
Ed. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New
York, 2000.

February 22, 2021 Ref: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

MECH2110 - Shaft Design Design, 9th Ed, McGraw-Hill, 2011.
 Endurance Limit
Use Equation (8.1) of Juvinall and Marshek (2006):

Where Sn = Se giving:

Se=Se’CLCGCSCTCR

Endurance Limit
 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 38

• Download/View from Library’s Online Databases

AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 39 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 40

FR = endurance limit of shaft material in reversed bending

during rotation, based on tests of polished steel specimens
of diameter between 8 mm and 10 mm, in [MPa]
= 0.45 FU, where actual value is not known
FS = safety factor (See Table 2 - note 5, AS1403-2004)
FU = tensile strength of shaft material, in [MPa]
FY = yield strength of shaft material, [MPa]
K = stress-raising factor (see Clause 8.2, AS1403-2004)
KS = size factor (see Clause 8.1 and Figure 1, AS1403-2004)
Mq = bending moment at shaft cross-section under
consideration, in [Nm]
Tq = maximum torque at shaft cross-section under
consideration, in [Nm]
Pq = maximum axial tensile force at shaft cross-section under
consideration, in [N]
February 22, 2021

MECH2110 - Shaft Design

 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 41 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 42

8. Shaft Design Factors 8. Shaft Design Factors

8.1 Size Factor (Ks) 8.2 Stress Raising Factor (K)
The value of the size factor (Ks) shall be as follows: The value of the stress raising factor (K) shall be as follows:
(a) For diameters up to 250 mm read off Fig.1. (a) Where there is only one stress-raising characteristic use the value
read from Figs. 4 to 10.
(b) For diameters greater than 250 mm use 1.8.
(b) Where two stress-raising characteristics are separated by an axial
distance greater than 0.25D, use the greater of the two values read
from Figs. 4 to 10.
(c) Where two stress-raising characteristics are separated by an axial
distance between 0.16D and 0.25D, use the sum of the greater
value and 0.1 times the lesser value, both values being read from
Figs. 4 to 10.
(d) Where two stress-raising characteristics are coincident or separated
by an axial distance not greater than 0.16D, use the sum of the
greater value and 0.2 times the lesser value, both values being read
from Figs. 4 to 10.

AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 43 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 44
AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 45 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 46

AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 47 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 48
 AS1403 – 2004: Design of rotating steel shafts 49 Design for Deflection 50

Appendix C – Motor Controllers and Torque-Limiting Devices • Both linear and angular deflection of the shaft should be
checked at the bearings and transmission elements.
Introduction
• Allowable deflections will depend on many factors, but the
Motors with high locked-rotor torque (starting torque) or high breakdown following table provides typical maximums.
torque (pull-out torque) may impose high loads on shafts. Care should
be taken as breakdown torque can be as high as 4 times the rated
torque (full-load torque) for a.c. motors, 3 times for shunt d.c. motors
and 5 times for series d.c. motors.

The effect of high locked-rotor torque or high breakdown torque can be

minimised by electrical means (motor controllers) or mechanical means
(like fluid couplings, etc).

Ref: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

Design, 9th Ed, McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Design for Deflection 51 Design for Deflection 52

• Beam deflection techniques are used to calculate shaft • For cylindrical stepped shafts in torsion with cylinder length,
deflections. li and torque, Ti, the angular deflection, θ is estimated from:
• For shafts of constant cross-section this is straightforward.
Ti li
• For stepped shafts, since both M and I vary, singularity θ = ∑θi = ∑
functions can be applied, however typically numerical Gi J i
integration or FEA is used. Where: G = Modulus of rigidity
• Many shafts require force analysis in multiple planes, πD
4
J=
requiring 3-dimensional analysis, or use of superposition 32
in two planes then summing the deflection vectors. • For constant torque throughout the shaft
T li
θ=
G
∑ Ji
Note: These formulae should only be used as an estimate
as experiments have shown θ can be larger.
 Design for Deflection – Pulley Shaft Example 53 Design for Deflection – Pulley Shaft Example 54

• Closed form solutions for particular geometries and loading • Maximum shaft deflection at mid-span:
conditions exist. For example, consider a conveyor pulley: a
f1max = T12
48 EI1
(4a 2 − 3 A2 ) [mm]
T12 = T12 + T22 + 2T1T2 cos(180 − α ) [N]
• Angle of deflection at bearing:
32T12 a  A − l 
θ2 = [rad]
πE  d14 
l
• Angle of deflection at distance “b” from bearing:
32T12 a  b 2  b  a −b A−l
θo =  +  + 1 + 4  [rad]
πE  2ad 2  a  2d14
4
d1 

Ref: Golka, Bolliger and Vasili, Belt Conveyors - Where: A, a, b, l, d1 and d2 - [mm]
Principles for Calculation and Design, 2007.