LESSON 2: ENERGY FLOW - It is simply a feeding level, as often represented in a

food chain.
Energy Flow - is one of the major factors that support the
The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be
survival of such a great number of organisms
arranged into different feeding groups and are known as trophic
level or the feeding level.
- the amount of energy that moves along the food a. The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.
chain.  b. Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second
trophic level.
c. Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent
Law of Thermodynamics in the Ecosystem the third trophic level
- explains the flow of energy at each trophic level. d. Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last
level.
 First law (law of conservation of energy): states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can Food Chain
only change from one form to another - The transfer of food energy upward from the source in
 Second law: states that as energy is transferred more plants and other autotrophs (primary producers)
and more of it is wasted. In other words, there is loss through herbivores (primary consumers) to carnivores
of energy at each step of energy flow. (secondary, tertiary, & quaternary consumers) and
eventually to decomposers.
The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food - The series of organisms through which food nutrients
web. During the process of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants travel from the producers to the different consumers
being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the and up to the decomposers.
chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chemical energy
- Shows how the organism are related with each other
in the process of photosynthesis.
by the food they eat.
This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants - The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the
and passed on to the primary consumers in the food chain when
form of food from organism to organism
the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as
food. Then conversion of chemical energy stored in plant - Intertwine locally into a food web because most
products into kinetic energy occurs, degradation of energy will organisms consume more than one type of animal or
occur through its conversion into heat. plant.

Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these

herbivores are ingested by carnivores of the first order
(secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally,
when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, energy will
again be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in
nature

Energy Flow Model

1. First, energy travels in one direction, from producers to
herbivores to carnivores; it cannot flow in the opposite direction.
2. Second, when trophic levels rise, the amount of energy flow
reduces

Trophic Structure of the Community - The structure and

dynamics of a community depends on the feeding relationships
between organisms
Trophic Level - The position an organism occupies in a food
chain.
- Each step of the food chain
- The word trophic derives from the Greek word
meaning to food or feeding.
The Food Chain Consists of the following;
Producers - photosynthetic organisms (plants or phytoplankton) - A group of food chain that are linked together.
Primary consumers (herbivores) - The organisms that consume - The natural interconnection of food chains and a
the producers graphical representation of what-eats-what in an
Secondary consumers (carnivores) - eat the primary ecological community.
consumers. 
- Illustrate how energy flows directionally through
Tertiary consumers - carnivores that eat other carnivores.
Higher-level consumers feed on the next lower trophic levels, ecosystems.
and so on, up to the organisms at the top of the food chain.  - They can also indicate how efficiently organisms
acquire energy, use it, and how much remains for use
by other organisms of the food web.
Three Different Types of Food Chains in the Ecosystem
1. Grazing food chain (GFC) Two Different Types of Food Web
- Gets its energy directly from the sun. a. A grazing food web based on photosynthetic plants or
- Begins with the primary producer. Primary consumers algae
or herbivores form the second link which get their b. A detrital food web consists of a base of organisms
energy from the consumption of primary producers. that feed on decaying organic matter (dead
Secondary consumers or primary carnivores, the third organisms)
link in the chain, get their energy from eating  Example: Decomposers  (which break down
herbivores. A tertiary consumer or secondary dead and decaying organisms)
carnivore is an animal that obtains organic energy and detritivores (which consume
from eating a primary carnivore organic detritus). These organisms are
usually bacteria, fungi, and invertebrate
2. Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) animals that recycle organic material back
- In this type of food chain, the dead organic matter into the biotic part of the ecosystem as they
occupies the lowermost level of the food chain, themselves are consumed by other
followed by the decomposers and so on. organisms.
- Begins with dead organic matter, an important source
of energy.
- A large amount of organic matter is contributed by the - It is an essential tool in understanding that plants are
death of plant’s parts, animals and their excretion the foundation of all ecosystems and sustain life by
products. providing nourishment and oxygen needed for survival
- These types of food chains are present in all and reproduction.
ecosystems. Various species of microscopic fungi,
bacteria and other saprophytes play a prominent role Four Characteristics of Food Web
in decomposing organic matter to obtain energy 1. It consists of number of interconnected food chains
needed of their survival and growth. through which energy travels in an ecosystem.
2. Usually, members of higher trophic level feed upon
3. Parasitic food chain (PFC) – In this type of food chain, many organisms of lower trophic level.
large organisms either the producer or the consumer 3. Presence of complex food webs increases the stability
is exploited and therefore the food passes to the of the ecosystem.
smaller organism. 4. More complex food webs improve the adaptability and
competitiveness of the organisms.
Note: One major factor that limits the number of steps in a food
chain is energy. How Organisms Acquire Energy in a Food Web
 Energy is lost at each trophic level and between  Energy is acquired by living things in two ways:
trophic levels as heat and in the transfer to 1. Autotrophs harness light or chemical
decomposers. Thus, after a limited number of trophic energy
energy transfers, the amount of energy remaining in 2. Heterotrophs acquire energy through the
the food chain may not be great enough to support consumption and digestion of other living
viable populations at higher trophic levels. or previously living organisms.

Food Web Autotrophs - organisms capable of synthesizing their own food

- Also called consumer-resource system. (more specifically, capable of using inorganic carbon as a
carbon source).  The process where a species or an organism
- Critical for ecosystems because they occupy the gradually becomes better acclimated to its
trophic level containing producers. Without these environment.”
organisms, energy would not be available to other  It refers to the behavioral or physical attributes of an
living organisms, and life would not be possible. animal that helps them survive better in its ecosystem.
-
Animal adaptation can be in the way they look
 Example: Photosynthetic and
(camouflage) to escape from their predators.
chemosynthetic organisms
 It implies how a species changes its body and
Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic behaviour to better suit its natural environment.
autotrophs autotrophs  The process of adaptation ensures that the species
(photoautotrophs) (chemoautotrophs) which adapts the most, survive.
Energy source Use sunlight Use inorganic  The theory of adaptation is also known as the theory
molecules of survival of the fittest.
 It refers to the organism’s ability to adapt to
Photoautotrophs
environmental changes over time.
- The energy source for a majority of the world’s
ecosystems.
NOTE: Adaptation and Evolution are different
- Example: plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria Evolution brings about drastic changes that occur in the genetic
- Photoautotrophs harness the Sun’s solar energy by level.
converting it to chemical energy. Adaptation is a short-term process where the changes that
 Gross Primary Productivity - The rate at occur are usually reversible.
which photosynthetic producers incorporate But adaptation does lead to evolution.
energy from the Sun. Example of Evolution: Giraffes are the tallest land mammals
 However, not all of the energy incorporated today, but they weren’t so tall a few million years ago. Due to
the competition for food with other herbivores and the leaves in
by producers is available to the other
the taller shrubs and trees was an untapped niche. In order to
organisms in the food web because
survive, Giraffes tried to adapt and later on evolve as animals
producers must also grow and reproduce, with longer necks today.
which consumes energy. Net primary
productivity - is the energy that remains in Types of Adaptations
the producers after accounting for these A. Structural Adaptations
organisms’ metabolism and heat loss. The
 These are special attributes that involve
net productivity is then available to the
some parts of an organism’s body, such as
primary consumers at the next trophic level.
skin, colour and shape.
Chemoautotrophs  These adaptations help the organisms to
- Primarily bacteria and archaea that are found in rare survive in their natural habitat.
ecosystems where sunlight is not available, such as  Example: The blubber of a whale, the beak
those associated with dark caves or hydrothermal of a woodpecker, baleen of a humpback
vents at the bottom of the ocean. whale.
- Many chemoautotrophs in hydrothermal vents use
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which is released from the
B. Physiological Adaptations
vents, as a source of chemical energy. This allows
them to synthesize complex organic molecules, such  These are mechanisms present in an
as glucose, for their own energy and, in turn, supplies organism that allow it to perform certain
energy to the rest of the ecosystem. biochemical reactions to survive in its
natural habitat.
 Example: A snake’s ability to produce
LESSON 3: ADAPTATION venom, mammal’s ability to maintain
Adaptation constant body temperature. Even the ability
of our body to produce hydrochloric acid to
digest food
  Organisms start from the scratch.
 Happens when a new patch of land is
created/exposed for the first time (i.e., when
lava cools and creates new rocks).
C. Behavioural Adaptations B. Secondary Succession
 These are ways a particular organism  Happens when a climax
behaves to survive in its natural habitat. community/intermediate community is
 Example: Migration of animals and birds impacted by a disturbance.
 This restarts the cycle, but not back to the
beginning as soil and nutrients are still
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS present.
1. Physiognomic Factors
A. Topography – describes the physical features of Flow:
an area of land.
o Relates to atmospheric pressure
B. Direction

2. Edaphic Factors
A. Soil – made up of minerals, pieces of rocks, and
decomposed organisms
o It comes from rocks through the process of
weathering.
o Plants rely on soil for their growth and
development.
o Different plants grow on different types of
soil.
B. Humus – comes from decomposed organisms.

3. Climatic Factors
A. Light – i.e., affects the process of photosynthesis
o Wavelength, Intensity, and Duration
B. Temperature – endothermic (warm-blooded) and
ectothermic (cold-blooded)
o Endothermic - organism uses energy to LESSON 4: BIODIVERSITY & STABILITY
regulate its body temperature internally.
o Ectothermic - organism instead relies on BIODIVERSITY
external environmental factors to regulate  The variation among living organisms from different
its body temperature. sources including terrestrial, marine and desert
C. Wind ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which
D. Water – increases the ability to digest food. they are a part.
 Describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
the most complex and important feature of our planet.
Ecological Succession – the process by which the mix of
species and habitat in an area change over time.  Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.
- These communities replace one another until a climax  It refers to variabilities among plants, animals and
community (mature forest) is reached, or until a microorganism species.
disturbance, like a fire, occurs  Biodiversity includes the number of different
Climax Community – endpoint of
organisms and their relative frequencies in an
succession.
Major Types ecosystem.
A. Primary Succession
  It also reflects the organization of organisms at Core Principles of Stability
different levels. A. Balance of Nature – when an organism can properly
 Biodiversity holds ecological and economic fulfill its function in an environment.
significance. It provides us with nourishment, housing, A.1. Oxygen Cycle - refers to the movement of oxygen
fuel, clothing and several other resources. It also through the atmosphere (air), biosphere (plants and
animals) and the lithosphere (the Earth's crust).
extracts monetary benefits through tourism. - The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free oxygen is
 Biodiversity is important because it sustains the flow made available in each of these regions, as well as
of energy in the food web on earth and contributes to how it is used.
environment sustainability. A.2. Carbon Cycle – it is the movement of carbon, in its
 It maintains ecosystem stability by replenishing many forms, between the biosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
resources from time to time.
- Carbon is one of the most vital elements that sustain
 It increases the stability of an ecosystem because a life on earth.
change in the population of one organism will have A.3. Nitrogen Cycle - a biogeochemical process through
less effect on the population of an organism that which nitrogen is converted into many forms,
depends on it. consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the
 The higher the diversity, the more stable the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere. 
- It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation,
ecosystem is because the environment is capable to
nitrification, denitrification, decay and putrefaction.
support the needs of each species. - Nitrogen gas is the most abundant element in the
atmosphere comprising of 78% and all the nitrogen
found in terrestrial ecosystems originate from the
Levels of Biodiversity atmosphere.
A. Species diversity - Most important nutrient cycle for plant life.
 The variety of different types of species found in - The harmonious coordination between different abiotic
a particular area. and biotic elements is revealed by this cycle.
 It is the biodiversity at the most basic level.
B. Biodiversity
 It includes all the species ranging from plants to
C. Fitness of Resources – non-renewable products must
different microorganisms.
be used prudently and wisely.
D. Stewardship – the responsible use and protection of
B. Genetic diversity
the natural environment through conservation and
 It refers to the variations among the genetic sustainable practices to enhance ecosystems.
resources of the organisms.
 One population of organism but with various Types of Stability
genetic composition. 1. Resistance - the ability of a population (or a
 Every individual of a particular species differs community) to withstand the disturbance
from each other in their genetic constitution. That 2. Resilience - the ability to recover after suffering from
is why every human looks different from each the disturbance.
other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the
same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.

C. Ecosystems Diversity
LESSON 5: POPULATION GROWTH & CARRYING
 Studies variations in the biological communities
CAPACITY
in which species live, exist, and interact.
 Different habitats of organisms
A group of organisms of the same
species living together in a
STABILITY Population particular area
 The capability of a natural ecosystem to apply self- Ecosystem All of the organisms in a
regulating mechanisms so as to return to a steady particular area, along with the
state after an outside disturbance.
 nonliving parts of the environment population from becoming too large.
with which they interact These limiting factors determine an ecosystem’s carrying
capacity, or maximum population size the environment can
The total number of individuals in support given all available resources.
a population As the population gets larger and approaches the environment’s
Affected by immigration, carrying capacity, resources become more scarce and the
emigration growth rate slows
Influences the chances of a The logistic growth model reflects the natural tension between
Population species surviving or going extinct. reproduction, which increases a population’s size, and resource
size availability, which limits a population’s size. 
Carrying capacities can change. An ecosystem’s carrying
The number of individuals in a capacity may fluctuate based on seasonal changes, or it may
Population population, per unit area change as a result of human activity or a natural disaster.
density Affected by population growth. For example, if a fire destroys many trees in a forest
Increase in the number of ecosystem, the forest's carrying capacity for tree-nesting birds
organisms in the population. will decrease.
Can result in over population.
Population Growth Population: Increase; Area: Same Getting Population
 Total Count
Population growth that  Quadrant Method
is unlimited by resource  Capture-Recapture Method
availability, which allows the
population growth rate to
Exponential Growth increase continuously over time
Population growth that LESSON 6: TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
is limited by resource availability,
causing the population growth Two Categories of Ecosystems
rate to slow as population size 1. Terrestrial Ecosystem – ecosystem found only on
Logistic Growth increases landforms (land-based).
A. Forests
A feature of an ecosystem that B. Desert
Limiting Factor restricts a population’s size C. Grassland
The maximum number of D. Tundra
organisms or populations an 2. Aquatic Ecosystem – ecosystem located in a body of
Carrying Capacity ecosystem can support water (water-based).
A. Ocean
How the individuals are B. Lakes
Population distributed or spread throughout C. Rivers
Distribution their habitat.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
A. Clumped – organisms are clustered
together in groups.
B. Random – organisms have an TROPICAL RAINFOREST ECOSYSTEM
unpredictable distribution. This is  An ecosystem that covers about 7% of the Earth’s
typical of species in which individuals surface.
don’t interact strongly.  It is responsible for the majority of the oxygen
C. Uniform – organisms are evenly production in the air that we breathe.
spaced over the area they occupy.  A natural woodland unit consisting of biotic
Typical in species in which individuals components (plants, animals, and microorganisms)
compete for a scarce environmental in that area functioning together with abiotic factors
resource (i.e., water in a desert). of the environment.
 Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the
earth and are the major carbon sink.
Limiting factors within every ecosystem, such as the availability  Forests occupy approximately one-third of Earth's
of food or the effects of predation and disease, prevent a land area, account for over two-thirds of the leaf
 area of land plants, and contain about 70% of environment.
carbon present in living things.
 Classified according to the climate type as tropical,
temperate, or boreal. Two Types of Rainforest
 Distribution: Tropical Forest occurs in the equatorial A. Temperate Forest – cool and mild
and sub-equatorial regions. B. Tropical Forest – hot and humid
 One of the major characteristics of tropical forests
is their distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and
only two seasons are present (rainy and dry). The
length of daylight is 12 hours and varies little.
 Precipitation: In tropical rainforests, rainfall is
relatively constant about 200-400cm annually. In
tropical dry forest, precipitation is highly seasonal
about 150-200cm annually with a six to seven
months dry season.
o They create almost 50% of its own Six Layers within a Forest
precipitation because of the dense trees that 1. Upper canopy
keep the moisture in. It can see anywhere 2. Low-tree layer
between 80-430 inches of rain throughout 3. Shrub under story
the year 4. Ground layer of herbaceous plants
 Temperature: High year-round averaging 25-29°C 5. Forest floor
with little seasonal variation. 6. Root layer
 Soil is nutrient-poor and acidic. Decomposition is
rapid and soils are subject to heavy leaching.
 Plants: Tropical forests are vertically layered and
competition for light is intense.
o Layer in rainforest include trees
that grow above a closed canopy,
layers of shrubs and herbs.
o There are generally 4 fewer layers
in tropical dry forests.
o Broadleaf evergreen trees are
dominant in tropical rainforests
whereas many tropical dry forest
trees drop their leaves during dry
season.
o Epiphytes such as bromeliads and
orchids generally cover tropical Emergent Layer – the highest level of the rainforest which
forest trees but are less abundant almost touch the sky. Gets the most sunlight, but also endures
in dry forests. high temperatures, low humidity, and strong winds.
o Thorny shrubs and succulents are Canopy Layer – found directly beneath the emergent layer.
Home to 90% of all animals found in rainforest. 2nd to get the
common in some tropical dry
sunlight and protected from the sun’s UV ray. Also retains
forest
moisture and creates a natural umbrella in the tropical rainy
season.
 Animals: Earth’s tropical forests are home to millions
The Canopy layer, aka the layer where the
of species including an estimated 5-30 million still
leaves and branches of dense trees interweave can be
undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other
composed of almost a 100ft of vegetation. This covering of
arthropods.
leaves is so thick that it leaves a lot of forest floor so dark that
o In fact, animal diversity is higher in
most plants can’t grow on the ground
tropical forests than in any other
terrestrial biomes.
Understory Layer – receives only 2-15% of the sunlight that falls
o The animals including amphibians,
on the canopy layer above. Because of this, it is a dark almost
birds, and other reptiles, impenetrable layer full of vines, shrubs, and small trees. This
mammals, and arthropods are layer creates natural camouflage for the animals that live there.
adapted to the vertically layered Forest Floor – only 2% of the sunlight makes it through the other
3 layers so it’s extremely dark year-round. The quality of soil is other salts build up in deserts when water
very poor so the floor is mostly a thin layer of fallen leaves, carrying these minerals evaporate.
seeds, fruits, and branches that decompose quickly due to the o High temperature during daytime and
warmth and moisture. persistent wind accelerate water
Note: Each layer receives a different amount of evaporation and transpiration in plants.
sunlight and rainfall, so different types of animals and plants are o High evapotranspiration and low rainfall are
found in each layer. the chief characteristic of desert
ecosystem, thus producing sparse
More diverse ecological communities tend to be more stable perennial vegetation of widely spaced
and resilient to change. This means a more diverse tropical shrubs.
rainforest is better able to respond to disturbances (i.e., o Desert regions also hold 75% of known oil
deforestation and climate change). reserve in the world.

 Distribution: Deserts occur in bands near 30 north

and south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of
Importance of Forest to the Environment continents (for instance, the Gobi Desert of north-
Forests form a third of all land on earth providing vital organic central Asia).
infrastructure for some of plant’s densest and most diverse  Precipitation: Precipitation is low and highly variable,
collections of life. generally less than 30cm per year.
Forest support countless species as well as 1.6 billion  Temperature: Temperature is variable seasonally and
human livelihoods. daily. Maximum air temperature in hot deserts may
Forest products are used in daily life. The fruits, exceed 50C; in cold deserts air temperature may fall
paper, and wood from trees go into daily below -30C.
manufacturing of goods. Forest by-products like  Plants: Deserts are dominated by low, widely
medicine, cosmetics, and detergents are also used scattered vegetation; the proportion of bare ground is
daily. high compared with other biomes.
Forests are very important in biodiversity and o The plants that are able to grow in the
livelihood for humans.
desert biome store water in their stem.
Forests provide habitat to diverse species.
Ex. Cacti – their spines protect
Forests offer water shed protection, provide timber
them from being eaten by animals
and non-timber products, and recreational venue.
and their waxy outer covering
Forest prevent soil erosion; help maintain the water
keeps moisture from escaping.
cycle and check global warming by using carbon
o The plants include succulents such as cacti
dioxide in photosynthesis.
or euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, and
herbs that grow during the infrequent moist
periods.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
o Desert plant adaptations include tolerance
 Interactions between organism, the climate in which
they live and any other non-living influences on the of heat and desiccation, water storage, and
habitat. chemical defenses, such as toxins in the
 These are regions with little rainfall and scarce leaves of shrubs, are common.
vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold. o Many of the plants exhibit C4 or CAM
 Desert are large, extremely dry area of land with photosynthesis.
sparse vegetation.  Animals: Common desert animals include snakes and
 It is one of the earth’s major types of ecosystems lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory and
supporting a community of distinctive plants and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents.
animals specially adapted to harsh environments. o Many species are nocturnal.
 Arid region which are generally associated with warm o Water conservation is a common adaptation,
temperatures, however cold deserts also exist. either store water in their bodies (through
 These areas are covered by sand, rock, snow, or ice. the heat that retains due to their body fat;
They do not have a lot of plant like covering the land. i.e., camel – stores all its body fat in its
 Desert ecosystems cover approximately 25-30% of hump) or get their water needs met by the
the land on earth. food they eat (obtained from breaking down
 The dry condition of deserts helps promote the carbohydrates in seeds).
formation and concentration of important minerals.
o Gypsum, borates, nitrates, potassium, and
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM with sufficient clean water, helps prevent flood, and
 Known as prairies and savannas. promotes the natural production of food crops and
 It covered 25% of the Earth. meat
 One of the major ecosystems of the world, covering - If grasslands are not protected and conserved, many
close to one-third of the earth’s terrestrial surface. years from now supply of meat products will adversely
 Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is be affected
dominated by grasses and other herbaceous
(nonwoody) plants.
 It is also called transitional landscape. Grassland in the Philippines have been traditionally
 Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except referred to as cogonal lands because cogon is the predominant
Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the species.
earth.
 Grasslands are perfect for cropping and pasturing It has been reduced from 11% of the total land area to 6%
because its soil runs deep and is extremely fertile. over the past few decades mainly due to conversion of this
 It is mainly created by processes related to climate, ecosystem into croplands.
fire, and wildlife grazing. Most grassland in the Philippines are the result of the
 Grasslands generally occur in areas where the climate destruction of forests. Some like the grassland on top of Mount
is hot and dry in summer and cool to cold in winter. Pulag in Mountain Province are natural formations.
 The parent material is often composed of fine
sediments and grasslands are often in valley or Location of Grasslands in the Philippines:
plateau landscapes. 1. Laguna de Bay (Gulod, Cabuyao)
 The organisms that live in them include plants and 2. Alfonso, Cavite
animals that have adapted to the dry climatic condition 3. Batangas
in a variety of ways. 4. Bulacan
 Humans can help the grassland by protecting and 5. La Union
restoring wetlands which are an important part of 6. Laguna Province
grassland ecology; rotate agricultural crops to prevent 7. Pangasinan
the sapping of nutrient; and plant trees as wind breaks 8. Rizal
to reduce erosion. 9. Tarlac

TUNDRA ECOSYSTEM
The Primary Function of Grassland:  Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found
(1) Provide forage for livestock in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are
(2) Protect and conserve soil and water resources. covered with snow for most of the year, but summer
(3) Furnish a habitat for livestock. brings bursts of wildflowers.
(4) Contribute to the attractiveness of the landscape.  Tundra is the coldest and driest of all terrestrial
ecosystems.
Key Characteristics of the Grassland Biome:  Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or
(1) Vegetation structure is dominated by grasses. mountain tops.
 Winters are extremely cold with temperatures typically
(2) Occur in semi-arid climate.
below -34 C. The summer last only about two months
(3) Rainfall and soil insufficient to support significant tree and the temperatures are still very cold ranging from
growth. #-12 C.
(4) Most common at mid-latitudes and near interior of  Few species of plants and animals that live in
continents. harsh conditions of tundra are highly vulnerable to
(5) Often exploited for agricultural use environmental stresses like reduced snow cover
and warmer temperatures brought on by global
warming.
Importance of Grasslands:  The largest animal the lives in the tundra
Grasslands are the key life source to sustainability ecosystem is the polar bear.
and are essential in sustaining soil health.
Grasslands are important to maintain the crop of many
domesticated and wild herbivores such as horse,
mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, Characteristics of tundra include:
and many more.
 Extremely cold climate.
Having a wealth of grasslands provide the ecosystem
  Low biotic diversity. low temperatures and low light
 Simple vegetation structure. intensities.
 The growing seasons are short and
 Limitation of drainage. most plants reproduce by budding and
 Short season of growth and reproduction. division rather than sexually by
 Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic flowering.
material.  Animals: wolves, polar bears, moths,
grasshoppers, cod, and salmon.
- The two major nutrients are nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Animals are adapted to handle long,
Nitrogen is created by biological fixation, and phosphorus is
created by precipitation.
cold winters and to breed and raise
young quickly in the summer.
 Large population oscillations.  Animals such as mammals and birds
also have additional insulation from fat.
 Many animals hibernate during the
Two Types winter because food is not abundant.
A. Arctic tundra  Another alternative is to migrate south
 Located in the northern hemisphere, in the winter, like birds do.
encircling the north pole and extending  Reptiles and amphibians are few or
south to the coniferous forests of the taiga.  absent because of the extremely cold
 The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like temperatures.
conditions.
 The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 B. Alpine Tundra
days.  Alpine tundra is located on mountains
 The average winter temperature is -34° C (- throughout the world at high altitude where
30° F). trees cannot grow.
 The average summer temperature is 3-12°  The area high in the mountains above trees.
C (37-54° F) which enables this biome to  The growing season is approximately 180
sustain life.  days.
 Yearly precipitation, including melting snow,  The nighttime temperature is usually below
is 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). freezing.
 Soil is formed slowly.  Unlike the arctic tundra, the soil in the alpine
 A layer of permanently frozen subsoil is well drained. 
called permafrost exists, consisting mostly  Plants: Tussock grasses, Dwarf trees,
of gravel and finer material. Small-leafed shrubs, and Heaths
 When water saturates the upper surface,  Animals: Mountain Goats, Sheep, Elk,
bogs and ponds may form, providing beetles, Butterflies, Grasshoppers
moisture for plants.
 There are no deep root systems in the
vegetation of the arctic tundra, however,
there are still a wide variety of plants that Climate Change Impact on Tundras
are able to resist the cold climate. Animals that are typically found farther south, like the
 There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), are moving north onto the
arctic and subarctic, and these include: tundra. Thus, the red fox is now competing with the
o low shrubs, sedges, reindeer Arctic fox for food and territory.
mosses, liverworts, and grasses Shrubs are getting taller, contributing to declines in the
o 400 varieties of flowers sensitive groups of lichen that caribou and other
o crustose and foliose lichen species depend on for food.
Lakes and ponds are evaporating or draining away.
 All of the plants are adapted to The Arctic's permafrost, the literal foundation for much
sweeping winds and disturbances of of the region's unique ecosystem, is deteriorating with
the soil. the warmer global climate. 
 Permafrost is a layer of frozen soil and dead plants that
 Plants are short and group together to
extends some 450 meters (1,476 feet) below the
resist the cold temperatures and are surface. In much of the Arctic, it is frozen year-round.
protected by the snow during the  In the southern regions of the Arctic, the surface layer
winter. above the permafrost melts during the summer, and
this forms bogs and shallow lakes that invite an
 They can carry out photosynthesis at
 explosion of animal life.   Habitats associated with estuaries, such as salt
 With global warming, the fall freeze comes later—in
marshes and mangrove forests act like enormous
some places recently, not at all—and more of
the permafrost is melting in the southern Arctic. filters.
 The melting of the permafrost is contributing to global  Estuaries are very productive ecosystems because
warming.  they constantly receive fresh nutrients from the river.
 Until recently, the tundra acted as
a carbon sink, capturing huge amounts  They are important natural places because they
of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere provide goods and services that economically
as part of photosynthesis – which
helped keep the amount of
indispensable.
this greenhouse gas from accumulating  Physical Environment: An estuary is a transition area
in the atmosphere. between river and sea.
Today, however, as o Seawater flows up the estuary channel
the permafrost melts and dead plant during a rising tide and flows back down
material decomposes and
releases greenhouse gases, during the falling tide.
the tundra has flipped from a carbon
sink to a carbon contributor. That
means not only is the planet less o Often, higher-density seawater occupies the
capable of preventing greenhouse bottom of the channel and mixes little with
gases from accumulating, but
the tundra is also contributing to their the lower-density river water at the surface.
buildup.
 Chemical Environment: Salinity varies spatially within
estuaries, from nearly that of freshwater to that of
seawater. Salinity also varies with the rise and fall of
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM the tides. Nutrients from the river make estuaries, like
wetlands, among the most productive biomes.
 Geologic Features: Estuarine flow patterns combined
ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
with the sediments carried by river and tidal waters
 Estuaries or transitional waters represent the
create a complex network of tidal channels, islands,
transition between freshwater and marine
natural levees, and mudflats.
environments and are influenced by both aquatic
 Photosynthetic Organisms: Saltmarsh grasses and
realms.
algae, including phytoplankton, are the major
 An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water and its
procedures in estuaries.
surrounding coastal habitats where saltwater from the
 Heterotrophs: Estuaries support an abundance of
ocean typically mixes with freshwater from rivers or
worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish species that
streams
humans consume. Many marine invertebrates and
 Salinity level are indicative of the position within the
fishes use estuaries as a breeding ground or migrate
mixing zones of an estuary.
through them to freshwater habitats upstream.
 The upper limit of an estuary is referred to as its head
Estuaries are also crucial feeding areas for waterfowl
while the lower limit is called the mouth of the estuary.
and some marine mammals.
 They are classified by the geology that defines them
 Human Impact: Filling, dredging, and pollution from
or the way in which water circulates throughout them.
upstream have disrupted estuaries worldwide.
 Estuaries are made up of many different habitats
which include oyster reefs, coral reefs, rocky shores,
submerged vegetation marshes, and mangroves.
Ecosystems Services of Estuarine
 There are also different animals that live in each of
Estuaries support diverse and abundant ecological
these habitats like shellfishes, birds, oysters, mud
communities of plants and animals and provide
crabs, clams, and many kinds of fishes.
important habitats for many fishes, birds, and shellfish.
 Estuaries are subject to both to marine influence such
It also provides a range of valuable ecosystem
as tides and waves and influx of saline water and to
services for humans such as food provision, water
riverine influences such as flow of freshwater and
filtration, nutrient regulation, and storm protection.
sediment.
Estuaries can also remove toxins from the
o The mixing of seawater and freshwater
environment.
provides high levels of nutrients both in - The filtered water brings nutrients from the watershed
water column and in sediments making and also many other pollutants.
estuaries the most productive habitats in the
- Estuaries and their surrounding wetlands filter out
world.
pollutants such as herbicides, pesticides, heavy
 Two ecosystem services that estuaries provide are
metals, and excess nutrients and sediments.
water filtration and habitat protection.
 must have atmospheric gases, turbidity, longitudinal
temperature gradation, and materials dissolved in it.
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM - Ex. Rivers and streams, creeks, brooks, and springs.
 Covers only 0.8% of the Earth’s surface and contain
0.009% of its total water. Impact of Humans on Freshwater Ecosystem
 The habitats that freshwater ecosystems provide Water Overuse
consist of lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands, streams, and - Reducing the amount of water in lakes and other
springs. reservoirs puts pressure on aquatic populations,
 They provide critical habitats for a large number of reducing the amount of living space available, and in
aquatic plants, fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. some cases, it dries up streams and ponds.
 They host many migratory and threatened species like Destructive land use practices that result in vegetation
birds and fishes. loss anywhere within the drainage brain of a river can
 The plants, animals, microbes, rocks, soil, sunlight, have negative impact on freshwater ecosystems.
and water found in and around this valuable resource Runoff from agricultural and urban areas hurts water
are all part of the freshwater ecosystem. quality.
 The organisms in these waters have suckers and Draining of wetlands for development depletes
hooks that help them stick to the waterbed, rocks, or habitats.
plants. Some of them have a streamlined body that Overexploitation and pollution threaten groundwater
help them swim against water currents. Some species supplies.
attach to the substratum.
 Freshwater ecosystems, especially vegetated
wetlands, play an important role in mitigation against
climate variability.
o They do so through a number of ecosystem
functions including flood control, water MARINE (OCEAN) ECOSYSTEMS
purification, shoreline stabilization, and  The largest of earth’s aquatic ecosystems and are
sequestration of carbon dioxide. distinguished by waters that have a high salt content.
 Freshwater accounts for only 3% of the world’s water, o 71% of the Earth’s surface and containing
the rest is saltwater. 97% of the planet’s water.
o The rest is locked away as ice in polar ice  These systems contrast with freshwater which have a
caps and glaciers thus, freshwater is lower salt content.
precious resource.  It includes marshes, tidal zone, estuaries, mangrove
forest, lagoons, sea grass beds, the sea floor, and the
A typical lake has three distinct zones: coral reefs (largest of all marine ecosystems).
(1) Littoral - the near shore area where sunlight  Ocean ecosystems are divided into four zones:
penetrates all the way to the sediments. intertidal, pelagic, benthic, and abyssal.
(2) Limnetic – next to the littoral.  Most ocean life can be found in coastal habitats on the
(3) Profundal zone – deepest part continental shelf, even if this area occupies only 7% of
the total ocean area.
 Most of the open ocean habitats are found in the deep
Two Main Types of Freshwaters ocean.
(1) Static (lentic) water – those whose water is still and  The ocean supports a diverse life system starting from
are made up of ponds, marshes, ditches, lakes, and creatures that float or swim such as algae, plankton,
swamps. jellyfish, and whales.
- These ecosystems range in size from very small  Many living forms inhabit the upper layer where sun’s
ponds that may be temporary to large lakes. rays penetrate.
 Marine life not only exist in the open ocean waters, but
- The consumer species found in lentic habitats include
on its floor as well.
worms, snails, amphibians, crustaceans, insects,
o Species that live in this ecosystem include
reptiles, and bird.
- Ex. Lakes and ponds, swamps, marshes, and vernal certain types of fish, crustaceans, clams,
oysters, worms, urchins, seaweed, and
pools.
smaller organism.
 At greater depths, sunlight cannot penetrate to the
(2) Flowing (lotic) water - any kinds of moving water such bottom.
as creek, brook, rivers, spring, or stream.
o Organism inhabiting this deep water rely on
- The water in a lotic ecosystem from source to mouth
the sinking of organic matter above for
 survival.

Importance of Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are important for society since
they provide services including food security, feed for
livestock, raw materials for medicine, building
materials from coral rock and sand, and natural
defenses against hazards such as coastal erosion and
inundation.
Marine ecosystem also provides other important
services associated with their regulatory and habitat
function such as pollution control, storm protections,
flood control, habitat for species, and shoreline
stabilization.

Biotic Components of Marine Ecosystem

Most ocean life can be found in coastal habitats on the
continental shelf, even if this area occupies only 7% of the total
ocean area.
Most of the open ocean habitats are found in the deep
ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf.
The Pacific Ocean has the most marine life.

A. Animals of the Marine Biome

1. Fish – sharks, swordfish, tuna, clownfish, stingray, flatfish,
eels, rockfish, seahorse, sunfish mola, and gurs.
2. Marine mammals – blue whale, seal, dolphins, manatees, and
otters.
3. Mollusks – octopus, cuttlefish, clams, conch, squids, oysters,
slugs, and snails.
4. Jellyfishes
5. Reptiles

B.Plants in the Ocean

Phytoplankton - Serve as the major primary producers
in the marine ecosystem.
These microscopic single-celled plants, bacteria, algae, and
other organisms harvest sunlight through photosynthesis and
store it as chemical energy.
Kelps - are also major producers in the ocean. It
grows abundantly and can be found throughout the ocean. They
stay anchored in the ocean floor with a structure call holdfast.
Air filled sacs buoy the kelp up towards ocean surface where the
leaf blades collect sunlight for photosynthesis. Kelp provide food
and shelter for a variety of ocean creatures such as sea turtles,
crabs, and fishes