Uscp Q1 Slide

MODULE OF INSTRUCTION
Week 1
We can say that the study of human beings can be the study of a
lifetime. Great thinkers have spent years getting some answers to
questions about human behavior. Today, there are many fields and
sub-fields of study that engage in trying to understand humankind.
In this lesson, we will discuss the nature and beginnings of sociology
and anthropology.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social
differences, social change and political identities
2. Recognize the common concerns or intersections of
anthropology, sociology and political science with respect to
the phenomenon of change.
3. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology and
sociology
Definitions of Sociology and Anthropology
Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure,
function and direction.”
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Anthropology “is a social science that is concerned with human culture
as well as the physical and social characteristics that create that
culture. Often it will compare one group of humans to another or even
compare humans with animals.”
History of Sociology and Anthropology
In Anthropology, the behavior of others had been observed and
recorded by men since the birth of civilization. Examples of these
great men who did the observations and recordings are Herodotus and
Tacitus. However, it was only in the 18th century that a codified study
of cultures began. The study of culture of other people has been done
by Westerners that brought forth to the racist theories about the overall
advancement of different groups.
Sociology has been practiced by the Greeks also, when they studied
their surrounding society. It was in the 19th century when sociology
was recognized as an academic discipline and became a part of the
university curriculum.
The word Sociology was taken from two foreign words:
 Socius, a Latin term which means companion or associate
 Logos, a Greek term for study
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Nature of Sociology
The nature of sociology is identified by the following characteristics as
enlisted by Robert Bierstadt in his book “Social Order.”
1. Sociology is a social science not a physical science. It
concentrates on man, his social behavior, social activities and
social life.
2. Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline. As a
categorical discipline, it is a body of knowledge about human
society, and not a system of ideas and values.
3. It is a pure science. It aims to provide knowledge about human
society, not the utilization of that knowledge
4. Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or
individualizing science. Sociology tries to find out general laws
or principles about human interaction and association, about
the nature, form, content and structure of human groups and
societies.
5. Sociology is a general science not a special science. It is
concerned with human interaction and human life in general. It
only studies human activities in a general way.
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6. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science. There are
two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge.
Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the
facts that result from observation and experimentation.
Rationalism is a stressed reason and the theories that result
from logical inference.
Nature of Anthropology
1. Anthropology is the study of humankind in all times and
places.
2. It involves the careful and systematic study of humankind
using facts, hypothesis, and theories.
3. It is concerned with other culture’s languages, values, and
achievements in the arts and literature.
4. Anthropology is committed to experiencing other cultures.
Focus of Anthropology and Sociology
 Anthropology “is interested in the overall culture of a group of
people. This includes social institutions, art, history, mythology, and
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common mores, among other traits. Anthropologies now study
societies all over the world, but look for overarching themes that are
reinforced through case studies. It also includes archeology, and due to
a great amount of substantive speculation is thought to be a softer
science than sociology.”
 Sociology “is a quantitative social science. Most theories are based
on polls, statistical analysis, sampling, and large collections of life
histories. Sociologists strive to be as impartial and scientific as
possible as they gather data. The data analyzed by sociologists is often
used by government officials and market researchers alike.”
Summary:
1. Anthropology and sociology are both fields of social science
that study the behavior of humans within their societies.
2. Traditionally anthropology dealt with the study of cultures of
other people, while sociology was used to understand own
society.
3. Today, anthropology tends to look at the big picture of human
culture while sociology spends more time analyzing data from
a specific study.
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Anthropology is considered to be a softer science than sociology as its
conclusions are based on case studies than hard data.
Introduction to Sociology
Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life.
Sociologists study people as they form groups and interact with one
another. The groups they study may be small, such as married couples,
or large, such as a subculture of suburban teenagers. Sociology places
special emphasis on studying societies, both as individual entities and
as elements of a global perspective.
Sociology as a Social Science
Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure,
function and direction.” It studies the influence that society has on
people’s attitudes and behavior. It also seeks to understand the ways in
which people interact and shape society.
The Origins of Sociology
Sociology is a relatively young science, beginning in late nineteenth-
century Europe during a time of great social upheaval. Intellectuals
such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Emile Durkheim, and
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others began to explore ideas for regaining a sense of community and
restoring order. After World War II, however, the greatest
development of sociology has taken place in the United States. Two
early contributors were activists Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois,
who helped focus people's attention on social issues.
Pioneers in the Study of Sociology
The early scholars who contributed significantly for the development
of Sociology as a young science are listed below:
Auguste Comte (1778 - 1857)
- He was born after the French revolution of 1789
- He proposed the Philosophical position of Positivism. He
theorized that the methods of physical science are regarded as
the accurate means of obtaining knowledge and therefore,
social science should adhere to the same.
- He developed the idea and coined the term “sociology”
- He was the founder of Sociology.
Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876)
- She translated Comte’s work in English
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- She spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the
emancipation of the slaves, and religious tolerance.
- Her book, “Society in America” examines religion, politics,
child rearing, and immigration in the young nation.
- She emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and
population could have on the social problems of contemporary
society.
- She said that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer
observations of social conditions, but they should act upon
their conditions in a manner that will benefit society.
Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
- He is considered as one of the thinkers of the modern times
- He was a native German and later exiled in England
- He said that the sociologist’s task is to explain conflict
- That conflict is shaped by the means of production
- He said that industrialization resulted in two classes: owners
and laborers
Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903)
- He grew up in England
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- He proposed that there is the parallelism between how society
evolves in the same manner as animal species do
- This principle is attributed to “Darwin’s Theory of Evolution”
- Through Spencer’s theory, it could be further said that, man as
a member of society is in a never ending competition and the
name of the game is to win.
Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917)
- He was the only person who studied the discipline in the school
of higher learning thoroughly
- He provided insights into the social forces that contributed to
the rise of the global village
- He proposed four types of suicide, based on the degrees of
imbalance of two social forces: social integration and moral
regulation
- He concluded that suicide is not an ordinary phenomenon
Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
- He focused on how industrial revolution changed thoughts and
action and how it brought about a process called rationalization
- Rationalization refers to the way daily life is organized so as to
accommodate large groups of people.
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Other sociologists:
Albion Small
- founder of the department of sociology at the University of
Chicago
- he established the American Journal of Sociology
W.E.B Du Bois
- a black American who conducted research on race relations in
the U.S.
Wright Mills
- urged sociologists to get back to social reform
Robert K. Merton
- he stressed that sociologists need to develop middle-range
theories as explanations of human behavior that go beyond the
particular observation or research but avoid sweeping
generalizations that attempt to account for everything
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The Development of Sociology in the Philippines
Serfin M. Macaraig
- the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in Sociology and
published a book entitled “An Introduction to Sociology” in
1938.
Fr. Valentin Marin
- he introduced Sociology in the Philippines with the opening of
criminology program at University of Santo Tomas in 1950
Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivers
- among the first teachers of sociology in the Philippines
In 1952, Filipino pioneers in Sociology organized the Philippine
Sociological Society which main trust is to collect, interpret and
proposed possible solutions to different Philippine sociological
phenomena.
In 1957, the Community Development Research Council was created
to conduct and support social science researchers.
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In 1960, Fr. Frank Lynch, SJ, founded the Institute of the Philippines
Culture at the Ateneo de Manila University
In 1972, Xavier University was given credit as the first school, which
opens a program in PhD in sociology.
It was the University of the Philippines that offered a bachelor degree
in sociology.
Three Major Perspectives in Sociology
Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from
different perspectives. Sociologists today employ three primary
theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the
functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. These
perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining
how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective
uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior.
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Sociological Perspectives
Sociological Perspective Level of Focus
Analysis
1. Symbolic Micro Use of symbols; Face-
Interactionism (small to-face Interactions
social
patterns)
2. Functionalism Macro Relationship between
(large the parts of society;
patterns) How aspects of society
are functional
(adaptive)
3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce
resources; How the elite
control the poor and
weak.
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Symbolic Interaction
The founding father is Mead (1863-1931), an American philosopher.
The theoretical perspective supports that:
 People attach meaning to symbols, then they act according to
the subject interpretations
 Individual, social groups meaning to experience of life: we
negotiate meaning
 Meanings can change or be modified through interaction and
through time.
Structure Functionalism
Two words can give an idea of this approach: structure and function.
The founding fathers of this perspective are Comte, Spencer and
Durkheim.
This theoretical perspective says that society is stable, ordered system
of interrelated part of the structures. Each structure has a function that
contributes to the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole.
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 Structures are explained as social institutions like the family,
the educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems,
and the economy
 Structures meet the need of society by performing different
functions:
 What would be the functions of above mentioned social
institutions? (in terms of manifest* vs. latent** functions,
Robert Merton, b. 1910)
 Dysfunction: a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of
some aspect of the social system
 Harmony & stability
 Manifest : the obvious intended functions of a social
institution (or social system)
 Latent: the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a
social structure
Cultural Theory
The founding father is Karl Marx.
The principles embodied in this theory are:
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 A materialistic view of society (focused on labor practices and
economic reality, we play by the rules (roles and functions) of
these social systems
 Unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda
causing them to compete against one another.
 This constant competition between groups forms the basis of
the ever changing nature of society.
Sociological Imagination
Sociological imagination is a new concept to social sciences
introduced by C. Wright Mills in 1959 in his book titled ‘Sociological
Imagination’. This coined phrase is used throughout sociology today.
This ‘sociological imagination’ is the concept of being able to “think
ourselves away” from the familiar routines of our daily lives in order
to look at them anew. Mills defined sociological imagination as “the
vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and wider
society.” It is the ability to see things socially and how they interact
and influence each other. To have a sociological imagination, a person
must be able to pull away from the situation and think from an
alternative point of view. It is also the willingness to view the social
world from the perspective of others. It involves moving away from
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thinking in terms of you and your problems (private issues), but
focusing rather on the social circumstances that produce social
problems (public issues).
In short, sociological imagination is all about determining the
relationship between your ordinary lives and the wider social forces. It
is turning your private troubles into ‘public issues”.
Example of Sociological Imagination
We will see a common example. Suppose, there is a boy who is unable
to find employment and he is worried about a loan that he needs to pay
back. He tries very hard to get a job, but he fails. Now, he joins a
group and engages in illegal and criminal activities. If you analyze this
case individually, then you may say that this boy did not try hard
enough to get a job and resorted to illegal activities to gain easy
money.
We analyze the issue:
Issue – Unemployment
Private Trouble – When one person is unemployed that is a private
trouble
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Public Issue – When 5 million people are unemployed, that is a public
issue
If you see this case in the social imagination perspective, then you
would see that the larger forces such as economic meltdown,
unemployment, the lack of regulation in the subprime mortgage
industry, etc., had a direct impact on the life of this guy. We could
have blamed the personal character of the individual if very few guys
went through the similar situation. But when there is a significant
number of youth facing the same problem, then it becomes a social or
public problem where government policies about employment and
banking needs to be looked at.
In the above example, you can analyze the problem by tracing the root
cause of the problem in society and find how this particular issue
developed. It is clear from the example of sociological imagination
that this concept tries to study how large social forces influence
individual behavior and actions of people living in that society.
So, the next time you are confronted with a personal problem or
situation, you know how to connect it to the wider social happenings.
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This process would help you find out long-term, permanent solutions
to some of the grave individual problems.
References
Acton, Ashton Q. (2014. Issues in international sociology and social

work research and application. USA: Scholarly EditionsPrint
Difference Between Anthropology and Sociology.

www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/...anthropology-and-
sociology. Web. 06 June 2015.
Ferrante, J. (2014). Sociology a Global Perspective. 9th edition. USA:

Cengage Learning. Print
Mauss, M. (2005). The Nature of Sociology Berghahn Series.USA:

Durkheim Press. Print
Acton, Ashton Q. (2014. Issues in international sociology and social

work research and application. USA: Scholarly Editions.Print
Difference Between Anthropology and Sociology.

sociology. Web. 06 June 2015.

Cengage Learning. Print

Sociology/Anthropology.
www.stolaf.edu/catalog/9697/socanthro.html. Web. 06 June 2015.
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Week 1
Learning Outcomes
 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social
differences, social change and political identities
 Recognize the common concerns or intersections of
anthropology, sociology and political science with respect to
the phenomenon of change.
 Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology and
sociology
Sociology
 Scientific study of human society, it‟s origin, structure, function, and
direction
 The word Sociology was taken from two foreign words:
 Socius a Latin term which means companion or

associate
 Logos a Greek term for study
Characteristics of Sociology
 Sociology is a social science not a physical science.
It concentrates on man, his social behavior,
social activities and social life
 Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline.

As a categorical discipline, it is a body of knowledge about human society, and
not a system of ideas and values.
 It is a pure science.
It aims to provide knowledge about human society, not the utilization of
that knowledge
 Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or

individualizing science.
Sociology tries to find out general laws or principles about human
interaction and association about the nature, form, content and structure
of human groups and societies
 Sociology is a general science not a special science.
It is concerned with human interaction and human life in general.
It only studies human activities in a general way.
 Sociology is both rational and an empirical science.
There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge:
Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts

that result from observation and experimentation.
Rationalism is a stressed reason and the theories that result from logical
inference.
Focus of Sociology
 Is a quantitative social science.
 Most theories are based on polls, statistical analysis, sampling, and
large collections of life histories. Sociologists strive to be as impartial
and scientific as possible as they gather data.
 The data analyzed by sociologists is often used by government
officials and market researchers alike.
What is Anthropology?
Anthropology
Anthropology is the broad study of humankind in all times and all
places.
It involves the careful and systematic study of humankind using:
facts, hypothesis, and theories.
It is concerned with other culture’s languages, values, and

achievements in the arts and literature.
Anthropology is committed to experiencing other cultures

Focus of Anthropology
 is interested in the overall culture of a group of people such as social
institutions, art, history, mythology, and common mores, among other
traits.
 Anthropologies now study societies all over the world, but look for
overarching themes that are reinforced through case studies.
Focus of Anthropology
 It also includes archeology, and due to a great amount of substantive
speculation is thought to be a softer science than sociology.
Anthropology
Anthropologists are interested in all human beings – whether living or
dead.
No place or time is too remote to escape the notice of
anthropologists.
No dimension of humankind from skin color to dress customs falls
outside the anthropologist‟s interest.
In summary:
 Anthropology and sociology are both fields of social science that study
the behavior of humans within their societies
 Traditionally, anthropology dealt with the study of cultures of other
people, while sociology was used to understand own society
 Today, anthropology tends to look at the big picture of human
culture while sociology spends more time analyzing data from a
specific study
 Anthropology is considered to be a softer science than sociology as
its conclusions are based on case studies than hard data.
Introducing
Sociology
Introduction to Sociology
(Learning Outcomes)
 Give a brief introduction Sociology as a social science discipline
 Explain fundamental sociological theories (sociological paradigms)
 Illustrate sociological imagination
Sociology
 Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure,
function and direction.”
Foundation
of Sociology
Sociology emerged about the middle of
.
19th century, when social observers began
to use scientific methods to explain
social phenomena.
AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
• Born after the French revolution of 1789
• He proposed the philosophical position of Positivism
• He theorized that the methods of physical science are regarded as the
accurate means of obtaining knowledge and therefore, social science should
adhere to the same.
• He developed the idea and coined the term “Sociology”
• He was the founder of Sociology
Pioneers in the Study of Sociology
The early scholars who contributed significantly for the development of sociology
HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876)
• She translate the book of Comte’s work by English
• She spoke out in favour of the rights of women. The emancipation of the
slaves and religious tolerance
• She said that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations
of social conditions, but should act upon their convictions that will benefit
society
KARL MARX (1818-1883)
• He is considered as one of the thinkers of the modern times
• He was a native German and later exiled in England
• He said that a sociologist’s task is to explain conflict, that conflict is shaped
by the means of production
• He also said that industrial revolution resulted in two classes: owners and
laborers
HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)
• Spencer grew up in England.
• He proposed that there is parallelism between how society evolves in the
same manner as the animal species do
• He said that man as a member of society is in a never ending competition
and should win
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
• He was the only one who studied thoroughly the discipline in the school of
higher learning.
• He provided insights into the social forces that contributed to the rise of the
global village
• He proposed four types of suicide, based on the degrees of imbalance of two
social forces: social integration and moral regulation
• He concluded that suicide is not an ordinary phenomenon
MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
• He focused on how industrial revolution changed thoughts and action and
how it brought about a process called rationalization
• Rationalization refers to the way daily life is organized so as to accommodate
large groups of people.
The Sociological Perspective
• Sociological Perspective
enables you to gain a new
vision of social life.
• It provides a different way of

looking at life, and provides
an understanding of why
people are the way they are.
SEEING THE BROADER SOCIAL
CONTEXT
a. The social location of people—their culture, social class, gender, religion, age
and education
b. The relationship of one group to another.
c. The external influences (people’s experiences) that are internalized and have
become part of ones thinking and motivations.
Modern school of thoughts:
paradigms
These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for
explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each
perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and
human behavior.
None of them on their own can give an entire explanation of a whole
social phenomena. Each one gives its specific answers.
These are:
 Structural Functionalism
 Conflict theory
 Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism
 Focus: Use of symbols; face-to-face interactions
 Most influential
 Founding father: Mead (1863-1931), an American philosopher
Tenets:
1. People attach meanings to symbols, then they act according to the
subjective interpretation of these symbols
2. Individual, social groups meaning to experience life: we negotiate
meaning
3. Meanings can change or be modified through interaction and through
time
Structural Functionalism (1)
 Focus: Relationship between the parts of society; how aspects of

society are functional or adaptive
 The 2 words can give an idea of this approach: structure and function
 Founding fathers: Comte, Spencer and Durkheim
Tenets:
 Society is a stable, ordered system of interrelated parts of the structures
 Each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability
or equilibrium of the whole
Structural Functionalism
(2)
Structures are explained as social institutions like the family, the
educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems, and the
economy
 Structures meet the needs of society by performing different
functions:
 What would be the functions of above mentioned social institutions? (in

terms of manifest* vs. latent** functions, Robert Merton, b. 1910)
 Dysfunction: a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect
of the social system
 Harmony & stability
Structural Functionalism
*Manifest: the obvious intended functions of a social institution (or
social system)
** Latent: the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social
structure
Conflict theory
 Theory focuses on dominance, competition and social change
 Competition for scarce resources; how the elite control the poor and
the weak
 Founding father: Marx
Tenets:
1. A materialistic view of society focused on labor practices and
economic reality, we play by the rules (roles and functions) of these
social systems
2. Unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda, causing
them to compete against one another
3. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the
ever‐changing nature of society
Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills (1916-1962).

He introduced ‘sociological imagination’
The Sociological Imagination
The Sociological Imagination is
stimulated by a willingness to view
the social world from the
perspective of others.
It involves moving away from

thinking in terms of the individual
and their problems, focusing
rather on the social circumstances
that produce social problems.
Private Issues & Public Issues
We tend to experience whatever happens in our own lives as unique and
private, and also to interpret what happens to other people as unique
and private to them.
These are seen as „private troubles‟.
The discipline of Sociology encourages you to look for the social

processes and structures that give a generalised pattern to those private
troubles and thus turn them into „public issues‟.
Example – Unemployment
Private Trouble Public Issue
When 1 person is unemployed, that is a When 3 million people are
„Private Trouble‟. unemployed, that is a „Public Issue‟.
Example – Fertility
Private Trouble Public Issue
When 1 couple never has a baby, When increasing numbers of
that is a ‘private trouble’. couples never have a baby, that is
a ‘public issue’ referred to as the
„declining fertility rate‟.
The Thinking of The Sociological Imagination
Seldom are aware of the intricate connection between the patterns of

their own lives and the course of world history. Ordinary men do not
usually know what this connection means for the kind of men they are
becoming and for the kinds of history making in which they might take
part.
What they need is a quality of mind that will help them see what is
going on in the world and what may be happening within themselves.
It is this quality that may be called the ‘Sociological Imagination’.
Week 2
People of the same society share aspects of their culture, such as
language or beliefs.
In this lesson, we will discuss culture, which refers to our language,
values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that constitute our way
of life. Culture is a defining element of society.
1. Articulate observations on human cultural variation,
social differences, social change, and political identities
2. Demonstrate curiosity and an openness to explore the
origins and dynamics of culture and society, and political
identities.
Definition of Culture
Culture is everything that is made, learned, or shared by the members
of a society, including values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects.
Two parts of Culture
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1. Material culture is the visible part. It may be the food we eat,
your cars, your houses or anything that members of society
make, use and share.
2. Non-material culture is intangible but this influences our
behavior like our language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior,
family patterns and political system
Five Components of Culture
1. Technology is one component that makes our life easier. We
can have volume production of goods that can be used by us
through this component.
2. Symbols are cultural representations of reality. They give
meanings to events and things like a statue, handshake, college
ring, flag etc.
3. Language is the most powerful of all human symbols as it
allows us to communicate with one another. It also conveys our
beliefs and culture.
4. Values are ideas. They determine our character. They are the
standards by which we assess goodness, acceptability, beauty
or desirability.
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5. The fifth component is norm. Norm is a rule that guides our
behavior. It gives concrete terms how we should behave – what
we should do and what we should not do.
Classification of Norms:
1. Mores distinguish right from wrong
2. Folkways distinguish between right and rude. They are
referred as customs. They are measurements of behavior
but not approved by society.
3. Laws are written rules of conduct enacted and enforced by
government
4. Taboo is an activity that is forbidden or sacred based on
religious beliefs or morals. Breaking a taboo is extremely
objectionable in society as a whole. Around the world, an
act may be taboo in one culture and not in another.
Examples are:
1. Mores laws: child abuse, rape, carnapping, etc.
2. Folkway laws: jaywalking, counterflowing, etc.
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3. Law: Driving while drunk, theft, murder, and trespassing are
all examples of laws. If violated, the person violating the law
could get reprimanded, pay a fine, or go to jail.
4. Taboos: abortion, addiction, cannibalism, offensive language,
slavery, etc.
Difference between Culture and Society
Society – consists of people who interact to share a common culture
Culture – consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects and other
characteristics common to a particular group or society.
Where did culture originate? Biological or Societal? Nature or
nurture?
Nature refers to your innate qualities or nativism while nurture is your
personal experiences. Nature is your genes, the physical and
personality traits determined by your genes which stays with you
wherever you were born or raised.
Nurture refers to your childhood, or how you were brought up.
Nature is built from your biological and family factors while nurture
from your societal or environmental factor.
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Cultural Change
We can say that culture is learned – from our families, peers,
institutions and media. As we absorb other’s culture, we change ours.
It is shared as we share it with our group members.
It is based on symbols because these symbols give meaning to people
either to agree or not on their use.
Culture is integrated because if we learn culture, we should be ready to
relate all of the aspects, not only a part or a few.
It is also dynamic because of interaction and change. These changes
may be in the form of discoveries, inventions or cultural borrowings.
However, cultural diversity is also present in society. Because of the
existence of multiple cultures, it creates differences within the society.
Sub-cultures
You must also be informed about subcultures. Subcultures exist in
small cultural groups but differ in some way. Examples of subcultures
include: “heavy metal” music devotees, tattoo enthusiasts, gangs,
skinheads, etc.
Manual Title 5
When you oppose to the norms and values of a dominant culture, you
possess a counterculture. Examples of this are: protest groups, hippies,
etc.
When your culture is dominant, and it absorbs subcultural and
countercultural groups, the process is called assimilation.
If culture respects cultural variations, we call this multiculturalism.
To end this session, we add ethnocentrism which involves judging
other cultures against the standards of one’s culture; and cultural
relativism which says that a culture should be sociologically evaluated
according to its standards, and not those of any other culture.
This lesson might have presented you with important concepts to
improve your behavior and ways of dealing with other people like
your parents, siblings, peers and play groups.
Social Groups and Organization
This lesson deals with how man needs other members of society to
survive and to enjoy life. The issue here is how to organize ourselves
to for alliance into groups and organizations.
Manual Title 6
Classification of People
“No man is an island” goes the saying. Man can not thrive without the
presence of other men. There is a natural tendency for man to live
with others in a group, to look for a companion or group of
companions in order to fulfill the need to belong and to experience
some form of comfort.
People are usually classified based on the group he or she is an
aggregate of. This group may be something he consciously chose for
himself or something he was born into.
GROUP
A group serves many functions like giving an individual a sense of
identity as well as emotional intimacy.
It consists of two or more people who are distinct in the following
three ways:
a. Interact overtime
b. Have a sense of identity or belonging
c. Have norms that non-members don’t have.
For example: A class of students is a group who meet a few times in a
week for an entire semester and identify themselves on the basis of
Manual Title 7
what classes they are taking. Students in a class must follow their
professor’s class and test schedule, as well as rules for behavior and
contribution in class.
AGGREGATE
An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be at the same
place at the same time but who have no other connection to one
another.
An example: the people in a restaurant on a particular evening are an
example of an aggregate, not a group. Those people do not know one
another, and they will likely never see again in the same place and the
same time.
CATEGORY
Third classification is category, which is a collection of people who
share a particular characteristic. They do not necessarily interact with
one another and have nothing else in common.
Examples of categories may include people who have green eyes, or
people who were born in the Philippines, or women who gave birth to
twins.
Manual Title 8
One important characteristic of a group is for group members interact
on a regular basis through communication.
Social Group
Those who interact with one another and share similar characteristics
and a sense of unity is called a social group. These groups may be
families, companies, circles of friends, fraternities and sororities and
local religious congregations
Nature of Social Group
➢ The group provides specific form as to the nature of interaction
in the society.
➢ Members should develop a structure where each member
assumes a specific status and adopts a particular role.
➢ Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon.
➢ The members of the group feel a sense of identity.
Types of Social Group
1. Social Group according to Ties (This is considered a primary
group)
 It is the most fundamental unit of human society
Manual Title 9
 A long-lasting group characterized by strong ties of
love and affection
 Do’s and don’ts of behavior are learned in this group
Examples: families, gangs, cliques, play groups, friendship groups
2. Social Group according to Ties (A Secondary Group)
 Group with which the individual comes in contact later
in life
 Characterized by impersonal business-like, contractual,
formal and casual relationship.
 Usually large in size, not very enduring and limited
relationships.
 People needed other people for the satisfaction of their
complex needs.
Examples: Industrial Workers, business associates. Faculty staff,
Company employees
3. Social Group to Form of Organization (Informal Group)
 Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of
two or more persons
 It is unplanned
 Has no explicit rules for membership and does
not have specific objectives to be attained
Manual Title 10
 members are bound by emotion and sentiments
4. Social Group according to Form of Organization (Formal
Group)
 Social organization
 Deliberately formed and their purpose and
objectives are explicitly defined.
 Their goals are clearly stated and the division of
labor is based on member’s ability or merit
5. Social Group according to Self identification (In-Group)
It is a social unit in which individuals feel at home and with
which they identify themselves
6. Social Group according to Self identification (Out-Group)
It is a social unit to which individuals do not belong due to
differences in social categories and with which they do not
identify.
7. Social Group according to Purpose (Special Interest Group)
A group which is organized to meet the special interest of the
members
8. Social Group according to Purpose (Task Force)
Manual Title 11
A group is assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be done
by one person.
9. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree
of Relationship (Gemeinschaft)
 A social system in which most relationships are
personal and traditional
 It is a community of intimate, private and exclusive
living and familism
 Culture is homogeneous and traditional-bound
10. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree
of Relationship (Gesselschaft)
 A social system in which most relationships are
impersonal, formal, sontractuaal or bargain-like
 Relationship is individualistic, business-like, secondary
and rationalized
 Culture is heterogeneous and mored advanced
Social Organization
Social organization
The type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or
goods
Manual Title 12
Characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a
division of labor and limited membership or admission
Organization is an orderly relationship or arrangement of parts.
It is used to refer the interdependence and inter-related of parts in
groups
Examples of social organization:
Family, church, college, factory, a play group, a political party, a
community
Types of Social Organization
1. Political Organization: State (Government)
2. Economic Organization: Factory
3. Religious Organization: Church
4. Financial organization: Bank
5. Educational organization: School and Colleges
Goal of Social organization
That members of an organization are inter-related to each other for the
pursuit of a common goal
Preparedness to accept one’s role and status:
Manual Title 13
 Organization is an arrangement of persons and parts
 By arrangement, it is meant that every member of
the organization has an assigned role, a positon and
a status
Norms and Mores of Social Organization:
Every organization has its norms and mores which control its
members, as a result, an organization can function smoothly if its
members follow the organization norms.
Sanctions:
If a member does not follow the norms he is compelled to follow them
through sanctions (conditions) which may range from warning to
physical punishment. For example; a member may be expelled, or
dismissed.
To end our discussion on Social Groups and Organization, remember
that a group is a major source of solidarity and cohesion in society.
Manual Title 14
References
Acton, Ashton Q. (2014). Issues in international sociology and social
work research and application. USA: Scholarly Editions.
Difference Between Anthropology and Sociology. Retrieved from:
sociology. (06 June 2015)
cengage Learning. Print
Mauss, M. (2005). The Nature of Sociology Berghahn Series. USA:
Sociology/Anthropology. Retrieved from:

www.stolaf.edu/catalog/9697/socanthro.html. (06 June 2015)
Manual Title 15
Week 2
Learning Outcomes
• Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social differences,
social change, and political identities
• Demonstrate curiosity and an openness to explore the origins and
dynamics of culture and society, and political identities.
Everything made, learned, or shared by the members
of a society, including values, beliefs, behaviors, and
material objects.
PARTS OF CULTURE
• Material Culture
• Non-Material Culture
Material World
• Material Culture
• Visible parts of culture, such as food, clothing, cars, weapons, buildings, that
members of society make, use, and share
• Raw Materials → Technology → Stuff
Material World
• Non-Material Culture
• Abstract/intangible aspects of culture that influence people’s behavior such as
language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family patterns, political systems.
5 Components of Culture
• People of a culture share a broad set of material and nonmaterial elements
• 5 components of Culture:
• Technology
• Symbols
• Language
• Values
• Norms
5 Components of Culture
1. Technology
• Manmade products (material culture) that make life easier
• Rules of acceptable behavior when using material culture
Components of Culture
2. Symbols
• Cultural representations of reality
• Give meanings to things and events
• Examples: gestures, images, sounds, physical objects, events, etc.
3. Language
• Most powerful of all human
symbols
• Expresses meaning of symbols
• Allows members of society to
communicate with one another
• Conveys the beliefs and values of
culture
4. Values
• Ideas
• Determines character of people
• Standards by which people assess desirability, goodness and beauty
5. Norms
• Rules that guide human behavior
• Give concrete terms on how we should
behave – what we should do or what we
should not do.
Kinds of Norms
Mores – distinguish between right

and wrong
Folkways – distinguish between right
and rude
Laws
• Established punishments for violating norms to protect the social well
being
• Written rules of conduct enacted and enforced by the government
• Mores laws: child abuse, rape, carnapping, etc.
• Folkway laws: jaywalking, counterflowing etc.
What’s the Difference?
• Society - the people who interact to share a common culture
• Culture - consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects and other characteristics
common to a particular group or society
Roots of culture: Biological or Societal? (Nature
vs. nurture)
Nature Nurture
What’s in it? Nature refers to an individual’s Nurture refers to personal
innate qualities (nativism) experiences ( ex. Empiricism or
behaviorism)
Example Nature is your genes. The Nurture refers to your

physical and personality traits childhood, or how you were
determined by your genes stay brought up. Someone could be
the same irrespective of born with genes to give them a
where you were born or normal height, but be
raised. malnourished in stunted growth
and a failure to develop as
expected.
Factors Biological and family factors Social and environmental

factors
Basic Features of Culture
• Culture is learned. We learn culture from families, peers,
institutions, and media.
• No one is born equipped with a particular language, or knowledge
of religious beliefs
Features of Culture
• Culture is shared. We share culture with other members of our group
Features of Culture
• Culture is based on symbols. These symbols only have meaning when
people in a culture agree on their use.
Features of Culture
• Culture is integrated. All aspects of a culture are related to one
another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all
of its parts, not only a few.
Features of Culture
• Culture is dynamic. Cultures interact and change
• These changes may be in the form of discoveries, inventions, or
cultural borrowings.
Cultural diversity
• the presence of multiple cultures and
cultural differences within a society
Subcultures
• Smaller cultural groups that exist
within but differ in some way
• Examples of some subcultures
include “heavy metal” music
devotees, body‐piercing and
tattoo enthusiasts, motorcycle
gang members, and Nazi
skinheads
Countercultures
• In opposition to the norms and values
of the dominant culture.
• Members of countercultures—such as
hippies and protest groups—are
generally teenagers and young adults,
because youth is often a time of
identity crisis and experimentation.
Assimilation and multiculturalism
• Assimilation is when dominant culture absorbs subcultural or

countercultural groups.
• Multiculturalism respects cultural variations rather than requiring that
the dominant culture assimilate the various cultures
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
• Ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures against the standards
of one's own culture
• Cultural Relativism is the perspective that a culture should be
sociologically evaluated according to its own standards, and not
those of any other culture.
Toward a Global Culture
• Cultural diffusion
- the spreading of standards across cultures through travel, trade,
conquests, etc.
Social Groups
and
Organization
CLASSIFICATION OF PEOPLE
• Group
• Aggregates
• Categories
GROUP
• A group consists of two or more people who are distinct in the following ways:
• Interact over time.
• Have a sense of identity or belonging.
• Have norms that non-members don’t have.
AGGREGATE
• a collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same
time but who have no other connection to one another
CATEGORY
• Collection of people who share a particular characteristic.
• They do not necessarily interact with one another and have nothing else
in common
CHARACTERISTIC OF A GROUP
Group members interact on a fairly regular basis through communication
SOCIAL GROUP
• families, companies, circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and
sororities, and local religious congregations
SOCIAL GROUP
NATURE OF SOCIAL GROUP
 The group provides specific form as to the nature of interaction in the society.
 Members should develop a structure where each member assumes a specific
status and adopts a particular role.
 Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon.
 The members of the group feel a sense of identity.
SOCIAL GROUP ACCORDING TO SOCIAL
TIES
PRIMARY GROUP
• It is the most fundamental unit of human society.
• A long-lasting group
• Characterized by strong ties of love and affection.
• Do’s and Don’ts of behavior are learned here.
Examples:
Families, Gangs, Cliques, Play Groups, Friendship Groups
SOCIAL GROUP ACCORDING TO SOCIAL
TIES
SECONDARY GROUP
•Group with which the individual comes in contact later in
life.
•Characterized by impersonal, business-like, contractual,
formal and casual relationship.
•Usually Large in size, not very enduring and limited
relationships.
•People needed other people for the satisfaction of their
complex needs.
Examples:
Industrial Workers; business associates, Faculty Staff, Company Employees
SOCIAL GROUP ACCORDING TO FORM
OF ORGANIZATION
INFORMAL GROUP
• Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of
two or more persons
• It is unplanned
• Has no explicit rules for membership and does not
have specific objectives to be attained
• members are bound by emotion and sentiments
SOCIAL GROUP ACCORDING TO FORM
OF ORGANIZATION
FORMAL GROUP
• Social organization
• Deliberately formed and their purpose and
objectives are explicitly defined.
• Their goals are clearly stated and the division of
labor is based on member’s ability or merit
SOCIAL GROUP ACCORDING TO
SELF IDENTIFICATION
IN-GROUP
• A social unit in which individuals feel at home and with
which they identify themselves
SELF IDENTIFICATION
OUT-GROUP
• A social unit to which individuals do not belong due to
differences in social categories and with which they do
not identify
PURPOSE
SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP
•Groups which are organized to meet the special interest
of the members
PURPOSE
TASK GROUP
•Groups assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be
done by one person
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIP
Gemeinschaft
• A social system in which most relationships are personal or
traditional.
• It is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and
familism.
• Culture is homogeneous and tradition-bound
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIP
Gesselschaft
• A social system in which most relationships are
impersonal, formal, contractual or bargain-like.
• Relationship is individualistic, business-like, secondary
and rationalized
• Culture is heterogeneous and more advanced.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
•Type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goals
•Characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a
division of labor and limited membership or admission
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
► Organization is an orderly relationship or arrangement of parts.
► Thus family, church, college, factory, a play group, a political party, a community;
all are examples of a social organization.
► Social organization is used to refer the interdependence and inter-relation of

parts in groups.
► Social organization is the organization of society, it is a system of relationship in

groups.
► Social organization refers to ‘the way people relate themselves to one another’.
TYPES OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
• Political organization: State (Government)
• Economic organization: Factory
• Religious organization: Church
• Financial organization: Bank
• Educational organization: school and colleges
All these organizations are called social organization, that is, organization of society.
Social organization is used in wider sense to include any organization of society.
A Goal:
• The member of an organization are inter-related to each other for the
pursuit of a common goal.
Preparedness to accept one’s role and status:
• Organization is an arrangement of persons and parts.
• Arrangement meant that every member of the organization has an assigned
role, a position and status.
Norms and Mores:
• Every organization has its norms and mores which control its members.
• An organization can function smoothly if its members follow the organization
norms.
Sanctions:
• If a member does not follow the norms he is compelled to follow them
through sanctions (conditions) which may range from warning to physical
punishment. e.g. expelled, dismissed.
IMPORTANCE OF GROUP
A group is a major source of solidarity and cohesion.
Thank you!
Week 3
The study of society is challenging and confusing. In this lesson, you
will find out what society is, what sociocultural evolution means and
how it happens and types of societies.
1. Trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern
humans
2. Explore the significance of human material remains and
artefactual evidence in interpreting cultural and social,
including political and economic processes
3. Recognize national, local and specialized museums and
archaeological and historical sites as venues to appreciate and
reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution
as part of being and becoming human.
Definition of Society
Society is a group of people living together in a particular place or at a
particular time and having many things in common.

Manual Title 1
What does society look like?
 Society looks like an object itself (sui generis or unique)
 Then, if society is an object, we can examine it closely and
analyze it like any other subject (We break it into pieces and
explore each piece carefully)
 What a biologist does to a living organism, or a geologist does
to a rock, so as a sociologist does to a society.
 Society becomes something scientifically weighted, measured
and dissected
If we analyze society, we determine what it is made up. It is composed
of culture, working class and ethnicity. These components appear on
their own but they can be broken down into pieces that makes the
study of society more challenging and confusing.
Visions of Society that account for Social Change and Societal
Evolution
Four Diverse Perspectives:
Karl Marx
Manual Title 2
- He looked at society that is in conflict (social conflict). This is
a struggle between segments of society over valued resources.
o The capitalists are the people who own and operate
factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits
o Proletariat are people who sell their productive labor for
wages
o Social institutions include all the major spheres of
social life, or societal subsystems organized to meet
human needs
 Infrastructure – society’s economic system
 Superstructure – other social institutions:
family, religion, political institution
o Marx rejected false consciousness or explanation of
social problems as the shortcomings of individuals
rather than the flaws of society
- He believed that the history of all existing society is the history
of class struggle (or class conflict) – conflict between entire
classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power
- Marx believed that worker must replace false consciousness
with class consciousness – workers’ recognition of themselves
Manual Title 3
as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and, ultimately, to
capitalism itself. Workers would then rise up and destroy
capitalism in a socialist revolution.
Marx’s Model of Society
 Alienation – the experience of isolation and misery
resulting from powerlessness
 Capitalism alienates workers in four specific ways:
 Form the act of working
Workers have no say in production, work is tedious and
repetitive
 Form the products of work
Workers have no ownership in the product that is
merely sold for profit
 Form other workers
Work has become competitive rather than cooperative
 From human potential
Manual Title 4
Workers deny, not fulfill themselves in their work
Max Weber
- Rationalization of Society. This is the historical change from
tradition – sentiments and beliefs passed from one generation
to another to rationality – deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation
of the cost effective means to accomplish a task as a dominant
mode of human thought.
- Weber also believes in predestination and God’s favor,
religious ethic and transformed to work ethic.
Weber’s Rational Social Organization. It has seven characteristics:
 Distinctive social institutions
 Large scale organization
 Specialized tasks
 Personal discipline
 Awareness of time
 Technical competence
 Impersonality
Manual Title 5
They are expressed in bureaucracy and capitalism
Emile Durkheim
- He describes society as more than individuals. Society has a
life of its own – beyond our personal experiences
- He also said that social facts, any patterns rooted in society
rather than the experience of individuals.
o Society has an “objective reality” beyond our own
subjective perceptions of the world. Examples are
norms, values, religious beliefs, and rituals
o Society has the power to guide our thoughts and actions
- Warned that modern society creates anomie - a condition in
which society provides little moral guidance to individuals
o He said that change is from mechanical solidarity.
Social bonds are based on common sentiment and
shared moral value that are strong among members of
industrial societies
Manual Title 6
o To Organic solidarity, social bonds are based on
specialization and interdependence that are strong
among members of industrial societies.
o He said that key to change is an expanding division of
labor – a specialization of economic activity.
Gerhard Lenski
- He said that sociocultural evolution is the change that occurs as
a society acquires new technology
- Societies range from simple to the technologically complex
- Societies that are simple in technology tend to resemble one
another
- More complex societies reveal striking cultural diversity.
Socio-cultural evolution
 It is the change that occurs as a society acquires new
technology
 Technology shapes other cultural patterns and that simple
technology can only support small numbers of people who live
simple lives
 The greater amount of technology a society has within its
grasp, the faster cultural change will take place
Manual Title 7
 High-tech societies are capable of sustaining large numbers of
people who are engaged in a diverse division of labor.
Types of Society
The society we live in did not spring up overnight. Human societies
have evolved slowly over millions of years. However, throughout
history, technological developments have sometimes brought about
dramatic change that has boosted human society into its next age.
Hunting and Gathering stage
o During this stage, man used simple tools to hunt
animals and vegetation. The hunting and gathering
societies characteristics are:
a. The primary institution is the family, which
decides how food is to be shared and how
children are to be socialized, and which
provides for the protection of its members.
b. Number of families in this society tend to be
small with fewer than fifty members
c. They were nomadic in search of food
d. Society members have very high level of
interdependence
Manual Title 8
e. Division of labor is based on sex: men hunt,
women gather
Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
o Horticultural societies use hand tools to raise crops.
People started to stay in one place and grow their own
food.
o Pastoral societies started the domestication and
breeding of animals for food.
Agricultural Societies
The invention of the plow led to the establishment of
agricultural societies. Members of these societies tend crops
with an animal harnessed to a plow. The use of animals to pull
a plow eventually led to the creation of cities and formed the
basic structure of modern societies.
The development of agricultural societies followed this general
sequence.
a. Animals are used to pull plow
b. Lager areas of land can then be cultivated
c. More crops were yielded for longer periods of time
Manual Title 9
d. Productivity increased and people did not move to another place
with abundant supply of food for them
e. Towns form and then cities
f. When yields increased, members engaged in some other forms of
farming, thus developing other skills. Job specialization increased
g. When fewer people are directly involved with production of food,
the economy became more complex
Industrial Societies
Use advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to
run large machinery. Industrialization started in the mid-1700s, when
the steam engine was first used in Great Britain as a means of running
other machines. In the 20th century, industrialized societies had
changed dramatically.
o People and goods traversed much longer distances because of
innovations in transportation such as train and steamship
o Rural areas lost population because people move to the cities as
factory workers
o Societies became urbanized, which means that the majority of
population lived within commuting distance of a major city
Manual Title 10
o Suburbs grew up around cities to provide city-dwellers with
alternative places to live
Postindustrial Societies
This type of society that has developed over the past few decades,
features an economy based on services and technology, not
production. There are three major characteristics of postindustrial
economy:
o These societies focus on ideas as tangible goods no longer
drive the economy
o There has been a need for higher education for the
postindustrial societies because the new focus on information
and technology means that people must pursue higher
education
o There was a shift in working place from cities to homes
because new communications technology allows work to be
performed from a variety of locations.
Manual Title 11
References
www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/...anthropology-and-sociology on 06
June 2015
cengage Learning.
Durkheim Press.
Sociology/Anthropology. Retrieved from
www.stolaf.edu/catalog/9697/socanthro.html on 06 June 2015.
Manual Title 12
Sociocultural Evolution
of Societies
1
Learning Outcomes
 Trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern humans
 Explore the significance of human material remains and artefactual evidence in
interpreting cultural and social, including political and economic processes
 Recognize national, local and specialized museums and archaeological and historical sites
as venues to appreciate and reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution
as part of being and becoming human.
2
Society
• Society is a group of people living together in a particular place or at a
particular time and having many things in common
• Sociologists say society is a group of people with common territory,
interaction and culture.
What does society look like?
 Society looks like an object itself (sui generis or unique)
 Then, if society is an object, we can examine it closely and analyze it like

any other subject (We break it into pieces and explore each piece carefully)
 What a biologist does to a living organism, or a geologist does to a rock, so

as a sociologist does to a society.
 Society becomes something scientifically weighted, measured and

dissected
Four Diverse Perspectives for Social
Change and Societal Evolution
 Karl Marx
He believed that the history of all existing society is the history of
class struggle (or class conflict) or the conflict between entire classes
over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power.
Four Diverse Perspectives for Social Change and
Societal Evolution
• Max Weber
The Rationalization of Society is the historical change from tradition – sentiments

and beliefs passed from one generation to another to rationality – deliberate,
matter-of-fact calculation of the cost effective means to accomplish a task as a
dominant mode of human thought.
Societal Evolution
• Emile Durkheim
He describes society as more than individuals. Society has a life of its own –
beyond our personal experiences.
Societal Evolution
• Gerhard Lenski
He said that sociocultural evolution is the change that occurs as a society

acquires new technology.
Sociocultural Evolution
 It is the change that occurs as a society acquires new technology
 Technology shapes other cultural patterns and that simple technology
can only support small numbers of people who live simple lives
 The greater amount of technology a society has within its grasp, the
faster cultural change will take place
 High-tech societies are capable of sustaining large numbers of people
who are engaged in a diverse division of labor.
Types of Society
 Hunting and Gathering Stage
 During this stage, man used simple tools to hunt animals and vegetation
 Family was the primary institution
 Small number of families in this society
 Members are nomadic
 Had high level of interdependence
 Men hunted animals, women gathered
Types of Society
 Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
 Horticultural societies use hand tools to raise crops. People started to

stay in one place and grow their own food.
 Pastoral societies started the domestication and breeding of animals for
food.
Types of Society
 Agricultural Societies
 The invention of the plow led to the establishment of agricultural societies.

 Members of these societies tend crops with an animal harnessed to a plow.
 The use of animals to pull a plow eventually led to the creation of cities and
formed the basic structure of modern societies.
Types of Society
 Industrial Societies
 Use advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run
large machinery
Types of Society
 Post-Industrial Societies
 This type of society that has developed over the past few decades,
features an economy based on services and technology, not production
Thank you!
Week 4
“No man is an island” is a very famous line for our lesson today.
With what we see in movies and what we see in animals, we cannot
raise ourselves alone without other people in our surroundings from
whom we learn our language, catch our manners, beliefs, and much
more our values.
This process of learning from people who raise or rear us is called our
socialization. This experience helps us prepare for our later life.
1. Explain the development of one’s self and others as a product
of socialization and enculturation.
2. Identify the context, content, processes and consequences of
enculturation and socialization
3. Identify the social goals and the socially acceptable means of
achieving these goals
4. Advocate inclusive citizenship
5. Promote protection of human dignity, rights and the common
good.
Manual Title 1
Socialization
Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from
others skills, knowledge, norms, and values of their society
It exposes the person to the culture of society and eventually acquiring
them. It is also a mode of social control.
Socialization is continuing. As we interact and be with other people,
we grow and we change in age, physical characteristics as well as our
values, behaviors, dreams as we gather new things and roles from
those whom we come in contact with.
The socialization that we have with our parents, our caregivers, and
immediate relatives who have been there for us to provide our needs –
food, clothing, shelter, love, peace and security is called primary
socialization.
The better and stronger base we have for our primary socialization, the
bigger the chance that we don’t fail in our adult life.
Secondary socialization happens when we start schooling, then
working for the job that we end up to. Our interaction with classmates,
co-employees or play friends effect changes in our way of thinking,
dealing with people, growing as a mature individual.
Manual Title 2
Agents of Socialization
Socialization is effected by these agents:
- The family
- Media
- Peers
- Religion
The family introduces us to the expectations of society. Our family
members orient us with the necessary experiences so that we develop
our self-sense.
The media, print and broadcast, the television, and computers are
dominant tools for socialization. They may only be virtual means of
socialization but children are so hooked with their gadgets today so
that they acquire, new language, values, and behaviors from what they
read, see and hear.
Your religion as an agent of socialization also influences your beliefs
about sexuality, including the likelihood of tolerance for gay and
lesbian sexuality. Sports for men and women teaches them to be
competitive and to develop bodily competence.
Manual Title 3
Schools are also agents of socialization because through the teachers
and our schoolmates, we are encouraged to think and behave
appropriately to the situations or occasions that we are in.
Now, which of the following agents is the most responsible for gender
differences in how males and females are socialized?
a. The family
b. Religion
c. The peer group
d. Education
e. Mass media
The results of socialization are great because they establish our
identity. They prepare us for the roles that we take in life; we are
guided how to act in socially acceptable ways and because of
socialization we acquire culture that may improve us as individuals.
Socialization is also a form of social control. It may be in the form of
coercion: like punishment, economy. It may also be in the form of
language which we use as cultural symbols; Socialization also avoids
to be ridiculed from peers, to have a good relationship with our family
members and to our own selves.
Manual Title 4
Sociologists’ view on Socialization
There are some theories that we need to deal with, too.
Sigmund Freud, in his Psychoanalytic Theory, states that the
unconscious mind shapes the behavior of a person. The formation of
the self occurs between the id and the superego. The influence of
society happens in the superego.
Jean Piaget also said in his Cognitive Development theory that
socialization happens in different stages of our mind’s development –
from infancy to adolescence or adulthood.
Lawrence Kohlberg in his Moral Development Theory stated that
moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout our
lifespan.
George Herbert Mead’s theory of the social self states that the self
emerges from social interactions. For example, when we observe and
interact with others, respond to the opinions of others we internalize
outside opinions and keep them inside us.
Manual Title 5
Charles Cooley’s Theory of Looking-Glass Self also tells us that we
learn to take the role of others. The expectation of others forms the
venue for acquiring social roles.
To further explain the looking glass self, it is how we appear to other
people; how we think others judge us and how these make us feel
proud, embarrassed or something else. Socialization happens along
with our life cycle: from our childhood when our identities and values
are established, to our adolescence when we form a consistent identity
and to our adulthood and old age when we acquire new roles and
expectations in adult life.
Now, socialization happens when existing social roles are changed or
replaced. It also happens in organizations that maintain social control
like in the military, prison, cults, fraternities and sororities.
The learning of new norms and values which occurs later in life, when
life circumstances change or when people join a new group is called
resocialization. This is socialization that happens in the workplace.
Deviance, Crimes, Social Control
The word deviance connotes odd or unacceptable behavior, but in the
sociological sense of the word, deviance is simply any violation of
society’s norms. Deviance can range from something minor, such as a
Manual Title 6
traffic violation, to something major, such as murder. This is what we
are going to discuss in this lesson, including crimes and social control.
Meaning of Deviance
Deviance is defined as a violation of the standards of behavior of a
society.
Each society defines what is deviant and what is not, and definitions of
deviance differ widely between societies.
For example, in the Philippines, when a man cries in public in the
1950s, it would have been considered deviant. Today, men who cry in
response to extreme emotional situations are acting within society’s
norms.
Male politicians cry when announcing defeat, male athletes cry after
winning a championship, and male actors cry after winning an award.
By today’s standards, none of these men is committing a deviant act.
Social Control and Sanctions
Social control
Social control is the regulation and enforcement of norms to maintain
social order - an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which
society’s members base their daily lives
Manual Title 7
Rules are enforced to those who violate guidelines.
The way to enforce these guidelines is called sanctions which would
either be positive or negative.
Positive sanctions are rewards to those who conform to the norms like
an employee who is promoted in his work for working hard.
Negative sanctions are punishments for violating norms like arresting
a person for shoplifting.
Sanctions are also classified as informal or formal.
Informal sanctions happen in face-to-face interactions. When people
frown at a lady burping loudly in the party; or a pat on the back when
they see you help an old woman carry a large grocery bag across the
street.
Formal sanctions are officially recognizing and enforcing norm
violations.
For example, a student who violates her college’s code of conduct may
be expelled; or an employee who speaks inappropriately to the boss
Manual Title 8
may be fired. On the other hand, a soldier who saves life may receive a
commendation.
Sociologists’ view on Deviance
Several sociologists have their views on deviance like
A. Functionalist’s View on Deviance
1. Viewing deviance as a key component of a functioning society
Merton said in his strain theory that “in order to access goals
that are accepted by society, deviance plays a very important in
determining whether a person is conforming or not”.
• He mentioned 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or
rejection of social goals and the institutionalized means of
achieving them
1. There are the conformists who choose to conform and NOT
deviate.
2. Then, the innovators who accept approved goals but disregard
institutional means to achieve them. This is practiced by people
who are low-wage earners who resort to graft or corruption to
achieve higher standard of living.
Manual Title 9
3. Third type is the ritualist who gives up cultural goals but
follows the prescribed norms. Example is a religious fanatic or
an employee who goes to work but does not do anything.
4. The fourth type is the retreatist who abandons both the cultural
goals and the prescribed means to achieve them. Examples:
drug addicts, hippies, alcoholics.
5. The fifth is the rebel who rejects both the societal goals and
prescribed means to achieve them, but tries to set up new
norms or goals. Examples: rebel soldiers, New People’s Army
The second theory is social disorganization which says that deviant
behavior is caused by the breakdown of norms, laws, mores, and other
important values of society.
The third theory to consider is the cultural deviance theory by Shaw
and McKay. They concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to
race and ethnicity resulted in a higher crime rate. The mix of cultures
and values created a smaller society with different ideas of deviance,
and those values and ideas were transferred from generation to
generation
Conflict theories
The next is conflict theory which says that social and economic factors
are the causes of crime. Deviance and inequality exist in this system.
Manual Title 10
The unequal system by Karl Marx asserts that deviance and crime
cross with wealth and power.
Power Elite Theory of Mills says that the rules of society are stacked
in favor of a privileged few who manipulate them to stay on top. It is
these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the
effects are often felt most by those who have little power
Symbolic Interactionism’s View on Deviance
Labeling Theory states that behaviors are tagged or labelled as proper
or improper, moral or immoral, good or bad.
The Differential Association theory by Sutherland tells us that
individuals learn deviant behavior from those who are close to them
who provide them models of and opportunities for deviance
CRIME
Crime is a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through
formal sanctions
Crime is classified into the following:
1. White collar crime which is committed by people occupying
high position. This crime does not involve violence and the
Manual Title 11
person who committed the crime ends up in hearings, not
labeled as criminal. He also has a 50/50 chance of going to jail
and would only be asked to pay fines.
2. Victimless Crime is a crime committed by the person towards
himself. Examples of this are prostitution, gambling, drug
addiction, etc.
3. Corporate crime is committed by a company or corporation or
people acting on its behalf. Example of this crime is violating
environmental laws. The focus is on the corporation not the
individual.
4. Street crime is an offense committed by ordinary people
against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
5. Status crime is illegal because of age like you who are still
young, when you engage in drinking liquor or wine
Civil disobedience is violating a law because the violator wants to
make a statement. People see this as unjust or immoral.
Republic Act No. 9165 of June 7, 2002 otherwise known as the
“Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002”
The law is a form of social control to a deviant behavior of those who
use the dangerous drugs.
Manual Title 12
• The State provides effective mechanisms or measures to re-
integrate into society individuals who have fallen victims to
drug abuse or dangerous drug dependence through sustainable
programs of treatment and rehabilitation.
• Penalty is imposed for those who dispense, deliver, distribute
and transport dangerous drugs which ranges from life
imprisonment to death. Fine could be from P500,000.00 to
P10,000,000.00 regardless of quantity and purity involved.
References

www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/...anthropology-and-sociology on 06
June 2015

cengage Learning.

Durkheim Press.
Sociology/Anthropology. Retrieved from

www.stolaf.edu/catalog/9697/socanthro.html on 06 June 2015.
Manual Title 13
Week 4
Learning Outcomes
• Explain the development of one’s self and others as a product of
socialization and enculturation.
• Identify the context, content, processes and consequences of
enculturation and socialization
• Identify the social goals and the socially acceptable means of
achieving these goals
• Advocate inclusive citizenship
• Promote protection of human dignity, rights and the common good.
Socialization
• Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from others
skills, knowledge, norms, values of their society
• Exposes the person to the culture of society and eventually acquiring them
• A mode of social control
Importance of Socialization
It molds the individual into social being
Socialization is responsible for the continuity of culture
For an individual to have a proper integration into the society

The Socialization Process
• Humans learn the expectations of society through socialization.
• Socialization is different based on race, gender and class.
Agents of Socialization
• Institutions pass on expectations about appropriate social
behavior:
• Family
• Media
• Peers
• Religion
• Sports
The Family
• Families introduce children to the expectations of society.
• Parents define and treat a child necessary to the development of the

child’s sense of self.
• Some families emphasize educational achievement; some may be more

permissive, whereas others emphasize strict obedience and discipline.
The Media
• Television is the dominant medium, although half of all youth use a
computer daily
• Analysts estimate that by age 18, the average child will have witnessed
at least 18,000 simulated murders on television
Polling Question
• Which media source do you think has the strongest impact on
attitudes and behaviors of your generation?
A. Advertising
B. Television
C. Music and music videos
D. The Internet
E. Magazines
Peers
• For children, peer culture is an important source of identity.
• Through interaction with peers, children learn concepts of self, gain social
skills, and form values and attitudes.
• Girls’ peer groups tend to be closely knit and egalitarian.
• Boys’ peer groups tend to be more hierarchical, with evident status
distinctions between members.
Religion
• Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents.
• Religious socialization also influences beliefs about sexuality, including the
likelihood of tolerance for gay and lesbian sexuality.
Sports
• Through sports, men and women learn concepts of self
• Men learn that being competitive in sports is considered a part of
“manhood”
• Women in sports develop a strong sense of bodily competence, which is
typically denied to them by the prevailing cultural images of women’s
bodies
Results of Socialization
1. Establishes self identity
2. Individual is ready for role taking
3. People learn to act in socially acceptable ways
4. People acquires culture
Socialization and Self-Esteem
• How much value one sees in oneself is greatly affected by socialization
how you are seen by society.
• A national study of 9th and 12th graders examined the eating
behaviors:
• 57% of the girls and 31% of the boys are reported to be having
eating disorders.
• Fear about one’s appearance to others is associated with this risky
behavior.
Schools
• Teachers and other students are the sources of expectations that
encourage children to think and behave in particular ways
Polling Question
• Which agent of socialization do you think is the most responsible
for gender differences in how males and females are socialized?
A. The family
B. Religion
C. The peer group
D. Education
E. Mass media
Socialization as a Social Control
• Coercion: punishment, imprisonment, violence
• Institutions: law, religion, economy, education, state
• Language : cultural symbols
• Peers: ridicule
• Family
• Self
Theories of Socialization
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
The unconscious mind shapes human behavior.
The formation of self occurs between the id and superego
The influence of society happens in the superego
Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive
Development
Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensory Motor stage – (infancy)
2. Pre-operational stage – (toddler and early childhood)
3. Concrete Operational Stage – (Elementary and early adolescence)
4. Formal Operational Stage – (Adolescence and adulthood)
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that
moral development is a continual process that occurs
throughout the lifespan.
• Moral Development has three levels
1. Preconventional Morality
2. Conventional Morality
3. Postconventional Morality
Carol Giligan theory of Gender Differences
• It is based on Kohlberg’s moral development
• It's a theory of moral development that claims women tend to think and
speak in a different way than men, particularly when they are confronted
with ethical dilemmas
• Whereas men seek separateness

George Herbert Mead’s Theory of the Social
Self
That the self emerges from social interactions, such as observing
and interacting with others, responding to others' opinions
about oneself, and internalizing external opinions and internal
feelings about oneself
Charles Cooley’s Theory of Looking-Glass Self
• Children learn by taking the role of significant others
• Emerges as the creative self interacts with social expectations of others
• Expectations of others form the context for learning social roles
Looking-glass Self
• How we think we appear to others.
• How we think others judge us.
• How these make us feel - proud, embarrassed or something else.
Mead: Taking the Role of the Other
1. Imitation stage - children imitate behavior of those around
them.
2. Play stage - children take on the role of significant others.
3. Game stage - children internalize an abstract understanding of
how society sees them.
Socialization Across the Life Cycle
• Childhood - establish identity and values.
• Adolescence - form a consistent identity.
• Adulthood and Old Age - learn new roles and expectations in adult
life.
Resocialization
• Existing social roles are altered or replaced.
• Takes place in organizations that maintain strict social
control.
• Examples: military, prison, cults, fraternities and sororities
Deviance, Crime, Social Control
Learning Outcomes
Define deviance and explain the nature of deviant behavior
Differentiate between methods of social control
Describe the functionalist view of deviance in society through four
sociologist’s theories
Explain how conflict theory understands deviance and crime in society
Describe the symbolic interactionist approach to deviance, including
labeling and other theories
Identify and differentiate between different types of crimes
Deviance
• Deviance is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms,
whether folkways, mores, or codified law (William Graham Sumner, 1906)
• Whether an act is labeled deviant or not depends on many factors,
including location, audience, and the individual committing the act
(Becker 1963)
Examples of Deviant Behavior
• A driver caught speeding

• A student wearing a bathrobe to class
• An adult belching loudly
Social control
• Social control, the regulation and enforcement of norms to maintain
social order - an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which
society’s members base their daily lives
• Rules are enforced to those who violate guidelines
Sanctions
• Means of enforcing rules
• Kinds of sanctions:
• Positive sanctions are rewards given for conforming to norms.

For example: A promotion at work is a positive sanction for
working hard.
• Negative sanctions are punishments for violating norms.
For example: Being arrested is a punishment for shoplifting.
Classifications of Sanctions
• Informal sanctions happen in face-to-face social
interactions.
• For example, wearing flip-flops to an opera or swearing loudly in church may
draw disapproving looks or even verbal reprimands, whereas behavior that is
seen as positive – such as helping an old man carry grocery bags across the
street – may receive positive informal reactions, such as a smile or pat on the
back.
• Formal sanctions are ways to officially recognize and

enforce norm violations.
• If a student violates her college’s code of conduct, for example, she might be
expelled. Someone who speaks inappropriately to the boss could be fired.
Someone who commits a crime may be arrested or imprisoned. On the
positive side, a soldier who saves a life may receive an official commendation.
Relationship between types of sanction
Informal Formal
Positive An expression of A promotion of
thanks work
Negative An angry A parking fine
comment
To sum up deviance:
• Deviance is a violation of norms.
• Whether or not something is deviant depends on contextual definitions, the
situation, and people’s response to the behavior.
• Society seeks to limit deviance through the use of sanctions that help
maintain a system of social control.
Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance
The three theories are grouped according to the three major sociological
paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory
Functionalism
- concerned with how the different elements of a society contribute
to the whole
- Sociologists view deviance as a key component of a functioning
society
- Three theories that represent functioning theory:
a. Strain theory
b. Social disorganization theory
c. Cultural deviance theory
Strain theory by Robert Merton
• States that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining
whether a person conforms or deviates
• Merton described 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection
of social goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them
• 1. Conformists: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue
their goals to the extent that they can, through socially accepted means.
• 2. Innovators: those who accept culturally approved goals but disregard the
institutional means to achieve them
Examples: government officials and low-wage earners who commit graft

and corruption to achieve higher standard of living
• 3. Ritualists: those who give up cultural goals but follow the prescribed
norms
Examples: a religious fanatic; an employee goes to work but does not

do anything
4. Retreatists: those who abandon both the cultural goals and the
prescribed means to achieve them
Examples: drug addicts, hippies, alcoholics
5. Rebels: those who reject both the societal goals and prescribed
means to achieve them but try to set up new norms or goals
Examples: rebel soldiers, New People’s Army
Social Disorganization Theory
- believes that deviant behavior as caused by the
breakdown of norms, laws, mores, and other important
values of society.
Solutions: Modification or rehabilitation in the part of the

system which suffers from disorganization.
Culture Deviance Theory
(Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay)
• Shaw and McKay concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to race and
ethnicity resulted in a higher crime rate. The mix of cultures and values created a
smaller society with different ideas of deviance, and those values and ideas were
transferred from generation to generation.
• That conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime
• High rates of poverty and single-parent homes correlated with high rates of
juvenile violence
Conflict theory
• Looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime
and deviance and evidence of inequality in the system
Unequal System by Karl Marx
Deviance and crime intersect with wealth and power
Power Elite by Wright Mills
The rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who
manipulate them to stay on top. It is these people who decide
what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are often felt
most by those who have little power
Symbolic interactionism
• A theoretical approach that can be used to explain how
societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as
deviant or conventional.
• Labeling theory, differential association, social disorganization
theory, and control theory fall within the realm of symbolic
interactionism.
Labeling theory
• Society’s labeling on behaviors as deviant causes deviant
behavior.
• Behaviors are labeled or tagged as proper or improper,
moral or immoral, good or bad.
• Behaviors which transgress the social norms and values are
labeled or socially defined deviant; they are, in turn,
sanctioned by ostracism or punishment.
Differential Association
by Edwin Sutherland
• Stating that individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to
them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance
• According to Sutherland, deviance is less a personal choice and
more a result of differential socialization processes
Control Theory
(Travis Hirschi)
• Stated that social control is directly affected by the
strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a
feeling of disconnection from society.
• Individuals who believe they are a part of society are less

likely to commit crimes against it.
Travis Hirschi’s 4 types of social bonds that connect people to
society
1. Attachment measures our connections to others. When we are closely
attached to people, we worry about their opinions of us
2. Commitment refers to the investments we make in the community. When
you are committed to the community, you have less chance to commit
crime
3. Involvement or participation in socially legitimate activities, lessen a
person’s likelihood of deviance.
4. Beliefs is an agreement on common values in society. If a person views
social values as beliefs, he or she will conform to them.
Crime
• is a behavior that violates official law and is punishable
through formal sanctions
Types of crime
• White-Collar Crime
- Crime committed by people of high position in the course
of their occupation
- Does not involve violence
- Often end in civil hearings – not labeled as criminal
- Often pay fines only ; 50/50 chance of going to jail
Types of crime
Victimless Crime
-No readily apparent victim – harm is done to self

-Gambling, drug abuse, prostitution
-Perhaps euthanasia
Corporate crime
• Illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its
behalf; another type of white-collar crime
• Breaking environmental law
• Focus is on the corporation not the individual
Street crime
• street crime, or offenses committed by ordinary people
against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
Status crime
• Actions by “juveniles” that are illegal because of age
• Example: drinking alcohol
Civil disobedience
• Violating law to make a social statement
• Violating a law that is seen as unjust or immoral
• For Kohlberg, it is post-conventional morality
Drug Addiction prevention
• REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9165 June 7, 2002 - the "Comprehensive
Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002".
• Policy
• The State to safeguard the integrity of its territory and the well-being of
its citizenry particularly the youth, from the harmful effects of dangerous
drugs on their physical and mental well-being, and to defend the same
against acts or omissions detrimental to their development and
preservation.
• The State to provide effective mechanisms or measures to re-integrate
into society individuals who have fallen victims to drug abuse or
dangerous drug dependence through sustainable programs of treatment
and rehabilitation.
Unlawful Acts and Penalty
• Penalty (for those who dispense, deliver, distribute and transport
dangerous drugs)
- life imprisonment to death
- fine from P500,000.00 to P10,000,000.00 regardless of quantity
and purity involved
(read the provisions of RA 9165 s. 2002)
Thank you!
Week 6
Our society consists of different organizations. Each
organization has its own contribution which affects certain
individuals, or the whole society itself.
Social organization is defined as the system of relations hips
between persons and among groups with regard to the division of
activity and the functional arrangement of mutual obligations within
society. Knowing what social organization can help us understand
the importance of each organization’s role to the development of the
entire society.
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Describe the organized nature of social life and rules governing
behavior
2. Compare different social forms of social organization according to
their manifest and latent functions
Manual Title 1
Social Organization
In sociology, the term social organization is used to refer to the
interdependence of parts in groups within our society today. These
groups may vary in size and nature. Workers, professionals, and
businessmen – the society is divided into these organizations, which are
inevitably interrelated.
Nowadays, the term is commonly used in sociological studies
and researches, especially when sociologists want to stress the relevance
of the arrangement of part of the society and how they are related to
each other.
It is hard to imagine how we can develop without being affected
by the social organizations. Humans can be a part of more than one
social organization; an individual can be a member of a family, and
belong to the group of workers at the same time. The actions and
behavior of both of these organizations will affect the individual, and
can even affect each other.
Kinship, Marriage, and the household
Manual Title 2
The family is defined by sociologists Ernest Burgess and Harvey
Lock as a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption
constituting a single household interacting with each other in their
respective social role of husband and wife, mother and father, brother
and sister creating a common culture.
The family serves as an important universal social institution –
if not the most important. It is the basic unit of social organization that
is commonly seen everywhere, and it is such an essential part of human
society that it is hard to imagine how we can function without it.
Sociologists recognize the significance of families in providing
their members with valuable resources, both economic and
noneconomic, which are all necessary for their development. It is also
involved in creating and shaping self and collective identities, and in the
rearing and socialization of children. Moreover, family relations hips
and processes affect individual well-being in profound ways.
Families, just like other parts of organization, is never isolated;
it can also interact with other social institutions and contribute to social
stability and change.
Manual Title 3
There are several kinds of families: nuclear, extended, and
reconstituted families. Nuclear families are families that consist of
parents and children. Extended families, on the other hand, are
composed of the nuclear family plus other relatives such as
grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. And then the Reconstituted
families refer to families composed of spouses and their children from
a previous marriage.
Man is does not live alone in society. He is surrounded by a
number of people, some which are his relatives, while others are mere
strangers to him. He is inevitably bound to all the people who are related
to him by blood or marriage.
Aside from being a relevant part of the human society, the family
is the basis of kinship. Kinship is a system of social organization which
is based on real or recognized family ties. It is a universal human
phenomenon that takes various cultural forms.
Kinship is of three types: Consanguineous Kinship that is also
known as kinship by blood or descent, the Affinal Kinship which is also
known as kinship by marriage, and the Kinship by Ritual.
Manual Title 4
Consanguineous Kinship refers one’s relationship with other
people through blood. An example of this would be the bond between
parents and their children. Another example would be the bond between
siblings.
Thus, son, brother, sister, uncle, nephew, and cousin are
consanguineous kin, as they are all related by blood.
Kinship ties based on descent can be matrilineal, partrilineal, or
bilineal. Matrilineal kinship is descent based on the female line.
Patrilineal kinship, on the other hand, is based on the male line. Lastly,
Bilineal kinship is a descent system that consists of both male and
female lines.
Affinal kinship, on the other hand, refers to the bond that is
formed through marriage. When a person marries, a man establishes a
relationship not just with the woman he marries but also with a number
of people in the woman’s family. This is what we would refer to as
kinship by marriage.
After marriage, the man will not just be a husband to his wife;
he will also be a son-in-law to the wife’s parents, a brother-in-law to her
siblings, and so on. The same goes with the wife with the husband’s
Manual Title 5
family. Simply put, marriage creates various relationships which are
called affinal kin.
Marriages can be monogamous or polygamous. Monogamy
means that a person is married to one person only. Polygamy, on the
other hand, means that a person has more than one spouse at a time. This
is common among Islamic societies.
Polygamy is divided into two types. The type of polygamy
among Muslims is called polygyny, or a husband can take many wives.
Another type of polygamy is polyandry, where a wide can have many
husbands. This was a common practice in Ancient India.
Aside from Consanguineous and Affinal kinship, there is also
the kinship by ritual, which refers to privileged social relations hip
established by a ritual. An example of kinship by ritual is compadrazgo,
or a person’s relationship with their godparents. Another example of
ritual kinship would be the relationship among members of fraternal
orders.
Descent
Manual Title 6
Descent is the system of acknowledged social parentage, which
varies from society to society. This system limits one’s claim of kinship
ties with another. If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship,
everybody would be kin to everyone else; but in most societies some
limitation is imposed on the perception of common ancestry.
This system is practically used as a means for people to assert
rights, duties, privileges, or status in relation to another person, who
may be related to them either because one is ancestor to the other or
because the two acknowledge a common ancestor. Succession,
inheritance, or residence are often influenced by the system of descent.
Politics of Kinship
Kinship plays a huge role in the kind of society that we are living
today. Its influence reaches other organizations, affecting even our
politics and economy.
One apparent example would be the existence of politica l
dynasties up to the present time. A dynasty refers to a succession of
rulers from the same family or lineage. Nowadays it is more commonly
used to refer to a family or group that maintains power for several
generations.
Manual Title 7
Political dynasties had been existing throughout mankind’s
history. North Korean leader Kim Jong-un followed the footsteps of his
father Kim Jong-il. Meanwhile, South Korea has President Park Geun-
hye, can be considered as part of a political dynasty as she is the
daughter of the controversial authoritarian leader Park Chung-hee. In
France, Marine Le Pen, the current leader of the French far-right
political party National Front is the daughter of the organizatio n’s
founder Jean-Mari Le Pen.
In the Philippines, political dynasties can be seen in almost every
branch of the government. Most of these families began to establish
their dynasties in a province before they begin to aim for national
government. The most notable political dynasties in the country include
the following: the Ampatuans, who are known for their political control
over the Maguindanao region since 2001; the Aquinos, hailing from
Tarlac, whose dynasty goes way back during the Philippine Revolutio n;
the Estrada political dynasty, which began with former president Joseph
“Erap” Ejercito Estrada; and the Marcos family, whose patriarch
Ferdinand Marcos became one of the most controversial figures in the
history of the Philippines.
Manual Title 8
The existence of political dynasties continues to cause
arguments, particularly when it comes to its effects in the country. In a
written article about political dynasties in the Philippines, journalist Jose
V. Abueva expressed how political dynasties give certain people the
advantage to monopolize political power. The politicians that gain
connections and alliances with the help of their families are more likely
to win the election compared to those who are not linked to politica l
dynasties.
The 1987 Constitution established a provision to maintain a fair
political competition. According to Article II, Section 26: “The State
shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service and
prohibit political dynasties as may as be defined by law.”
Despite this, no law has been passed regarding the prohibitio n
of political dynasties in the country. Several bills have been filed in
relation to the prohibition of political dynasties, and are pending to be
approved by the Congress. Many have called for the Congress to pass
the Anti-Dynasty Law, but the bill has been passed from one Congress
to another since 1987. The most likely reason for this is the fact that
many of the Congress members are from political dynasties themselves.
Manual Title 9
References:
Sociology Guide. Obtained from:
http://www.sociologyguide.com/organization-and-
individual/definition.php
Sociology Discussion. Retrieved from:
http://www.sociologydiscussion.com/kinship/kinship-meaning-types-
and-other-information/2330
Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved from: http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/compadrazgo
Bongbong Marcos running for vice president in 2016. CNN. Retrieved
from: http://cnnphilippines.com/news/2015/10/05/bongbong- marcos-
vice-president-elections-2016-the- filipino-votes.html
Dynasties threat to Democracy. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved
from: http://opinion.inquirer.net/40084/dynasties-threat-to-democracy
Manual Title 10
Week 7
Our society consists of many different social organizations that
are inevitably related to each other. The basis unit of these
organizations is the family, from which we base kinship.
We are able to learn the different kinds of kinship, as well as
their importance and their effect on the society.
Aside from family, another known part of our social
organization are the political and leadership structures. Politics is
defined broadly as the activities, associated with the governance of a
country.
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Analyze social and political institutions
2. Understand the impact of the existence of the social and
political institutions in our society
3. Learn about the different kinds of authority and legitimac y
practiced in politics
Manual Title 1
Political Organization
A political organization refers to any organization that is
involved in the political process. This includes political parties, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), advocacy groups, and special
interest groups.
Nowadays, political organizations are known for their
involvement with activities related to politics.
Types of Political Organization
Political organizations exist in every country, as they are
essential in managing public affairs, maintaining social order, and
resolving conflict. But as there are varying societies, different politica l
systems have been developed to suit their needs.
Bands
Bands are the smallest of the four types of politica l
organizations. It is usually a small group connected by family ties and
is politically independent. They are most often found in foraging
societies or groups of hunter-gatherers.
Manual Title 2
As they are often small and are often a nomadic group,
bands usually have little or lack formal leadership. Their decisions are
often based on group consensus rather than the command of a central
governing official. For this, they are often referred to as egalitar ia n
societies, or societies which all persons of the same age and gender are
seen as equals.
Tribes
Tribes are larger compared to band societies. It is often
described as a combination of smaller kin or non-kin groups which are
united by a common culture.
While tribal organizations are larger compared to bands, they too
are egalitarian by nature. They lack centralized political leadership.
Tribe elders are often assigned to manage clan affairs such as settling
disputes and negotiation with other clans, but they do not hold politica l
offices.
Chiefdom
Unlike the first two political organizations, the chiefdom is
governed by a governing body, aptly called a chief. The chief and his
Manual Title 3
family holds political power over the rest of the society, which now
consists of more than one community.
Chiefdom is not egalitarian, but have social rank, where the chief
and his family are the highest. It is a political organization that involves
a more formal and permanent political structure compared to tribal and
band organizations.
State
According to the German sociologist Max Weber, a state is a
compulsory political organization with a centralized government that
maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain
territory.
In politics, a state refers to an organized political community that
is living under a single system of government which governs a large
population, with a hierarchy of differing political positions and the
power to enforce decisions. They are the largest of the four politica l
organizations. They are the most commonly seen political organiza tio n
nowadays.
Manual Title 4
Authority and Legitimacy
Political organizations have lasted because they follow certain
guidelines or regulations to ensure that political processes are going
smoothly.
Authority is the concept of right to issue and, using coercive
power, to enforce a command. It is not to be identified with persuasion
and influence. An example would be the state, which has the authority
to make laws which are obeyed by the citizens.
Authority is exercised not just within a political organizatio n,
but among other social organizations as well. There is parental authority
which is often exercised by families. The parents have the authority over
their children, as they are the ones to allocate economic and non-
economic essentials, as well as implement rules within their home.
Legitimacy originated from the Latin word “legitimare”,
meaning to “declare, lawful”. According to Weber, it is “the basis of
every system of authority, and correspondingly of every kind of
willingness to obey, is a belief, a belief by virtue of which persons
exercising authority are lent prestige.”
Manual Title 5
Simply put, legitimacy refers to the popular acceptance of a
government, or any system of authority.
Gaining legitimacy is considered a basic condition of rule
among authorities. Without it, a governing regime is likely to collapse.
Weber’s Theory of Authority
Weber classified three types of legitimate rule: traditio na l,
charismatic, and rational- legal.
Traditional Authority is a type of authority that is legitimated by
the sanctity of tradition or custom. An example of this are monarchies
and tribes, where authority is, by tradition, either patriarchal or
matriarchal.
This type of legitimate rule tends not to change overtime.
Moreover, it does not facilitate social change. In feudal Europe, for
example, kings gained authority simply because their fathers had been
kings. And as it has been a tradition to have a king as a ruler, subjects
did not question this kind of authority.
Manual Title 6
Charismatic Authority, on the other hand, is authority made
legitimate by a leader with a mission and vision that inspires others.
Weber defined a charismatic leader as an individual that has
extraordinary characteristics. He or she can be a head of a new social
movement or someone instilled with supernatural powers, such as a
religious prophet. By this definition, we can say that religio us
organizations such as Christianism and Islam are established by
charismatic authority.
Lastly, the Legal-Rational Authority (also known as Rational
Authority) refers to a form of leadership made legitimate by legal
rationality or legal legitimacy. Its legitimacy is derived from the power
of the content of law or natural law.
The best example of rational authority according to Weber
would be bureaucracy (political and economic). This type of authority
is apparent in modern states and city governments, as well as in
voluntary associations, private and public corporations.
Manual Title 7
References:
Political Organization. Retrieved from:
http://www.zeepedia.com/read.php?political_organization_bands_triba
l_organizations_chiefdoms_cultural_anthropology&b=98&c=25
Political Organization: Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms, & States. Retrieved
from: http://study.com/academy/lesson/political-organizations-bands-
tribes-chiefdoms-states.html
Authority and Legitimacy. Michael Lacewing. Retrieved from:
http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/alevelphilosophy/data/AS/WhySho
uldIBeGoverned/Authorityandlegitimacy.pdf
Traditional Authority. Boundless. Retrieved from:
https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-
textbook/government-15/politics-power-and-authority-112/traditional-
authority-622-8158/
Max Weber: Traditional, Legal-Rational, and Charismatic Authority.
Retrieved from: http://danawilliams2.tripod.com/authority.html
Manual Title 8
Week 8
Our society consists of different organizations. Each organization has its
own contribution which affects certain individuals, or the whole society itself. One
of the organizations that affect the society are economic organizations.
The economy is an important social institution, as it addresses problems
regarding limited resources of society. The process of production, the amount of
resources that are being produced, are some of the matters handled by economic
organizations. Economic organizations undoubtedly play a huge role in the
development of our society.
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Analyze economic organization and its impact to the lives of people in the
society
2. Know the different types of economic organizations
Economic Organization
In his book Theory of Social and Economic Organization, the German
sociologist Max Weber attributed the rise of organizations to the following factors:
the expansion of markets, the developments in the law, and the changes in the
nature of authority.
Economic Organization refers to the act of coordinating various factors of
production – land, labor, and capital.
Manual Title
Kinds of Economic Organization
Economic organizations come in different forms. Each has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Sole Proprietorship
The oldest form of business organization, sole proprietorship is something
of a “one-man business”. Small-scale businesses are an example of sole
proprietorship.
Partnership
This type of business organization is carried on by two or more men.
Small-scale businesses that have expanded to the point that it may be beyond
control of one man develop partnerships to ensure better management.
One-man businesses often grow into partnership, but there are businesses
which were established by partnership from the beginning.
Partnerships harbor benefits and harm to the businessman. Partnerships
enables the entrepreneur to handle half of the burden that a sole proprietor would
have to carry. However, there is the risk of being cheated, and there is unlimited
liability especially when the business partner happens to be inefficient.
Joint Stock Company
A Joint Stock Company is an economic organization that consists of
shareholders who subscribe to its capital, which is divided up into a large number
of shares.
Manual Title
One important feature of this organization is that the shareholders will
provide the capital in varying amounts and receive shares in the profits in
proportion to the amount of money they have invested in the company. In this way,
it will be possible to raise large sums of capital which is essential for large-scale
production. Joint Stock Companies are the most important economic organization
today.
Cooperative Organization
Cooperative organization comes in a variety of forms. There are
consumers’ cooperative, producers’ cooperatives, etc.
This form of economic organization is similar with Joint Stock Company
in a way that the capital is supplied by a large number of persons who receive
interest on other shares. However, the profits of a cooperative society are
distributed according to the value of the purchases. Moreover, unlike joint stock
companies, members of cooperative organizations are not allowed to sell their
shares.
Reciprocity
Reciprocity refers to the mutual exchange of services or goods among
social peers. It is a relationship wherein two parties agree to do similar work for
each other, or allow each other the same rights, and so on.
This occurs in both market and non-market economies, where goods and
services are given away, purchased, sold or traded for economic and social gain.
Items being exchanged are more than just food and manufactured objects.
Manual Title
Courtesies, entertainment, and assistance are some of the other things that are
considered as important exchange items in the markets today.
In anthropology, reciprocity is classified into three types: general, positive,
and negative. These apply not only in business, but in daily situations as well.
General reciprocity. It is a type of reciprocity in which one offers
something without the expectation of immediate return. Unselfish sharing is an
example of this reciprocity.
Balanced reciprocity. This is a reciprocal relationship in which there is an
immediate reward for giving. This occurs in both business and daily situations,
such as giving a gift at a birthday party. You give gifts in return for the meal and
social interaction.
Negative reciprocity. This is a relationship in which one side loses in the
exchange. In business, instances such as cheating, manipulation, and hard
bargaining often leads to this reciprocity.
Market Transactions
Exchange of goods and services through a market is called market
transaction. Knowing the market transactions that take place in the economy is
important especially in measuring the Gross Domestic Product or GDP.
Market transactions are needed for the basic data which can be used to
measure economic production and estimate the GDP.
Manual Title
Open-Market Transactions
Open-market transaction refers to a transaction in which an order is placed
by an insider, after filing all appropriate documentation, to buy or sell restricted
securities openly on an exchange.
Close-Market Transactions
Close-market transactions take place when there is an order placed by a
company’s insider to buy or sell restricted securities from within the company’s
own treasury. This also requires filing of appropriate documentation to ensure the
legality of the process.
Markets and State
The markets and the state are inevitably related to one another. The
decisions made by either one of them will definitely affect the other.
While the government does not have direct control over the markets today,
they are capable of encouraging economic growth and influence how the benefits
of the growth are distributed. Redistributive exchanges are made to properly
distribute wealth and ensure distribution of wealth from the better off to the poor.
The state plays multiple roles in guiding the economy. These can be
divided into essential roles, beneficial roles, and politically generated roles.
Redistribution
Redistribution in economics refers to the theory, policy, or practice of
lessening or reducing inequalities in income.
Manual Title
There are some economic exchanges which are intended to distribute the
wealth of a society in a different way than what is commonly done today. This is
a way to transfer wealth, supposedly from the better off to the poor.
Redistribution is not just about money; aside from income, the government
can also distribute physical property which can help improve the condition of the
poor. Taxation, charity, welfare, public services, land reform, and monetary
policies are some of the measures taken as means of redistribution.
Transfers
Transfer payments or simply transfers are one-way payment of money for
which no money, good, or service is received in exchange.
Governments make use of transfers as a way of income redistribution.
They do this by giving out money under social welfare programs such as social
security, pensions, student grants, unemployment compensations, and so on.
Subsidies paid to exporters, farmers, manufacturers, however, are not considered
transfer payments.
Manual Title
References:
Organizational Analysis. Retrieved from:
https://www.britannica.com/science/organizational-analysis#ref920172
Types of Economic Organization. Retrieved from:
http://hubpages.com/education/Meaning-and-Types-of-Economic-Organization
What is Reciprocity in Anthropology? Retrieved from:
http://peopleof.oureverydaylife.com/reciprocity-anthropology-11007.html
Distribution and Exchange. Retrieved from:
http://anthro.palomar.edu/economy/econ_3.htm
Economic Definition of market transaction. Retrieved from:
http://glossary.econguru.com/economic-term/market+transaction
Transfer Payment. Retrieved from:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/transfer-payment.html
Manual Title

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MODULE OF INSTRUCTION

lifetime. Great thinkers have spent years getting some answers to

sub-fields of study that engage in trying to understand humankind.

In this lesson, we will discuss the nature and beginnings of sociology

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social

differences, social change and political identities

2. Recognize the common concerns or intersections of

anthropology, sociology and political science with respect to

the phenomenon of change.

3. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology and

Definitions of Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure,

function and direction.”

Anthropology “is a social science that is concerned with human culture

as well as the physical and social characteristics that create that

culture. Often it will compare one group of humans to another or even

compare humans with animals.”

History of Sociology and Anthropology

In Anthropology, the behavior of others had been observed and

recorded by men since the birth of civilization. Examples of these

advancement of different groups.

their surrounding society. It was in the 19th century when sociology

was recognized as an academic discipline and became a part of the

The word Sociology was taken from two foreign words:

 Socius, a Latin term which means companion or associate

 Logos, a Greek term for study

The nature of sociology is identified by the following characteristics as

enlisted by Robert Bierstadt in his book “Social Order.”

1. Sociology is a social science not a physical science. It

concentrates on man, his social behavior, social activities and

2. Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline. As a

categorical discipline, it is a body of knowledge about human

society, and not a system of ideas and values.

3. It is a pure science. It aims to provide knowledge about human

society, not the utilization of that knowledge

4. Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or

individualizing science. Sociology tries to find out general laws

or principles about human interaction and association, about

the nature, form, content and structure of human groups and

5. Sociology is a general science not a special science. It is

concerned with human interaction and human life in general. It

only studies human activities in a general way.

6. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science. There are

two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge.

Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the

facts that result from observation and experimentation.

Rationalism is a stressed reason and the theories that result

from logical inference.

1. Anthropology is the study of humankind in all times and

2. It involves the careful and systematic study of humankind

using facts, hypothesis, and theories.

3. It is concerned with other culture’s languages, values, and

achievements in the arts and literature.

4. Anthropology is committed to experiencing other cultures.

Focus of Anthropology and Sociology

 Anthropology “is interested in the overall culture of a group of

people. This includes social institutions, art, history, mythology, and