Paper 3

Modern Depth Study:

The Civil Rights

Movement, 1954-75

Name …………………………………………………..

1
 The Civil Rights Movement 1954-75 – Revision Checklist

How well do I know each topic?

3 The Development of the Civil Rights Movement   
4 Background
5 Segregation and Discrimination in the 1950s
6 The Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s
8 The Murder of Emmett Till (1955)
8 Political Opposition to Civil Rights
9 The Brown Case (1954)
10 Little Rock (1957)
12 Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)
15 Section 1 Recap Questions
17 Protest, Progress and Radicalism   
18 Greensboro Sit-in (1960)
18 The Freedom Riders (1961)
19 The James Meredith Case (1962)
19 Birmingham, Alabama (1963)
19 March on Washington (1963)
20 The Freedom Summer (1964)
20 Selma (1965)
22 Key Civil Rights Laws
23 Role of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson
23 Malcolm X
24 Black Power
25 The Black Panthers
26 The Riots of 1964-7
27 King’s Campaign in the North (1966)
28 King’s Assassination (1968)
28 Progress 1969-75
29 Section 2 Recap Questions
31 Timeline

Produced by J. Harris, Sir Harry Smith Community College

2
 Section 1:

The Development of the

Civil Rights Movement,
1954-60

3
 The American System

The USA has a federal system of government. It’s divided into states which can grant their
own laws. However, each state also comes under the umbrella of the federal government in
Washington DC, which passes federal laws that cover the whole country.

This system can cause problems

because different states often
want different things. States can
pass their own laws, but the
Supreme Court can overrule
them.
The government has 3 branches
which in theory balance each
other out, so no one branch is
too powerful. This is known as
‘checks and balances’.

Black People in America

1600s Africans were first brought to America as

slaves. America was a British colony until it
became independent in 1776.

1800s New states were created as America expanded

west. It raised the question: would these new
states be free states or slave states?

1861 The American Civil War broke out between the

anti-slavery northern states and the pro-
slavery southern states.

1865 The South was defeated and President Lincoln

issued the Emancipation Declaration, ending
slavery. However, he was killed before he could
work on peace.

Late The next Presidents/governments either

1800s decided not to help African Americans, or were
actively racist. Blacks were forced into poverty
and there was increasing discrimination.
4
 Segregation & Discrimination in the 1950s

In the 1950s, all across the USA black people faced segregation (being separated from whites)
and discrimination (being treated unfairly because of their race).

In the North, segregation was

caused by discrimination. Black
people had the worst jobs and
houses.

In the South, segregation was

enforced by law. There were laws
which said black people must
have separate facilities to white
people.

Segregation laws (called the Jim Crow Laws) worked on the theory of ‘separate but equal’ – this
said that segregation was legal if the white and black facilities were equal. This principle was backed
by the Supreme Court in a famous court case (Plessy v. Ferguson) in 1896.
All public facilities had separate sections for white people and black people. Black people could be
thrown out or even arrested if they didn’t stay in the ‘colored’ section.

Southern attitudes
Many Southern white people saw black people as inferior and
unintelligent. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a racist group who
attacked non-whites. Many police officers and judges were
members.

The effect of World War 2

Millions of black Americans fought in WW2 and worked in the war factories. They hoped for more
equality when the war ended. It seemed ridiculous to them that America was fighting for freedom
and democracy in Europe, when there was so much inequality back home.

Voting rights
White people in the South found ways to stop black people from voting in elections:

 White gangs attacked black people at voting places

 Most states had a literacy test to register to vote. Black people were given a
much harder test than white people.
5
 Write definitions of these key terms.
1. Segregation:
2. __________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Jim Crow Laws:
4. __________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
5. ‘Separate but equal’:
6. __________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
7.

The Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s

8.

A civil rights activist is someone who campaigns for equal rights and encourages others to do the same.
In the 1950s, many people were fighting for an end to segregation.

WW2 persuaded some people

that blacks deserved more
rights. Black soldiers wanted the
Television made integration they saw abroad. Communities changed
people more aware as poor blacks moved
of news events and North and more liberal
racial inequality. whites moved South.

Why did the civil

rights
movement grow
in the 1950s?
Research showed New industries in the
that segregated South brought more
education harmed jobs for black people.
black children.

The Cold War made the US

government more sensitive to
criticism from other countries.

6
 Who was fighting for civil rights?

NAACP - National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

The NAACP focused on fighting for civil rights in the courts.

The NAACP knew it was vital that the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling was overthrown. They
had two ways of challenging Plessy:

 They showed that current facilities were not equal

 They argued that even if facilities were equal, segregation still harmed black peoples’
chances in life
They won most of the court cases they fought in the 1950s. However – winning a case didn’t
mean it was always enforced.

CORE - Congress of Racial Equality

CORE focused on fighting for civil rights through non-violent protest.

They used boycotts, pickets and sit-ins to get publicity for the civil rights movement. Its
members were taught not to react if they were arrested or attacked.
Although CORE was smaller than the NAACP and worked mainly in the North, its methods
influenced many local groups all over the country.

Church organisations

Black church leaders were often good speakers and could organise events well.
They stressed non-violence (like CORE) and forgiveness.
Some white people liked the church organisations because they were non-violent and often
willing to work with the segregated system. Others were suspicious of them because of how
well organised and well supported they were. Black churches were often targets for white
violence.

Others
• The Regional Council of Negro Leadership campaigned for
black rights within segregation and encouraged voter
registration. It held several annual civil rights rallies in the
1950s.
• Universities were often the sites of protests and rallies –
students and academics could speak well and were more
likely to be listened to.
7
 The Murder of Emmett Till (1955)

Emmett Till was a black teenager from Chicago who was murdered in
Mississippi in 1955. He was brutally beaten to death by a local shop
owner after allegedly making sexual comments to his wife.

Till’s murder became famous because his mother insisted on an open

casket viewing of the body, so that everyone could see his horrific injuries.
This led to huge publicity and shock.

People were even angrier when Till’s murderers were cleared of all charges – they later sold their
story to a magazine and admitted to the murder.
Some historians say that Till’s murder started the rapid growth of the civil rights movement.

Political Opposition to Civil Rights

‘Dixiecrats’ were Southern Democrat politicians who strongly believed

in segregation, and the rights of states to make their own laws.
Because there were so many of them in Congress, they constantly
blocked any laws that would give black Americans more rights.
Many local politicians (governors, mayors etc.) also supported
segregation. There were no black judges or juries. This meant that it
was very difficult for black people to get fair treatment or justice.

Match these speech bubbles with the correct person.

Our priority is to We believe in non- We will fight segregation We want segregation to

overturn the Plessy violence and through non-violent remain –the government
ruling. We will forgiveness. We can use protest such as boycotts shouldn’t tell individual
concentrate on our influence in the and pickets. It’s states what they can and
fighting for civil community to promote important not to fight can’t do. We’ll block any
rights in court. our message. back if we’re attacked. civil rights laws.

A CORE A Dixiecrat A NAACP A black church

member politician member member

8
 Education – The Brown Case (1954)

Linda Brown was a black girl from Topeka, Kansas who had to go to a
‘black’ school that was much further away than the nearest ‘white’ one.
In 1952 the NAACP took the case to the Supreme Court. It was called
Brown v. the Board of Education. They argued that segregated schools
went against the 14th Amendment (equal citizenship rights for all).
During the case Earl Warren was appointed as Chief Justice (head of the
Supreme Court). He did not support segregation.

What was the result of the case?

In 1954 the Supreme Court ruled that segregated education was unconstitutional. They said
that schools must desegregate.
However, they didn’t set a timescale for desegregation. A second case in 1955 (Brown II) simply
gave the vague order for schools to desegregate “with all deliberate speed”.

Why was the case significant?

 Brown reversed the Plessy ruling, and so sparked more legal cases for desegregation.
 The Southern ‘border’ states (those nearest the North) desegregated their schools.
 The case increased awareness of civil rights issues.

What limitations were there?

 Schools in the South refused to desegregate. Many

politicians called for ‘massive resistance’ to the ruling.
 Some people set up White Citizens’ Councils to fight for
segregation.
 Membership of the KKK grew, leading to more violence
against black families.
 11 Southern states signed the Southern Manifesto, which
rejected the Brown ruling and argued for segregation.
 There was racism in integrated schools, meaning black
children’s education often still suffered.
 Many areas only desegregated their schools partially, or
very slowly.

Many black people felt they were in a worse position after Brown. Though they had gained a
legal right, it was clearly difficult to make it work in practice.
9
 Education – Little Rock (1957)

In 1957, 25 black students were due to start at the

newly-segregated Little Rock High School in Arkansas.
Because of threats from white people, only 9 were
willing to go - known as the ‘Little Rock Nine’.

What happened at Little Rock?

The governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, was against desegregation.

He sent in 250 state troops to stop the black students from going
into the school. The NAACP arranged for the Little Rock Nine to
arrive together the next day.
When one of the 9 (Elizabeth Eckford) accidentally turned up
alone, the state troopers refused to protect her from the angry
mob. Over 250 reporters were there and the Little Rock Nine
became famous.

What did the government do?

Privately, President Eisenhower thought that enforced integration was a

bad idea. However, the bad publicity forced him to do something:

 He forced Faubus to remove his troops, but there were riots at the
school.
 Eisenhower signed a Presidential Order (which did not need
approval from Congress) to send over 1000 troops to Little Rock.
These troops were under federal (government) control, not Faubus’.
 This was so controversial that he went on TV to explain himself.

What happened next?

 The government troops stayed until the end of term to
protect the black students.
 However, black students continued to receive threats.
 The following school year (1958-9), Faubus closed every
school in Little Rock in order to stop integration from
happening.
 Because Little Rock was publicised across the world, the
government became more concerned about the image of the
USA abroad.

10
 The Brown Case
One of the places where segregation had the biggest impact was in education. Linda Brown was
a black girl from ________________ who had to travel miles each day to a ‘black only’ school. In
1952, the NAACP took her case to the __________________ __________. They argued that
segregated education made black children worse off, and was therefore
_____________________________.
The Head of the Supreme Court was _______ ________________ (who was not a supporter of
segregation) and in 1954 the Court ruled that all schools must be desegregated. This was a big
achievement for civil rights, as it overruled the 1896 ___________ ___ _______________ ruling.
However, the Brown ruling did not set any timescale for desegregation. As a result, many
schools in the South simply refused to desegregate or did so very slowly. Membership of the
____________ grew and many white people set up __________ _____________ ___________
to fight for segregation. Many black people felt in a worse position because of the racism and
______________________ produced by the Brown ruling.

Plessy v. Ferguson violence KKK Supreme Court

Kansas unconstitutional White Citizens’ Councils Earl Warren

Little Rock High School

Put the events of Little Rock

in the correct order.

________________________
________________________
E

11
 Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)

In 1955-56, a series of events led to the desegregation of buses in Montgomery, Alabama.

Rosa Parks is arrested

In December 1955 Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her bus
seat for a white man. In response, the Women’s Political Council (WPC) (a
local group set up to tackle discrimination) organised a one-day boycott of
the buses, hoping that it would get the bus companies to listen.
It was very successful - 90% of black people who usually took the bus
boycotted them.

Martin Luther King is involved

A few days later, the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was set
up. Martin Luther King was chosen as its leader because:

 He was new in Montgomery, so had no friends or enemies

 He was a clergyman
 He was well educated
 He believed in non-violent action

Opposition to the boycott

The bus companies refused to change their policies, so the MIA continued
the boycott. They arranged car pools so black people could still get to work.
The boycotters faced violence (MLK’s house was even bombed) but most of
them kept going. In February 1956 89 MIA members were arrested; King
was found guilty and had to pay a $500 fine.
The arrests and violence gained the boycotters lots of sympathetic
publicity.

The case goes to court

In 1956 the NAACP began a court case (Browder v. Gayle) to desegregate
Montgomery’s buses. The court decided that buses should be desegregated
– and the decision was upheld by the Supreme Court.
The MIA stopped the boycott in December 1956 and integrated services
began.

12
 Significant individuals Publicity

Martin Luther King was Leaflets, church services and

Why was the the local press made sure that
an excellent speaker,
Montgomery people knew about the
organiser and
bus boycott boycott. MIA meetings kept
motivator.
successful? everyone informed of what
Other people were was happening.
important too: Jo Ann
Robinson (president of
the WPC), E. D. Nixon
(an experienced NAACP Organisation
Commitment
campaigner) and Ralph
Existing groups (e.g. WPC)
Abernathy (a clergyman The boycotters kept going
already had good contacts.
who worked with King). despite the threats of
MIA co-ordinated everything.
violence and arrests.

Importance of the boycott

 It showed that civil rights campaigns could be successful if they

were well organised and publicised.
 It brought Martin Luther King into the spotlight.
 It highlighted the extreme reactions (violence, bombings etc.) of
some white people.
 It showed how non-violent direct action could be effective.

The boycott had achieved its aims, but threats against black campaigners and churches continued
and there was no immediate further segregation (even bus stops were still segregated).

What happened after the boycott?

:
In 1957 the Civil Rights Act was passed. It allowed the government
to prosecute states who interfered with people’s right to vote.
The act was a step forward, but there was still opposition:

 Dixiecrats tried their best to stop the act going through.

One politician spoke for 24 hours in Congress, so that they
ran out of time to vote on the bill (a tactic called a
filibuster).
 Even President Eisenhower spoke against it. He felt the
act was forcing change on people.
13
 The Southern Christian The SCLC was set up in 1957 to organise church-
Leadership Council (SCLC) based protest across the South. Its leaders
included Martin Luther King and Ralph Abernathy.
:
Its key features were:

 Protest against segregation

 Non-violent action
 Broad black and white membership
The SCLC’s first campaign focused on helping black
people register to vote.

Briefly sum up how each of these people was involved in the boycott and/or the events that followed.

Rosa Parks

Martin Luther King

President Eisenhower

14
 Section 1: Recap Questions

1. What nickname was given to the segregation laws in the Southern United States?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. What did the principle of ‘separate but equal’ mean?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. What was the Ku Klux Klan?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Give two reasons why the civil rights movement grew in the 1950s.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. How did the NAACP fight for civil rights?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6. What protest methods did CORE use?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
7. What happened to Emmett Till in 1955?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

15
8. What nickname was given to the Southern Democrat politicians who supported segregation?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
9. What decision did the Supreme Court make in the Brown case (1954)?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
10. What limitations were there to the Brown ruling?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
11. What did President Eisenhower do in response to events at Little Rock High School in 1957?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
12. When did the Montgomery bus boycott begin?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
13. What was the name of the court case for the desegregation of Montgomery’s buses?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
14. Give two reasons why the Montgomery bus boycott was successful.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
15. Privately, how did President Eisenhower feel about civil rights?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

16
 Section 2:

Protest, Progress and

Radicalism, 1960-75

17
 The Greensboro Sit-in (1960)

On 1st February 1960, 4 black students were asked to leave a segregated Woolworth’s lunch counter
in Greensboro, North Carolina. They refused and stayed seated (called a sit-in) until closing time.
The press reported the story and soon thousands of students were holding their own sit-ins across
the state. The sit-ins were very well-organised and the students were trained not to react when
attacked.

Greensboro was significant because:

 Young people and white people were inspired to

join in the protest.
 Sit-ins were a simple but effective tactic - they
were hard to ignore.
 It attracted lots of media attention.
 It inspired similar protests across the country.

In April 1960 the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC –

pronounced ‘snick’) was set up to plan student protests in the South. Its ideas
were based on the non-violent protest tactics of CORE and the SCLC.

The Freedom Riders (1961)

In 1961, a group of CORE activists decided to Washington DC

ride the buses from the North to the Deep
South to see if desegregation was actually
happening. These Freedom Rides began from Tennessee
Washington DC in May 1961. Anniston
Birmingham
Georgia
Alabama
The buses were firebombed in Anniston, Miss.

Alabama, and in the next city, Birmingham,

police chief Bull Connor told the police to
let the KKK beat the riders up.

More and more people (including SNCC) joined in, determined not to let the
racists win. There were over 60 Freedom Rides throughout the summer.
Violence usually flared up when they reached cities and the Riders were often
arrested for causing trouble. Over 300 went to jail in Jackson, Mississippi.

The Freedom Rides ended when the government said it would force
disobedient states to desegregate their bus facilities in November 1961.
18
 The James Meredith Case (1962)

In 1962, the Supreme Court ordered the University of Mississippi to accept

black student James Meredith. However, the state governor and several
university officials physically stopped Meredith from registering.
When about 500 federal officials arrived to help Meredith they were
attacked by a mob of over 3000. Violence broke out and hundreds of
people were injured.

President Kennedy eventually stopped the rioting by sending in federal troops. When Meredith
finally did register, troops stayed to guard him for the whole year.

Birmingham, Alabama (1963)

In 1963, SNCC, SCLC and others began Campaign C (for ‘confrontation’) in Birmingham, Alabama.
The campaign included sit-ins, boycotts and peaceful marches. Many protestors were arrested and
the local jails became full.

The campaigners chose Birmingham because they knew that its

police chief, Bull Connor, was easily provoked into using
violence. As predicted, Connor ordered the police to use dogs
and fire hoses on the protestors.
Photos and news reports of the event made the police look
bad, and people felt sympathy for the protestors.

March on Washington (28th August 1963)

After Birmingham, civil rights leaders planned a huge protest march on Washington DC, the location
of Congress and the White House. Over 250,000 people (40,000 of them white) took part.

The protest was peaceful and was broadcast live on TV around the
I have a world. Martin Luther King gave his famous “I have a dream” speech.
dream…
Significance:

 It showed there was massive support for civil rights

 Black and white people protested together
 MLK’s speech gained more support for the movement
 Famous people attended, e.g. Bob Dylan
 It was broadcast live around the world
19
 Freedom Summer (1964)

The Freedom Summer was organised by SNCC and CORE. Volunteers went to Mississippi to work on
projects in black communities - there was a strong focus on voter registration because 1964 was an
election year. In response, the KKK burned black homes and churches and beat up many volunteers.

The Mississippi murders

In June 1964, 3 volunteers – Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman
and James Chaney – were abducted and shot dead by the KKK.
Schwerner and Goodman were white. No one was charged for the
murders and the incident became a national scandal.

The Freedom Summer was successful in that it raised awareness of voter registration problems.
However – of 17,000 black people who tried to register to vote, only 1,600 succeeded.

Selma (1965)

In 1965, groups in Selma, Alabama, invited Martin Luther King and the SCLC to campaign there.
Selma had a large black population but only 1% of them were registered to vote.

About 600 protestors tried to march from Selma to Montgomery, but the
state troopers attacked them with tear gas and electric cattle prods. This
incident – called ‘Bloody Sunday’ - created bad headlines for the USA.
There were marches across the country in support of the Selma protestors,
and President Johnson ordered the National Guard to escort the marchers to
Montgomery (led by Martin Luther King).

There are several different civil rights groups to remember. Note down what each name stands for.

NAACP:
10. __________________________________________________________________________________________
11. CORE:
12. __________________________________________________________________________________________
13. SCLC:
14. __________________________________________________________________________________________
15. SNCC:
16. __________________________________________________________________________________________
20
17.
 What happened? Consequences/significance
GREENSBORO SIT-INS

There was lots of media publicity in favour of

(1960)

the protestors. It inspired more people all

across the country to take part in protests.
FREEDOM RIDERS
(1961)

Violence broke out when black student James

JAMES MEREDITH

Meredith tried to register at the University

(1962)

of Mississippi. President Kennedy had to send

in troops to restore peace.
ALABAMA (1963)

There was lots of publicity of the violence,

BIRMINGHAM,

which made the police look bad. People felt

sorry for the protestors.
WASHINGTON (1963)
MARCH ON

Volunteers worked on projects in black

FREEDOM SUMMER

communities in Mississippi, focusing

(1964)

especially on voter registration. 3 volunteers

were famously murdered by the KKK.

The violence of the state troopers made the

SELMA (1965)

USA look bad. President Johnson’s actions

showed government support for civil rights.

21
 Key Civil Rights Laws

 Banned segregation in public places

 Banned discrimination in voter registration tests
 Set up an Equal Opportunities Commission to deal with
job discrimination
The act made big changes in theory, but it did not stop
discrimination in practice.
Schools and businesses still found ways around desegregation,
and many black people were too scared to report their
complaints to the Equal Opportunities Commission.

 Made it illegal to prevent certain races from voting

 All states had to have the same voting registration
requirements. Discriminatory literacy tests were banned
 In states where voter registration was below 50%, federal
(government) officials were sent in to help
By the end of 1965, 79,593 voters had been registered with help
from the government officials.
However, many areas still didn’t want black people to vote. Black
people became more and more frustrated about how much the
civil rights campaign had actually improved their lives.

1964 Civil Rights Act 1965 Voting Rights Act

SUCCESSES
LIMITATIONS

22
 The Roles of Kennedy and Johnson

Presidents Kennedy and Johnson both

supported civil rights, but at the same time
they had to keep ordinary people and
Dixiecrat politicians happy.
Therefore, they generally got involved in civil
rights when things got out of hand.

KENNEDY 1961-63 JOHNSON 1963-69

 Appointed the first black Cabinet  Appointed first black judge (Thurgood
member (Robert Weaver) Marshall) to the Supreme Court
 Pushed for civil rights law but was  Passed the 1964 Civil Rights Act and
assassinated before it was passed 1965 Voting Rights Act
(1963)  Used executive orders to intervene,
 Used executive orders to intervene, e.g. in Selma 1965
e.g. in the James Meredith incident  Pressed Southern politicians to
support civil rights laws (he was from
the South himself)

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was a campaigner who belonged to the Nation of Islam (NOI).

Beliefs
The Nation of Islam had very radical beliefs. They were against integration and believed that a
separate state was needed for black people. Malcolm argued that non-violent action didn’t work.

In 1964 Malcolm left the NOI and started his own group. His views
softened and he became more willing to work with white people to
achieve integration. He set up the Organisation of African American
Unity and began to work with other civil rights groups.

Assassination
The NOI were angry at Malcolm for changing his beliefs. In February
1965, three NOI members shot him dead while he was making a speech
in New York.
After his death, people tended to focus more on his earlier beliefs
about black self-defence than his later change in attitude.
23
 Black Power

From 1963, more and more black people were disagreeing with non-violent direct action.
‘Black Power’ was a slogan used by black groups with more radical beliefs:

 They encouraged black people to be proud of their culture

 They rejected help from white people
 They were against forced integration
 They used militant (violent) language
 They were influenced by Malcolm X

The Black Power movement grew for several reasons:

 Slow progress: The Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts had not solved segregation. Non-
violence seemed to have done as much as it could.
 Continuing problems: Discrimination continued and ghetto conditions were getting worse.
 Pride: Black Power taught black people to be proud of their race.
 New protest issues: Attention was turning away from civil rights to new issues such as
Vietnam, poverty and employment.
 Results: Black Power groups often got results in their local areas.

Stokely Carmichael
Stokely Carmichael set up a party to represent black Americans, and he
became chairman of SNCC in 1966. He had previously believed in non-
violent direct action, but changed his views and began to bring more
Black Power campaigners into SNCC.

The March Against Fear, 1966

The March Against Fear was a protest march through Mississippi, led
by James Meredith, Martin Luther King and Stokely Carmichael. King
spoke in favour of non-violence, but Carmichael’s speeches were more
militant.
As CORE and SNCC became more radical, they lost many of their
original members.

The Mexico Olympics, 1968

At the 1968 Mexico Olympics, American athletes Tommie Smith and
John Carlos gave the Black Power salute as they received their medals.
This was very controversial and inspired many young people to join the
movement.

24
 The Black Panthers

The Black Panthers were one of the biggest Black Power groups. They were set up in 1966.
The Panthers believed that white police and officials did not support the black community – they
wanted black officials to work for their communities. Unlike many Black Power groups, they were
willing to work with white people who shared their beliefs.
The Panthers had a list of aims called their ‘Ten Point Programme’, and wore a black uniform.

 They patrolled the streets in black communities

 They pressured local authorities to improve facilities
 They carried guns for self-defence
 They ran courses on black history
 They ran breakfast clubs for poor black children

The Panthers helped to improve living conditions in black ghettos

– however, they also provoked the police and some of their
funding came from criminal activities.
Their leader Huey Newton was charged with murder in 1968.
This led to a massive ‘Free Huey’ campaign which encouraged
more people to join.

Note down the reasons why many black campaigners in the 1960s switched to the more radical
ideas of the Black Power movement.

 Non-violent tactics didn’t seem to be

getting anywhere.

25
 The Riots of 1964-7

Between 1964 and 1968 there were 329 major riots in cities across America, caused by the
problems that black people faced in city ghettos. They took place in the summer, when the heat
made ghetto conditions worse and tempers short.
The biggest riots were in the Watts area of Los Angeles (1965), Chicago (1966) and Detroit (1967).

Unemployment Government
discrimination
Black people mostly had low-
paid, unskilled jobs. They were City officials did little to
twice as likely to be tackle issues in black
unemployed. Why were ghettos.
there riots?

Police discrimination Poverty

The riots were usually sparked Black people often lived in
by a police shooting or violent Poor education cramped, poor-quality and
arrest of a black person. over-priced housing
Schools were rundown,
badly equipped and
poorly funded.

Impact of the riots:

 More people joined Black Power groups

 Some white people became more against equality
 They drew attention to problems in the ghettos
 President Johnson put more money into improving ghettos
 Martin Luther King decided to campaign in the North

The Kerner Report (1968)

President Johnson set up an enquiry into the riots. The Kerner Report said:

 The riots were caused by poor ghetto conditions, which were the result of discrimination
 White officials should do more to solve problems in black communities
 The police often made things worse, and needed to change how they treated black people
 The riots had been exaggerated in the media.

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By the mid-1960s, many black campaigners were becoming unconvinced by ________________
direct action. They felt a more ___________ approach was needed in the civil rights movement.
One of these people was Malcolm X. He was a member of the radical group Nation of
___________, who were against forced integration. Malcolm X changed his views towards the
end of his life, and began to work with white people and other civil rights groups. This led to his
assassination by three NOI members in _________.
Those who believed in more violent direct action used the slogan “_________ ________”. These
people generally rejected help from white people, encouraged black people to be proud of their
______________ and used __________________ language. One of the most famous of these
groups were the Black ___________________, who carried guns and wore black uniforms.
The discrimination and poor conditions faced by black people in ________________ led to a
number of city _________ in the 1960s, for instance in Watts, L.A. in 1965.

Islam Panthers non-violent ghettos radical

culture 1965 Black Power militant riots

King’s Campaign in the North (1966)

Following the Watts riots, Martin Luther King wanted to show that non-violent direct action could
still work. In 1966 he took the SCLC to campaign in Chicago.
The campaigners helped tenants to fight segregated housing, and Jesse Jackson organised boycotts
of white businesses (Operation Breadbasket). The SCLC organised marches in the city, but there
were a number of problems:

 Many of Chicago’s black politicians were against the campaign.

 The SCLC struggled to connect with the ghetto gangs in Chicago. Churches were not as
influential in northern city communities as they were in the South.
 Riots broke out before the marches began, and King’s appeals for calm were ignored.
 The publicity was not as great as expected.

Chicago’s Mayor, Richard Daley, sounded supportive in discussions but

did very little. When he agreed to enforce fairer housing standards,
King felt his job was done and left Chicago.
King spoke of the campaign as a success - but:

 There had been violence on both sides

 Daley ignored the agreement he had made about housing
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 King’s Assassination (1968)

Martin Luther King was shot dead in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4th 1968. In the following weeks:

 The ‘Poor People’s Campaign’, which he had been working on at the time of his death, went
ahead. It was a failure.
 There were riots in cities across America.
 The 1968 Civil Rights Act was passed. It included fairer
housing and protection for civil rights workers.

Long-term impact

 After King’s death, white opposition increased. He was

the person who white people most related to.
 Many black Americans became more radical. SNCC
changed its ‘N’ from ‘non-violent’ to ‘national’.

Progress 1969-1975

In the late 1960s protest began to change. The Vietnam War became the biggest issue. Many black
Americans were angry that civil rights had still not been achieved, yet they were expected to fight for
America. The boxer Muhammed Ali famously refused to fight in Vietnam.

President Nixon (1969-74)

 He encouraged black people to set up their own businesses and own their own homes.
 He encouraged ‘affirmative action’ – choosing a black person for a job over a white person.
 He put more black people in government, e.g. James Farmer (founder of CORE)
 In 1970 the Voting Rights Act was edited to ban literacy tests altogether.
 In 1975, it was edited to include other minorities (e.g. American Indians, Hispanics).

Although progress had been made since the 1950s, equality

had still not been achieved by 1975:

 Many black people still lived in ghettos

 Black people were still harassed by the police
 Most black Americans were paid less than white people
 Desegregation was not always beneficial to black people

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 Section 2: Recap Questions

1. Which protest organisation was set up shortly after the Greensboro sit-ins in 1960?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. What was the aim of the Freedom Rides?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. What did President Kennedy do in the James Meredith case?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Why did campaigners choose to campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. Give one reason why the 1963 March on Washington was successful.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6. What issue did the Freedom Summer focus on?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
7. Which President intervened in Selma in 1965?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
8. Give one limitation/weakness of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

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9. What did the 1965 Voting Rights Act do?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
10. Give one reason why the Black Power movement grew in the 1960s.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
11. According to the 1968 Kerner Report, what had caused the city riots in the 1960s?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
12. Give one reason why Martin Luther King’s 1966 campaign in Chicago was unsuccessful.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
13. When was Martin Luther King assassinated?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
14. Name one positive reform that President Nixon introduced for black Americans.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
15. Give one way in which equality had still not been achieved by 1975.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

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 Timeline – Civil Rights 1954-75

1896: Plessy v. Ferguson case – made segregation legal

1954: Brown case – rules that schools should be desegregated
1955: Murder of Emmett Till
1955: Rosa Parks arrested; beginning of Montgomery Bus Boycott
1957: Little Rock High School crisis
1957: SCLC founded
1957: Civil Rights Act - allowed government to prosecute states
which interfered with voting rights
1960: Greensboro sit-in
1960: SNCC set up
1961: Kennedy becomes President
1961: Freedom Rides
1962: James Meredith case
1963: Campaign in Birmingham, Alabama
1963: March on Washington; MLK gives his “I have a dream” speech
1963: Kennedy assassinated; Johnson becomes President
1964: Freedom Summer
1964: Civil Rights Act – banned segregation of public places
1965: Malcolm X assassinated
1965: Campaign in Selma
1965: Voting Rights Act – banned discrimination in voting
1965: Riots in Watts, LA
1966: March Against Fear
1966: Black Panthers set up
1966: King’s Campaign in Chicago
1968: Martin Luther King assassinated
1968: Kerner Report on riots
1968: Tommie Smith and John Carlos give Black Power Salute at
Mexico Olympics
1969: Nixon becomes President

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