DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J–Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module-IV Lecture

Concepts of Electrical measurements & Two point probe technique

21PYB102J, Unit-IV, Lecture-37

1
 Concepts of Electrical measurements

General Introduction:

Electrical property of the materials is one of the most important properties, which helps to
classify the materials. For instance, solids may be classified in terms of their resistivity or
conductivity as conductors, semiconductors or insulators.

Ohm's law: If physical conditions such as temperature, stress, strain remains unchanged in
the materials, then potential difference (V) across two ends of a conductor is proportional
to current (I) flowing through a conductor, i.e.,
V ∝ I (or)
V=IR
The constant of proportionality, R, is called resistance of the material.

Resistivity (ohm meter or rho):

At a given constant temperature, the resistance R of the conductor is (i) proportional to its
length (L) and (ii) inversely proportional to its area of cross-section (A), i.e.,
R ∝ L / A (or) R=ρL/A
Resistivity is important for devices because it contributes to the device series resistance,
capacitance, threshold voltage, hot carrier degradation of MOS devices, latch up of CMOS
circuits, and other parameters.
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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-37
Conductance-Conductivity Unit: Ohm Meter

Resistance (R=V/I) –Resistivity Rho=E/J

*Not for Exam
⮚ A material’s conductivity, σ, (or the inverse property, resistivity, ρ = 1/σ), relates to its ability to
conduct electricity. In metals, conduction of electricity is tantamount to conduction of
electrons, which depends on charge density and on scattering of the electrons by the crystal
lattice (phonons) or by lattice imperfections.

⮚ In semiconductors, conductivity is determined by the number of available charge carriers

(electrons or holes) and the carrier mobility (σ = J/E = ne μ). Because of the different
mechanisms for conductivity, its dependence on temperature also differs. Conductivity
increases with increasing temperature for semiconductors (more carriers are generated) and it
decreases with increasing temperature for metals (more scattering by the lattice).

⮚ Conductivity also depends on physical structure. In crystals, the crystal type and orientation
affect conductivity because the electronic structure is intimately tied to the crystal structure.
The size of the crystallites (grains) in polycrystalline materials is also important as it affects the
scattering of carriers, and, at very small sizes may also affect electronic structure.

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-37
Concepts of Electrical measurements

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-37
 I-V Characteristics in a Diode

Resistivity is important for devices because it contributes to the device series resistance,
capacitance, threshold voltage, hot carrier degradation of MOS devices, latch up of CMOS
circuits, and other parameters. The wafers resistivity is usually modified locally during device
processing by diffusion and ion implantation.

Two general methods involved for measuring the resistance of the materials are:

(i) Two point probe method

(ii) Four point probe method

linear method & Van der pauw method

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-37
 Two-probe method:

Let us consider a rectangular bar of length l, height h and

width w as shown in figure. copper wire are attached
both ends of the bar.
i

The resistivity of the bar can be measured by measuring

voltage drop across the wire due to passage of known
current supplied by the battery E through the probes 1
and 2. The potential difference (V) between the two
contacts at the ends of the bar can be measured by a
voltmeter. Therefore, the resistivity of the wire is, i.e.,

In general, we use a multimeter for measuring the resistance of the materials. The typical
range of resistance measured using the multimeter is 1 Ω to 2 MΩ, but varies with the models
and company.

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-37
While the two-probe method is a simple and advantageous method for measuring
resistance above 1Ω directly, this method suffers from certain issues.

Two-probe method:

❖ Error due to contact resistance of the measuring leads,

❖ Materials having random shapes,
❖ Soldering of the test leads on some materials would be difficult,
❖ Heating of the leads during soldering may inject additional impurities in materials
such as semiconductors and thereby affecting the intrinsic electrical resistivity
largely.

In order to overcome the above problems, four-probe method is widely proposed.

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-37
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Unit -IV

Lecture-38

Four-point probe technique-linear method & Van der Pauw method

21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38 9

Four-probe method:

This method provides the measurement of the

resistivity of the specimen having the wide variety
of shapes but with uniform cross-section.
The soldering contacts proposed in two-probe
method are replaced by pressure contacts to
eliminate the last two problems summarized
above.
In this method, four probes are utilized to measure
the resistance of the samples. For example, two of
the outer probes are used to send the current from
the source meter and other two inner probes are
used to measure the voltage drop across the
sample.
The typical set up of the four-probe method is
shown in Figure. There are four equally spaced
tungsten metal tips supported by springs at one
end to mount the sample surface without any
damage.

21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38 10

Two common techniques used in four-probe
method are (i) Four-point collinear probe
method and (ii) van der Pauw method.

A high impedance current source is used to

supply current through the outer two probes,
which sets up an electric field in the sample.
The potential difference developed across Schematic of four-point collinear
the inner probes, which draw no current due probe method.
to the high input impedance voltmeter in the
circuit, is measured through two inner
probes.

Four-point collinear probe method:

This is the most common way of measuring the
resistivity of a material, which involves four
equally spaced probes as shown in Figure, in Schematic of four-point collinear
contact with a materials of unknown resistance. probe method on bulk material.
This method can be used either in bulk or thin
film specimen.
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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38
 Four-point collinear probe method: For Bulk:

Consider a bulk material as shown in Figure , where the thickness (t) of

the materials is much higher than the space between the probes (s),
then the differential resistance due to spherical protrusion of current
emanating from the outer probe tips is

Carrying out the integration between the inner probe tips,

where probe spacing is uniform. Due to the superposition of current at outer tips, R = V / (2I ).
Therefore,

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38
 Four-probe method: For Thin sheet:

For a very thin layer as shown in Figure, where the thickness of the sheet t << the space
between the probes, s, we can get current rings instead of spheres. Therefore, the
expression for the area is A = 2πx.t. Therefore, the derivation for resistance turns out to be:

where probe spacing is uniform. Due to the superposition

of current at outer tips, R = V / (2I ). Therefore, Schematic of four-point
collinear probe method on thin
sheet.

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38
 van der Pauw method

⮚ The van der Pauw method is a technique commonly used to measure the resistivity and the
Hall coefficient of a sample. There are five conditions that must be satisfied to use this
technique:
⮚ The sample must have a flat shape of uniform thickness. The sample must not have any
isolated holes. The sample must be homogeneous and isotropic.
⮚ All four contacts must be located at the edges of the sample. The area of contact of any
individual contact should be at least an order of magnitude smaller than the area of the
entire sample.
⮚ In order to use the van der Pauw method, the sample thickness must be much less than
the width and length of the sample. In order to reduce errors in the calculations, it is
preferable that the sample be symmetrical. There must also be no isolated holes within the
sample.

Make four ohmic contact with 8 periphery.

The contacts are numbered from 1 to 4 in

a counter-clockwise order, beginning at
the top-left contact.

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21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38
 The resistivity can be derived from a total of eight measurements that are made
around the periphery of the sample with the configurations shown in Figure.

Once all the voltage measurements are

taken, two values of resistivity, ρA and ρB,
are derived as follows:
RA

RB

RA RB

where: ρA and ρB are volume resistivity in ohm-cm; ts is the sample thickness in cm; V1–V8
represents the voltages measured by the voltmeter; I is the current through the sample in
amperes; fA and fB are geometrical factors based on sample symmetry. They are related to the two
resistance ratios QA and QB as shown in the following equations (fA = fB = 1 for perfect symmetry).

21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38 15

Once ρA and ρB are known, the average resistivity (ρAVG) can be determined as follows:
ρAVG = (ρA+ ρB)/2

Following properties of a material can be measured by this method:

1. Resistivity 2. doping type (p- or n-type)
3. sheet density of majority carriers (majority carriers per unit area)
4. charge density and doping level. 5. mobility of majority carriers.

Advantage of four probe method over two probe method

Four point probe is preferred than two-point probe as the contact and spreading
resistances in two point probe are large and the true resistivity cannot be actually
separated from measured resistivity. In the four probe method, contact and
spreading resistances are very low with voltage probes and hence accuracy in
measurement is usually very high. To measure very low resistance values, four probe
method is used. The resistance of probe will be not be added to that of sample being
tested. It uses two wires to inject current in the resistance and another two wires to
measure the drop against the resistance.

21PYB102J Unit IV Lecture-38 16

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and computational methods

MODULE IV- LECTURE 3

HALL EFFECT

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
Definition

When a piece of conductor (metal or

Semiconductor) carrying current is placed

in a transverse magnetic field, an electric

field is produced inside the conductor in a

direction normal to both the current and the

magnetic field. This phenomenon is known

as the Hall Effect and the generated voltage

is called the Hall voltage.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
Explanation:

Consider a conventional current flow through

the strip along OX and a magnetic field if

induction B is applied along axis OY.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
Case – I If the Material is N-type Semi- Conductor (or) Metal

• If the strip is made up of metal or N-type semiconductor, the charge carriers in the strip

will be electrons.

•As conventional current flows along OX, the electrons must be moving along XO. If the

velocity of the electrons is ‘v’ and charge of the electrons is ‘-e’, the force on the

electrons due to the magnetic field is,

•F= - Bev, which acts along OZ. This causes the electrons to be deflected and so the

electrons accumulate at the face ABEF.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
• Thus, face ABEF will become negative and the face OCDG becomes positive. A

potential difference is therefore established across faces ABEF and OCDG., causing

a field EH.

• This field gives rise to a force of ‘ –eEH’ on the electrons in the opposite direction

(i.e, in the negative Z direction).

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
At equilibrium , eEH = Bev (or) EH = Bv (1)

If J is the current density, then , J= -nev (2)

Where ‘n ‘ is the concentration of current carriers,

From equ. (2)

v= J/-ne (3)

Substituting the value of v in equ. (1) we get,

EH = BJ/-ne (4) .

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
• The Hall Effect is described by means of the Hall coefficient ‘RH ‘ in terms of current

density ‘ J’ by the relation,

EH = RHBJ

(or) RH = EH / BJ (5)

By substituting the value of EH from equ. (4) we get,

RH = BJ/ -neBJ = - 1/ne (6)

• Since all the three quantities EH, J and B are measurable , the Hall coefficient RH and

hence the carrier density ‘n’ can be found out.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
 Case – (ii) If the material is a P-type semiconductor

If the strip is a P- type semiconductor, the charge carriers in the strip will be holes i.e.,

positively charged particles. The holes will constitute current in the direction of

conventional current. Therefore, holes move along the direction of the conventional current

itself i.e., along OX. If ‘e’ is the charge of the hole, the force experienced by the holes due

to magnetic field is , F= Bev, which acts along OZ. This causes the holes to accumulate on

the face ABEF- making it positive and leaving the face OCDG as negative.

Therefore , for a P-type semiconductor, RH = 1/pe (7)

Where p= the density of holes.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
Determination of Hall Coefficient

The Hall coefficient is determined by measuring the Hall voltage that generates the Hall
field.

If ‘w’ is the width of the sample across which the Hall voltage is measured, then

EH = VH/ w (8)

We know that RH = EH / BJ (9)

Substituting the value of EH in the above equation, we get,

RH = VH / wBJ

(or)

VH = RH w BJ (10)
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
If the thickness of the sample is ‘t’ , then its cross sectional area A= wt, and the
current density,

J= I/A = I/wt (11)

Substitute the value of ‘ J’ in equation (11) , we get

VH = RH w B*I / wt = RH I B /t

(or) RH = VH t / IB (12)

VH will be opposite in sign for P and N type semiconductors

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
 Experiment
A rectangular slab of the given material having thickness ‘t’ and width ‘w’ is
taken . A current of ‘I’ amperes is passed through this sample by connecting it to a battery,
‘Ba’. The sample is placed between two pole pieces of an electromagnet such that the field
‘B’ is perpendicular to I as shown in the experimental setup.

The Hall voltage ‘ VH’ is then measured by placing two probes at the two side faces of the
slab. If the magnetic flux density is ‘B’ and ‘VH’ is the hall voltage, then the Hall
coefficient.

RH = VH t / IB (m3 /coulomb)

For n-type material, σn =neµe (or) µe = σn / ne = - σn . RH

For p-type material, σp=peµe (or) µp = σp / pe = - σp . RH

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
 28
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
Applications of Hall effect:

(1) Determination of type of semiconductor

For a N-type semiconductor, the Hall coefficient is negative whereas for a P-type semiconductor, it is
positive. Thus from the direction of the Hall voltage developed, one can find out the type of
semiconductor.

(2) Calculation of carrier concentration

Once Hall coefficient RH is measured, the carrier concentration can be obtained from,

n = 1/eRH or p= 1/eRH

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3
(3). Determination of mobility

We know that, conductivity, σn =neµe (or) µe = σn /ne = - σn RH

Also σp =peµh or µh = σp /pe = σp RH . Thus by measuring σ and RH, µ can be

calculated.

(4) Measurement of magnetic flux density:

Using a semiconductor sample of known ‘RH ‘ the magnetic flux density can

be deduced from RH = VH t/ BI or B = VH t / RH I

21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-3 30

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
18PYB103J –Semiconduuctor Physics

Module IV & Lecture 4

Solving Problem

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-4
Problem 1:

Compute the resistivity of the given material whose resistance is 2Ω; area of
cross-section and length are 25cm2 and 15cm respectively?
Answer:
Given
R = 2Ω
l = 15cm = 0.15m
A = 25cm2 = 0.25m2

Resistivity formula is

Problem 2:

The length and area of wire are given as 0.2 m and 0.5 m2 respectively.
The resistance of that wire is 3 Ω, Calculate the resistivity?

Ans: 7.5 Ωm
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-4
Problem 3:

Calculate the resistivity of a rectangular Germanium crystal of area S= 100 cm2

connected through Four probe if a current of 2 mA passed through it generates
a voltage of 180 mV at 35 0C.

ρ =(V/I) X 2πS
=(180/2)X 2X3.14X 10-2
=565.2X10-2 =5.652 Ω⋅m

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-4
4. A silicon plate of thickness 1 mm, breath 10mm and length 100mm is placed in a magnetic field

of 0.5 Wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness. If 10-2 A current flows along its length, calculate

the Hall voltage developed if the Hall coefficient is 3.66x 10-4 m3 / coulomb.

Given Data:

t= 1mm; w= 10mm ; L = 100 mm ; B = 0.5 Wb/m2 ; I = 10-2 A ; RH = 3.66x 10-4 m3 / coulomb.

Solution:

Hall coefficient R = VH t/ IB

VH = RHIB/t

= 3.66x 10-4 x 10-2 x 0.5 / 1x103

= 1.83x 10-3 V = 1.83 mV

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-4
Exercise:

1.A semiconducting crystal 12mm long, 5mm wide and 1mm thick has a magnetic flux

density of 0.5 Wb/m2 applied from front to back perpendicular to largest faces.When a

current of 20mA flows lengthwise through the specimen , the voltage measured across

its width is found to be 37 µV . What is the Hall coefficient of this semiconductor?

Ans: RH = 3.7X 10-6 C-1m3

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-4
2. A n-type semiconductor has Hall coefficient = 4.16 x10 -4 m3c-1. The

conductivity is 108 ohm-1m-1. Calculate its charge carrier density ne and electron

mobility at room temperature.

Ans : ne = 1.77 x 10-22 m-3 ; µe = 0.0038m2v-1s-1

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-4
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module –IV ; LECTURE - 41

HOT PROBE METHOD FOR SEMICONDUCTOR THIN FILM

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
∙ Physical properties of thin films significantly differ from those of bulk
material

∙ There are various parameters such as a thickness, crystal structure,

composition and other, which characterize a semiconductor film

∙ The parameters of charge carriers are

(a) Type of semiconductor,

(b) Impurities concentration,
(c) Mobility of charged carriers,
(d) Diffusion coefficient.
Define the possibility to apply material for various electronic devices

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 Principle:
•A conventional Hot-Probe experiment enables a
simple and efficient way to distinguish between
n-type and p-type semiconductors using a hot
probe and a standard multi- meter.

∙ While applying the cold and hot probes to an

n-type semiconductor, positive voltage
readout is obtained in the meter, whereas for
a p- type semiconductor, negative voltage is
obtained.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 Experiment:

∙ A couple of a cold probe and a hot probe are attached to the semiconductor film
surface.
∙ The hot probe is connected to the positive terminal of the multimeter while the
cold probe is connected to the negative terminal.

∙ The thermally excited majority free charged carriers are translated within the
semiconductor from the hot probe to the cold probe.
∙ Mechanism for this motion within the semiconductor is of a diffusion type since
the material is uniformly doped due to the constant heating in the hot probe
contact.
∙ These translated majority carriers define the electrical potential sign of the
measured current in the multimeter
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
∙ The Hot-Probe measurement may be described as a three-step process:
(1) the heated probe excites additional free charged carriers of two
types(electron and hole)
(2) The hot majority carriers begin to leave the heated part of the
semiconductor surface by a diffusion mechanism. Simultaneously, a built-
in electrical field is created between the electrodes and the second
(cold) electrode is warmed as well. This warming and the built-in
electrical field tend to prevent the diffusion process up to a halt at a steady
state. This steady state condition exists until the heated source is switched
off.
(3) The third process is actually a recombination of the excited additional
charged carriers.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 42
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 Steady state
Generation

Recombination

(b) thermally treated film of N-type (a) As deposited film of P-type

Hot-probe characteristics for vanadium oxide thin films deposited on the

oxidized silicon surface by thermal evaporation.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 Capacitance-Voltage measurements

∙ Hillibrand and Gold (1960) first described the use of capacitance –voltage
(C-V) methods to determine the majority carrier concentration in
semiconductors.
∙ C-V measurements are capable of yielding quantitative information about
the diffusion potential and doping concentration in semiconductor materials.
∙ The technique employs PN-junctions, metal- semiconductor junctions
(Schottky barriers), electrolyte –semiconductor junction MIS (metal
insulator semiconductor) field effect semiconductors.

∙ C-V measurements yield accurate information about the doping

concentrations of majority carriers as a function of distance (depth) from the
junction.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 Principle:

• The capacitance at an p-n or metal –semiconductor junctions depends on the properties

of the charge- depletion layer formed at the junction
• The depletion regions is the vicinity of the PN junction and is “ depleted” of free
carriers due to the drift field required to maintain charge neutrality.
Experiment
• As shown in figure an abrupt pn junction is considered.
• The bandgap of the semiconductor EG = Ec – EV is defined by the difference between
the conduction band energy Ec and the valance band energy EV .
• The fermi energy EF defines the equilibrium condition for the charge neutrality.
• The difference in energy between the conduction band as one crosses the PN
junction is called the diffusion potential, Vbi (built-in- potential).

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
∙ Abrupt PN junction in thermal equilibrium (no bias).
∙ A. Space charge distribution in the depletion approximation.
The dashed lines indicate the majority carrier distribution tails.
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
∙ B. Electric field across the depletion region
∙ C. Potential distribution due to the electric field where Vbi is the (built –in)
diffusion potential
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 48
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
∙ In this region from Poisson’s equations

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
 50
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-41
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module- IV S8 - Lecture-42

Extraction Parameters & I-V Characteristic of PN Junction Diode

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
 PN Junction Diode
➢ if we join P-type and N-type semiconductor materials together they behave in
a very different way and producing what is generally known as a “PN
Junction“.

➢ The charge transfer of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known
as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on how heavily each
side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.

➢ Due to diffusion processes potential barrier is formed around the area of the
junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the
electrons.

➢ At room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about
0.6 – 0.7 volts and for germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts. This potential
barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected to any
external power source, as seen in diodes.
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
 I-V Characteristics in a Diode

➢ A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around,

and which has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only.
However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect
to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-
V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by simply
using an equation such as Ohm’s law.

➢ If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of
the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy
they require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the
PN junction is decreased.

➢ By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being
pulled away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being
increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective
resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the
diode. 53
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
➢When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative
voltage is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to
the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of
the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current
will start to flow.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
 55
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
➢ Due to forward biasing the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards
the junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes
being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive
voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this
voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current
flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage.

➢ The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on
the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

➢ Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it
effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with
the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current
specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than
it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.
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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
➢ When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is
applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type
material.

➢ The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of
electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator.
The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current
from flowing through the semiconductor material.

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21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
➢ This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and
practically zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase
in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does flow through
the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, (μA).

➢ if the reverse bias voltage applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently

high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and
fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the
diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit
current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

➢ When the reverse voltage is increased beyond the limit, then the reverse
current increases drastically. This particular voltage that causes the drastic
change in reverse current is called Reverse Breakdown voltage. Diode
breakdown occurs by two mechanisms: Avalanche breakdown and Zener
breakdown. 58
21PYB102J Module-IV Lecture-42
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND
NANOTECHNOLOGY SRM
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics

INSTITUTE OFLecture SCIENCE

-43 AND
TECHNOLOGY
Introduction of TCAD in basic level

5
21PYB102J Module-I Lecture-31 9
 Technology Computer-Aided Design
(TCAD)
I. TCAD is a computer simulation technique that is widely used in the semiconductor industry to
design, optimize, and analyze semiconductor devices and processes. It is a numerical modeling
method for semiconductor devices.

I. TCAD is a branch of Electronic Design Automation (EDA) that models semiconductor fabrication
and semiconductor device operation. TCAD software solutions are key to developing new
semiconductor processes and devices, dramatically reducing costs and time to market.

I. Objectives:

❖ Understand quantitatively how fundamental material parameters vary in semiconductor, e.g.

band gap, electron affinity, dielectric constant.

❖ Understand relationships between various potentials and energies important for understanding
device operation.

❖ Understand how biasing affects various potentials and energies at device terminals / ohmic
contacts.

21PYB102J Module-I Lecture-31

TCAD types : The modeling of the fabrication is termed Process TCAD,
while the modeling of the device operation is termed Device TCAD.

• Process TCAD
• Modeling of semiconductor-chip process-manufacturing steps like lithography, deposition, etching, ion
implantation, diffusion, oxidation, silicidation, mechanical stress, etc.

• Requires detailed modeling of the physical principles of manufacturing, Calibration of models needs
expensive experiments (ad-hoc wafer fabrication)

• Device TCAD
• Modeling of electrical, thermal, optical and mechanical behavior of semiconductor devices (e.g.,
diode, BJT (bipolar junction transistor ), MOSFET, solar cell,…). (metal oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistor).

• Focuses on the physical principles at the basis of carrier transport and of optical generation in
semiconductor devices. Models are more easily generalized than for process physics
Principle tools inside TCAD
device simulation suites with
input and output files.

Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis (SPICE)

S.Shamsir et al.,
G. Betti Beneventi et al.
Advantages of TCAD
I. The device features can be optimized if hands-on
calculations are too complicated or impose
unacceptable assumptions.

I. It helps to make predictions (scaling, new device

concepts) when hands-on calculations are not
viable (e.g., complex devices, modeling of
distributed statistical effects or process yield).

I. To get insights. No real experiment will probably