1.1. Location, Climate and biomes.

Content a) Position of Pakistan in South Asia and globally, and regional variations in climatic zones (humid
subtropical, desert/ semi-arid, temperate and Mediterranean).
LOCATION OF PAKISTAN
● 24 - 37 degrees north latitude
● 61 - 78 degrees east longitude
● Total Area Covered: 796,096 sq km
● 1600 km from north to south
● 885 km from east to west
● Shared Borders:

Location Neighboring Country

West Afghanistan

South Arabian Sea

North-west Afghanistan

North-east China

South-west Iran

East India
IMPORTANCE OF LOCATION
● Karachi and Gwadar seaports can provide sea access to landlocked areas.
● Central Trading position by sea due to coastline.
● Huge reserves of natural resources:
○ Coal: Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan
○ Oil: Lower Sindh, Potwar Plateau
○ Gold: Balochistan (Reko Diq Mines)
○ Minerals: KPK (gem-stones), Balochistan
○ Salt: Khewra Salt Mines, Salt Ranges
CLIMATIC ZONES OF PAKISTAN

1) Mediterranean Climate (Csa, Csb)

a) hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter
b) average temperature in winter below 10°C and
3 summer is around 25° C
c) annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm
d) under the influence of westerly wind in winter and
subtropical high in summer.
e) Highest avg temperatures in Pakistan during
4 summers above 50℃.
f) Dry climate.
g) Day-night temperature difference.
h) poor planning, misuse of natural resources and
improper development strategies have pushed this
area down in economic development.
2) Semi-Arid/Desert Climates
a) ARID:
i) Kharan, Thar, Thal, Cholistan.
ii) 40℃ and above average temperature
iii) Hot and dry summers
iv) Low rainfall
(1) Insufficient for economic activity
v) Dust storms
vi) Nomadic Lifestyle Due to absence of pasture and water.
vii) Livestock farming is done here.
viii) Small scale industries.
ix) Low population density.
x) Potential of mineral mining but due to climate, govt priority, low wage rates, this potential is not
reached.
b) SEMI-ARID:
i) Punjab, Sindh (Indus Plain / Indus River Basin)
ii) 20-25℃ avg temp
iii) Warm temperatures in summer
iv) Low and cool winters
v) Moderate rainfall from south-west monsoon winds, 20-70 cm avg annual precipitation.
vi) High population density
vii) High business opportunity and economics potential:
(1) Ideal conditions for agriculture due to rivers (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej),
canal irrigation system, all four seasons allow all sorts of crops to be grown.
(2) Agriculture is active throughout the year, as of 2021 it made up 22.96% of Pakistan’s
GDP.
(3) Kharif Crops (Planted summer, harvested winter):Rice, millet, maize, cotton (further
makes textile industry, making up about 3.4% of pakistan’s GDP).
(4) Rabi Crops (Planted winter, harvested early summer): What, Barley, Pulses.
(5) Heavy rainfall due to south-western monsoon rain.
(6) Textile, Chemical industries are present here which have a large domestic and foreign
market.
(7) Development of transport allows economic activity: M-2 Motorway, Railway, allama
iqbal international airport.
(8) Easier provision of infrastructure facilities.

3) Humid - Subtropical Climate (Cfa)

a) annual average of precipitation stretches from 75-150 cm
b) Precipitation through monsoon winds (both summers and winters)
c) Thunderstorms are usual in summers.
d) average monthly temperature in winter it differs from 5°-12° C and in summer is about 27°C
e) hot and humid summers, and cool to mild winters.
f) Islamabad, Potwar Plateau, Rawalpindi are all under this climate.
g) Called ‘Barani’ lands as they are fed through rain only.
h) Rice is grown in southern parts of this climate zone.
i) Rugged landscape of the potwar plateau does not allow canal irrigation, so agriculture depends on
rainfall.
j) Maize, barley, are grown here.
 k) Agriculture contributes to the economy.
l) Rich in non-metallic materials: limestone, marble, rock salt (khewra salt mines), clays provides raw
material.
m) Oil (attock oil refinery) and gas fields are located in this region.
n) High business opportunity and economic potential due to urbanisation (islamabad)
o) High population density.

4) Continental/Temperate Climate
a) Cold winters:
i) Below zero
ii) Precipitation in form of snow
iii) Farming is not possible
iv) Landslides and heavy rainfall hamper transport links
v) Transhumance: moving flocks up to cool highland during summer and ack to plain areas in winter.
b) Mild to warm summers.
c) Limited job opportunity.
d) People are involved in indoor activities like carpet weaving. Embroidery work, pottery etc.
e) Terrace farming is done here.
f) Mining potential.
g) Includes north mountains, KPK, peshawar (extensive woodlands, orchards)
h) Sparsely populated
i) Little rainfall (northeast monsoon)

Content b) The nature and causes of seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature, including the
characteristics and causes of the Southwest Monsoon and Western Disturbances.
There are four climatic elements responsible for seasonal variations in
the climate of Pakistan
➢ Temperature
➢ Rainfall
➢ Pressure
➢ Winds
SOURCES OF RAINFALL
1. Monsoon Winds:
a. South-west monsoon: giant sea breezes which bring heavy rainfall. The rain begins when summer sun
heats up tropical continents much faster than the oceans around. Warm air rising over and creates a low
pressure area, which attracts cool, moist air from the sea, and rain-bearing winds are gradually pushed
farther inland.
b. North-east: Blow from land towards sea. During winter, a high-pressure area is created over the tropic of
cancer. Winds blow from land to sea, which is a low pressure area. These winds are mostly dry and bring
no significant change because they originate in a dry area.
2. Western Depressions:
Western depressions are the cyclones which originate in the mediterranean sea, travel across afghanistan and iran
then reach the western areas of pakistan. After striking the north-western areas, such as peshawar and northern
pakistan these winds move towards western and south-western parts. By the time they reach to south-western
Balochistan, they are robbed of their moisture These winds cause the rainfall in these areas from december to
march. For example, Quetta receives most of its rainfall during the winter seasons.
 3. Convectional Rain: At the start of summer, hot air rises up which contains high moisture content. When it
reaches the higher layers of the atmosphere, condensation takes place. This causes rainfall, often known as
thunderstorms. Strong winds accompanying the storms may pick up dust as well.

4. Relief Rainfall: Relief rainfall is related to the height of land. It occurs where moist unstable air moves up a
mountain or scarp edge, and it is chilled. This chilling causes heavy condensation and precipitation, on the
windward side. The lee slopes tend to receive sinking, warming air, and a dry ‘rain shadow’ area may lie on the
leeward of the barrier.

VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE
(FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE)
1. Latitudinal Effect and Angle of the Sun: Temperature and rainfall are both dependent either directly or
indirectly on the influence of the sun. The sun’s influence varies from place to place due to factors like angle of
sun at a particular place As it is evident the Polar Regions or regions far away from the Equator are generally
cooler than the ones nearer the Equator. This is because for solar radiation to reach the poles and heat them it has
to travel a larger distance in space, thus it loses its intensity (energy). Also near the poles the radiation arrives at
an oblique angle so solar energy spreads over a large area. Since Pakistan lies in subtropical areas it does receive
most of intense solar radiation concentrated on a small area thus the temperature in general is warmer. So in
general terms Faisalabad will be cooler than say Hyderabad
2. Altitude: The temperature is highly dependent on altitude, air density and temperature.the air is densest at sea
level due to water vapour ,dust particles and solar radiation and least dense at high altitude because of less solar
radiation is absorbed with less air to absorb heat .there is an average drop of 6.5 C in temperature for each 1000
metre increase in altitude.
3. Cloud cover: Temperatures decrease when clouds appear and block out the Sun’s rays, which are then reflected
back into space. However cloud formation only takes place when air contains sufficient moisture and has been
sufficiently cooled. Thus cloudy days are much cooler than sunny days during the same months.
4. Continental Effect: It refers to all those areas having distance from the sea(interior region) hence does not gets
maritime influence of the sea on temperature therefore the temperature is never moderate hence extreme winters
and summers are recorded.

Content c) Distribution and characteristics of large-scale ecosystems (i.e. biomes).

● ECOSYSTEM: small scale community of living and nonliving things, plants and animals.
● BIOME: Global community of living and nonliving things, separate ecosystems put together, large scale.

PAKISTAN’S ECOREGIONS:
(1) Himalayan subtropical pine forest
(a) Starts in Pakistan, enters Nepal and India.
(b) Flora and Fauna: Pine trees, Chir, tigers, leopards.
(c) Part of the Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forest Biome.
(d) Eastern parts receive more rainfall from monsoon rains.
(2) Indus Valley Desert Biome
(a) Sindh- Sagar Doab
(b) Desert Climate
(c) Shrubs and Bushes for vegetation
(d) Nomadic lifestyle
(e) Camels are found here
(f) Deficiency of water
(g) Sand dunes
(h) Indian Leopards, hyenas
(3) Indus River Delta
(a) Defined by mangrove trees(mangrove biome)
(b) Located on sindh coast
(c) 100-500mm rain annually.
(d) Summer temperatures up to 50℃
(e) Mangrove trees are dominant due to salt water
(f) Extensive irrigation
(g) Pollution
(h) a fan-shaped delta forms an extensive system of swamps, mudflats, creeks, estuaries, marshes and
mangroves forests.
(i) critical habitat for numerous species of fishes and shellfishes, especially as a spawning ground and
nursery for the larvae and juveniles.
(j) Near freezing in winters
(k) Mangrove vegetation, in general, is not as biologically diverse as other terrestrial broadleaf forests. But
they are structurally quite complex, with a dense canopy and an undergrowth of seedlings and saplings
from the canopy trees. Mangrove trees have unique adaptations to grow in the saline and anoxic soils.
They have evolved a root system where some roots, called pneumatophores, grow upwards and out of the
water instead of into the soil, and are able to take up oxygen from the air. Other roots that grow from
higher up along the trunk act as prop roots to stabilize the trees against wave surges and tidal currents on
the muddy, unstable ground. Special filtration systems in the roots and leaves remove salt from the water
that is taken up by the trees.
(l) Although about a third of the ecoregion is now formally protected, there are several threats originated
outside the ecoregion that impact its ecological integrity. Industrial pollution from the city of Karachi, oil
spills and discharges from the ships that anchor in the city’s harbor, and increased salinity levels caused
by flow diversions in the Indus River affect the delicately balanced mangrove ecosystems. Threats from
within the ecoregion includes tree-cutting by seasonal fishers that live in the mangrove forests. Very little
mangrove forests now remain outside the existing protected areas system.
(4) Thar Desert Ecoregion
(a) Aridity Prevails
(b) High temperature
(c) Dry climate
(d) Flora: The natural vegetation of the Thar Desert is composed of these tree, shrub, and herb species. It is
classified as northwestern thorn scrub forest occurring in small clumps scattered more or less openly.
(e) Fauna: blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara (Gazella bennettii),and Indian wild ass (Equus
hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch.
(f) Average annual rainfall ranges from 100 to 500 mm, and occurs during the short July-to-September
southwest monsoon.
(g) The climate is arid and subtropical.
1.2. Tectonic and glacial processes and landforms, and geophysical hazards

Content a) Tectonic processes affecting Pakistan and the formation of the Himalayan landscape (fold mountains)

● Pakistan is split along the boundary between the Eurasian and Indian plates where the India plate slides northward
relative to the Eurasia plate in the east. (indo-eurasian plate)
● Types of Plate Boundary
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes most commonly occur at or near plate boundaries
There are four main types of plate boundary:
○ Constructive (divergent)
○ Destructive (convergent)
○ Collision
○ Conservative (transform)
● Constructive (Divergent) Plate Boundary
○ At the constructive boundary the plates are moving
apart
○ The Mid Atlantic Ridge is an example of a
constructive plate boundary
○ Both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur at
this type of plate boundary
○
● Destructive (Convergent) Plate Boundary
○ At a destructive (convergent) plate
boundary the plates are moving together
○ The denser, heavier oceanic plate
subducts under the lighter, less dense
continental plate
○ The boundary between the Nazca plate
and the South American plate is an
example
○ Both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
occur at this type of plate boundary

● Conservative (Transform) Boundary

○ At a conservative (transform) boundary
the plates move passed each other in
opposite directions or in the same
direction at different speeds
○ Earthquakes are the the only hazard at
this type of boundary

● Collision Boundary
 ○ At a collision boundary two plates of similar density move towards each other
○ Neither is dense enough to subduct so the land is pushed upwards
○ This forms fold mountains such as the Himalayas
○ Earthquakes are the main hazard at this type of plate boundary
○ Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together. At these
colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are warped and folded into rocky outcrops, hills,
mountains, and entire mountain ranges.
○ Fold mountains are often associated with continental crust. They are created at convergent plate
boundaries, sometimes called continental collision zones or compression zones. Convergent plate
boundaries are sites of collisions, where tectonic plates crash into each other. Compression describes a set
of stresses directed at one point in a rock or rock formation.
○ At a compression zone, tectonic activity forces crustal compression at the leading edge of the crust
formation. For this reason, most fold mountains are found on the edge or former edge of continental plate
boundaries. Rocks on the edge of continental crust are often weaker and less stable than rocks found in
the continental interior. This can make them more susceptible to folding and warping.
○ Most fold mountains are composed primarily of sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock formed under
high pressure and relatively low temperatures. Many fold mountains are also formed where an underlying
layer of ductile minerals, such as salt, is present.

Content b) Glacial processes that operate in the Himalayan landscape (long-term and seasonal
accumulation/ablation of glacial systems).
● Glacier: a Compact mass of ice which moves very slowly down to valley by the force of gravity
● Bare rocks: mountains with no vegetation’s
● snowfield: land covered with permanent snow
● snowline: Imaginary line on high mountains dividing permanent snow cover
● abrasion: erosional process done by glaciers on high mountains, wears down or rubs away surface rocks
● Plucking: erosional process, glaciers on high mountains, plucks and pull surface rocks.

Content c) The primary and secondary impacts of earthquakes on Pakistan and responses of national and
international governments, agencies and individuals to these earthquake events.

AGENCIES and INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE

● Disrupted Communications: Since the infrastructure was massively damaged, to provide communication
capabilities non-organic assets were shared between locals and NGOs, creating signs of interdependence on
technical assets. (Coordination: Strategy by Office of the Prime Minister; Search and Rescue by Ministry of
Interior; International Assistance by Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
● Logistics and Resources: The terrain and sheer scale of the disaster required unprecedented logistics and
resources. Since practically all the land communications was destroyed, and there was a lack of Satellite
cell/mobile-phones these were the contributing factors towards the initial lack of coordination. Preparedness for
population movements required increased focus. They found that affected communities preferred to remain in
their villages. The first responders were “Jihadis” who provided much needed support before anybody.
Winterisation of tents remained a challenge, as it was difficult to track the type and location of tents that had been
distributed. One item that significantly assisted in bringing resources into the area was the Pakistan International
Airlines (PIA), who offered free delivery of goods from anywhere in the world.
● Creation of Planning Cells: Humanitarian planning cells were manned by both military and civil organisations
using a single government priority list of at-risk villages. The first cells to be established were in Muzaffarabad,
Mansehra and Bagh. The Army’s coordination liaison officers were interested in strengthening cooperation with
the international humanitarian community. In some instances, they chaired the daily coordination meeting with
the humanitarian organisations. These planning cells enhanced the coordination of efforts
 ● The World Islamic Mission Welfare Trust - sent out phases of doctors to the area, including both General
Physicians and Surgeons with tens of thousands of pounds worth of medicine. They also set up various
dispensaries within affected areas, as well as collaborated with hospitals within the area to take airlifted injured
survivors. Rehabilitation became the main focus after the immediate phase has passed
● The Sarhad Rural Support Programme provided immediate relief efforts at a large scale following which it
was involved in making damage assessments and paying compensation and monitoring the rebuilding of over
62,000 houses under the project named Earthquake Relief and Rehabilitation Project.
● Subh-e-Nau: An Environment and Public Health Concern was the first to initiate an aid and volunteer
coordination mechanism. It later studied and put together the SN Disability Reduction and Rehabilitation Strategy
that was presented to the international relief community. The SN Disability Program then focused on
rehabilitation of persons with spinal cord injury, with the help of national and international volunteers, mainly
from Canada.[
NATIONAL RESPONSE
● the Pakistan government reacted quickly and rushed to provide relief and restore basic services. Within a few
days of the earthquake the Pakistan President established: (a) a Relief Fund to mobilise resources for relief efforts;
and, (b) an Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority. The Pakistan Prime Minister (PM) appointed
a Federal Relief Commission and Relief Coordinator for: shelters, food, clean water, and medical care.
Additionally, the government set up a Steering Committee for Recovery and Reconstruction consisting of the
Ministries of Finance, Economic Affairs, Planning and Foreign Affairs, as well as representatives from UN,
World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB).
● Since the local security forces were unable to perform basic functions, the Pakistan military was charged with
coordinating the emergency response for the government; however, in many cases the Pakistan Army waited for
top-down orders that never came. The Pakistan Army had to rely on survivors fit enough to walk down to their
bases and inform them where aid was most needed. A key issue was that the Pakistan military was trained for
war, not disaster relief, coupled with the fact that Gen Musharraf’s military mindset blocked humanitarian aid
from reaching the needy.
● the PM Secretariat and PM House established an emergency centre
● Focus Shift to Long Term Projects: During this phase the focus was on long term projects and further
development to increase effectiveness and efficiency of infrastructure related activities. For example, the Pakistan
President established an Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA) to facilitate the
rebuilding and repair of damaged infrastructure. Resource sharing decreased due to the fact that some
organisations left the territory and others had sufficient amount of own / leased infrastructure components.
● Pakistan MOH and WHO established an emergency Early Warning and Response Surveillance system in the
affected areas, starting in Muzaffarabad
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE
The international response to the 2005 Kashmir earthquake was widespread and
immediate, as many countries, international organizations and non-governmental
organizations offered an abundance of relief aid to the affected regions − particularly
Pakistan, which was hit the hardest due to the earthquake's epicentre being around
Muzaffarabad, the capital city of Pakistani-administered Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The
aid given was in the form of monetary donations and pledges, as well as relief supplies
including food, various medical supplies, tents and blankets. Rescue and relief workers
as well as peacekeeping troops were sent from different parts of the world to the
region, bringing along rescue equipment, including helicopters and rescue dogs. The
earthquake displaced some 3.3 million people, while killing around 80,000–100,000.
On November 19, 2005, it was estimated that the international community as a whole pledged about US$5.8 billion.
● UN Use of “Clusters”: This was the first time the UN used the “cluster” approach. There were five clusters
formed (Shelter, Water/Sanitation, Food, Health, and Education). In Islamabad they thought this was positive and
they used this approach to build an overall situation picture. In Marsehra, it was mixed and they used the
 “clusters” for information sharing only. However, the use of these “clusters” allowed for more efficient
coordination between all the relief groups. An eight-member U.N. relief team arrived in Pakistan to aid in search-
and-rescue operations, coordinate relief efforts and assess the impact of the quake. Agencies involved included
the: United Nations Children's Fund, United Nations World Food Programme, United Nations Population Fund
and the International Nongovernmental Organizations Forum. Supplies such as blankets, clothes, tents, food for
infants and medicine were sent to the disaster regions. The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
released US$100,000 (PKR 5 million) of emergency fund for immediate relief aid.[16]
● American Contributions:
○ The United States responded immediately and generously to Pakistan’s call for assistance following the
tragic and devastating earthquake of October 8. Our response has been consistent with our humanitarian
values and our deep commitment to Pakistan.
○ The U.S. has pledged a total of $510 million in earthquake relief and reconstruction efforts to assist the
people of Pakistan and to support Pakistani government relief efforts. This total includes $300 million in
humanitarian relief and reconstruction assistance, $110 million in
○ support for relief operations, and at least $100 million anticipated from U.S. private contributions.
○ The U.S. has encouraged the international community to respond generously to Pakistan. At the
November 19 Donors Conference in Pakistan, 75 countries and international organizations confirmed
$6.2 billion in new and previous pledges for relief and reconstruction.
○ The onset of winter will increase the hardships faced by many quake survivors. Helping the Government
of Pakistan to ensure that earthquake victims are adequately sheltered during the winter months remains
the United States’ highest priority.
○ U.S. assistance to Pakistan has focused on immediate needs of shelter, relief supplies, health, water,
sanitation and logistics. To date, the U.S. has provided more than $79.8 million in humanitarian
assistance and food to earthquake-affected communities through non-governmental organizations and the
United Nations.

● Unique U.S. Resources Committed:

● Over 1,000 American personnel are in Pakistan to assist with relief efforts. The U.S. military will support
the relief effort at the invitation of Government of Pakistan until the operations can be effectively
transitioned to the host nation, U.S. civilian disaster response managers, the United Nations, the NGOs,
and other international support organizations. Some resources have already been re-deployed as needs
were being met through other means.
● American helicopters have flown over 3,300 sorties delivering over 10 million pounds of relief supplies
to the disaster area and transporting over 15,000 people, including over 4,000 needing medical attention.
● Over 250 U.S. military and civilian cargo airlift flights have delivered more than 7000 tons of medical
supplies, food, shelter material, blankets, and rescue equipment to Pakistan.
● A 125-person Naval Mobile Construction Battalion is working to clear debris and to build support
structures at camps for displaced persons.
● A U.S. Army Mobile Army Surgical Hospital operating in Muzaffarabad and a U.S. Combined Medical
Relief Team operating in Shinkaria have provided urgent medical care to over 9,000 injured people.
● The U.S. military constantly assesses support requirements and coordinates closely with the Pakistani
Government to ensure the appropriate personnel and equipment are available to support the Pakistani-led
relief operations. Any shift in the current level of support would be based on and decided after close
consultation with the Pakistani Government.

● India - Prime Minister Manmohan Singh offered quake assistance to Pakistan. Indian and Pakistani High
Commissioners were in touch regarding cooperation in relief work. India sent 25 tons of relief material to
Pakistan including food, blankets and medicine. Indian MNCs companies such as Infosys have offered aid up to
$226,000. On October 12, an Ilyushin-76 cargo plane ferried across seven truckloads (about 82 tons) of army
 medicines, 15,000 blankets and 50 tents and returned to New Delhi. A senior air force official also stated that they
were asked by the Indian government to be ready to fly out another similar consignment.[7] On October 14, India
dispatched the second consignment to relief material to Pakistan, by train through the Wagah Border. The
consignment included 5,000 blankets, 370 tents, 5 tons of plastic sheets and 12 tons of medicine. The third
consignment was of medicine and relief material and was supposed to be sent, also by train.[8] India also pledged
$25 million as aid to Pakistan.[9]

1.3. Relief, drainage and hydrometeorological hazards

a) The relief regions and characteristics of the drainage network of Pakistan (Indus, Jhelum, Sutlej, Chenab and
Ravi floodplains and Indus deltaic coastline).
b) The causes and characteristics of tropical cyclones, storm surges and flooding (river and coastal).
Tropical cyclones:
● A warm-cored, non-frontal low-pressure system of synoptic scale developing over warm waters, and having
organised convection and a (10-minute mean) wind speed of at least 34 knots or 63 km/h, extending more than
half way around near the centre and persisting for at least six hours.
How do tropical cyclones form?
● A cluster of thunderstorms can develop over warm tropical oceans. If that cluster persists in an area of low
pressure, it can start rotating. If the conditions are just right, the cluster of thunderstorms can grow in size and
sustain itself and then develop into a tropical cyclone.

● Once developed, a tropical cyclone is like a giant, atmospheric heat engine. The moisture from the warm ocean
acts as it's fuel, generating huge amounts of energy as clouds form.
● The rotating thunderstorms form spiral rainbands around the centre (eye) of the cyclone where the strongest winds
and heaviest rain are found (eye wall), transporting heat 15 km or higher into the atmosphere. The drier cooler air
at the top of the atmosphere becomes the exhaust gas of the heat engine.
Characteristics of tropical cyclones: A tropical cyclone brings very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves and, in
some cases, very destructive storm surges and coastal flooding. The winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 RIVER FLOODING
● Prolonged rainfall - if it rains for a long time, the land around a river can become saturated (it's holding as much
water or moisture as can be absorbed). If there is more rainfall it cannot be soaked up, so it runs along the surface
- this is known as surface run-off.
● Heavy rainfall - if there is heavy rainfall there is less chance of it being soaked up by the soil (infiltration) so it
runs off into the river. The faster the water reaches the river, the more likely it will flood.
● Relief - a steep valley is more likely to flood than a flatter valley because the rainfall will run off into the river
more quickly.
● Geology - permeable rocks allow water to pass through pores and cracks, whereas impermeable rocks do not. If a
valley is made up of impermeable rocks, there is a higher chance of flooding as there is an increase in surface run-
off.
● Vegetation - trees and plants absorb water, this is known as interception. Lots of vegetation reduces flood risk.
Sometimes people cut down trees (deforestation). This will increase the flood risk, as the water will not be
intercepted and flow into the river.
● Urban land use - when an area surrounding a river is built on, there is an increase in the amount of tarmac and
concrete, which are impermeable surfaces. Drains and sewers take water directly to the river which increases
flood risk.

COASTAL FLOODING
● Many factors can cause flooding in coastal, urban areas. They include:
○ marine processes, such as high astronomical tide, storm surge and large waves
○ intense rainfall falling on urban catchments
○ large river discharge from upper catchments.
● In coastal floods, the processes that cause coastal floods are:
○ high astronomical tide
 ○ high storm surge
○ large waves
○ intense rainfall
○ large river discharge.
RISE IN SEA LEVEL:
Sea level rise in any amount will increase the frequency and duration of coastal flooding. Rising global temperatures from
climate change are leading to sea level rise in two primary ways: (1) by warming and expanding ocean waters and (2) by
melting glaciers and ice sheets on land. Since 1880, global mean sea level has risen eight to nine inches with about three
of those inches occurring since 1993. By 2100, sea level is expected to rise another 12 to 60 inches, depending on the
future rise in global temperature, although a sea level rise of up to 100 inches cannot be ruled out.9

EFFECTS OF FLOODING
Positive:
● Makes land fertile.
● Adds nutrients to the sea.
● Dislodges accumulated debris.
● Supplies sediment to deltas.
● Recharge groundwater.
● Balances health of wetlands:
○ Helps to maintain chemical balance
○ Restore breeding grounds
○ Increase biodiversity

Negative:
● Loss of human life
● Property and infrastructure damage
● Road closures, erosion, and landslide risks
● Crop destruction and livestock loss
● Threats to salmon and other aquatic species
● Health risks due to water contamination
● Housing displacement
● Economic impacts

c) The responses of national and international governments, agencies and individuals to flooding and tropical
cyclones in Pakistan.
***all information is according to recent case studies of Pakistan Flood 2022.
Disaster Recovery Framework
The vision of Pakistan’s recovery framework is to achieve an inclusive and resilient recovery through
a “Whole of Pakistan” approach, leading to sustainable development for the people and country. This
vision rests on three key pillars and an underlying foundation. The strategic recovery objectives of
the framework and guiding principles of the vision, articulated below, will be critical. The underlying
foundation is comprised of three approaches—(i) build back better; (ii) people-centered socioeconomic
recovery; and (iii) developing systemic resilience against natural hazards and climate change impacts—
all of which must be applied across the board. Built on this foundation are three pillars: (i) restoration of
jobs and livelihoods; (ii) recovery and reconstruction of critical assets, services, and infrastructure; and
(iii) strengthening governance and stakeholder capacity for reconstruction, especially communities.
Recovery and Reconstruction Objectives
The strategic recovery pillars noted above will be supported by five strategic recovery objectives:
• Enhancing governance and capacities of the state to restore lives and livelihoods of the affected
people, especially the most vulnerable.
• Restoring livelihoods and economic opportunities.
• Ensuring social inclusion and participation in all aspects of recovery and related development.
• Restoring and improving basic services and physical infrastructure in a resilient and sustainable
manner.
• Developing an enabling environment and facilitating private sector participation and financing

GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE

The humanitarian response has been led by the Government of Pakistan, which established the NFRCC to oversee the
national response to the monsoon rains and floods. The NFRCC comprises representatives of federal stakeholders,
provincial governments, and the Pakistan Armed Forces. National-level government assistance is organized through the
NFRCC. The Armed Forces and civil administration have been providing search and rescue and logistics and engineering
support, while the National Disaster Management Agency is procuring relief supplies and coordinating bilateral in-kind
donations for distribution through the Army, which has been mobilized under constitutional provisions.27 The
humanitarian situation continued to deteriorate in August as heavy rains continued to cause flooding and landslides. On
August 5, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs officially requested humanitarian assistance from the UN and international
community. On August 19, the government launched a PKR 37.2 billion flood relief cash program for 1.5 million affected
families. On August 30, the Government of Pakistan and the UN jointly launched the 2022 Pakistan FRP, which
highlighted the main humanitarian needs and outlined an action plan to respond to the immediate needs of the people. On
October 4, a Revised Pakistan FRP was released, appealing for US$816 million to cover the most urgent needs of 9.5
million people. However, as of October 21, only 13.7 percent of the requested amount has been funded. Relief efforts
have largely focused on the provision of shelter, safe drinking water, food items, and health interventions amidst supply
chain disruptions. The international community, as well as over 100 local and international organizations, have provided
aid, but accessibility due to standing flood waters, flood effects, and complex topographies remain a major challenge.
Although some areas have proceeded to an early recovery phase, the scale and prolonged period of the ongoing disaster
requires strategic coordination to effectively link and transition from humanitarian response to recovery