62 Chapter 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Chapter Summary and Study Guide

In this chapter, we have considered the concept of energy from for a process of a closed system is Eq. 2.35 and an accom-
an engineering perspective and have introduced energy bal- panying time rate form is Eq. 2.37. Equation 2.40 is a special
ances for applying the conservation of energy principle to form of the energy balance for a system undergoing a ther-
closed systems. A basic idea is that energy can be stored within modynamic cycle.
systems in three macroscopic forms: internal energy, kinetic The following checklist provides a study guide for this
energy, and gravitational potential energy. Energy also can be chapter. When your study of the text and end-of-chapter ex-
transferred to and from systems. ercises has been completed, you should be able to
Energy can be transferred to and from closed systems by
䉴 write out the meanings of the terms listed in the margins
two means only: work and heat transfer. Work and heat trans-
throughout the chapter and understand each of the related
fer are identified at the system boundary and are not proper-
concepts. The subset of key concepts listed below is par-
ties. In mechanics, work is energy transfer associated with
ticularly important in subsequent chapters.
macroscopic forces and displacements at the system bound-
ary. The thermodynamic definition of work introduced in this 䉴 evaluate these energy quantities
chapter extends the notion of work from mechanics to in- –kinetic and potential energy changes using Eqs. 2.5
clude other types of work. Energy transfer by heat is due to and 2.10, respectively.
a temperature difference between the system and its sur- –work and power using Eqs. 2.12 and 2.13,
roundings, and occurs in the direction of decreasing temper- respectively.
ature. Heat transfer modes include conduction, radiation, and –expansion or compression work using Eq. 2.17
convection. These sign conventions are used for work and
䉴 apply closed system energy balances in each of several
heat transfer:
alternative forms, appropriately modeling the case at
# hand, correctly observing sign conventions for work
䉴 W, W e
7 0: work done by the system
6 0: work done by the system and heat transfer, and carefully applying SI and English
units.
#
䉴 Q, Q e
7 0: heat transfer to the system
䉴 conduct energy analyses for systems undergoing
6 0: heat transfer from the system
thermodynamic cycles using Eq. 2.40, and evaluating,
Energy is an extensive property of a system. Only changes as appropriate, the thermal efficiencies of power cycles
in the energy of a system have significance. Energy changes and coefficients of performance of refrigeration and heat
are accounted for by the energy balance. The energy balance pump cycles.

Key Engineering Concepts

kinetic energy p. 30 internal energy p. 43 energy balance p. 48 refrigeration cycle p. 60

potential energy p. 32 heat transfer p. 44 power cycle p. 59 heat pump cycle
work p. 33 first law of p. 60–61
power p. 35 thermodynamics p. 48

Exercises: Things Engineers Think About

1. What forces act on the bicyle and rider considered in Sec. 5. List examples of heat transfer by conduction, radiation, and
2.2.2? Sketch a free body diagram. convection you might find in a kitchen.
2. Why is it incorrect to say that a system contains heat? 6. When a falling object impacts the earth and comes to rest,
3. An ice skater blows into cupped hands to warm them, yet at what happens to its kinetic and potential energies?
lunch blows across a bowl of soup to cool it. How can this be in- 7. When you stir a cup of coffee, what happens to the energy
terpreted thermodynamically? transferred to the coffee by work?
4. Sketch the steady-state temperature distribution for a furnace 8. What energy transfers by work and heat can you identify for
wall composed of an 8-inch-thick concrete inner layer and a 1/2- a moving automobile?
inch-thick steel outer layer.
 Problems: Developing Engineering Skills 63

9. Why are the symbols ⌬U, ⌬KE, and ⌬PE used to denote the 12. What form does the energy balance take for an isolated sys-
energy change during a process, but the work and heat transfer tem? Interpret the expression you obtain.
for the process represented, respectively, simply as W and Q? 13. How would you define an appropriate efficiency for the gear-
10. If the change in energy of a closed system is known for a box of Example 2.4?
process between two end states, can you determine if the energy 14. Two power cycles each receive the same energy input Qin
change was due to work, to heat transfer, or to some combina- and discharge energy Qout to the same lake. If the cycles have
tion of work and heat transfer? different thermal efficiencies, which discharges the greater
11. Referring to Fig. 2.8, can you tell which process, A or B, has amount Qout? Does this have any implications for the environ-
the greater heat transfer? ment?

Problems: Developing Engineering Skills

Applying Energy Concepts from Mechanics (b) For a steel flywheel rotating at 3000 RPM, determine the
2.1 An automobile has a mass of 1200 kg. What is its kinetic kinetic energy, in N # m, and the mass, in kg, if R ⫽ 0.38 m
energy, in kJ, relative to the road when traveling at a velocity and w ⫽ 0.025 m.
of 50 km/h? If the vehicle accelerates to 100 km/h, what is the (c) Determine the radius, in m, and the mass, in kg, of an alu-
change in kinetic energy, in kJ? minum flywheel having the same width, angular velocity,
and kinetic energy as in part (b).
2.2 An object whose mass is 400 kg is located at an elevation
of 25 m above the surface of the earth. For g ⫽ 9.78 m/s2, de- 2.8 Two objects having different masses fall freely under the
termine the gravitational potential energy of the object, in kJ, influence of gravity from rest and the same initial elevation.
relative to the surface of the earth. Ignoring the effect of air resistance, show that the magnitudes
of the velocities of the objects are equal at the moment just
2.3 An object of mass 1000 kg, initially having a velocity of
before they strike the earth.
100 m /s, decelerates to a final velocity of 20 m/s. What is the
change in kinetic energy of the object, in kJ? 2.9 An object whose mass is 25 kg is projected upward from
the surface of the earth with an initial velocity of 60 m/s. The
2.4 An airplane whose mass is 5000 kg is flying with a veloc-
only force acting on the object is the force of gravity. Plot the
ity of 150 m/s at an altitude of 10,000 m, both measured rel-
velocity of the object versus elevation. Determine the eleva-
ative to the surface of the earth. The acceleration of gravity
tion of the object, in ft, when its velocity reaches zero. The ac-
can be taken as constant at g ⫽ 9.78 m /s2.
celeration of gravity is g ⫽ 9.8 m/s2.
(a) Calculate the kinetic and potential energies of the airplane, 2.10 A block of mass 10 kg moves along a surface inclined
both in kJ. 30⬚ relative to the horizontal. The center of gravity of the
(b) If the kinetic energy increased by 10,000 kJ with no change block is elevated by 3.0 m and the kinetic energy of the block
in elevation, what would be the final velocity, in m/s? decreases by 50 J. The block is acted upon by a constant
2.5 An object whose mass is 0.5 kg has a velocity of 30 m/s. force R parallel to the incline and by the force of gravity.
Determine Assume frictionless surfaces and let g ⫽ 9.81 m/s2. Deter-
(a) the final velocity, in m/s, if the kinetic energy of the ob- mine the magnitude and direction of the constant force R,
ject decreases by 130 J. in N.
(b) the change in elevation, in ft, associated with a 130 J 2.11 Beginning from rest, an object of mass 200 kg slides
change in potential energy. Let g ⫽ 9.81 m/s2. down a 10-m-long ramp. The ramp is inclined at an angle of
2.6 An object whose mass is 2 kg is accelerated from a veloc- 40⬚ from the horizontal. If air resistance and friction between
ity of 200 m/s to a final velocity of 500 m/s by the action of the object and the ramp are negligible, determine the veloc-
a resultant force. Determine the work done by the resultant ity of the object, in m/s, at the bottom of the ramp. Let g ⫽
force, in kJ, if there are no other interactions between the ob- 9.81 m /s2.
ject and its surroundings.
Evaluating Work
2.7 A disk-shaped flywheel, of uniform density ␳, outer ra-
2.12 A system with a mass of 5 kg, initially moving horizon-
dius R, and thickness w, rotates with an angular velocity ␻,
tally with a velocity of 40 m/s, experiences a constant hori-
in rad/s.
zontal deceleration of 2 m/s2 due to the action of a resultant
(a) Show that the moment of inertia, I ⫽ 兰vol rr2 dV, can be force. As a result, the system comes to rest. Determine the
expressed as I ⫽ ␲␳wR 4兾2 and the kinetic energy can be length of time, in s, the force is applied and the amount of
expressed as KE ⫽ I␻2兾2. energy transfer by work, in kJ.
64 Chapter 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

2.13 The drag force, Fd, imposed by the surrounding air on a varies linearly from an initial value of 900 N to a final value
vehicle moving with velocity V is given by of zero. The atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, and the area
of the piston face is 0.018 m2. Friction between the piston
Fd ⫽ CdA12rV2
and the cylinder wall can be neglected. For the air, determine
where Cd is a constant called the drag coefficient, A is the pro- the initial and final pressures, in kPa, and the work, in kJ.
jected frontal area of the vehicle, and ␳ is the air density. De-
termine the power, in kW, required to overcome aerodynamic A = 0.018 m2
drag for a truck moving at 110 km/h, if Cd ⫽ 0.65, A ⫽ 10 m2,
and ␳ ⫽ 1.1 kg/m3.
2.14 A major force opposing the motion of a vehicle is the patm = 100 kPa
rolling resistance of the tires, Fr, given by
Air
Fr ⫽ f w
Spring force varies linearly from 900 N when
where f is a constant called the rolling resistance coefficient V1 = 0.003 m3 to zero when V2 = 0.002 m3
and w is the vehicle weight. Determine the power, in kW,
required to overcome rolling resistance for a truck weighing
䉱 Figure P2.19
322.5 kN that is moving at 110 km /h. Let f ⫽ 0.0069.
2.15 Measured data for pressure versus volume during the ex-
pansion of gases within the cylinder of an internal combustion 2.20 Air undergoes two processes in series:
engine are given in the table below. Using data from the table, Process 1–2: polytropic compression, with n ⫽ 1.3, from p1 ⫽
complete the following: 100 kPa, v1 ⫽ 0.04 m3/kg to v2 ⫽ 0.02 m3/kg
(a) Determine a value of n such that the data are fit by an Process 2–3: constant-pressure process to v3 ⫽ v1
equation of the form, pV n ⫽ constant.
(b) Evaluate analytically the work done by the gases, in kJ, Sketch the processes on a p⫺v diagram and determine the work
using Eq. 2.17 along with the result of part (a). per unit mass of air, in kJ/kg.
(c) Using graphical or numerical integration of the data, eval- 2.21 For the cycle of Problem 1.25, determine the work for each
uate the work done by the gases, in kJ. process and the net work for the cycle, each in kJ.
(d) Compare the different methods for estimating the work 2.22 The driveshaft of a building’s air-handling fan is turned at
used in parts (b) and (c). Why are they estimates? 300 RPM by a belt running on a 0.3-m-diameter pulley. The
net force applied by the belt on the pulley is 2000 N. Deter-
Data Point p (bar) V (cm3) mine the torque applied by the belt on the pulley, in N # m, and
the power transmitted, in kW.
1 15 300
2.23 An electric motor draws a current of 10 amp with a voltage
2 12 361
of 110 V. The output shaft develops a torque of 10.2 N # m and
3 9 459
a rotational speed of 1000 RPM. For operation at steady state,
4 6 644
determine
5 4 903
6 2 1608 (a) the electric power required by the motor and the power de-
veloped by the output shaft, each in kW.
(b) the net power input to the motor, in kW.
2.16 One-fourth kg of a gas contained within a piston–cylinder (c) the amount of energy transferred to the motor by electri-
assembly undergoes a constant-pressure process at 5 bar be- cal work and the amount of energy transferred out of the
ginning at v1 ⫽ 0.20 m3/kg. For the gas as the system, the work motor by the shaft, in kW # h during 2 h of operation.
is ⫺15 kJ. Determine the final volume of the gas, in m3. 2.24 A 12-V automotive storage battery is charged with a con-
2.17 A gas is compressed from V1 ⫽ 0.3 m3, p1 ⫽ 1 bar to stant current of 2 amp for 24 h. If electricity costs $0.08 per
V2 ⫽ 0.1 m3, p2 ⫽ 3 bar. Pressure and volume are related lin- kW # h, determine the cost of recharging the battery.
early during the process. For the gas, find the work, in kJ. 2.25 For your lifestyle, estimate the monthly cost of operating
2.18 A gas expands from an initial state where p1 ⫽ 500 kPa the following household items: microwave oven, refrigerator,
and V1 ⫽ 0.1 m3 to a final state where p2 ⫽ 100 kPa. The electric space heater, personal computer, hand-held hair drier,
relationship between pressure and volume during the process a 100-W light bulb. Assume the cost of electricity is $0.08 per
is pV ⫽ constant. Sketch the process on a p–V diagram and kW # h.
determine the work, in kJ. 2.26 A solid cylindrical bar (see Fig. 2.9) of diameter 5 mm is
2.19 Warm air is contained in a piston–cylinder assembly ori- slowly stretched from an initial length of 10 cm to a final length
ented horizontally as shown in Fig. P2.19. The air cools of 10.1 cm. The normal stress in the bar varies according to
slowly from an initial volume of 0.003 m3 to a final volume ␴ ⫽ C(x ⫺ x0)兾x0, where x is the length of the bar, x0 is the
of 0.002 m3. During the process, the spring exerts a force that initial length, and C is a material constant (Young’s modulus).
 Problems: Developing Engineering Skills 65

For C ⫽ 2 ⫻ 107 kPa, determine the work done on the bar, in 2.35 A closed system of mass 5 kg undergoes a process in which
J, assuming the diameter remains constant. there is work of magnitude 9 kJ to the system from the sur-
roundings. The elevation of the system increases by 700 m
2.27 A wire of cross-sectional area A and initial length x0 is
during the process. The specific internal energy of the system
stretched. The normal stress ␴ acting in the wire varies linearly
decreases by 6 kJ/kg and there is no change in kinetic energy
with strain, ␧, where
of the system. The acceleration of gravity is constant at g ⫽ 9.6
e ⫽ 1x ⫺ x0 2 Ⲑx0 m/s2. Determine the heat transfer, in kJ.
and x is the length of the wire. Assuming the cross-sectional 2.36 A closed system of mass 20 kg undergoes a process in
area remains constant, derive an expression for the work done which there is a heat transfer of 1000 kJ from the system to
on the wire as a function of strain. the surroundings. The work done on the system is 200 kJ. If
the initial specific internal energy of the system is 300 kJ/kg,
2.28 A soap film is suspended on a 5 cm ⫻ 5 cm wire frame,
what is the final specific internal energy, in kJ/kg? Neglect
as shown in Fig. 2.10. The movable wire is displaced 1 cm by
changes in kinetic and potential energy.
an applied force, while the surface tension of the soap film
remains constant at 25 ⫻ 10⫺5 N/cm. Determine the work done 2.37 As shown in Fig. P2.37, 5 kg of steam contained within
in stretching the film, in J. a piston–cylinder assembly undergoes an expansion from state
1, where the specific internal energy is u1 ⫽ 2709.9 kJ/kg,
2.29 Derive an expression to estimate the work required to
to state 2, where u2 ⫽ 2659.6 kJ/kg. During the process, there
inflate a common balloon. List all simplifying assumptions.
is heat transfer to the steam with a magnitude of 80 kJ. Also,
a paddle wheel transfers energy to the steam by work in the
Evaluating Heat Transfer
amount of 18.5 kJ. There is no significant change in the
2.30 A 0.2-m-thick plane wall is constructed of concrete. At kinetic or potential energy of the steam. Determine the en-
steady state, the energy transfer rate by conduction through a ergy transfer by work from the steam to the piston during
1-m2 area of the wall is 0.15 kW. If the temperature distribu- the process, in kJ.
tion is linear through the wall, what is the temperature differ-
ence across the wall, in K?
2.31 A 2-cm-diameter surface at 1000 K emits thermal radia-
tion at a rate of 15 W. What is the emissivity of the surface?
Assuming constant emissivity, plot the rate of radiant emis- 5 kg of
sion, in W, for surface temperatures ranging from 0 to 2000 K. steam
The Stefan–Boltzmann constant, ␴, is 5.67 ⫻ 10⫺8 W/m2 # K4.
Wpiston = ?
2.32 A flat surface having an area of 2 m2 and a temperature Wpw = –18.5 kJ
of 350 K is cooled convectively by a gas at 300 K. Using data
from Table 2.1, determine the largest and smallest heat trans-
fer rates, in kW, that might be encountered for (a) free con-
Q = +80 kJ u1 = 2709.9 kJ/kg
vection, (b) forced convection. u2 = 2659.6 kJ/kg
2.33 A flat surface is covered with insulation with a thermal
conductivity of 0.08 W/m # K. The temperature at the interface
between the surface and the insulation is 300⬚C. The outside
of the insulation is exposed to air at 30⬚C, and the heat trans- 䉱 Figure P2.37
fer coefficient for convection between the insulation and the
air is 10 W/m2 # K. Ignoring radiation, determine the minimum
thickness of insulation, in m, such that the outside of the in- 2.38 An electric generator coupled to a windmill produces an
sulation is no hotter than 60⬚C at steady state. average electric power output of 15 kW. The power is used to
charge a storage battery. Heat transfer from the battery to the
Using the Energy Balance surroundings occurs at a constant rate of 1.8 kW. Determine,
2.34 Each line in the following table gives information about a for 8 h of operation
process of a closed system. Every entry has the same energy (a) the total amount of energy stored in the battery, in kJ.
units. Fill in the blank spaces in the table. (b) the value of the stored energy, in $, if electricity is valued
at $0.08 per kW # h.
Process Q W E1 E2 ⌬E 2.39 A closed system undergoes a process during which there
is energy transfer from the system by heat at a constant rate of
a ⫹50 ⫺20 ⫹50
10 kW, and the power varies with time according to
b ⫹50 ⫹20 ⫹20
#
W⫽ e
c ⫺40 ⫹60 ⫹20 ⫺8t 0 6 tⱕ1h
d ⫺90 ⫹50 0 ⫺8 t 7 1h
e ⫹50 ⫹20 ⫺100 #
where t is time, in h, and W is in kW.
66 Chapter 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

(a) What is the time rate of change of system energy at t ⫽ 2.46 A gas contained within a piston–cylinder assembly is
0.6 h, in kW? shown in Fig. P2.46. Initially, the piston face is at x ⫽ 0, and
(b) Determine the change in system energy after 2 h, in kJ. the spring exerts no force on the piston. As a result of heat
2.40 A storage battery develops a power output of transfer, the gas expands, raising the piston until it hits the
# stops. At this point the piston face is located at x ⫽
W ⫽ 1.2 exp1⫺tⲐ602 0.06 m, and the heat transfer ceases. The force exerted by the
# spring on the piston as the gas expands varies linearly with
where W is power, in kW, and t is time, in s. Ignoring heat
x according to
transfer
(a) plot the power output, in kW, and the change in energy of Fspring ⫽ kx
the battery, in kJ, each as a function of time. where k ⫽ 9,000 N/m. Friction between the piston and the
(b) What are the limiting values for the power output and the cylinder wall can be neglected. The acceleration of gravity
change in energy of the battery as t S ⬁? Discuss. is g ⫽ 9.81 m/s2. Additional information is given on
2.41 A gas expands in a piston–cylinder assembly from p1 ⫽ 8 Fig. P2.70.
bar, V1 ⫽ 0.02 m3 to p2 ⫽ 2 bar in a process during which the
relation between pressure and volume is pV1.2 ⫽ constant. The patm = 1 bar
mass of the gas is 0.25 kg. If the specific internal energy of Apist = 0.0078 m2
the gas decreases by 55 kJ/kg during the process, determine m pist = 10 kg
the heat transfer, in kJ. Kinetic and potential energy effects are
negligible.
2.42 Two kilograms of air is contained in a rigid well-insulated
tank with a volume of 0.6 m3. The tank is fitted with a paddle
wheel that transfers energy to the air at a constant rate of 10 W
for 1 h. If no changes in kinetic or potential energy occur, x=0
Gas
determine
m gas = 0.5 g
(a) the specific volume at the final state, in m3/kg.
(b) the energy transfer by work, in kJ.
(c) the change in specific internal energy of the air, in kJ/kg.
2.43 A gas is contained in a closed rigid tank. An electric
resistor in the tank transfers energy to the gas at a constant rate
of 1000 W. Heat transfer# between the gas #and the surround-
ings occurs at a rate of Q ⫽ ⫺50t, where Q is in watts, and t
is time, in min. 䉱 Figure P2.46
(a) Plot the time rate of change of energy of the gas for
0 ⱕ t ⱕ 20 min, in watts. (a) What is the initial pressure of the gas, in kPa?
(b) Determine the net change in energy of the gas after 20 (b) Determine the work done by the gas on the piston, in J.
min, in kJ. (c) If the specific internal energies of the gas at the initial and
(c) If electricity is valued at $0.08 per kW # h, what is the cost final states are 210 and 335 kJ/kg, respectively, calculate
of the electrical input to the resistor for 20 min of operation? the heat transfer, in J.
2.44 Steam in a piston–cylinder assembly undergoes a poly-
tropic process, with n ⫽ 2, from an initial state where p1 ⫽ 3.45 Analyzing Thermodynamic Cycles
MPa, v1 ⫽ .106 m3/kg, u1 ⫽ 3171 kJ/kg to a final state where 2.47 The following table gives data, in kJ, for a system under-
u2 ⫽ 2304 kJ/kg. During the process, there is a heat transfer going a thermodynamic cycle consisting of four processes in
from the steam of magnitude 361.8. The mass of steam is .544 kg. series. For the cycle, kinetic and potential energy effects can
Neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy, determine the be neglected. Determine
work, in kJ. (a) the missing table entries, each in kJ.
2.45 Air is contained in a vertical piston–cylinder assembly (b) whether the cycle is a power cycle or a refrigeration
by a piston of mass 50 kg and having a face area of 0.01 m2. cycle.
The mass of the air is 5 g, and initially the air occupies a
volume of 5 liters. The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 100 Process ⌬U Q W
kPa on the top of the piston. The volume of the air slowly
1–2 600 ⫺600
decreases to 0.002 m3 as the specific internal energy of the
2–3 ⫺1300
air decreases by 260 kJ/kg. Neglecting friction between the
3–4 ⫺700 0
piston and the cylinder wall, determine the heat transfer to
4–1 500 700
the air, in kJ.
 Design & Open Ended Problems: Exploring Engineering Practice 67

2.48 A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of 2.53 A power cycle has a thermal efficiency of 35% and gen-
three processes: erates electricity at a rate of 100 MW. The electricity is val-
ued at $0.08
# per kW # h. Based on the cost of fuel, the cost to
Process 1–2: compression with pV ⫽ constant, from p1 ⫽ 1 supply Qin is $4.50 per GJ. For 8000 hours of operation an-
bar, V1 ⫽ 1.6 m3 to V2 ⫽ 0.2 m3, U2 ⫺ U1 ⫽ 0 nually, determine, in $,
Process 2–3: constant pressure to V3 ⫽ V1 (a) the value of the electricity generated per year.
Process 3–1: constant volume, U1 ⫺ U3 ⫽ ⫺3549 kJ (b) the annual fuel cost.
2.54 For each of the following, what plays the roles of the hot
There are no significant changes in kinetic or potential energy.
body and the cold body of the appropriate Fig. 2.15
Determine the heat transfer and work for Process 2–3, in kJ.
schematic?
Is this a power cycle or a refrigeration cycle?
(a) Window air conditioner
2.49 A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of
(b) Nuclear submarine power plant
three processes:
(c) Ground-source heat pump
Process 1–2: constant volume, V ⫽ 0.028 m3, U2 ⫺ U1 ⫽ 2.55 In what ways do automobile engines operate analogously
26.4 kJ to the power cycle shown in Fig. 2.15a? How are they differ-
Process 2–3: expansion with pV ⫽ constant, U3 ⫽ U2 ent? Discuss.
Process 3–1: constant pressure, p ⫽ 1.4 bar, W31 ⫽ ⫺10.5 kJ 2.56 A refrigeration cycle operating as shown in Fig. 2.15b has
heat transfer Qout ⫽ 2530 kJ and net work of Wcycle ⫽ 844 kJ.
There are no significant changes in kinetic or potential energy. Determine the coefficient of performance for the cycle.
(a) Sketch the cycle on a p–V diagram. 2.57 A refrigeration cycle operates as shown in Fig. 2.15b with
(b) Calculate the net work for the cycle, in kJ. a coefficient of performance ␤ ⫽ 1.5. For the cycle, Qout ⫽
(c) Calculate the heat transfer for process 2–3, in kJ. 500 kJ. Determine Qin and Wcycle, each in kJ.
(d) Calculate the heat transfer for process 3–1, in kJ.
2.58 A refrigeration cycle operates continuously and removes en-
Is this a power cycle or a refrigeration cycle? ergy from the refrigerated space at a rate of 3.5 kW. For a coef-
2.50 For a power cycle operating as in Fig. 2.15a, the heat trans- ficient of performance of 2.6, determine the net power required.
fers are Qin ⫽ 50 kJ and Qout ⫽ 35 kJ. Determine the net work,
2.59 A heat pump cycle whose coefficient of performance is
in kJ, and the thermal efficiency.
2.5 delivers energy by heat transfer to a dwelling at a rate of
2.51 The thermal efficiency of a power cycle operating as 20 kW.
shown in Fig. 2.15a is 35%, and Qout ⫽ 40 MJ. Determine the (a) Determine the net power required to operate the heat pump,
net work developed and the heat transfer Qin, each in MJ. in kW.
2.52 A power cycle receives energy by heat transfer from the (b) Evaluating electricity at $0.08 per kW # h, determine the
combustion of fuel at a rate of 300 MW. The thermal efficiency cost of electricity in a month when the heat pump oper-
of the cycle is 33.3%. ates for 200 hours.
(a) Determine the net rate power is developed, in MW. 2.60 A household refrigerator with a coefficient of performance
(b) For 8000 hours of operation annually, determine the net of 2.4 removes energy from the refrigerated space at a rate of
work output, in kW # h per year. 200 W. Evaluating electricity at $0.08 per kW # h, determine
(c) Evaluating the net work output at $0.08 per kW # h, deter- the cost of electricity in a month when the refrigerator oper-
mine the value of the net work, in $/year. ates for 360 hours.

Design & Open Ended Problems: Exploring Engineering Practice

2.1D The effective use of our energy resources is an important the extent to which these renewable resources are
societal goal. utilized.
(a) Summarize in a pie chart the data on the use of fuels in 2.2D Among several engineers and scientists who contributed
your state in the residential, commercial, industrial, and to the development of the first law of thermodynamics are:
transportation sectors. What factors may affect the future (a) James Joule.
availability of these fuels? Does your state have a written (b) James Watt.
energy policy? Discuss. (c) Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford).
(b) Determine the present uses of solar energy, hydropower, (d) Sir Humphrey Davy.
and wind energy in your area. Discuss factors that affect (e) Julius Robert Mayer.
68 Chapter 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Write a biographical sketch of one of them, including a de- such bottles and explain the basic principles that make them
scription of his principal contributions to the first law. effective.
2.3D Specially designed flywheels have been used by electric 2.8D A brief discussion of power, refrigeration, and heat pump
utilities to store electricity. Automotive applications of fly- cycles is presented in this chapter. For one, or more, of the
wheel energy storage also have been proposed. Write a report applications listed below, explain the operating principles and
that discusses promising uses of flywheels for energy storage, discuss the significant energy transfers and environmental
including consideration of flywheel materials, their properties, impacts:
and costs.
(a) coal-fired power plant.
2.4D Develop a list of the most common home-heating options (b) nuclear power plant.
in your locale. For a 2500-ft2 dwelling, what is the annual fuel (c) refrigeration unit supplying chilled water to the cooling
cost or electricity cost for each option listed? Also, what is the system of a large building.
installed cost of each option? For a 15-year life, which option (d) heat pump for residential heating and air conditioning.
is the most economical? (e) automobile air conditioning unit
2.5D The overall convective heat transfer coefficient is used 2.9D Fossil-fuel power plants produce most of the electricity
in the analysis of heat exchangers (Sec. 4.3) to relate the over- generated annually in the United States. The cost of electric-
all heat transfer rate and the log mean temperature difference ity is determined by several factors, including the power plant
between the two fluids passing through the heat exchanger. thermal efficiency, the unit cost of the fuel, in $ per kW # h,
Write a memorandum explaining these concepts. Include data and the plant capital cost, in $ per kW of power generated.
from the engineering literature on characteristic values of the Prepare a memorandum comparing typical ranges of these
overall convective heat transfer coefficient for the following three factors for coal-fired steam power plants and natural
heat exchanger applications: air-to-air heat recovery, air- gas–fired gas turbine power plants. Which type of plant is most
to-refrigerant evaporators, shell-and-tube steam condensers. prevalent in the United States?
2.6D The outside surfaces of small gasoline engines are often 2.10D Lightweight, portable refrigerated chests are available
covered with fins that enhance the heat transfer between the for keeping food cool. These units use a thermoelectric cool-
hot surface and the surrounding air. Larger engines, like auto- ing module energized by plugging the unit into an automobile
mobile engines, have a liquid coolant flowing through passages cigarette lighter. Thermoelectric cooling requires no moving
in the engine block. The coolant then passes through the radi- parts and requires no refrigerant. Write a report that explains
ator (a finned-tube heat exchanger) where the needed cooling this thermoelectric refrigeration technology. Discuss the
is provided by the air flowing through the radiator. Consider- applicability of this technology to larger-scale refrigeration
ing appropriate data for heat transfer coefficients, engine size, systems.
and other design issues related to engine cooling, explain why
2.11D Hybrids Harvest Energy (see box Sec. 2.1). Critically
some engines use liquid coolants and others do not.
compare and evaluate the various hybrid electric vehicles
2.7D Common vacuum-type thermos bottles can keep bever- on the market today. Write a report including at least three
ages hot or cold for many hours. Describe the construction of references.