CHAPTER 13

The Nervous System

 What you would learn
in this section…
(13.1) Sensitivity
(13.2) The Human Nervous System
(11.3) Reflex Action
13.1 (13.1) Sensitivity

Living things respond to their surroundings

• A change in the environment that causes a reaction

is called a stimulus.
• An organism’s reaction to a stimulus is called a
response.
• The ability of an organism to detect and respond to
changes in the environment is called sensitivity.
• Sensitivity is one of the characteristics of life.
13.1 (13.1) Sensitivity

Typical responses to stimuli

• You withdraw hand when it is in contact

with something hot
• Plants need light for photosynthesis, so
they grow towards the light.
• Bacteria move towards food sources
13.1 (13.1) Sensitivity

Role of the nervous system in Humans

• Allows organisms to detect changes in their

surroundings and respond to it
• Enables the coordination of the different parts of the
body
• Involuntary Actions – automatic activities that are not
controlled consciously
• Voluntary Actions – activities that are controlled
consciously
 (13.1)
13.3 Sensitivity : Voluntary Actions and Reflex Actions

Activity
Which of the following are voluntary actions, and
which are involuntary?

Heart beating
Digesting food
Throwing a ball
Waking up in the morning
Breathing

Voluntar Involuntary
Video: Nervous system y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRkPNwqm0mM&feature=player_embedded#at=12
13.3 (13.1) Sensitivity : Voluntary Actions

- Patting a cat involves the person making a decision.

E.g. A cat rubs Touch receptors Nerve impulses are

against your leg in your leg are transmitted through the
stimulated. sensory neurones to the
spinal cord.

Impulses are transmitted to the effector

muscles that cause the muscles of your
Relay neurones conduct
arms to contract and hence, pat the cat.
nerve impulses to the brain.

The nerve impulses The brain evaluates

The brain initiates
are transmitted along the information and
the generation of
the relay neurones to decides on a response
nerve impulses
the motor neurones. (e.g. pat the cat)
 What you would learn
in this section…
(13.1) Sensitivity
(13.2) The Human Nervous System
(11.3) Reflex Action
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Components of the human nervous system

Central Peripheral
Nervous System Nervous System
(CNS) (PNS)

consists of consists of

Brain Spinal Cranial Spinal

cord nerves nerves
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Nervous tissue

• Consists of nerve cells known as neurones.

• There are three types of neurones:

 Sensory neurones
 Motor neurone
 Relay or intermediate neurones
 Axon carry nerve impulses
(13.2)
13.2 The Human Nervous System away from the cell body,
dendrons carry nerve
impulse to the cell body

Basic structure of a neurone

• A neurone has a cell body, an axon and a dendron.
• The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm.

cell body
receptor dendron axon

direction of nerve
impulse transmission
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

The relationship between the

three types of neurones
sensory neuron
(receptor neuron)
sense organ
(receptor) nerve
impulse

central
relay nervous
muscle fibres neuron system
(effectors)
motor neuron
(effector neuron)
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Structure of a motor neurone

Motor neurones transmit nerve impulses from the central
nervous system to the effectors.
Dendrites of the dendron Dendrites of the axon
receive nerve impulses transmit nerve impulses
from other neurones. to the effector.
nerve
impulse

Dendrons are
nerve fibres that The motor
Axons are nerve
transmit nerve neurone’s cell body
fibers that carry
impulses towards is irregular in shape.
impulses away
the cell body.
from the cell body.
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Nodes of Ranvier are regions where the

myelin sheath is absent.
They speed up transmission by allowing
nerve
impulses to jump from node to node.
impulse

The myelin sheath is a layer of fatty

substance that shields and insulates Motor end plate is
the nerve fibre. the junction between
the dendrite and
Analogy: rubber sheath insulating an muscle fibre
electricity-conducting wire
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Structure of a sensory neurone

Sensory neurones transmit nerve impulses from the
sense organs to the central nervous system.

dendrite circular cell body dendrite

nerve impulse

long dendron short axon

node of myelin sheath

Ranvier
sense organ
(receptor)
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Comparison between a sensory neurone

and a motor neurone
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

What is a synapse?
• It is the junction or synaptic
axon
connection between two vesicle
neurones. synapse

• Impulses are transmitted

from an axon to a dendron
across a synapse.
• Transmission across a
synapse is by chemical
means (through
neurotransmitters).
dendron

neurotransmitter
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

What are nerves?

• A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath
of connective tissue.
• Nerves that emerge from the brain are called cranial
nerves, and nerves that emerge from the spinal cord are
called spinal nerves.
• Spinal nerves contain mixed fibres. They are made up
of sensory and motor nerve fibres.
nerve

nerve fibre sheath of connective tissue

 Clarification of terms

• Nerve fibre = strand of cytoplasm

extending from the cell body
• Bundle of nerve fibres  nerve
• Neurone = nerve cell
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Grey and white matter

The brain and spinal cord consists of two distinct
regions:
• grey matter, and
• white matter brain

white matter
spinal cord grey matter
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Region Composition Location

• outer layers of
Cell bodies the brain
Grey matter of neurones • central parts of
the spinal cord

• central parts of
Mainly
the brain
White matter nerve fibres
of neurones • outer layers of
spinal cord
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Spinal cord and spinal nerves

• The spinal cord is encased in spinal

the vertebral column. cord

• Spinal nerves emerge from spinal

the spinal cord. nerves

• There are 31 pairs of spinal

nerves, and they emerge at
intervals along the length of
the spinal cord.
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

• The grey matter of a spinal cord is roughly in the

shape of a letter ‘H’.
• A narrow central canal, containing cerebrospinal
fluid, runs through the middle of the spinal cord.

central
canal
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

• Each spinal nerve divides into two roots – the dorsal

root and the ventral root, before it joins the spinal cord.

The dorsal root

contains only
sensory neurones.
dorsal root
The grey matter
contains mainly the
Cell bodies of sensory
cell bodies of motor
neurones are clustered
and relay neurones.
together in the dorsal
root ganglion.
ventral root
The ventral root
contains only
motor neurones.
 13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

sensory
receptor neurone

relay
neurone
effector
motor
neurone

The spinal nerve contains nerve fibres from

the dorsal root and ventral root.

It subdivides into branches to supply nerve

Spinal nerve is a fibres to various parts of the body.
mixed nerve –
contains sensory and
motor neurones.
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

Nerve impulse transmission

• Relay neurones lie within the
relay neurones
grey matter of the spinal cord
• Relay neurones transmit
nerve impulses from: sensory neurone

 sensory neurones  brain,

 brain  motor neurones,
and
 sensory neurones
 motor neurones
motor neurone
13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

• Relay neurones form synapses with the sensory and

motor neurones.

relay neurone
axon
synapse

sensory motor
neurone neurone

dendron
 13.2 (13.2) The Human Nervous System

How does the nervous system process information?

•1 Information is gathered by receptors

•2 Information is converted into electrical signals (nerve
impulses)
•3 Nerve impulses are transmitted by the peripheral
nerves to the central nervous system
•4 Brain processes information based on the pattern of
nerve impulses
•5 Brain sends nerve impulses to the effectors
•6 Intended action is carried out
 What you would learn
in this section…
(13.1) Sensitivity
(13.2) The Human Nervous System
(11.3) Reflex Action
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

Learning Outcomes
After this section, you should be able to:
• describe the roles of the spinal cord and the brain
in a reflex action; and
• define what a reflex arc is, and
• distinguish between a cranial reflex and a spinal
reflex.
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

• A reflex action is an immediate response to a specific

stimulus without conscious control.
• These actions are involuntary and are not under the
control of a person’s will.
• The shortest pathway of nerve impulses from the
receptor to the effector is known as the reflex arc.

Video: Central Nervous System, Reflex Arc:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5nj3ZfeYDQ&feature=related
 If pinprick experiment,
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action receptor: pain
receptor/pressure
receptor
Example of a reflex action:
Touching a hot object

1 Heat stimulates the

thermoreceptors and
pain receptors in your
skin.
2 Nerve impulses are
produced and they are receptor
transmitted along the
sensory neurone to the
spinal cord.
sensory
neurone
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

Example of a reflex action:

Touching a hot object
3 In the spinal cord, nerve brain
impulses are transmitted
across a synapse to the relay neurone
relay neurone, and then
across another synapse
to the motor neurone. motor
receptor neurone
At the same time, nerve
impulses are transmitted
to the brain.
sensory
neurone
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

Example of a reflex action:

Touching a hot object
brain
4 Upon receiving the nerve
impulses from the relay
relay neurone
neurone, the motor neurone
transmits nerve impulses to
the effector.
motor
5 The effector (bicep muscle) receptor neurone

contracts, resulting in the

withdrawal of the hand from effector
the hot object suddenly.
sensory
neurone
 Note: a reflex arc consists of:
(13.3)
13.3 Reflex Action 1. a receptor/sense organ,
2. a sensory neurone,
3. a relay neurone in a reflex centre
(either the spinal cord or the brain),
The reflex arc 4. a motor neurone, and
5. an effector.
2
sensory neurone
1
receptors
in skin

3
CNS (brain or
spinal cord

5
effector
(muscle)

4
motor neurone
 To describe the pathway involved in a named
reflex action

• (receptors) are stimulated by the (stimulus).

• A nerve impulse is generated which is transmitted
along the sensory neurone to the (CNS:
brain/spinal cord)
• where it is transmitted across a synapse to the
relay neurone.
• The impulse is then transmitted across another
synapse to the motor neurone to reach the
(effector)
• (Action of effector) will cause (appropriate
response).
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

Types of reflex actions

There are two types of reflex actions:
• Spinal reflexes
Reflexes that are controlled by the spinal cord
Examples: Withdrawal reflexes, knee-jerk reflexes
• Cranial reflexes
Reflexes that are controlled by the brain, but occur
without a person’s consciousness
Examples: Pupil reflex, salivation
 Take note: no relay
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action neurone involved !

Spinal reflex: knee-jerk reflex

The information is
Nerve impulses are sent passed from
to the spinal cord by a sensory neurone
sensory neurone  motor neurone

The motor
Stimulus: neurone sends
The tendon under an impulse to a
the kneecap is thigh muscle
tapped
Receptor:
Response:
Stretch receptor
The muscle contracts and causes
the lower leg to jerk upwards
(i.e extend outwards)
13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

Cranial reflex: pupil reflex

13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

Cranial reflex: pupil reflex

In bright light the eye constricted pupil

pupils constrict to reduce
the amount of light
entering the eye.

In dim light the eye pupils

dilated pupil
dilate to increase the
amount of light entering
the eye.

Stimulus: change in light intensity

13.3 (13.3) Reflex Action

The reflex arc

A reflex arc is the shortest pathway which nerve impulses
travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex action.
 Note: a reflex arc consists of:
(13.3)
13.3 Reflex Action 1. a receptor/sense organ,
2. a sensory neurone,
3. a relay neurone in a reflex centre
(either the spinal cord or the brain),
The reflex arc 4. a motor neurone, and
5. an effector.
2
sensory neurone
1
receptors
in skin

3
CNS (brain or
spinal cord

5
effector
(muscle)

4
motor neurone
 Summary of reflexes
Type of reflex Stimulus Receptors
action

Withdrawal reflex Heat from hot Pain and

object thermoreceptors

Pin prick Pressure and

pain receptors
Knee-jerk reflex Tapping of knee Stretch receptor
Pupil reflex Change (↑/↓) in Photoreceptors
light intensity on retina
 Differences between nervous
and endocrine controls
• Textbook Pg 294 Table 15.3
 Similarities and Differences
between voluntary and reflex action
• TYS 2012 P2B Q10Either