MICROPROCESSOR  When the signal on this pin is low for at

The important features of 8085 microprocessor. least 3 clocking cycles, it forces the
microprocessor to reset itself.
8085 MICROPROCESSOR  Resetting the microprocessor means:
The important features of 8085 μp are :  Clearing the PC and IR.
1. It is a 8 bit microprocessor.  Disabling all interrupts
2. It has 16 bit address bus and hence can  (except TRAP).
address up to 216 = 65536 bytes (64KB)  Disabling the SOD pin.
memory locations through A0-A15.  All the buses (data, address, control) are
3. The first 8 lines of address bus and 8 lines tri- stated.
of data bus are multiplexed AD0 – AD7.  Gives HIGH output to RESET OUT pin.
4. Data bus is a group of 8 lines D0 – D7.  RESET OUT:
5. It supports 5 hardware interrupt and 8  It is used to reset the peripheral devices
software interrupt. and other ICs on the circuit.
6. A 16 bit program counter (PC)  It is an output signal.
7. A 16 bit stack pointer (SP)  It is an active high signal.
8. Six 8-bit general purpose register arranged  The output on this pin goes high
in pairs: BC,DE, HL. whenever RESET IN is given low signal.
9. It requires a signal +5V power supply  The output remains high as long as RESET
10. Maximum Clock Frequency is 3MHz and IN is kept low.
Minimum Clock Frequency is 500kHz
SID AND SOD
PIN DIAGRAM OF 8085  Pin 4 (Input) and Pin 5 (Output)
 SID (Serial Input Data):
 It takes 1 bit input from serial port of 8085.
 Stores the bit at the 8th position (MSB) of
the Accumulator.
 RIM (Read Interrupt Mask) instruction is
used to transfer the bit.
 SOD (Serial Output Data):
 It takes 1 bit from Accumulator to serial
port of 8085.
 Takes the bit from the 8th position (MSB)
of the Accumulator.
 SIM (Set Interrupt Mask) instruction is
used to transfer the bit.

INTERRUPT PINS
 Interrupt:
 It means interrupting the normal execution
X1 & X2
of the microprocessor.
 Pin 1 and Pin 2 (Input)
 When microprocessor receives interrupt
 These are also called
signal, it discontinues whatever it was
 Crystal Input Pins.
executing.
 Crystal input pins have only one function.
 It starts executing new program indicated
That is to provide stable clock pulses to
by the interrupt signal.
the digital circuit.
 Interrupt signals are generated by external
 8085 can generate clock signals internally.
peripheral devices.
 To generate clock signals internally, 8085
 After execution of the new program,
requires external inputs from X1 and X2.
microprocessor goes back to the previous
program.
RESET IN AND RESET OUT
 Pin 36 (Input) and Pin 3 (Output)
SEQUENCE OF STEPS WHENEVER THERE
 RESET IN:
IS AN INTERRUPT
 It is used to reset the microprocessor.
 Microprocessor completes execution of
 It is active low signal.
current instruction of the program.
 PC contents are stored in stack.
 PC is loaded with address of the new digits in a single instance of calculation,
program. but as many as eight digits in two instances
 After executing the new program, the and 16 in four instances.
microprocessor returns back to the The microprocessor is also known as a
previous program. "MPU (microprocessing unit)",
 It goes to the previous program by reading "microprocessor", or simply "processor."
the top value of stack.
INPUT DEVICE (INPUT)
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSOR  A data input device. The keyboard and
mouse of a PC, for example, are data input
devices. With a built-in controller,
switches and sensors are input devices.
 These input devices cannot be directly
connected to a CPU, but they must be
attached to the CPU by way of a
"peripheral IC," containing connection
The microprocessor is a single IC package in circuitry. Depending on the kind of input
which several useful functions are integrated device to be connected to the CPU, an
and fabricated on a single silicon semiconductor appropriate peripheral IC is used.
chip. Its architecture consists of a central
processing unit, memory modules, a system bus, OUTPUT DEVICE (OUTPUT)
and an input/output unit.  A data output device. The display and
printer of a PC, for example, are data
MICROPROCESSOR CONFIGURATION output devices. With a built-in controller,
display LEDs, motors, heaters and so on
are output devices. Like input devices,
output devices are attached to a CPU by
way of a "peripheral IC." Depending on
the kind of output device to be connected
to the CPU, an appropriate peripheral IC is
used.
 Input devices and output devices are
collectively called "peripherals."

 The microprocessor is said to be a

"computer built around ICs." Mainframes, MICROPROCESSOR SPECIAL PURPOSE DESIGNS
minis, and microprocessors all share the  Microprocessors are available in different
same principles of operation and vary only special-purpose designs which include the
in their scale, speed and architecture. The following.
minimum components required to build a  A DSP (digital signal processor) is one kind
computer are the CPU, memory and I/O of specialized processor, used for signal
devices as shown in Figure below processing.
 All these components of a microprocessor  GPUs (Graphics processing units) are
are fabricated of a single IC. Such ICs are mainly designed for image rendering in
coupled to build a computer. Three real-time. Other types of specialized
minimum IC’s that are needed to make up processors are used for machine vision as
a microprocessor are the CPU, memory, well as processing the video.
and peripheral IC.  In embedded systems, microcontrollers
incorporate a microprocessor using
CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) peripheral devices
 The CPU forms the nucleus of any  SOCs (Systems on-chip) frequently
computer by executing incorporate one or more
instructions. Microprocessors are grouped microcontroller/microprocessor cores
into 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit using additional components like radio
microprocessors according to the length of modems. These modems are applicable in
bits they can handle at a time. A 4-bit tablets, smartphones, etc.
microprocessor can handle four binary
CONSIDERATIONS OF SPEED & POWER PARTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
 The microprocessor selection is mainly BUSES
done for differing applications depending  A bus is a high-speed internal connection.
upon the size of a word. If the word size is Buses are used to send control signals and
long, then it allows every clock cycle of a data between the processor and other
microprocessor to perform more components.
computation, however, to communicate  Three types of bus are used.
with physically larger IC dies through  Address bus - carries memory addresses
higher standby as well as operating power from the processor to other components
utilization, 4-bit, 8-bit, or 12-bit processors such as primary storage and input/output
are extensively used into microcontrollers devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
embedded systems.  Data bus - carries the data between the
 Once a system expects to handle high- processor and other components. The data
volumes of data otherwise need a more bus is bidirectional.
supple user interface, then 16-bit 32-  Control bus - carries control signals from
bit/64-bit processors are utilized. For SoC the processor to other components. The
or microcontroller applications that need control bus also carries the clock's pulses.
very low power electrons, 8-bit/16-bit The control bus is unidirectional.
microprocessors may be selected instead
of 32-bit ROM
 When 32-bit arithmetic runs on an 8-bit  Read-only memory, or ROM, is a type of
processor could finish up with huge power, computer storage containing non-volatile,
because the processor must perform permanent data that, normally, can only
software through several instructions. be read, not written to. ROM contains the
programming that allows a computer to
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE start up or regenerate each time it is
DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM turned on.
 A computer is a programmable machine
that receives input, stores and manipulates RAM
data//information, and provides output in  RAM (random access memory) is a
a useful format. computer's short-term memory, where the
data that the processor is currently using is
stored. Your computer can access RAM
memory much faster than data on a hard
disk, SSD, or other long-term storage
device, which is why RAM capacity is
critical for system performance.

I/O INTERFACE
 Input-Output Interface is used as an
method which helps in transferring of
information between the internal storage
devices i.e. memory and the external
peripheral device .

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC COMPUTER PERIPHERAL DEVICE

SYSTEM  A peripheral device is that which provide
 Basic computer system consist of a Central input and output for the computer, it is
processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and also called Input-Output devices.
ROM), input/output (I/O) unit.
BASIC COMPONENT OF MICROCOMPUTER
CPU - Central Processing Unit
 the portion of a computer system that
carries out the instructions of a computer
program
 the primary element carrying out the  it acts as a gateway between primary
computer's functions. It is the unit that storage and secondary storage - data
reads and executes program instructions. transferred between them passes through
 The data in the instruction tells the the ALU.
processor what to do.  In computing, an arithmetic logic unit is a
combinational digital circuit that performs
arithmetic and bitwise operations on
integer binary numbers.

REGISTERS
Registers are small amounts of high-speed
COMMON CPU COMPONENTS
memory contained within the CPU. They are
The central processing unit (CPU) consists of six
used by the processor to store small amounts of
main components:
data that are needed during processing, such as:
 control unit (CU)
 the address of the next instruction to be
 arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
executed
 registers
 the current instruction being decoded
 cache
 the results of calculations
 buses
 clock
Different processors have different numbers of
 All the components work together to allow
registers for different purposes. Most have
processing and system control.
some, or all, of the following:
 program counter (PC)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CPU
 memory address register (MAR)
 memory data register (MDR)
 current instruction register (CIR)
 accumulator (ACC)

DEFINITION
 A processor register or simply register is a
quickly accessible location available to a
computer's processor. Registers usually
consist of a small amount of fast storage,
although some registers have specific
CONTROL UNIT hardware functions, and may be read-only
The CU provides several functions: or write-only.
 it fetches, decodes and executes
instructions CACHE
 it issues control signals that  Cache is a small amount of high-
control hardware components within the speed random access memory (RAM) built
CPU directly within the processor. It is used to
 it transfers data and instructions around temporarily hold data and instructions that
the system the processor is likely to reuse. This allows
 The control unit is a component of a for faster processing, as the processor
computer's central processing unit that does not have to wait for the data and
directs the operation of the processor. A instructions to be fetched from the RAM.
CU typically uses a binary decoder to
convert coded instructions into timing and CLOCK
control signals that direct the operation of  The CPU contains a clock which, along with
the other units. the CU, is used to coordinate all of the
computer's components. The clock sends
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT out a regular electrical pulse which
 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) synchronises (keeps in time) all the
 The ALU has two main functions: components.
 it performs arithmetic and logical  The frequency of the pulses is known
operations (decisions). as clock speed. Clock speed is measured
in hertz (Hz). The greater the speed, the
 more instructions can be performed in any such as the display and printer. Hard disk
given moment of time. drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc
drives serve as both input and output
BUSES devices. Computer networking is another
 A bus is a high-speed internal connection. form of I/O.
Buses are used to send control signals and
data between the processor and other DATA SIZE
components.
 Three types of bus are used.
 Address bus - carries memory addresses
from the processor to other components
such as primary storage and input/output
devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
 Data bus - carries the data between the
processor and other components. The data
bus is bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from
the processor to other components. The INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND BASIC OPERATION
control bus also carries the clock's pulses. OF MICROPROCESSOR
The control bus is unidirectional.

MEMORY
 physical devices used to store data or
programs.
 Computer main memory comes in two
principal varieties: random-access memory
(RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).
 RAM can be read and written to anytime
the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre- ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
loaded with data and software that never  The component that performs the
changes, so the CPU can only read from it. arithmetic and logical operations
 ROM is typically used to store the  the most important components in a
computer's initial start-up instructions. microprocessor, and is typically the part of
 In general, the contents of RAM are erased the processor that is designed first.
when the power to the computer is turned  able to perform the basic logical
off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. operations (AND, OR), including the
 In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized addition operation.
program called the BIOS that orchestrates
loading the computer's operating system INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ALU
from the hard disk drive into RAM
whenever the computer is turned on or
reset.

I/O UNIT
 Input/output (I/O), refers to the
communication between an information
processing system (such as a computer),
and the outside world possibly a human, or
another information processing system.
 Inputs are the signals or data received by CONTROL UNIT
the system, and outputs are the signals or  The circuitry that controls the flow of
data sent from it information through the processor, and
 Devices that provide input or output to the coordinates the activities of the other units
computer are called peripherals within it.
 On a typical personal computer,  In a way, it is the "brain within the brain",
peripherals include input devices like the as it controls what happens inside the
keyboard and mouse, and output devices
 processor, which in turn controls the rest
of the PC.
 On a regular processor, the control unit
performs the tasks of fetching, decoding,
managing execution and then storing
results.

REGISTER SETS
 The register section/array consists
completely of circuitry used to temporarily
store data or program codes until they are
sent to the ALU or to the control section or
to memory.
 The number of registers are different for
any particular CPU and the more register a PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)
CPU have will result in easier programming  a 16 bit register, used to store the next
tasks. address of the operation code to be
 Registers are normally measured by the fetched by the CPU.
number of bits they can hold, for example,  Not much use in programming, but as an
an "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register". indicator to user only.
 Purpose of PC in a Microprocessor
REGISTER IN MOTOROLA 68000  to store address of tos (top of stack)
MICROPROCESSOR  to store address of next instruction to be
executed.
 count the number of instructions.

STACK POINTER (SP)

 The stack is configured as a data structure
that grows downward from high memory
to low memory.
 At any given time, the SP holds the 16-bit
address of the next free location in the
stack.
 The stack acts like any other stack when
there is a subroutine call or on an interrupt.
ie. pushing the return address on a jump,
and retrieving it after the operation is
ACCUMULATOR
complete to come back to its original
 a register in which intermediate arithmetic
location.
and logic results are stored.
 example for accumulator use is summing a
DATA BUS
list of numbers.
 The data bus is 'bi-directional'
 The accumulator is initially set to zero,
 data or instruction codes from memory or
then each number in turn is added to the
input/output.are transferred into the
value in the accumulator.
microprocessor
 Only when all numbers have been added is
 the result of an operation or computation
the result held in the accumulator written
is sent out from the microprocessor to the
to main memory or to another, non-
memory or input/output.
accumulator, CPU register.
 Depending on the particular
microprocessor, the data bus can handle 8
CONDITION CODE REGISTER (CCR) = FLAGS
bit or 16 bit data.
 an 8 bit register used to store the status of
CPU, such as carry, zero, overflow and half
ADDRESS BUS
carry.
 The address bus is 'unidirectional', over
which the microprocessor sends an
address code to the memory or
input/output.
 The size (width) of the address bus is
specified by the number of bits it can
handle.
 The more bits there are in the address bus,
the more memory locations a
microprocessor can access.
 A 16 bit address bus is capable of
addressing 65,536 (64K) addresses.

CONTROL BUS
 The control bus is used by the
microprocessor to send out or receive
timing and control signals in order to
coordinate and regulate its operation and
to communicate with other devices, i.e.
memory or input/output.

MICRO PROCESSOR CLOCK

 Also called clock rate, the speed at which a
microprocessor executes instructions.
Every computer contains an internal clock
that regulates the rate at which
instructions are executed and synchronizes
all the various computer components.

EXAMPLE OF MICROPROCESSORS
 Intel 8086
 Motorola 6800
 Zilog Z80
 The three microprocessors mentioned
above paved way to the modern
microprocessors that we have today and