Meiji Restoration and Reforms:

~Rashi singh
687

Japan was under the Tokugawa Shogunate’s authority between 1603 and 1868. In
1603, the Tokugawa Shogunate took control following a time of total feudal
lawlessness. During this time, there was a very rigid social structure, isolationist
policies, and a system of conventional beliefs. The Shogunate started to experience a
number of problems in the first part of the nineteenth century. When it came to
handling what were known as "Naiyu Gaikan," or problems both inside and outside
the country, the Tokugawa government was seen as being unable and inefficient. The
Shogunate was overthrown as a result of an internal crisis and outside influences.

The demand for the monarch to regain genuine authority and the start of the "Meiji
Ishin," or the Meiji restoration, gained momentum with the fall of the Tokugawa
bakufan. The fact that this has been referred to as a "restoration" rather than a
revolution or movement is crucial. In addition to change, the term "Ishin" also denotes
renewal and fresh starts for everything. The only thing the rebels claimed to be doing
was returning power to the Emperor, Emperor Meiji. They made no other claims.

The ease and quickness with which they defeated the Tokugawa in 1868 pleased the
leaders of the new Meiji government. The merchants greatly aided the young samurai
of the Satsum and Choshu clans in their efforts to rebuild as they ascended to
prominence. They developed an ambitious agenda through a process of trial and error,
attempting to create a new kind of national power, driven by the fear of local or
foreign resistance and dissatisfaction with the previous rule. These Samurai held that
the imperial system would be traditionally revived while a whole new strategy for the
economy, society, and governance would be adopted. 
The new government had three options: preserve feudalism, cede the Tokugawa clan's
power to another clan or group of clans, or create a centralised governmental
apparatus that operated throughout the entire nation. Right from the start the new
regime resolutely set about uprooting the old concepts of government.

The Imperial Oath of March 14, 1868, which served as the foundational document
of the Meiji Restoration, expressed the anti-feudal aspirations of the vast majority of
people across the nation in terms that were familiar and acceptable to all, taking into
account the need for public consultation, the administration of affairs for the benefit of
the country, and the promotion of foreign knowledge. Further long-term objectives
were stated as the legitimacy of the new authority grew. To protect Japan's national
sovereignty and stop further foreign incursion was one commonly stated goal.
These overarching goals of national independence and future greatness served as the
inspiration for a variety of complementary objectives, including the revision of unfair
treaties to extricate Japan from its semi-colonial status, the promotion of national
harmony, and the eradication of old issues in order to move forward with strength and
prosperity. The motto of creating a "rich country, strong army," known as fukoku
kyohei in Japan, can be used to summarise the objectives of the early reforms in the
Meiji period.

The Seitaisho Constitution, which stated that all power rested in the Dajokan or
Grand Council of State, was adopted in 1868. The Dajokan administration proved to
be a very effective sort of revolution; it sported the symbol of tradition while
concentrating all power in the hands of a select group of men who could carry out
their plans through their own ministries.

This system was in place until 1885, when the Meiji authorities introduced a cabinet
structure that was clearly modelled after the European system. A prime minister
served as the head of state. He oversaw a cabinet that oversaw the many ministries and
bureaucratic divisions of the Japanese state. Early on, Satsuma and Choshu warriors
and their supporters hired the majority of the ministerial staff through personal
contacts. It started a system of Civil Service exams in 1887. Leading members of the
new temporary government, including Kido Koin of Choshu and Saigo Takamori of
Satsuma, decided that the politically fragmented system of domains needed to be
changed by 1868, almost immediately following the restorationist takeover. The goal
was to establish a centralised government that was focused on successfully
modernising Japan. The system of "Daimyos" and "Samurai" had to be abolished as
one of the first things to be done.
The domain lands would now be used to collect taxes for the federal government. The
domain troops were disbanded and the daimyo were ordered to relocate to Tokyo. To
eradicate administrative localism was the goal. Later in 1873, the Dajokan offered to
give fixed-term interest-bearing government bonds to ex-samurai who surrendered
their stipends, and three years later it made the exchange obligatory for all. 

But the Meiji leaders knew that most of these changes were temporary. These leaders,
who were undoubtedly motivated by their success in the west, were prepared to
establish representative political structures. The entire Samurai class had become
well-educated and desired some level of involvement in politics. Political interest
groups and parties that advocated for human rights began to form around 1873.

The government's policy of purchasing common lands, the freedom of occupation, and
the freedom to choose the type of crop all attest to the revolutionary victory of the
right to private ownership in land. In 1872, a law was passed that abolished these
restrictions. Okubo Toshimichi's Land Tax Reform Legislation was unveiled on July
28, 1873. In accordance with this law, the government issued ownership certificates to
those who cultivated particular land parcels and ascribed a monetary value to the
holdings. The legal owner is required to pay the tax, which is set at 3% of the land's
value, yearly in cash. Government revenue levels were stabilised with this system.
The total amount of land taxes collected prior to 1868 was rendered substantially
equivalent to the Meiji tax collections. A new tax connection is indicated by the
conversion of the land tax into a money tax collected according to a national standard
scale.
Recalcitrant peasants fiercely protested efforts to oust local leaders, change the
taxation structure, and enlist an army in some areas. The Meiji regime ultimately
adjusted its stance, lowering the land tax by about 20% in 1877 and sending out its
police forces to put an end to protests when necessary.

The Meiji commanders realised they needed to overhaul the military from the ground
up even before the samurai had been completely emancipated. From the restoration
troops, the government enlisted slightly about 10,000 samurai to form the imperial
guard in April 1871. Yet, the rise of the conservative military leadership was brief.
The government established a system of uniform conscription in 1873. All males were
required to serve three years on active duty and four years in reserve beginning at the
age of twenty akin to the French design.

Conscription significantly increased the regime's influence militarily by producing an

army capable of ensuring internal security while also contributing to the social
disenfranchisement of the samurai estate and the development of an opportunity-based
society. The issue of the position of the traditional samurai was brought on by the
military changes. Like the Daimyos, they had received a financial settlement offer as
well. Many Meiji officials looked to the west for guidance on how to set up political
institutions, generate riches, and promote social peace. Others were enthralled by the
political vigour, military might, and scientific and technological prowess of western
countries. An era known as "bunmei kaika," which literally translates to
"civilization and enlightenment," was birthed by the leaders of the country and
some of its most powerful private residents' keen curiosity in the west. From the
Shogunate, which until 1868 dispatched seven missions to the United States and
Europe, Western ideas have been invading Japan.

The Meiji government implemented a new educational system. Education reforms

were carried out under the influence of western ideologies and bunmei kaika, and as a
first step, a department of education was established in 1871. All children, both boys
and girls, were mandated to complete four years of elementary school in 1872. The
advancement of independence was now the main concern. Leaders like Kido Koin
were persuaded by observation of European and American civilizations that mass
education, like mass conscription, was a crucial component of the western world's
economic and military might. The 1872 edict established a system of elementary and
middle schools as well as national colleges, with the majority of their early models
coming from the United States and France.
The old-style Confucian scholars were eventually replaced as the new intellectual elite
by Japanese students who were sent abroad to receive western education. One strategy
the government used to try to foster an environment supportive of the acceptance of
the vast and fundamental changes that were occurring was to restructure the
educational system. A 10% local surcharge was to be added to the federal property tax
to pay for the elementary schools. Indignant taxpayers in the 1870s rioted in response
to mandatory education, much as they had done with the draught. There was a lot of
passive resistance, such as choosing not to attend school. Nonetheless, just like with
being in the military, going to school soon became a widely recognised requirement
for the emperor's people.

Large social changes were one of the consequences of the early Meiji period's
fundamental transformations. The social hegemony of the Daimyo and Samurai
classes was under attack. Privileges were withdrawn and all came to be seen as equal
by the state. All of the reforms put forth by the Meiji government were intended to
provide Japan a solid industrial foundation. The Meiji leaders were greatly moved by
the forces that industrial capitalism unleashed, especially those who had been
overseas.

The Japanese government's aggressive modernization efforts had the perceived danger
from the west as one of their main justifications. A second reason for the urgency of
industrial development was the drain on foreign cash that unfavourable tariff terms
with the west were causing. The only means of defence against this were to modernise
the domestic sector and enable it to compete with the high calibre and cheap cost
Western goods. The land reforms and new taxation policies can be seen in the
perspective of the government's aim to placate the feudal classes and amass wealth
from agricultural sources during this early period of Meiji administration. The state
created chances for capital investment while simultaneously trying to appease the old
classes. The Daimyos benefited financially from the 1871 settlement, which
encouraged them to make investments in new industries including banking and
business ventures. The Daimyos eventually rose to prominence as commercial
magnates.

The state had to convert mercantile and commercial capital into industrial capital. A
lot of actions were made to achieve this. The character of feudal stipends changed as a
result of the settlement of Daimyo and Samurai claims through interest-bearing
government bonds and encouragement of investment in businesses, stocks, and banks.
With the assistance of Daimyos and business houses like the House of Mitsui, state
capitalism was implemented. By guaranteeing internal stability, providing sound
currency, adequate banking facilities, a reasonable tax system, and effective
government services, the Japanese government created an environment that was
conducive to economic growth and the lifting of feudal restrictions on trade within the
nation and on individual activities.

The nation's standard currency was formed, and the only entity authorised to issue
money was the central government. A yen was chosen as the fundamental unit of the
decimal system. As a result, capital accumulation became more centralised. Moreover,
the gold standard was used. In the first decades of the Meijji administration, a banking
system modelled after the American system was implemented to supply loans, and up
to 100 national banks were established. The already affluent houses like Mitsui,
Mitsubishi, and Sumitomo controlled these banks. This financial structure put them in
close proximity to the interests of the government, resulting in the formation of a vital
alliance between the two. This connection can be used to explain how the future
Zaibatsu class came into existence.

The construction of a railroad network was spearheaded by the government. In 1872,

the first line, which connected Tokyo and Yokohama, was finished. Moreover, the
government promoted private railroad investment. The development of transportation
led to market expansion and promoted local specialisation. In addition, the creation of
a communications network was spearheaded by the government. It started
constructing telegraph connections in 1869, and in 1871 it launched a postal service
based on British customs. The Meiji government assumed an exceptionally direct role
in creating and running industrial businesses outside of the initiatives related to
infrastructure building. Government officials concluded that private investors lacked
the will and expertise to operate new enterprises.

The government's numerous initiatives caused a dramatic increase in spending. As a

result, more currency notes were printed, which in turn caused inflation. Matsukata
was appointed finance minister in 1881. He pursued a deflationary policy and aided in
putting the economy on a path to expansion. The significance of the government's role
in directing economic development in Japan is a point of contention among economic
historians. Some point out that compared to the military, the total investment in state
businesses was significantly lower. The peak of this early stage of development under
Meiji administration occurred in 1881, when a wholesale transfer or sale of industries
established by the government was carried out on simple and advantageous terms.
This was initially restricted to non-strategic light industries. The sale was successful
because the initial investment in all these units had already been made by the
government. The state also offered low tax incentives, subsidies, loans as well as
cheap transportation.

Since the Meiji Restoration was able to industrialise a primarily agrarian state and
develop a class of entrepreneurs in a very short amount of time, it has had enormous
ramifications for the history of Japan. The persistence of feudal characteristics and the
concentration of power exclusively in the hands of the aristocracy, however,
jeopardise the success of the Meiji restoration. There wasn't much of a change coming
up from underneath. The idea of equality never succeeded in transforming society
from its existing hierarchical structure and only existed legally and on paper.
Nonetheless, one of Asia's most notable instances of state-led and -controlled
modernization is still the Meiji Restoration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
 Andrew Gordon - A Modern History of Japan, From Tokugawa Times to the
Present 
 E.H. Norman – Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State  
 James L. McClain - Japan: A Modern History  
 W.G. Beasley – The Modern History of Japan 
 John K. Fairbank – East Asia, Tradition and Transformation