1
CIVL 440 Transportation Engineering II
Signalized Intersections
[Part 3 – Traffic Signal Analysis]
Instructor: Tarek Sayed
2
Purpose of Traffic Signals
To improve overall safety
• Traffic signals can be used to eliminate many conflicts because different traffic
streams can be assigned the use of the intersection at different times.
To decrease average travel time through an intersection
To equalize the quality of service for all or most traffic streams
• Reduce average delay of all road users
Opportunity for coordination (“synergistic” application)
However, not always the best solution - improper application could
result in:
• Incompliance/disobedience of signal indications
• Increased delay
• Increase in collisions
• Reduced capacity / increased congestion
Studies and warrants are used to justify intersection signalization
Consider remedial measures before signalizing an intersection
3
Signalization Justification
Conduct studies to justify whether an intersection
should/should not be signalized
MUTCD - warrants
1. Min. vehicle volume - f(# lanes, volumes on approaches)
2. Interruption of continuous traffic - f(# lanes, volumes on approaches)
3. Min. pedestrian volume - f(# of gaps/hr, location)
4. School crossing - f(# of gaps/hr, location)
5. Progressive movement - justify to maintain progression along a corridor
6. Accident experience - f(# and severity of accidents)
7. Combination of warrants - eg. Warrant #1 and #2 are 80% of min. vols.
8. 4-hour volume
9. Peak hour volume
4
Signal Timing Definitions
Cycle
• any complete sequence of signal indications (green-yellow-red), time in seconds,
denoted by C
Phase (Φ)
• the part of the cycle allocated to any combination of traffic movements receiving
right-of-way (green indication) simultaneously during one or more intervals
Interval
• a period of time during which all signal indications remain constant
Interval Sequence
• The order of appearance of signal indications during successive intervals of a
cycle
Offset
• Time lapse in seconds of the cycle length between the beginning of a green
phase at an intersection and the beginning of a corresponding green phase at
the next intersection downstream.
5
Signal Timing Definitions…2
Intergreen Period / Change and Clearance Interval
• time between the end of a green indication for one phase and the beginning of a
green indication for another. Consists of the yellow and all-red intervals that
occur between phases to provide clearance of the intersection before conflicting
movements are released.
All-red interval
• time when all approaches indicate red
Lost Time
• time during which the intersection is not use effectively by any movement
• sum of clearance lost time plus start-up lost time (~2-3 sec per phase, obtained
from field observations)
6
Signal Timing Definitions…3
Peak-hour Factor (PHF)
• Measure of variability of demand during the peak hour
• Ratio of volume during peak hour to the maximum rate of flow during a
given time period (typically 15 min. for intersections) within the peak
hour.
volume during peak hour
PHF =
4 x volume during peak 15 min. within peak hour
Critical Lane Volume
• Highest lane volume (veh/hr) in a phase
• Used to determine green time needed for a phase
7
Signal Operational Modes
When provisions for turns are made in the phasing:
Permissive (Permitted)
• A mode of traffic control signal operation in which left or right turns may be made,
when a circular green signal indication is displayed, after yielding to oncoming
traffic and/or pedestrians.
• Separate left-turn/right-turn lanes may or may not exist.
Protected (Exclusive)
• A mode of traffic control signal operation in which left or right turns may be made
only when a left or right green arrow signal is displayed.
• Opposing traffic is prohibited during the phase
• Typically, a separate left-turn lane is provided.
Protected/Permissive Mode
• A combination of both the protected mode and the permissive mode wherein left
or right turns may be made when a left or right turn arrow signal indication is
displayed, and after yielding to oncoming traffic, and or/pedestrian traffic, when a
circular green signal indication is displayed for through-traffic.
8
Types of Signal Control
Pre-timed Operation
• The cycle length, phases, green times, and change intervals are all preset. The
signal rotates through this defined cycle in a constant fashion: with the cycle
length and phases constant. Depending on the controller available, several
preset timing patterns may be used, each being implemented automatically at
fixed times of the day.
Semi-actuated Operation
• Detectors are placed on the minor approaches to the intersection. The signal is
green for the major street' at all times, until of the minor street detectors is
activated, indicating the presence of a vehicle waiting for service. For semi-
actuated signals, cycles have widely varying lengths, depending on the pattern of
actuations by minor -street vehicles.
Full-Actuated Operation
• In full-actuated operation, every intersection approach has a detector or
detectors. Green time is allocated based upon detector actuations. Each cycle is
different from another, and both the sequence and length of phases can be
altered in response to detected demand.
9
Intergreen Time
At the end of green times, need to provide time for vehicles to
clear
Consists of the Yellow + All Red times
To stop safely a distance d is required
v2 v2
d = vtr + = vtr +
2a 2 fg
t r = perception - reaction time W
v = speed of vehicle L
x
f = pavement friction
g = 9.81m/s 2
W = distance from stopline until vehicle rear is clear
L = length of vehicle
10
Intergreen Time…2
If x > d, driver can stop
If x << d, driver can’t stop but will
be able to clear the intersection easily
If x~d, dilemma, we want driver to
cover a distance of:
• d+W+L
Intergreen time, I d +W + L v W +L
I= = tr + +
I = yellow+all red v 2 fg v
11
Min. Green based on Pedestrian
Requirements
G Y R
Ped. Clearance
Interval
W FDW DW
D
Ped clearance time = D=distance for
v ped ped. to cross road
D
G +Y =W +
v ped
D
Min.Green = W + − Y = W + FDW
v ped
D
FDW = −Y
v ped
12
Selecting the Cycle Length (Webster’s
Method)
Webster used extensive field observations & computer
simulations to establish procedure for traffic signal design
Main assumption: random vehicle arrival
Defined terms such as “saturation flow” and “lost time”
Effective Green = G + I - lost time
• During effective green, flow assumed to be saturated
Developed equation for calculating optimum cycle length
13
Selecting the Cycle Length (Webster’s
Method)…2
14
Saturation Flow Rate & Headway
15
Saturation Flow Rate & Headway…3
16
Relationship between Cycle Length and
Average Vehicle Delay - Webster
17
Relationship between Cycle Length and
Effective Green & Critical Volume
Longer cycles result in less delay / more capacity
Effective Green = G + I - lost time (sat. flow rate)
Considering Critical Volume,Vc as capacity
Total Lost Time per Phase = TL
Number of Phases per Cycle = N
Total Lost Time per Cycle = NTL
Cycles per Hour = 3600/C
3600
Total Lost Time per Hour = NTL ×
C
18
Relationship between Cycle Length and
Effective Green & Critical Volume…2
3600
Total Lost Time per Hour = NTL ×
C
Remaining time is Effective Green (TG) time and is allocated to
critical movements.
Effective Green per hour = 3600 - Lost time per hour:
3600
TG = 3600 − TL ×
C
Critical Volume (veh/hr) = Effective Green (sec/hr) / Saturation
Headway (sec/veh):
TG 1 3600
VC = = 3600 − NTL ×
hs hs C
19
Relationship between Cycle Length and
Effective Green & Critical Volume…3
For a given h s and TL
20
Phasing
21
Phasing
Two phase signalization is the most common form in use and
the simplest in concept ( all left-and right-turning movements
are made on a permitted basis) .
Exclusive left-turn phases require that exclusive left-turn lanes
be provided (the opposite is not true)
Protected left-turn phasing is often considered when left-turn
volumes exceed 150 to 200 veh/hr
4. Protected right-turn phasing is used only where pedestrians
volumes are extreme.
5. If a protected left-turn phase is needed but exclusive left-turn
lanes can not be provided use Leading and Lagging Green
overlapping.
22
Signal Timing
The Y value in Webster's Formula is related to volume capacity
ratio and level of service (Y should not exceed. 0.7)
If the optimum cycle length calculation yields a cycle length in
excess of 75 seconds for two phases, 100 sec for three phases,
or 140 seconds for four phases the intersection warrants more
study and measures to increase capacity should be
considered.
