RESEARCH

LECTURE
YOU GOTTA FOCUS!
SYSTEMATIC
NATURE OF RESEARCH AND INQUIRY • The study follows a logical sequence
How can we get the answers to your questions? VALID
Inquiry
• An act of asking questions to acquire information • Whatever one can conclude on the basis of the findings
• Both aims to expand a body of knowledge is correct and can be verified by others too.

Research EMPIRICAL
• A systematized process of finding concrete solutions to • The data in the research is based upon hard evidences
a problem from real life experiences.

IMPORTANCE OF A RESEARCH CRITICAL

Discovery • The process of investigation must be free from any
• Research is performed to learn or find out new drawbacks and must be able to withstand criticism.
products, phenomena or behavior.
RESEARCH: AN INTRODUCTION
Validation RESEARCH
• Research is performed to gather evidence or proof to • Systematic investigation and study of materials and
support a body of knowledge. sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions
• Commonly misunderstood
FOUR MAIN GOALS OF RESEARCH • Indispensable component of academic and industry
1. To produce evidence-based practice practices
• Every research made must have a concrete proof that • Budding researchers can start by appreciating the
supports it to make it credible. worth of doing studies, and engaging in simple
research
2. To establish credibility on the profession
• Research is done to make the discipline in focus QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
feasible. • an attempt to understand the world as lived
• encompasses studies about an individual’s particular
3. To observe accountability for the profession experience and how he/she reflects on it
• A researcher is responsible for the profession he/she • product of individual interviews
is into by preparing a good and unbiased research. • no statistical analysis is being performed
• qualitative studies aims to explore human phenomena,
4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation
which may involve a single or a group of people
• Every research made must be shared to the individuals experiencing the same situation
it was intended for
QUALITIES OF A GOOD QUALITATIVE INQUIRE
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH TECHNICAL COMPETENCY
Exploratory
• ability to use available technologies
• Cites specific details of a situation or a relationship
UTILITY COMPETENCY
Descriptive
• ability to troubleshoot during unexpected scenario
• Formulates precise questions for future research
PATIENCE
Explanatory
• within and outside the group
• Searches for causes and reasons for phenomena and
relationship SERVICE
• willingness to serve others
WHAT MAKES A GOOD RESEARCH?
CONTROLLED EFFORT
• The set-up of the research minimizes the effect of the • time and skill
factors that might affect the outcome of the study
GUTS AND RISK
RIGOROUS • considering options
• Ensures that the process of finding answers are
relevant, appropriate and justified CARE
• distinct characteristics of a researcher

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PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEWS IN RESEARCH qualitative studies

POSTPOSITIVIST • interview texts are being delimited to manageable
statements and thematized
• Philosophy: “We cannot be positive in our claims of
knowledge when studying behavior and actions of • A model (or simulacrum) is being produced to
humans” summarize an understanding of the themes that
emerged in the study. In this phase, the results are
• Main Concept: Everything should be quantified to
interpreted before the write-up or manuscript.
produce meaningful concrete results

CONSTRUCTIVIST DISSEMINATION PHASE

• most valuable
• Philosophy: “Individuals develop subjective meanings
of their experiences” • results are advised to be shared to the general public
if not on the specific population or professional groups
• Main Concept: Experience expressed through words
that can benefit from its result
can paint a better picture of a certain phenomena

TRANSFORMATIVE BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN RESEARCH

• Philosophy: “Research inquiry should be intertwined
with politics and political change agenda”
• Main Concept: Research should be conducted to
increase quality of life and produce better societies

PRAGMATIC
• Philosophy: “We need to look to many possibilities for
collecting and analysing data”
• Main Concept: Use of quantitative and qualitative data QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
in expressing research findings
• exploring and understanding the meaning individuals
THE RESEARCH PROCESS or groups ascribed to a social or human problem
CONCEPTUALIZATION PHASE
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
topic is identified
• testing objective theories by examining the relationship
• not-too-broad but not-to-specific concept to allow
among variables
flexibility and further exploration

objective framing MIXED APPROACH

• identifying the ‘Central Question’ • involves collecting both quantitative and qualitative
• for qualitative inquiry, the focus is understanding data, and integrating the two forms of data
human experience using words
TYPES OF MIXED APPROACH RESEARCHES
literature reviews CONVERGENT PARALLEL
• required for quantitative studies • researcher merges quantitative and qualitative data
• optional in qualitative inquiries • collects both forms of data simultaneously

DESIGN PHASE EXPLANATORY SEQUENTIAL

• researcher first conducts quantitative research and
• also known as the planning phase
builds on the results to explain them in more detail
• researchers decide on the detailed procedures in
gathering and analyzing data EXPLORATORY SEQUENTIAL
• how, where and when the study will be conducted and • researcher begins with qualitative research and builds
analyzed on the findings to develop a quantitative phase

EMPIRICAL PHASE THE RESEARCH MANUSCRIPT

• data gathering and collection RESEARCH MANUSCRIPTS
• in qualitative studies, respondents are also known as • final output in written and/or soft copy file form
key informants or co-researchers • follows specific research content guidelines and format
• Interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGD) are ▪ traditional manuscripts: by-chapter
commonly employed with the use of the interview ▪ others adopt the Introduction-Method-Results-
guides or ‘Aide Memoire’ Discussion (IMRAD) format and content based on
the American Psychological Association (APA)
ANALYTICAL PHASE Standards
• preparation and assessment of the data through the
use of tools and the researchers’ own understanding
as supported by his belief and previous researches
published in the same area of interest

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UNIT 2
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN
DAILY LIFE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• curiosity leads a person to conduct qualitative research
to discover the mysteries of human behavior
• reflection of the desire to have the inquiry based on
realities and viewpoints of individuals
• designed to understand the behavior and perception of
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH the target audience
• results are primarily descriptive

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDY

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• systematic study of past events
• examines documents of the past to help the researcher
understand and connect it in the present time

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
• systematic process that involves observing, exploring,
QUANTI VERSUS QUALI RESEARCH documenting and analyzing the ways and cultural
beliefs of a group of people most especially the
indigenous or minority group

PHENOMENOLOGICAL
• systematic study of the lived experiences of individuals
• main objective: understand a person’s experience and
what makes it meaningful
• a study on how an individual or a group of people
experience a phenomenon

CASE STUDY
• in-depth analysis of a single entity or a small group
• often used in sociology, nursing and psychology
CORNERSTONES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH • researcher seeks to understand and answer the
NARRATIVE question why such situation occurred
• researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one
or more individuals to provide stories about their lives NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
• focuses on a specific story as the subject matter of
PHENOMENOLOGICAL inquiry
• researcher describes the lived experiences of • determines how individuals make sense of a particular
individuals about a phenomenon event in their lives
• how individuals make sense of their world by
ETHNOGRAPHY constructing, reconstructing and narrating stories
• researcher studies the shared patterns of behavior,
language and actions of an intact cultural group in a GROUNDED THEORY
natural setting over a prolonged period of time
• systematic collection of data through observation and
interview to generate a comprehensive explanation of
CASE STUDIES
a phenomenon grounded in reality
• researcher develops and in-depth analysis of a case,
• seeks to understand actions by discovering the
often a program, event, activity, process of one or more
problem and the person’s behavior on resolving a
individuals
problem
GROUNDED THEORY CHARACTERISTICS OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a HUMAN UNDERSTANDING AND INTERPRETATION
process, action or interaction grounded in the views of • we are able to get a view of a person’s perspective
the participants
FLEXIBILITY
• it has the capacity to adjust on what is being learned

CONTEXTUALIZATION
• researcher should have a grasp of the situation

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RESEARCHER IS THE MAIN INSTRUMENT INTERPRETATIVE PHASE

• data depends on how the researcher will gather • The interpretation of data and the analysis of the
information results are done here
• oftentimes, the researcher needs to engage with the
participants and within the area of study and for a UNIT 3
longer period to gather information IDENTIFIYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE
PROBLEM
INDUCTIVE APPROACH INTRODUCTION
• inductive reasoning • Qualitative Inquiry involves a single central question
• starts with observing and ends with proposed theories about a person’s experience.
• researcher begins with an open mind and then collects • Stating the problems begin with identifying the topic,
the data that leads to the formulation a generalized reviewing the literature, and deciding on the qualitative
hypothesis research design.

OVERVIEW OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOPIC SOURCES

CHARACTERISTICS • In qualitative studies, the topics should focus on life-
• Explore hypotheses, predictions or assumptions related concepts that are non-measurable and entails
• Semi-structured narration of past experiences.
• Flexible to elicit more answers • The topic must be “timely,” “trending,” and/or
• Inductive reasoning “trailblazing”.
• Appreciate contextual variables • The topic can be recommended or implied by own
experience and interest, own professional practice,
OBJECTIVES colleagues and critical friends (experts or resource
• Describe variation persons).
• Describe and explain relationships
• Describe individual variables or group norms RESEARCH TOPIC
• focus on life-related concepts that are non-
QUESTIONS measurable, and entails narration of past experiences
• Open-ended • Area of study, common ground

DATA INTELLECTUALIZED TOPIC

• Usually text • Specific to study
• Distinctiveness of your research
STUDY DESIGN
• May evolve during the study REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
• Participant questions may depend on responses RECONNAISSANCE
• Process of reviewing literature on topic will help you
ADVANTAGES identify how your proposed study will fit into the body
• in-depth and detailed evaluation of issues and topics of literature available.
• framework can be revised when findings have been
collected TYPES OF LITERATURE SOURCES:
• data is dependent on the experiences of a person
CONCEPTUAL
• data is gathered through the desire of the researchers
• From books
to get an answer to their inquiry that is based on reality
and experience • 2nd priority

DISADVANTAGES RESEARCH
• research quality depends on the skills of the researcher • From journals
and can be influenced by personal judgment and • 1st priority
biases
• validity and reliability of the data GRAY
• time-consuming and data may be difficult to interpret • From other sources
• its open-ended questions obtain a lot of data which • Not priority (mostly secondary)
makes it hard for the researcher to sort and transcribe
LITERATURE IDENTIFIERS
RESEARCH PROCESS ISBN
CONCEPTUAL PHASE • International Standard Book Number
• The preparation and conceptualizing of topics and • Internationally regulated system of identifying the book
problems take place in this phase by number.
• Publishers purchase a bunch of ISBN at one time and
EMPIRICAL PHASE then assign them to publications.
• The gathering of data and testing of the hypothesis
take place in this phase

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RESEARCH CAPSULE
• BLUEPRINT of a research.
• Summarizes research details and attributes for planning
research.

DOI
• Direct Object Identifier
• Help identify specific journalarticles.
• Frequently used for scientificarticles.

PMID
• PubMED IDs
• Strings of numbers that identify the records in the
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
PubMED Database.
• It is a concise description of the issues that need to be
addressed by the researcher.

PARTS OF THE SOP

• The sub-problems (“minor”) that you must solve to
completely answer the major problem.
• The problems (“major”) that you would want to answer
or to solve in your study.

WAYS TO WRITE THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

FIVE-QUESTION METHOD IN FRAMING A DECLARATIVE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY • The problem is written as a statement to address
• BIOGRAPHY whatever is needed to be found in the study.

If I could discover the meaning of one person’s lived experience, EXAMPLE:

I would ask ______________ (individual) about __________ This study aims to develop an alternative method for
Teaching Philosophy of Human Life in collegiate level.
• PHENOMENOLOGY 1. By teaching the subject through dialogue teaching.
2. By teaching the subject through an online course.
If I could discover the shared lived experiences of one quality or 3. By applying the strategy of peer tutoring.
phenomenon in others, I would want to know about 4. By utilizing the modular approach of teaching.
______________________
INTERROGATIVE
• ETHNOGRAPHY
• The problem is written as a question to address at the
latter part of the research paper.
If I could experience a different culture by living/ observing it, I
would choose to experience ____________
EXAMPLE:
What alternative methods can be developed which can be
• CASE STUDY proved effective in teaching Philosophy in the collegiate level?
1. Dialogue teaching
If I could discover what actually occurred and was experienced
2. Online course
in a single lived event, that event would be
3. Peer tutoring
_______________________________. 4. Modular approach
• GROUNDED THEORY
STEPS
If I could discover a theory for a single phenomenon of living as 1ST STEP
shared by others, I would choose to discover the theory • The first two or three problems must be answerable
of________. “subjectively” (initially and safely assumed before the
actual study). These research problems can be

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answered through a statement in the Conclusions part 2ND PARAGRAPH

of your research paper. • It must contain a bit of information about a previous
ND
study or research that is somehow related to what
2 STEP you’re currently working on. The study must be within
• Particularly for a quantitative research, the next two the ideal “one-decade timeliness” (or in some
research problems must be answerable by using a practices, “five-year timeliness”).
statistical tool such as ANOVA, Pearson R or T Test. Ex. A study for 2023 m ust have main sources not earlier
These problems will be answered mathematically in than 2013.
the results part and will be answered in a statement in • If you're unable to find a related or similar study, you
the CONCLUSION part of the research paper. can cite a statement from a reliable source.

3RD STEP 3RD PARAGRAPH

• The last problem will be all about finding the best • Make a statement about the things that were
solution to your study. This must be answerable by the discovered or learned from the past about your
final result that you have acquired from your research. research topic. You can retell an experience or event
from the past that made you think of your topic a strong
4TH STEP one but also cite its weakness
• Now, that you have listed all the major problems. You
can now insert minor problems or sub problems. UNIT IV
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY LITERATURE REVIEW
• It is a part of the research paper that helps the • the summary of the state of existing knowledge on a
researcher prove the relevance of the research research problem or topic
questions and to further develop your argument. • the analysis and synthesis of articles related to the
research topic being studied
COMPONENTS OF BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
• Current Information surrounding the issue. THE BASIC PROCESS
• Previous study about the issue. • Searching relevant articles
• Relevant history to the issue. • Reading and analyzing research reports
• History and background of the problem. • Writing the description of the existing information on a
• Review of the issues. topic in a manner that is ethical and based on
standards

THE PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

• To identify research problem
• To determine what is known and unknown about the
topic of inquiry
• To identify suitable designs or methods for a study
• To improve research question or hypothesis (for
quantitative research)
• To determine whether a study needs to be replicated
in a different setting or different group of population
• To assist researchers in interpreting findings

TYPES OF LITERATURE
RESEARCH LITERATURE
• is based on research findings.
• Its data is supported by evidences.
WHY WE DO BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY EXAMPLE:
• To gain knowledge about your topic ▪ journal articles, literature reviews, research
• For the readers to become familiar with your study. abstracts
• To provide support for your ongoing research.
• To learn more about the previous works of the NON-RESEARCH REFERENCES
researchers. • these are not based on research findings.
• They provide insights and may broaden understanding
1ST PARAGRAPH regarding a topic.
• It must contain a partial review of your research topic. • They have limited use and do not serve the purpose of
The review must consist of your own personal review literature review since they are not based on research
and a review taken from a reference but it must be findings.
PARAPHRASED. EXAMPLE:
▪ literary or artistic works, opinion articles,
brochures, magazines, anecdotes

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SOURCES OF RESEARCH LITERATURE of 150-250 words. It informs the reader of the

PRIMARY SOURCE (ORIGINAL OR FIRST-HAND) background, problem statement, methodology,
significant results, and conclusion of the study.
•
the description of studies written (or obtained) by the
researchers themselves
INTRODUCTION
EXAMPLE:
• It explains the study problem and its context. It usually
▪ researches published in journals, abstract
contains:
prepared by the researchers, dissertations, thesis,
▪ main topic, concept, phenomenon, or variables
undergraduate researches, presentation done by
under study
the researcher
▪ knowledge gap that the study will fill
▪ purpose of the study
SECONDARY SOURCE ▪ significance of the study
•
description of studies written (or obtained) by someone
else, other than researchers who conducted them. METHOD SECTION/METHODOLOGY
• This should not become substitute for primary sources • It mentions the strategies used to answer the research
because they are less detailed and may be subjective question. There are several ways to answer a research
in nature. question or solve a research problem. But the main
EXAMPLE: point will be whether the chosen strategy is the
▪ literature review, abstract prepared by a reviewer, most appropriate method to answer the question.
presentation of research done by someone else
other than the researcher PARTS OF THE METHODS SECTION/METHODOLOGY
Research Design
PROCESS OF RESEARCH LITERATURE ▪ overall plan of the study
SEARCHING RELEVANT ARTICLES Subjects (Key Informants/Participants Selection)
PRINT RESOURCES ▪ description of the
• These are utilized when there is a need to perform a ▪ population or sample: who they are, their
search to include early literature on a topic. Most top-of- characteristics, how many were
the-line journals are commercially available only and ▪ they, how they were chosen, how they were
high subscription fees can be expensive for students. It recruited.
is a wise practice to begin the search with the most Research/Study Locale
recent issue of the index or abstract journal and then to ▪ description of the place where the study was
proceed backward. conducted
Research Instrument
Print Indexes ▪ the research tool that will be employed in data
▪ Books that are used to locate articles in journals collection (data generation in qualitative
and periodicals, books, dissertations, publications approach).
of professional organizations, and government ▪ It may be in the form of a survey questionnaire,
documents. interview guide, etc. The manner on how it was
▪ Usually, you first need to identify the subject validated will also be discussed.
heading. Then, you can proceed to the subject Data Collection (Data Generation for the qualitative)
section of the index which lists the actual ▪ step-by-step description of how the study was
references. done for studies involving human participants,
ways on how their rights were protected are also
Abstract Journals described.
▪ These are summarized articles that have Data Analysis
appeared in other journals . These are more useful ▪ states how collected data will be analyzed
than indexes because they provide a summary of ▪ For quantitative researches: researcher will
a study rather than just a title. usually employ statistical tests
▪ For qualitative researches: several data (i.e.
textual and verbal) analysis techniques are also
READING AND ANALYZING RESEARCH REPORT
available
• Research papers may come in various formats but the
more common structure of presenting these articles RESULTS SECTION
come in the form of a research reports found in journals. • This is wherein the actual findings of the study are
Journal articles often consist of: presented.
• Abstract ▪ For quantitative researches: these have calculated
• IMRaD Format numerical values, and usually contain tables or
▪ Introduction section figures highlighting important results.
▪ Methods/Methodology section ▪ For qualitative studies: These present and arrange
▪ Results section themes or categories that were identified from.
▪ Discussion section
• References section DISCUSSION SECTION
• The researcher interprets the findings presented in the
ABSTRACT result section.
• This is the brief summary of the study placed at the
beginning of the journal article. It is usually composed

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• The researcher explains what the results mean or what are usually subjected to sanctions like suspension and
are the plausible reason why the results are the way even expulsion from the institution.
they are. • There are available online tools which help identify
• How are findings can be used practically may also be plagiarism.
added.
• The researcher is also in the best position to UNIT V
enumerate the weaknesses or limitations that the study UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO
may have and how he considers them in interpreting SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA
the findings. SAMPLING
POPULATION
REFERENCES SECTION
• The list of journal articles, books and other documents • entire aggregation of the case where a researcher is
that were referenced in the written research interested
manuscript. • often, it is not feasible to include all members of the
• It follows a certain standard format, like the following: population in a research
▪ APA (American Psychological Association) Style
▪ The Chicago Manual of Style SAMPLING
▪ MLA (Modern Language Association) Style • process of selecting the sample or a portion of the
population
TIPS ON READING RESEARCH REPORTS
• Make research reading a habit. SAMPLE
• Highlight significant information and do not hesitate to • subset of the population elements
write notes on photocopies of research reports.
• Initially scan the report then read them more slowly REPRESENTATIVENESS
next time.
• Ensure that you understand what you read. • how well the sample represents the population
• Do not be discouraged by technical terms or statistical
data. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
• Translate research jargons into more familiar terms. • one whose key characteristics closely approximate
• Do not underestimate the value of your sense while those of the
reading. • population

WRITING THE DESCRIPTION OF THE EXISTING PROBABILITY SAMPLING

INFORMATION ON A TOPIC • there is random selection of sample
• There are no fixed systems. • there is greater representation in each unit in the
• It is important to organize materials in a logical and population
coherent manner. • each element in the population has the same equal
• Some researchers advise the use of summary charts chance of being selected as a sample
to combine findings from studies. • findings can be generalized to the population
• This is not a compilation of copied and pasted
passages from several journals nor a string of quotes NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
or abstracts.
• It highlights what is known and unknown about a topic. • there is a form of bias in the selection of sample
• It points out existing gaps in the literature that needs to • there is no assurance that each element in the
be filled. population has the same equal chance of being
selected as a sample
STANDARD STYLES IN LITERATURE REVIEW • there is no assurance that each unit in the population
CITATION is properly represented
• A signpost and an acknowledgement • findings are limited to the sample
▪ as a signpost: signals the location of a source
▪ as an acknowledgement: reveals that you are SAMPLING DESIGNS
indebted to that source NON-PROBABILITY
• Provides evidence that scholarly writing is done and • there is a form of bias in the selection of sample
your position is well-researched.
SAMPLING PROBABILITY SAMPLING
PLAGIARISM
• there is random selection of sample
• It is the wrongful use of idea or language of another
author and representing them as if they
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• are your original work.
• There must be adequate citing of sources in one' s
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
manuscript. • sometimes called Accidental Sampling
• Taking credit for other people's work is stealing. • selection of samples based on the convenience of
• In the academe, plagiarism is considered a form of the researcher
dishonesty. Those who are found guilty of the offense

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SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• “Referral System” GROUNDED THEORY
• initial sample members are asked to refer other people • developed in 1967 by Glaser and Strauss
who meet the criteria required by the researcher
• people who share the same traits or experiences know ETHNOGRAPHY
each • aims to describe and interpret behaviour of a certain
• other useful for participants who are hard to find culture

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING PERSPECTIVES IN ETHNOGRAPHY

• Judgmental Sampling EMIC PERSPECTIVE
• the selection of the sample is based on the selective • is the outsiders’ interpretation of the experiences of
judgment of the researcher that culture
ETHNOGRAPHY
QUOTA SAMPLING • the way the members of the culture envision their own
world; it is the insiders’ view
• researcher identifies population sections or strata
and decides how many participants are required from
THREE ASPECTS OF INFORMATION
each section
• CULTURAL BEHAVIOR
▪ how members of the culture act and behave
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• CULTURAL SPEECH
• each member of the population has the same equal ▪ what members of the culture say
chance of being selected as a sample • CULTURAL ARTIFACTS
• “FISH BOWL” NUMBER GENERATED ▪ what members of the culture make and use

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

• uses the kth interval formula
▪ k= N/n

▪ N= Population
▪ n= desired sample
▪ k= sampling interval

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• population is divided into subgroups or strata
• after stratification, appropriate number of elements are
selected from each stratum at random

CLUSTER SAMPLING
• Multi-stage Sampling
• useful when the population is large and widely
dispersed
• sampling is done in several stages

SAMPLING ERROR
• Particularly for quantitative research, this results to
overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some
segment of the population
• smaller sample size = bigger chance of sampling errors

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

CASE STUDIES
• focus on a single element or a single entity

PHENOMENOLOGY
• focuses on lived experiences

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• focuses on past events
• main challenge: determination of the authenticity of the
historical evidences