Module 2

Cellular Basis of Inheritance

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Mitosis and Meiosis

Start Module
 Study Aims and Objectives
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Module 2

Cellular Basis of To observe the morphology

Inheritance 1 of chromosomes

Objectives
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To understand the processes

2 of mitosis and meiosis
Lessons

Assignment To analyze the relationship

3 between meiosis and Mendel’s rule
 Module Lessons
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Module 2
g e

Cellular Basis of
Inheritance g g

Objectives
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Chromosomes Mitosis

Lessons

Assignment
m

Meiosis
Chromosomes
g
f
Chromosomes

A thread-like entity
composed entirely of
nucleic acid, that carries
genetic information
Chromosomes

RNA Associated
Proteins

DNA
Chromosomes

Usually a single
stranded structure
but during mitotic
division becomes
doubled
 Chromosomes
In more complex organisms such as plants and animals (eucaryotes), each
somatic cell contains
B B

one set of
chromosomes
From Mom
inherited from
the maternal
e e
parent
Eukaryotes
Somatic Cell
(body cell)
 Chromosomes

B Bb b
Comparable set
of chromosomes
called the
From Mom From Dad homologous
chromosome or
homologues
e e E E
from the paternal
Eukaryotes parent
Somatic Cell
(body cell)
Chromosomes

B Bb b

Diploid (2n) Number

From Mom From Dad The number of
chromosomes in this
dual set
e e E E

Somatic Cell
(body cell)
Chromosomes

B B Haploid cells (n)

Sex cells, or gametes, with half
the number of chromosome
sets found in somatic cells

Sex Cell
Chromosomes

B B b b

e e E E

The number of chromosomes

B B b b
in each somatic cell is the
same for all members of a
given species
e e E E

Somatic Cell
(body cell)
Chromosomes

Example
The nuclei of most
human cells contain
46 chromosomes

Human Cell
Chromosomes

These 46 chromosomes consist

of 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes, or homologs

Human Cell
Chromosomes

Meaning each of these

pairs are alike, but not
necessarily identical

Human Cell
Chromosomes

The 23rd pair of

chromosomes in humans
determines sex

Human Cell
Chromosomes

These two chromosomes may

be very different from each
other, depending on gender

Human Cell
Chromosomes

Female (XX) Male (XY)

Chromosomes

Convention
Describe the chromosome
number in humans as
2n = 46

because the cells are diploid.

Human Cell
Chromosomes

Autosomes
All chromosomes
exclusive of the sex
chromosomes
Chromosomes

Autosomes (somatic)
22 pairs of chromosomes

Sex Chromosomes
1 pair of chromosomes
Chromosome Morphology

They are composed

of nucleic acid
associated with a DNA
variety of proteins
 Chromosome Morphology

Chromatin
This complex of
nucleic acid and
proteins
(nucleoprotein)
 Chromosome Morphology

Chromatin

Histones
Help to organize the long
strands of DNA into structures
 Chromosome Morphology
Nucleosomes

Chromatin
 Chromosome Morphology
Nucleosomes

Chromatin
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria
1 Length
The relative lengths of
the chromosomes
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria
1 Length
2 Position
Centromere
The position or location
of the centromere
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria
1 Arm Length
2 Position Centromere
The position or (A condensed or
location of the constricted structure
centromere that divides the
chromosome into
two arms of varying
length).
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria

Centromere
Divides the
chromosome into
two “arms”
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria
Centromere
p arm
The shorter arm

q arm
The longer arm
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria
Dyad

p arm

q arm
Sister
chromatids
Non-sister
chromatids
Homologous Pair
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria
Depending on the
location of the
centromere, different
arm ratios are
produced with the
following descriptions
Chromosome Morphology

DNA
Consists of a linear
array of genes
interspersed with
non-coding DNA
Chromosome Characterization
Distinguishing Criteria

Telomere
The centromere and
telomeres form part of
the non-coding DNA
Centromere

Telomere
Chromatids
Chromosome Characterization

Telomere
Specialized structures,
comprising DNA and
protein, which cap the
ends of eukaryotic
chromosomes

Read more on the functions of telomeres

 Module Lessons
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Module 2
g e

Cellular Basis of
Inheritance g g

Objectives
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Chromosomes Mitosis

Lessons

Assignment
m

Meiosis
Mitosis
ef
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division Cycle

The series of events that G2

takes place in a cell S M
leading to its division and Interphase
g2
g1
mi
mati
csp

duplication (replication)

G1
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
In eucaryotes, the cell cycle can be divided into two brief periods

Interphase G2 M
S
During which the cell
grows, accumulating g2
g1
mi
mp
scta
i

nutrients needed for

mitosis and Interphase
duplicating its DNA
G1
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division

Mitosis (M) Phase G2

S M
During which the cell
splits itself into two g2
g1
mi
mp
scta
i

distinct cells
Interphase
G1
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division

G2
S M
Interphase
mi
g2
g1
m
pctasi

G1
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division

G2
S M
Interphase
mi
g2
g1
m
p
acsti

G1
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division

G2 Cell Division

S M
Interphase
mi
g2
g1
m
p
casti

G1
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
G1 (Gap 1) Phase
1 Intensive cellular synthesis
takes place G2 Ce

2 The following are produced: S M

• Cell organelles Interphase
g2
g1
mi
mati
csp

• rRNA
• tRNA
• Ribosomes G1
• Proteins
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
G1 (Gap 1) Phase
3 Cell metabolic rate is increased
G2 Ce
4 Cell growth takes place
S M
5 Substances are produced to Interphase
g2
g1
mi
mati
csp

either inhibit or stimulate

onset of next phase
G1
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
S (Synthesis) Phase
1 DNA replication occurs
G2 Ce
2 Histones are synthesized
S M
and cover each DNA strand
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
mati
csp

3 Each chromosome
becomes two chromatids
G1
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
G2 (Gap 2) Phase
1 Intensive cellular synthesis
G2 Ce
2 Mitochondria and
S M
chloroplasts divide
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
mati
csp

3 Energy stores increase

4 Mitotic spindle begins G1

to form
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis
1 Designated as the M phase
2 Smooth process with no
clear-cut discontinuities G1
3 Certain landmark events M
serve to identify 4 stages
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis

4 stages of G1
Nuclear Division M
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis

4 Phases of G1
Nuclear Division M
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis

4 Phases of G1
Nuclear Division M
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis

4 Phases of G1
Nuclear Division M
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis

Long and
involved

4 Phases of G1
Nuclear M
Division

Long and
involved
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
The Process and Stages of Mitosis

4 Phases of G1
Brief and
Nuclear M
short
Division
 two brief periods:
The Cell Cycle/Cell Division
C (Cell Division) Phase
1 Equal distribution of organelles
and cytoplasm into each
daughter cell
C
2 Separation of daughter cells

G2
 ef

What is Mitosis?
What is Mitosis?
What is Mitosis?
The process by which a cell nucleus divides to produce
two daughter nuclei containing identical sets of
chromosomes to the parent cell
What is Mitosis?
It is a non-reductional nuclear division by which one cell
results in two daughter cells, each with a set of chromosomes
identical to that of the parental cell
End Results of Mitosis
To construct an exact copy
of each chromosome
End Results of Mitosis
To distribute, through division of the original (mother) cell,
an identical set of chromosomes to each of the two progeny
or daughter cells
Recall the Cell Cycle diagram that
mitosis occurs in 4 phases. But,
these stages are usually preceded
by the interphase
The Cell Cycle

Cell Division
G2
S M
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

G1
The Cell Cycle
Interphase Nuclear envelope

Centrioles Nucleolus

Chromatin threads
i

Cytoplasm

Cell membrane
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
1 The duration of the interphase
depends on the function of
the cell
i
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
1 The duration of the interphase
depends on the function of
the cell

2 The cells synthesize

i

organelles and increase

in size
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
3 Chromosomes and centrioles duplicate

B b B B b b

i i
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
3 Chromosomes and centrioles duplicate

B b B B b b Each chromosome now

i i
exists as a pair of
chromatids joined
together by a
centromere
The Cell Cycle
Interphase
4 At this stage,
chromosomal material
will stain and are referred
to as chromatin i
The Cell Cycle

Summary
Interphase is that G2
portion of the cell cycle
S M
in which the condensed
chromosomes are not Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

visible under the light

microscope. It includes G1
the G1, S, and G2 phases.
The Cell Cycle

Cell Division
G2
S M
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

G1
The Cell Cycle
Prophase Aster

Centrioles Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus

Pair of chromatids
p

Centromere
The Cell Cycle
Prophase

1 The longest phase of mitosis

2 Chromatids shorten and thicken
through spiralisation and p

condensation of the DNA

protein coat
The Cell Cycle
Prophase

3 Staining shows the chromatids

clearly but the centromeres
do not stain p

4 Centrioles move to the opposite

poles of the cell
The Cell Cycle
Prophase

5 Short microtubules (asters)

may be seen radiating from
the centrioles p

5 Nucleoli decrease in size

The Cell Cycle
Prophase

6 By the end of prophase,

the nuclear envelope
disintegrates into small
vesicles which disperse p

and a spindle is formed

The Cell Cycle

p
The Cell Cycle

Cell Division
G2
S M
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

G1
The Cell Cycle
Metaphase

Spindle fibres

Centromeres
on equator
of spindle
The Cell Cycle
Metaphase
Division of the Centromere
1 The pairs of chromatids
attach their centromeres to
the spindle fibres
m
The Cell Cycle
Metaphase
Division of the Centromere
2 The chromatids
Movement move by the
is mediated
upwards andmicrotubles
kinetochore downwards
along thefibres),
(spindle spindlewhich push
and pull on the chromosomes
m

to align them into what is

called the metaphase plate
The Cell Cycle
Metaphase
Division of the Centromere
3 Their centromeres line up
across the equator of the
spindle and at right-angles
to the spindle axis
m
The Cell Cycle

Summary
Metaphase is the mitotic
stage characterized by
the alignment of the m

chromosomes in a ring
along the inner
circumference of the cell.
The Cell Cycle

Summary
Each chromosome is
drawn to that position
by the microtubules m

extending from it to the

two poles of the spindle
The Cell Cycle

Cell Division
G2
S M
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

G1
The Cell Cycle
Anaphase

Daughter chromosomes
move apart with the
a

centromeres leading
The Cell Cycle
Anaphase
Separation of the Chromatids

a
The Cell Cycle
Anaphase
Separation of the Chromatids
1 The centromeres split
into two
2 Sister chromatids
Spindle fibres pull a

daughterat
separate centromeres
the
together with their
centromere
chromatids to
opposite poles
The Cell Cycle
Anaphase
Separation of the Chromatids
3 Chromosomes move
to opposite poles by
contraction of the
spindle fibers
a
The Cell Cycle

Summary
Anaphase is the stage of
mitosis characterized by
the physical separation a

of sister chromatids
The Cell Cycle

Summary
The poles of the cell are
pushed apart by
microtubular sliding, and
the sister chromatids are a

drawn to opposite poles

by the shortening of the
microtubules attached
to them
The Cell Cycle

Cell Division
G2
S M
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

G1
The Cell Cycle
Telophase Nucleolus

Pair of t
Chromatin
Centrioles
Nuclear Envelope

t
The Cell Cycle
Telophase
Reformation of Nuclei
1 Nuclear membranes
reform around each
daughter nucleus and
the nucleolus reappears
t t
The Cell Cycle
Telophase
Reformation of Nuclei
2 Spindle fibers disappear
t

and the cytoplasmic part

of the cell then divides

t
The Cell Cycle
Telophase
Reformation of Nuclei
3 The chromosomes
t

reach the poles of the

cell, uncoil, lengthen
and lose the ability to
be seen clearly
t
The Cell Cycle
Telophase
Reformation of Nuclei
4 The spindle fibres
t

disintegrate and
centrioles replicate

t
The Cell Cycle

Cell
G2 Division
S M
Interphase
g2
g1
mi
m
pcstai

G1
The Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
Cell Division
t

t
The Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
Cell Division
Accomplished by the
t

formation of a cleavage that

deepens and eventually
pinches the cell into two

t
The Cell Cycle

Cytokinesis t

The physical division of the

cytoplasm of a eukaryotic
cell into two daughter cells.

t
The Cell Cycle

t
The Cell Cycle

t
Reading Assignment

Significance of
Mitosis
 Review Questions
In a chronological order, what are
the stages of mitosis? Indicate a key
characteristic of each stage.

What is a karyotype? How are

chromosomes differentiated from
one another?
 Module Lessons
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Module 2
g e

Cellular Basis of
Inheritance g g

Objectives
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Chromosomes Mitosis

Lessons

Assignment
m

Meiosis
 m
f

Sexual Reproduction
and Meiosis
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Sexual reproduction involves:
1 The production of
gametes

Male Gametes Female Gamete

(Sperms) (Egg/Ovum)
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Sexual reproduction involves:
1 The production of
gametes
2 The union of a male and a
female gamete (syngamy
or fertilization)

Syngamy or fertilization
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Sexual reproduction involves:
1 The production of
gametes
2 The union of a male and a
female gamete (syngamy
or fertilization)
3 To produce a Zygote Zygote
 m
f

What is Meiosis?
Meiosis
Meiosis

Meiosis is a form of Diploid

cellular division that (2n)
results in the reduction
of diploid number (2n)
of chromosomes to Haploid
haploid number (n) (n)
Meiosis

Meiosis consists of two

Meiosis I
specialized, consecutive cell
divisions in which the
chromosome number of the

Meiosis II
resulting cells is reduced
from a diploid (2n) to a
haploid (n) number
Meiosis

The first meiotic division

(meiosis I) is a reductional
division that produces two

Meiosis I
haploid cells from a single
diploid cell.
Meiosis

Meio
The second meiotic division
(meiosis II) is an equational
division.

Meiosis II
It is identical to normal mitotic
division, in that it is sister
chromatids of the haploid
cells that are separated.
Meiosis
Phases of Meiosis I

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Meiosis
Phases of Meiosis II

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

Meiosis I
Characteristics of Meiosis I

1 Replicated chromosomes
thicken and condenses
Meiosis I
Characteristics of Meiosis I

2 Each pair ofIthe

Metaphase differs
synapsed
from
mitotic metaphase
chromosomes or in that,
homologous chromosomes
come
is called
to aliebivalent
side by side
(2 in a
pairing process or
chromosomes) called
a tetrad
synapsis
(4 chromatids)
Meiosis I
Characteristics of Meiosis I

3 The cell at this stage

contains one set of
maternally derived
and one set of
paternally derived
chromosomes
Maternal
Paternal
Meiosis I
Characteristics of Meiosis I

4 During synapsis, chromatids

may cross over and exchange
genetic material in a process
called crossing over and
recombination
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The events of Prophase I are complex and
can be sub-divided into five stages:
1 Leptonema
2

Zygonema

Pachynema Or Leptotene
condensing of replicated
Diplonema
chromosomes
4

Diakinesis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The events of Prophase I are complex and
can be sub-divided into five stages:
1

Leptonema

2 Zygonema
3

Pachynema Or Zygotene: synapsis

between homologous
4

Diplonema chromosomes begins

5

Diakinesis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The events of Prophase I are complex and
can be sub-divided into five stages:
1

Leptonema

Zygonema

Or Pachytene:
3 Pachynema
crossing over can
4

Diplonema occur

Diakinesis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The events of Prophase I are complex and
can be sub-divided into five stages:
1

Leptonema

Zygonema

Pachynema
Or Diplotene: two
3

homologous chromosomes
4 Diplonema
begin to migrate apart
5

Diakinesis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The events of Prophase I are complex and
can be sub-divided into five stages:
1

Leptonema

Zygonema

Pachynema
Termination of the
3

Diplonema
condensing of the
chromosomes
4

5 Diakinesis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The 2 chromosomes are joined at several points along their
length. These points are called chiasmata (chiasma, singular).
Meiosis I
Prophase I

Each chiasma is the site of an

exchange between chromatids
Meiosis I
Prophase I

Genes from one

chromosome become
attached to genes of the
other chromosome leading
to a new gene combinations
in the resulting chromatids
Meiosis I
Prophase I

This is called
Genetic Crossing Over
Meiosis I
Metaphase I

1 The bivalents orient at

random on the equatorial
The or
plane pairing
towardsof homologous
the chromosomes make
metaphase
metaphase plateI of
by meiosis
the distinct from mitotic
help ofmetaphase,
the spindlewhere
fibersno such pairing exists
Meiosis I
Anaphase I

1 The centromeres do
not separate, but
continue to hold sister
chromatids together
Meiosis I
Anaphase I

2 Eachmovement
This pair of homologous
reduces
chromosomes
the chromosome (consisting
number
of Andiploid
two
from important(2n)distinction
sister chromatids)
to the with mitotic anaphase
moveis that,
haploid to(n)instate
meiotic
opposite anaphase I, the centromeres
poles
do not divide
Meiosis I
Telophase I
Note:
Occurs Genetic
Cytokinesis aberrations
whenfollows
the nuclear
and or
membrane
results abnormalities
in a division
reforms of can
andthe occur if
the
diploid mistakes
chromosomes
motherhaveareinto
cell made
reached
twoduring
the
their polar
haploid separation
daughter cellsof
destination
homologous chromosomes
at anaphase I
If homologues fail to disjoin
and migrate to the same
pole (nondisjunction), the
resulting gametes will
contain two of those
chromosomes, instead of
one
Meiosis II

Meiosis I
The period between the
first and second meiotic

Meiosis II
divisions is called
Interkinesis
Meiosis II

Interkinesis

Meiosis I
It is usually either brief or
lacking altogether
It is different from the

Meiosis II
interphase preceding
mitosis, because there is INTERKINESIS
no synthesis of new DNA
Meiosis II
Prophase II
1 Chromosomes recondense
2 Spindle fibers reforms

This phase is very brief

Meiosis II
Metaphase II
1 The chromosomes are
attached to spindle fibers
by their centromeres
2 Chromosomes align on a
metaphase plate or
equatorial plane
Meiosis II
Anaphase II
1 Each centromere divides

2 Sister chromatids
separate and move to
opposite poles
Meiosis II
Telophase II
1 During this phase, nuclear
A diploid (primordial)
membrane reappears
mother cell becomes four
Eachprogeny
haploid
2 cell divides
cellsby
as a
cytokinesisofinto
consequence two I
meiosis
and progeny
II cells
Meiosis
Significance of Meiosis
1 Chromosomes Conservation
It makes possible the conservation of the number
of chromosomesNotefrom generation
that to generation
sexual reproduction
in sexually reproducing organisms.- which is the
involves fertilization
fusion of two gametes or sex cells
Meiosis
Significance of Meiosis
1 Chromosomes Conservation

2 Recombination of Hereditary Note: Traits

Owing
Crossing over to this
between exchange,
non-sister the number
chromatids
contribute toof different
the kinds of
recombination of paternal
gametes is
virtually
and maternal hereditary traits ininfinite
gametes.
 cover
Review Questions
1. How does meiosis differ from
mitosis? Consider the differences in
mechanisms as well as end results

2. What events occur at the level of

the DNA during synaptonemal
crossing-over?
1. How does meiosis differ from
mitosis? Consider the differences in
cover
mechanisms
Reviewas well as end results
Questions
2. What events occur at the level of
the DNA during synaptonemal
crossing-over?

3. Are human somatic cells

generally haploid or diploid? Are
gamete-producing cells haploid or
diploid?
 Module Assignment
pic

Module 2

Cellular Basis of Read and make notes on

Inheritance
animal gametogenesis (as
Objectives
bg
represented ing mammals. Lay
Lessons emphasis on oogenesis and
Assignment
spermatogenesis).

Show Illustration
 Module 2

End of Module 2
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