Additive Manufacturing and

3D Printing Technology
Additive Manufacturing and
3D Printing Technology
Principles and Applications

G.K. Awari, C.S. Thorat, Vishwjeet Ambade,

and D.P. Kothari
CRC Press
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First edition published 2021

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Awari, G.K., editor.

Title: Additive manufacturing and 3D printing technology : principles and
applications / edited by G.K. Awari, C.S. Thorat, Vishwjeet Ambade, and
D.P. Kothari.

Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis

Group, LLC, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020038955 (print) | LCCN 2020038956 (ebook) | ISBN

9780367436223 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003013853 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Additive manufacturing. | Three-dimensional printing.

Classification: LCC TS183.25 .A34 2021 (print) | LCC TS183.25 (ebook) |
DDC 621.9/88--dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020038955

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020038956

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ISBN: 978-1-003-01385-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
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Instructors: Access the Support Material: routledge.com/9780367436223

This book is dedicated to the late Smt Shashikala K. Awari
for her heavenly blessings and encouragement.
Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................xix
Authors.....................................................................................................................xxi
Glossary..................................................................................................................xxv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technology.1

1.1 Development of Additive Manufacturing ..................................1
1.2 Major Trends Shaping the Evaluation of 3D Printing ...............2
1.3 Technology Improvement .......................................................... 3
1.4 Active 3D Printing Market ........................................................4
1.5 3D Printing Processes................................................................5
1.5.1 Material Extrusion.........................................................6
1.5.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)..............6
1.5.2 Vat Photopolymerization...............................................7
1.5.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA)................................8
1.5.2.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP).....................8
1.5.3 Powder Bed Fusion .......................................................8
1.5.3.1 Powder Bed Fusion (Polymers)...................... 8
1.5.3.2 Powder Bed Fusion (Metals)........................ 10
1.5.4 Material Jetting........................................................... 11
1.5.4.1 Material Jetting (MJ)................................... 12
1.5.4.2 Drop on Demand (DOD)............................. 12
1.5.5 Binder Jetting.............................................................. 12
1.5.5.1 Sand Binder Jetting...................................... 13
1.5.5.2 Metal Binder Jetting.................................... 14
1.5.6 Sheet Lamination........................................................ 14
1.5.6.1 Materials Used in Sheet Lamination........... 14
1.5.7 Directed Energy Deposition........................................ 15
1.6 Classification of Additive Manufacturing Systems ................. 17
1.6.1 Liquid-Based............................................................... 17
1.6.2 Solid-Based................................................................. 17
1.6.3 Powder-Based.............................................................. 18
1.7 Advantages and Limitations..................................................... 18
1.8 Additive vs. Conventional Manufacturing Processes............... 18
1.9 Applications.............................................................................. 19
1.10 Exercises................................................................................... 19
1.11 Multiple-Choice Questions....................................................... 21

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 2 CAD for Additive Manufacturing ......................................................25

2.1 Introduction..............................................................................25
2.2 Preparation of CAD Models: The STL File ............................25
2.2.1 STL File Format, Binary/ASCII..................................26
2.2.1.1 Format Specifications..................................28
2.2.1.2 STL ASCII Format...................................... 29
2.2.1.3 STL Binary Format..................................... 30
2.2.2 Creating STL Files from a CAD System.................... 30
2.2.3 Calculation of Each Slice Profile................................ 32
2.2.4 Technology-Specific Elements.................................... 37
2.3 Problems with STL Files.......................................................... 39
2.4 STL File Manipulation............................................................. 41
2.4.1 Viewers........................................................................ 42
2.4.2 STL Manipulation on the AM Machine..................... 43
2.5 Beyond the STL File.................................................................44
2.5.1 Direct Slicing of the CAD Model...............................44
2.5.2 Color Models............................................................... 45
2.5.3 Multiple Materials....................................................... 45
2.5.4 Use of STL for Machining.......................................... 45
2.6 Additional Software to Assist AM...........................................46
2.6.1 Survey of Software Functions.....................................46
2.6.2 AM Process Simulations Using Finite Element
Analysis....................................................................... 47
2.7 The Additive Manufacturing File Format................................ 49
2.8 Solved Example........................................................................ 50
2.9 Exercises................................................................................... 51
2.10 Multiple-Choice Questions....................................................... 52

Chapter 3 Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing Systems................................. 55

3.1 3D Systems Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)..................... 55
3.2 Stratasys PolyJet....................................................................... 59
3.2.1 Fused Deposition Modeling from Stratasys................60
3.2.2 Material Jetting Machines........................................... 61
3.3 3D Systems’ Multi-Jet Printing System (MJP)........................ 62
3.4 EnvisionTEC’s Perfactory........................................................ 63
3.5 CMET’s Solid Object Ultraviolet-Laser Printer (SOUP)......... 65
3.6 EnvisionTEC’s Bioplotter.........................................................66
3.7 RegenHU’s 3D Bioprinting...................................................... 67
3.8 Rapid Freeze Prototyping......................................................... 69
3.9 FDM 3D Printing for Zygomatic Implant Placement
Mock Surgery for Prosthodontic Dentistry: A Case Study...... 70
3.9.1 Zygomatic Implant...................................................... 70
3.9.2 Conclusion................................................................... 72
Contents ix

3.10 Exercises .................................................................................. 72

3.11 Multiple-Choice Questions....................................................... 72

Chapter 4 Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing Systems................................... 75

4.1 Stratasys Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)......................... 75
4.2 Solidscape’s BenchTop System................................................. 75
4.3 Mcor Technologies’ Selective Deposition Lamination (SDL)...... 77
4.4 Cubic Technologies’ Laminated Object Manufacturing
(LOM)......................................................................................80
4.4.1 Working Process......................................................... 82
4.4.2 Applications................................................................. 83
4.5 Ultrasonic Consolidation.......................................................... 83
4.6 Exercises................................................................................... 86
4.7 Multiple-Choice Questions....................................................... 86

Chapter 5 Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing Systems................................ 89

5.1 3D Systems’ Selective Laser Sintering (SLS).......................... 89
5.1.1 Technology.................................................................. 89
5.1.2 Materials......................................................................90
5.1.3 Powder Production...................................................... 91
5.1.4 Sintering Mechanisms ................................................ 91
5.1.5 Advantage.................................................................... 91
5.1.6 Application..................................................................92
5.2 3D Systems’ ColorJet Printing (CJP) Technology....................92
5.2.1 Technology..................................................................92
5.3 EOS’s EOSINT System............................................................ 93
5.3.1 About EOS (Electro Optical Systems)........................ 93
5.3.2 EOSINT M 280 System.............................................. 93
5.4 Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) and
Aerosol Jet System.................................................................... 95
5.4.1 About Optomec........................................................... 95
5.4.2 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)...................... 95
5.4.3 How the LENS System Works.................................... 95
5.5 Arcam’s Electron Beam Melting (EBM).................................. 95
5.6 Concept Laser’s LaserCUSING...............................................97
5.6.1 Concept Laser’s Patented LaserCUSING
3D-Printing Technology..............................................97
5.6.2 Working of LaserCUSING 3D-Printing Technology..... 98
5.6.3 Additional Features of LaserCUSING
3D-Printing Technology............................................ 100
5.6.4 Advantages of LaserCUSING 3D-Printing
Technology................................................................ 100
5.7 SLM Solutions’ Selective Laser Melting (SLM).................... 100
x Contents

5.8 Exercises................................................................................. 102

5.9 Multiple-Choice Questions..................................................... 102

Chapter 6 Materials in Additive Manufacturing................................................ 107

6.1 Choosing Materials for Manufacturing.................................. 107
6.1.1 Application................................................................ 107
6.1.2 Asthetics.................................................................... 108
6.1.3 Function..................................................................... 108
6.1.4 Certifications............................................................. 108
6.1.4.1 Nylon.......................................................... 108
6.1.4.2 ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)..... 109
6.1.4.3 Resin.......................................................... 109
6.1.4.4 PLA (Polylactic Acid)................................ 110
6.1.4.5 Gold and Silver.......................................... 110
6.1.4.6 Stainless Steel............................................ 111
6.1.4.7 Titanium..................................................... 111
6.1.4.8 Ceramics.................................................... 111
6.1.4.9 PET/PETG................................................. 112
6.1.4.10 HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene)............... 112
6.1.4.11 Thermoplastics........................................... 113
6.1.4.12 Thermosets (Resins).................................. 114
6.1.4.13 Metals........................................................ 114
6.2 Multiple Materials.................................................................. 114
6.2.1 Multi-Material and Composite Additive
Manufacturing Methods ........................................... 115
6.2.1.1 Stereolithography Methods........................ 115
6.2.1.2 Binder Jetting Methods.............................. 115
6.2.1.3 Extrusion-Based Printing Methods .......... 116
6.2.1.4 Material Jetting Printing Methods ............ 118
6.3 Metal AM Processes and Materials....................................... 119
6.3.1 Powder-Bed Systems................................................. 120
6.3.2 Powder-Fed Systems.................................................. 120
6.3.3 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) Materials..... 121
6.3.4 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Materials................ 123
6.3.5 Stereolithography (SLA) Materials........................... 124
6.4 Composite Materials............................................................... 127
6.4.1 Generic Composite Materials.................................... 128
6.4.2 Composite Materials for 3D Printing Processes....... 129
6.5 Biomaterials, Hierarchical Materials, and Biomimetics........ 129
6.5.1 Biomaterials.............................................................. 129
6.5.1.1 Biomedical................................................. 130
6.5.2 Hierarchical Materials and Biomimetics.................. 130
6.5.3 Biomimetics............................................................... 133
6.5.3.1 Definition of Biomimetic Material............ 135
6.5.3.2 History of Biomimetic Materials............... 135
Contents xi

6.6 Ceramics and Bio-Ceramics................................................... 137

6.6.1 Ceramics.................................................................... 137
6.6.2 Bio-Ceramics............................................................ 138
6.7 Shape-Memory Materials, 4D Printing, and Bio-Active
Materials................................................................................. 139
6.7.1 Shape-Memory Materials.......................................... 139
6.7.1.1 How Does Shape-Memory Work............... 140
6.7.1.2 Shape-Memory Alloys............................... 141
6.7.1.3 Shape-Memory Polymers.......................... 142
6.7.1.4 Shape-Memory Composites....................... 146
6.7.1.5 Shape-Memory Hybrids............................. 146
6.7.2 4D Printing and Bio-Active Materials...................... 150
6.8 Advanced AM Materials........................................................ 151
6.9 Support Materials................................................................... 152
6.9.1 Build Material Supports............................................ 153
6.9.1.1 Materials as Their Own Support............... 153
6.9.2 Quick Removal: Breakaway Supports....................... 154
6.9.3 Best Quality: Soluble Supports................................. 155
6.9.4 Supporting with the Original Material...................... 156
6.9.5 Supporting with PVA Filament................................. 156
6.9.6 Supporting with PVA+ Filament............................... 156
6.10 Exercises................................................................................. 156
6.11 Multiple-Choice Questions..................................................... 157

Chapter 7 Applications and Examples............................................................... 159

7.1 Application–Material Relationship........................................ 159
7.1.1 Polymer..................................................................... 159
7.1.2 Metal......................................................................... 161
7.2 Finishing Processes................................................................ 162
7.2.1 Plating........................................................................ 163
7.2.2 Sanding...................................................................... 163
7.2.3 Bead Blasting............................................................ 164
7.2.4 Shot Peening.............................................................. 164
7.2.5 Heat Treatments........................................................ 164
7.2.6 Vibratory Systems..................................................... 165
7.2.7 Tumbling................................................................... 165
7.2.8 Vapor Smoothing....................................................... 166
7.2.9 Solvent Dipping......................................................... 166
7.2.10 Epoxy Coating........................................................... 166
7.2.11 Epoxy Infiltration...................................................... 166
7.2.12 Painting..................................................................... 167
7.3 Applications in Design........................................................... 167
7.3.1 CAD Model Verification........................................... 167
7.3.2 Visualizing Objects................................................... 167
7.3.3 Proof of Concept....................................................... 167
xii Contents

7.4 Applications in Engineering, Analysis, and Planning............ 168

7.4.1 Scaling ...................................................................... 168
7.4.2 Form and Fit.............................................................. 168
7.4.3 Flow Analysis............................................................ 168
7.4.4 Pre-Production Parts................................................. 168
7.5 Applications in Manufacturing and Tooling.......................... 168
7.5.1 Direct Soft Tooling ................................................... 168
7.5.2 Indirect Soft Tooling ................................................ 168
7.5.3 Direct Hard Tooling ................................................. 169
7.5.4 Indirect Hard Tooling................................................ 169
7.6 Aerospace Industry................................................................. 169
7.6.1 The Benefits of 3D Printing for Aerospace and
Defense ..................................................................... 170
7.6.1.1 Low-Volume Production............................ 170
7.6.1.2 Weight Reduction...................................... 170
7.6.1.3 Material Efficiency.................................... 170
7.6.1.4 Consolidation of the Part........................... 171
7.6.1.5 Maintenance and Repair............................ 171
7.7 Automotive Industry............................................................... 171
7.7.1 The Benefits of 3D Printing for Automotive ............ 172
7.7.1.1 Faster Product Development...................... 172
7.7.1.2 Greater Design Flexibility......................... 172
7.7.1.3 Customization............................................ 172
7.7.1.4 Create Complex Geometries...................... 172
7.8 Jewelry Industry..................................................................... 172
7.8.1 Investment Casting.................................................... 173
7.8.2 Direct Printing........................................................... 176
7.9 Coin Industry.......................................................................... 178
7.10 Tableware Industry................................................................. 180
7.11 Geographic Information System (GIS) Applications ............ 180
7.12 Arts and Architecture............................................................. 182
7.12.1 Benefits of 3D Printing for Architects...................... 183
7.13 Construction........................................................................... 183
7.14 Fashion and Textiles............................................................... 184
7.15 Weapons................................................................................. 186
7.16 Musical Instruments............................................................... 186
7.17 Food........................................................................................ 187
7.18 Movies.................................................................................... 188
7.19 Design and Development of a Prosthetic Hand through
3D Printing: Case Study......................................................... 189
7.19.1 Conclusion................................................................. 194
7.19.1.1 Prototype Assessment................................ 194
7.20 Exercises................................................................................. 195
7.21 Multiple-Choice Questions..................................................... 196
Contents xiii

Chapter 8 Additive Manufacturing Equipment ................................................ 199

8.1 Process Equipment—Design and Process Parameters........... 199
8.1.1 Seven Distinct AM Processes................................... 199
8.1.1.1 Powder Bed Fusion.................................... 199
8.1.1.2 Directed Energy Deposition......................200
8.1.1.3 Binder Jetting.............................................200
8.1.1.4 Sheet Lamination ......................................200
8.1.1.5 Material Extrusion.....................................200
8.1.1.6 Material Jetting.......................................... 201
8.1.1.7 Vat Photopolymerization........................... 201
8.1.2 Designing for 3D Printing ........................................ 201
8.2 Governing Bonding Mechanism............................................ 201
8.2.1 Overview of the Bonding Process ............................202
8.2.2 Bond Mechanisms ....................................................204
8.3 Common Faults and Troubleshooting....................................204
8.3.1 The Printer Is Working but Nothing Is Printing ......205
8.3.1.1 The Problem—Out of Filament.................205
8.3.1.2 The Cause..................................................205
8.3.1.3 The Solution...............................................205
8.3.2 Nozzle Is Too Close to the Print Bed........................205
8.3.2.1 The Problem..............................................205
8.3.2.2 The Cause..................................................206
8.3.2.3 The Solution...............................................206
8.3.3 Over-Extrusion..........................................................206
8.3.3.1 The Problem—Print Looks Droopy
and Stringy................................................206
8.3.3.2 The Cause..................................................207
8.3.3.3 The Solution...............................................207
8.3.4 Incomplete and Messy Infill......................................207
8.3.4.1 The Problem..............................................207
8.3.4.2 The Cause..................................................208
8.3.4.3 The Solution...............................................208
8.3.5 Warping.....................................................................208
8.3.5.1 The Problem—Bending.............................208
8.3.5.2 The Cause..................................................208
8.3.5.3 The Solution...............................................208
8.3.6 Messy First Layer......................................................209
8.3.6.1 The Problem..............................................209
8.3.6.2 The Cause..................................................209
8.3.6.3 The Solution............................................... 210
8.3.7 Elephant’s Foot.......................................................... 210
8.3.7.1 The Problem.............................................. 210
8.3.7.2 The Cause.................................................. 210
8.3.7.3 The Solution............................................... 210
xiv Contents

8.3.8
Print Looks Deformed and Melted........................... 211
8.3.8.1 The Problem.............................................. 211
8.3.8.2 The Cause.................................................. 211
8.3.8.3 The Solution............................................... 211
8.3.9 Snapped Filament...................................................... 211
8.3.9.1 The Problem.............................................. 211
8.3.9.2 The Cause.................................................. 212
8.3.9.3 The Solution............................................... 212
8.3.10 Getting Cracks in Tall Objects.................................. 213
8.3.10.1 The Problem.............................................. 213
8.3.10.2 The Cause.................................................. 213
8.3.10.3 The Solution............................................... 213
8.4 Process Design ...................................................................... 213
8.4.1 Creation End Evaluation of Support Structure.......... 214
8.4.2 Additive Manufacturing Preparation........................ 214
8.4.3 Validation of Build Time and Cost........................... 215
8.4.4 Additive Manufacturing Simulation.......................... 215
8.5 Low Cost, Rapid Deployment Wireless Patient
Monitoring System Developed with Additive
Manufacturing Equipment: Case Study................................. 216
8.5.1 Conclusion................................................................. 219
8.6 Exercises................................................................................. 219
8.7 Multiple-Choice Questions..................................................... 220

Chapter 9 Post-Processing................................................................................. 221

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 221
9.2 Support Material Removal..................................................... 221
9.2.1 Natural Support Post-Processing.............................. 222
9.2.2 Synthetic Support Removal....................................... 223
9.2.2.1 Supports Made from the Build Material...... 224
9.2.2.2 Supports Made from Secondary
Materials.................................................... 225
9.3 Surface Texture Improvements............................................... 226
9.4 Accuracy Improvements......................................................... 226
9.4.1 Sources of Inaccuracy............................................... 226
9.4.2 Model Pre-Processing to Compensate for
Inaccuracy................................................................. 227
9.4.3 Machining Strategy................................................... 228
9.4.3.1 Adaptive Raster Milling............................ 228
9.4.3.2 Sharp Edge Contour Machining................ 230
9.4.3.3 Hole Drilling.............................................. 232
9.5 Esthetic Improvements........................................................... 232
9.6 Preparation for Use as a Pattern............................................. 233
9.6.1 Investment Casting Patterns...................................... 233
Contents xv

9.6.2 Sand Casting Patterns............................................... 234

9.6.3 Other Pattern Replication Methods........................... 235
9.7 Property Enhancements Using Non-Thermal Techniques..... 236
9.8 Property Enhancements Using Thermal Techniques............. 237
9.9 Exercises ................................................................................240
9.10 Multiple-Choice Questions.....................................................240

Chapter 10 Product Quality ................................................................................ 243

10.1 Building the Part ................................................................... 243
10.1.1 Powder Reclamation.................................................. 243
10.2 Post-Processing and Finishing...............................................244
10.3 Bulk Deposit Defects.............................................................. 247
10.4 Dimensional Accuracy, Shrinkage, and Distortion................ 254
10.5 Inspection, Quality, and Testing of AM Metal Parts............. 255
10.5.1 Nondestructive Test Methods.................................... 255
10.5.2 Destructive Test Methods.......................................... 258
10.5.3 Form, Fit, Function, and Proof Testing..................... 261
10.6 Standards and Certification.................................................... 262
10.7 Key Takeaway Points..............................................................264
10.8 Overview of 4D Printing........................................................264
10.8.1 A Definition of 4D Printing......................................264
10.8.1.1 The Difference between 4D and 3D
Printing...................................................... 265
10.8.2 Potential Applications for 4D Printing...................... 265
10.9 Exercises................................................................................. 265
10.10 Multiple-Choice Questions.....................................................266
Interview Preparedness........................................................................................ 267
References.............................................................................................................. 275
Index....................................................................................................................... 279
Preface
Additive manufacturing (AM) and 3D-printing technology are growing quickly and
in multiple directions. The level of activity is at an all-time high as researchers,
investors, company management, and government agencies try to predict where it is
headed. Many believe it is the next “big thing.” Organizations of all types and sizes
are trying to understand the role they might play. Companies are at work utilizing
machines and materials for the direct manufacture of parts that go into final prod-
ucts while assembling. Aerospace companies are qualifying additive manufacturing
processes and materials and certifying new designs for flight.
The advantages of AM are in the design and redesign of the parts. It is possible
to consolidate many individual parts of an assembly (as many as 15 or more) into a
single, complex part. Such an approach to design eliminates part numbers, inventory,
assembly, labor, and inspection. It is possible to redesign parts with relatively thin
skins that include internal lattice/mesh structures instead of solid material through-
out, which can substantially reduce the amount of material, weight, and build time.
In some cases, the amount of material and weight has been reduced by more than
50% using these techniques.
The challenges ahead are system reliability and process repeatability, especially
when using AM for manufacturing. System manufacturers are addressing these chal-
lenges with real-time process monitoring and control software, but much work is yet
to be done in the field. The current limitations in build speed and maximum part size
are challenges, too. Manufacturers are developing systems with larger build volumes
and methods that increase throughput. The aim of compiling this book has been to
give a working knowledge to all engineering students of the important details of
additive manufacturing and 3D printing, technology, and materials used in manufac-
turing, and several other major topics in a systematic way. The book is written in a
clear and easy-to-read style, presenting fundamentals of additive manufacturing at a
level that can be quickly grasped by a beginner. The book addresses these challenges
and provides readers at all levels with an insight into additive manufacturing and
3D-printing technology.
The comprehensive subject matter is organized into ten chapters: 1. Introduction
to Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technology; 2. CAD for Additive
Manufacturing; 3. Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing Systems; 4. Solid-Based
Additive Manufacturing Systems; 5. Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing Systems;
6. Materials in Additive Manufacturing; 7. Applications and Examples; 8. Additive
Manufacturing Equipment; 9. Post-Processing; 10. Product Quality; ­followed by a
brief guide to interview preparedness.
The book covers several applications of 3D printing, including typical exam-
ples, from an examination point of view, and also industrial case studies. The text
uniquely addresses complete solutions to additive manufacturing without ignoring
any relevant topics. The book is mainly aimed at engineering courses at the diploma,
graduate, and postgraduate levels offered in most universities in India and USA.

xvii
xviii Preface

This book will serve as a major resource for students of Mechanical Engineering,
Production Engineering, Design Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Electronics
Engineering, and Industrial Engineering.
Multiple-choice questions and exercises have been added to the end of each chap-
ter to make the book a comprehensive unit in all respects. This book is also useful to
prepare students for competitive examinations such as GATE, IES, UPSC, and other
public sector undertakings.
The main characteristics of this book are

i) The subject of additive manufacturing and 3D printing is itself in the inno-

vation phase and it is assumed that the reader’s goal is to achieve a suitable
balance of cost, schedule, and quality.
ii) The book has been written in luculent language, which can be understood
by students at the diploma level (junior level) of engineering courses.
iii) The book presents a selection of various additive manufacturing techniques
suitable for near term application, with sufficient technical background to
understand the domain of applicability and to consider variations to suit
technical and organizational constraints.
iv) The new innovative 3D-printing systems and composite materials devel-
oped in the past decade are incorporated into the book and the future view
of 4D printing is presented to the readers.
v) The book promotes a vision of additive manufacturing and applications as
integral to modern manufacturing engineering practices, equally as impor-
tant and technically demanding as other aspects of development. This
vision is consistent with current thinking on the subject. Several applica-
tions of 3D printing have been added to the book.
vi) The book consists of case studies, self-explanatory figures, and photographs
of prototypes developed in the laboratory; it is inspiring for budding manu-
facturing entrepreneurs.
Acknowledgments
The achievement of a mission is never a solo effort; it is the product of the impor-
tant involvement of a variety of individuals in direct or indirect ways who have
enabled us to make it a success. We would like to extend our appreciation and rec-
ognize the guiding lights who have helped us to accomplish this mission. Additive
Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technology: Principles and Applications is the cul-
mination of the authors’ classroom and laboratory experiences.
We are grateful to Dr. Abhay Wagh, Director of Technical Education (DTE),
Mumbai, (MS), India; Dr. Vinod Mohitkar, Director of MSBTE, Mumbai, India;
Dr. Ram Nibudey, Joint Director of Technical Education, Regional Office Nagpur,
India; Dr. M. B. Daigavane, Principal of Government Polytechnic, Nagpur, India;
Prof. Deepak S. Kulkarni, from Government Polytechnic, Nagpur and Dr. S. W.
Rajurkar, HOD (Mechanical Engineering) at Government Engineering College
Chandrapur, India, for their constant inspiration and encouragement to develop the
learning resources.
We are indebted to Dr. Mohan Gaikwad-Patil, Chairman, Gaikwad-Patil Group of
Institutions, Nagpur (MS), India; Prof. Sandeep Gaikwad, Treasurer, Gaikwad-Patil
Group of Institutions, Nagpur (MS), India; Mr. Mukul Pande, Director, Gaikwad-
Patil Group of Institutions, Nagpur, India, for extending the laboratory facilities of
the institute of Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology,
Nagpur, India, to complete this project. We are thankful to Mr. Sumeet Gattewar,
Director, Pye Technologies India; Dr. Priya Gupta; Dr. Saee Deshpande from VSPM
Dental College, Nagpur, India; and Mr. Abhijeet Raut, Research Fellow, VNIT,
Nagpur (MS), India, for their support in developing the case studies. We are also
thankful to Mr. Vidyadhar Kshirsagar, Mr. Yogesh Ramteke, and Mr. Niteen Kakde
from the Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology, Nagpur,
India, for assisting us in developing the figures with CAD software. We have gained
greatly in preparing the manuscript of this book by referring to several articles, jour-
nals, online sources, and open source material. We express our gratitude to all such
authors, publications, and publishers, many of whom have been included in the bibli-
ography. If someone has been left out unintentionally, we will seek their forgiveness.
The authors are very grateful to Prof. Dr. Jaji Varghese, Aryabhat Polytechnic,
New Delhi, India; Prof. Dr. S. Velumani, Velarar College of Engineering, Erode
(TN), India; Dr. Abhijeet Digalwar, Professor, BITS Pilani; Dr. D.K. Parbat,
Government Polytechnic, Bramhapuri, India; Dr. N.V. Raut, Dr. S.R. Kukadapwar,
Dr. D.N. Kongre, Prof. P.V. Rekhade, Dr. R.G. Chaudhari, Dr. G.V. Gotmare,
Dr. K.S. Dixit, Prof. Ghormade, Prof. Pise, Prof. Dupare, Prof. R.B. Tirpude, Prof.
V.S. Kumbhar from Government Polytechnic, Nagpur, India; and Dr. S.S. Chaudhari,
Dr. Khedkar, from YCCE, Nagpur, India, for their consistent support and assistance
in creating this book.
We sincerely thank our mentors, Dr. D.G. Wakde, Dr. L.B. Bhuyar, who have
helped us and have been a source of inspiration. We are obliged to all leading

xix
xx Acknowledgments

3D-printing manufacturers of this region for their backing and support. In preparing
the manuscript of this book, we have benefited immensely from referring to many
books, publications and online sources, such as website and open source material.
We express our gratitude to all those authors, publications, and publishers; many of
them have been listed in the bibliography. If anybody is left out inadvertently, we
seek their pardon.
We thank CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, especially Ms. Cindy Renee
Carelli and Ms. Erin Harris, who have kept our morale high, helped us in prepar-
ing and maintaining our schedules, facilitated the work, provided regular updates,
and stood behind us patiently during this entire work. We also thank Ms. Jayanthi
Chander for project managing the manuscript.
Indeed, we are thankful to our family members for their timely support in all the
efforts of this book, without which it would not have seen the light of day. The efforts
of our family member Mrs. Jaya Awari, Master Vedant Awari, Dr. Madhuri Thorat,
Mrs. Nikita Ambade and Mrs. Shobha Kothari, are appreciated for helping us during
the entire duration of this project. Last but most important, we bow our heads to the
majesty of the Almighty God and our parents for making our experience one of the
most technologically satisfying moments of our lives.
We hope that the book will serve the intent of its readers and that we will continue
to receive their help. Suggestions to enhance the quality and style of the book are
always welcome and accepted and integrated into future editions.
Authors
Dr. G.K. Awari earned a Bachelor of
Engineering (BE) degree from RTM Nagpur
University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India, in
1991 and a Master of Engineering (ME)
degree from Thapar University, Patiala,
Punjab, India, in 1995, both in Mechanical
Engineering. He completed his PhD at Sant
Gadgebaba Amravati University, Amravati,
Maharashtra, India, in 2007. He has more than
25 years of teaching experience at diploma,
undergraduate, postgraduate, and research
levels. He has taught various subjects such
as Fluid Power and Machinery, Computer
Graphics, Automation Engineering, Operation
Research, Machine Design, and Automobile
Engineering. His area of interest is graphical modeling of Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD), Vehicle Dynamics.
He has 213 citations including total 33 international journal publications, 22 inter-
national conference publications, and 11 national conference publications, and three
patents and one product developed for the industry to his name. Seventeen research
scholars have completed PhDs in Mechanical Engineering under his supervision at
three Indian universities. He is also a recipient of the “Best Principal Award” and
“Best Paper Award” at various national and international conferences.
He has contributed to the development of academics as Board of Study (BOS)
Member at Goa University, Goa, SG Amravati University, Amravati, India, and RTM
Nagpur University, Nagpur, India. He is presently BOS Member in Yeshvantrao
Chavan College of Engineering (YCCE, an autonomous institute), Nagpur, India,
RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur, India, GH Raisoni University, Chhindwara (MP),
India, and Chairman BOS of Automobile Engineering at Government Polytechnic
(GP), Nagpur, India. He is also recognized by AICTE as “Margadarshak for NBA
Accreditation” of mentee institutes.
He has authored eight books, including two books with CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group, and others with renowned international publishers such as Mercury
International Publication, New Delhi, and New Age India Publisher Ltd., New
Delhi. He has also developed more than fifty video tutorials/e-content modules for
the benefit of students/teachers and his style of presentation/lectures is appreciated
by many staff and students.
Dr. Awari is eminent in the Co-Learning Process and Participative Management.
He has been ranked first in merit position in MPSC throughout MS and currently he
is Head of the Automobile Engineering Department at Government Polytechnic,

xxi
xxii Authors

Nagpur, India. He is a rare combination of the best academician and administrator

and is loved by students and staff members.

Dr. C.S. Thorat earned his BE degree from

Government College of Engineering, Karad,
Maharashtra, India, in 1985 and MTech
degree from IIT Bombay, India, in 1986, both
in Electrical Engineering. He completed his
PhD at Sant Gadgebaba Amravati University,
Amravati, Maharashtra, India, in 2005. He
has more than 30 years of teaching experience
at diploma, undergraduate, postgraduate, and
research levels. He also has field experience at
the Oil and Natural Gas Commission, India.
He has guided five candidates through doctoral
research work in Electrical Engineering and
also developed the laboratory of 3D printing at the institute. He has more than 100
research publications and five patents to his name. He has successfully demonstrated
the capabilities of 3D printing in additive manufacturing through product
development. Dr. Thorat is currently Principal of Government Polytechnic, Jalna
(MS), India.

Prof. Vishwjeet Ambade earned his

M.Tech degree in Mechanical Engineering
Design from Karamvir Dadasaheb
Kannamwar College of Engineering (KDK),
RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur, India. He
graduated in Mechanical Engineering from
Kavikulguru Institute of Technology and
Science, Ramtek (KITS), Nagpur, India. He
has more than ten years of experience in
teaching different subjects within the
discipline of Mechanical Engineering and
presently he is working as Assistant
Professor at the Mechanical Engineering
department at Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil
College of Engineering and Technology,
Nagpur, India. He has guided many UG/PG
projects and he is pursuing his PhD research
work in 3D printing and its application at Gondwana University, India. He has
contributed to more than ten international journal/conference papers. He has
authored two books.
Authors xxiii

Dr. D.P. Kothari is a Director Research and

Professor, S B Jain Institute of Technology,
Management and Research, Nagpur. Presently
he is Honorary Adjunct Professor at VNIT,
Nagpur, India. He earned his BE (Electrical)
in 1967, ME (Power Systems) in 1969, and PhD
in 1975 from Birla Institute of Technology and
Sciences (BITS), Pilani, Rajasthan, India.
From 1969 to 1977, he was involved in the
teaching and development of several courses
at BITS Pilani. Dr. Kothari served as Vice
Chancellor, VIT, Vellore, Director in-charge,
and Deputy Director (Administration) as well
as Head in the Centre of Energy Studies at the
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India,
and as Principal, Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering (VNIT), Nagpur,
India. He was Visiting Professor at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, Australia, for two years in 1982–1983 and 1989. He was also NSF Fellow
at Perdue University, United States, in 1992.
Dr. Kothari, who is a recipient of the most Active Researcher Award, has pub-
lished and presented 830 research papers in various national and international jour-
nals and conferences, guided 56 PhD scholars and 65 MTech students, and authored
67 books in Engineering and Technology with reputed publishers. He has delivered
several keynote addresses and lectures at both national and international confer-
ences. He has also delivered 42 video lectures on YouTube with around 40,000 hits!
Dr. Kothari is a Fellow of the National Academy of Engineering (FNAE), Fellow
of the Indian National Academy of Science (FNASc), Fellow of the Institution of
Engineers (FIE), Fellow of IEEE, and Hon. Fellow of ISTE. His many awards include
the National Khosla Award for Lifetime Achievements in Engineering (2005) from
IIT, Roorkee, India. The University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of
India has bestowed upon him the UGC National Swami Pranavandana Saraswati
Award (2005) in the field of education for his outstanding scholarly contributions.
Glossary
3D 3-Dimensional
3DP 3-DimensionalPrinting
A&D Aerospace and Defense
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
AEC Architects, Engineers, and Construction
AM Additive Manufacturing
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AWS American Welding Society
BHGM Biomimetic Hierarchical Graphene Material
BIM Building Information Modeling
BJ Binder Jetting
CAD Computer-Aided Design
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic
CFRTP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic
CHEM Cold Hibernated Elastic Memory
CJP ColorJet Printing
CLIP Continuous Liquid Interphase Production
CMM Coordinate Measurement Machines
CT Computer Tomography
DED Directed Energy Deposition
DIY Do-It-Yourself
DLP Digital Light Processing
DMD Digital Micromirror Device/Direct Metal Deposition
DMLM Direct Metal Laser Melting
DOD Drop On Demand
DT Destructive Test
EBF3 Electron Beam Free-Form Fabrication
EBM Electron Beam Melting
EDM Electrode Discharge Machining
EOS Electro Optical Systems
ET Eddy-Current Testing
EWI Edison Welding Institute
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FDM Fused Deposition Modeling
FEA Finite Element Analysis
FFF Fused Filament Fabrication
FGMs Functionally Graded Materials
FRP Fiber Reinforced Plastic

xxv
xxvi Glossary

GFK Glassfaserverstärkter Kunststoff

GFRP Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
GIS Geographic Information System
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic
HIP Hot Isostatic Pressing
HIPS High Impact Polystyrene
HP Hewlett-Packard
IJP Inkjet Printing
IPH Indentation-Polishing-Heating
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LDM Low-Temperature Deposition
LENS Laser Engineered Net Shaping
LMD Laser Metal Deposition
LOM Laminated Object Manufacturing
MBJ Metal Binder Jetting
MDF Medium-Density Fiberboard
MEMS Micro-Electromechanical Systems
MJ Material Jetting
MJP Multijet Printing
MPVP Mask Projection Vat Photopolymerization
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRO Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul
NDT Nondestructive Test
NEMS Nano-Electromechanical Systems
OSHA Occupational Health and Safety Organization
PA Polyamides
PAEK Polyaryletherketons
PBD Powder Bed Fusion
PC Polycarbonate
PET Polyethylene Terephthalate
PLA Polylactic Acid
PPSF Polyphenylsulfone
PS Polystyrenes
PT Penetrant Testing
PVDF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RFP Rapid Freeze Prototyping
RP Rapid Prototyping
RT Radiographic Testing
RTV Room Temperature Vulcanization
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SDL Selective Deposition Lamination
SFF Solid Freeform Manufacturing
SHS Selective Heat Sintering
SL Sheet Lamination
Glossary xxvii

SLA Stereolithography Apparatus

SLM Selective Laser Melting
SLS Selective Laser Sintering
SMAs Shape-Memory Alloys
SMCs Shape-Memory Composites
SMHs Shape-Memory Hybrids
SMPs Shape-Memory Polymers
SOUP Solid Object Ultraviolet-Laser Printer
STL Stereolithography
TiAl Titanium Aluminum
TME Temperature Memory Effect
TPE Thermoplastic Elastomers
UAM Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing
UHMWPE Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene
UT Ultrasonic Testing
UV Ultraviolet
VP Vat Polymerization
 1 Introduction to Additive
Manufacturing and 3D
Printing Technology

1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Since the 1980s, 3D printing technology, also known as additive manufacturing, has
existed in some form or another. Nevertheless, the technology was neither efficient
nor cost-effective enough for most end-products or high-volume industrial manufac-
turing. Expectations are very high that these shortcomings are about to be eliminated.
Additive manufacturing (AM) technology has emerged as a result of developments
in a variety of technology sectors. As additive manufacturing continues to gain
popularity and its technology rapidly evolves, designers are able to produce better
goods faster and cheaper, without thinking about the limitations of conventional
manufacturing processes. Unlike other industrial innovations, increased computing
capacity and decreased mass storage costs paved the way for the processing of vast
volumes of data typical of modern 3D computer-aided design (CAD) models within
a realistic timeframe. Nowadays, researchers have become used to having powerful
computers and other complex electronic devices around them, and often it can be
difficult to understand how the pioneers struggled to build the first AM devices. This
subject highlights some of the key moments in the growth of additive manufacturing
technology, and how the various technologies converged to the point that they could
be merged into AM machines will be explained. The AM technologies milestone
will also be discussed. In addition, how the application of additive manufacturing
has evolved to include greater functionality and a wider range of applications beyond
the initial intention of prototyping will be discussed. Emphasis is also placed on
how additive manufacturing affects the automotive and aerospace industries. The
use of AM in product development is necessary to enable companies to compete with
industry standards.
Additive manufacturing, better known as 3D printing (3DP) on the market, has
evolved over the past 40 years. There is growing evidence that the advances in tech-
nology and materials have finally gone beyond the hype level. Thirty-six percent of
businesses are either applying or planning to apply 3DP, according to a recent World
Economic Year survey of various firms. Aerospace, defense, and automotive are the
most specialized sectors to apply 3DP. ThreeD printing technology will advance
through a loosely coordinated development in three areas: Printing and printing
methods, design and printing software, and printing materials. However, awareness

1
2 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

of 3DP and willingness to leverage it for prototyping, tools, fixtures, and even fin-
ished products is increasing in other industries for a number of reasons.

• Quality and speed: As printer speed has increased, quality assurance tools
embedded in printers enable better layer-by-layer validation of whether the
printed product is within acceptable tolerances.
• Availability of materials: A wide range of materials and sources of materi-
als are now available, creating more incentives for the industry to manufac-
ture parts and goods. Many manufacturers and industries are now working
with suppliers of materials to create their own material variations in order
to meet their specific requirements or to improve quality.
• Workforce knowledge: The newest and youngest generation of designers
and engineers is more knowledgeable about 3DP.
• Product development: 3DP improves time-to-market and shortens product
design cycles.
• Manufacturing: 3DP reduces process time by using improved tools, a
technology that tends to reduce waste.
• Engineering and maintenance: Maintenance processes are more flexible
and may reduce maintenance costs.
• Storage and warehousing: Reduced inventory, logistic, and storage costs.
• Aftermarket: Improved flexibility in the supply of spare parts and
decreased costs in the manufacture of spare parts.

1.2 MAJOR TRENDS SHAPING THE

EVALUATION OF 3D PRINTING
Several developments in the commercial and corporate sector have accelerated 3D
printing to the top in manufacturing industry. Approximately 25% of global compa-
nies uses 3D printing, with another 12% considering it, 3D printing technology is
one of the greatest inventions to date and is becoming a reality—with a large amount
of new opportunities and challenges.
The key business trends for the evolution of 3DP are as follows:

• Individualization—customer co-creation: There is significant growth

and development in the modern economy for the modification and indi-
vidualization of manufactured products according to consumer needs and
requirements. Manufacturers responded by adding 3DP and choose to
explore prospects for the use of 3DP in future applications.
• Democratization—mass innovation and development: 3DP makes it
easier for individuals or collaborative teams to design or manufacture end-
products and reduces barriers and challenges to innovation. The manufac-
turer of the product, which may be hampered in a traditional routine with
difficult requisitioning processes and long logistical wait times, would now
have the option of making the products faster. Design teams can “fax” their
parts to work with substantial products for intra-company collaboration.
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 3

When the required engineering or design resources are not co-located or

even virtually linked, companies have turned to crowdsourcing.
• Sustainability—a circular economy: There is a global movement toward
sustainability both for the home and for corporations of all sizes. 3DP
reduces transport costs when the 3D printer is placed close to the produc-
tion line. There are also operating cost efficiencies when aircrafts are built
with lighter materials. That said, as early adopters move toward the use of
3DP, there are often missing factors in the cost-benefit analysis: For exam-
ple, power and heat are critical to 3DP processes; also, the advantage of
easy iteration on designs that increase the amount of unrecyclable waste. As
a result, the environmental benefits of 3DP do not come without care and
planning, but can be achieved.

1.3 TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENT
The wide range of materials that can now be used is vast, including plastics, porce-
lain, ceramics, stainless steel, carbon, graphene, titanium, and many more metals.
This list is not exhaustive—new material or alloy combinations are made every day.
For parts considered suitable for 3DP by a company, there is a reduction in the sup-
plier base, as the components no longer need to be sourced. There are four different
patterns in 3DP technology.

• Beyond prototyping applications, impacts process designs: Previously,

3DP was initially limited to prototyping. Now, 3DP methods such as direct
metal laser sintering, selective laser sintering, and electron beam melting
have advanced 3DP in industrial applications and final assemblies. When
considering the application of 3DP, the question that companies need to
ask is: What network of supply chain assets and what mix of old and new
processes will be optimal? Some processes may benefit from the input of a
component made on demand with 3DP, but others may not be suitable for
3DP. One thing that 3DP is capable of delivering is more data that support
the alignment of existing and new processes. When 3D printing is used to
manufacture parts, that part of the process becomes digital, with each ele-
ment of each part produced under continuous software control.
• Lightweight materials: Honeycombing is another 3DP method that allows
especially lightweight parts to be printed. It is possible to build hollow parts
or sections with an inner chamber that are connected in a way similar to the
inside of a beehive. If companies or individuals outsource any 3D prints,
one big question will be whether the finished product should be solid or
hollow. Some cosmetic parts may not need to be complete inside, and hol-
lowed out parts may reduce material costs. But the weight effect could have
the most valuable impact for some. Both Boeing and Airbus use 3D-printed
materials to reduce the weight of their aircraft. The most dramatic outcome
of honeycombing is the metal microlattice, a solid metal foam layer that is
the lightest metallic structure ever produced. It is 99 percent air, consisting
4 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

of a 3D open-cell polymer structure made of interconnected hollow tubes.

In the future, there may be many applications for this material.
• Fewer parts for complex geometries: 3D printers are capable of manufac-
turing various combinations of metal alloys to satisfy the specifications of
the end-product. The opportunity to test different compositions easily and
cheaply may give rise to the creation of materials that have not been seen
before and may be better suited to comply with certain design specifications
than with traditional materials.
One interesting feature of 3DP is that middleware has the ability to
bridge the gap between the design and the 3D printer, which means that
the middleware will use the design parameters as inputs and, through the
algorithms, draw on the optimal mix of source materials for the final prod-
uct defined in the specification. In addition, it will be possible to produce
components with the desired mechanical properties. For example, titanium
aluminum (TiAl), used to produce turbine blades, is very brittle at room
temperature and is difficult to use with conventional manufacturing tech-
niques, such as casting.
• Science and technology advancing material management: Bar-coding
significantly improved tracking and positioning of parts along the supply
chain. Later, radio frequency identification (RFID) technology allowed parts
to be detected via GPS coordinates. 3D-printed parts will change the inven-
tory mix and change the tracking process again. RFID technology will not
necessarily be a thing of the past; however, metal powder for printing will
be purchased in such large volumes that RFID tags may be the less useful
technology for tracing the powder from the source to be used in the produc-
tion of 3D-printed parts. A research team at Harvard University has extended
its micro scale 3DP technology to the fourth dimension: Time. Inspired by
nature, 3D-printed particles forms different structures based on the response
to environmental stimuli. This is an example of progress in the assembly of
programmable materials and enables the ultimate agile supply chain, because
the programmable material can be transformed into what is required.

1.4 ACTIVE 3D PRINTING MARKET

The 3DP market for printer unit shipments is projected to grow at a compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) of 121.3% by 2019 and to exceed $14.6 billion. Suppliers
of 3DP goods and services can be segmented as follows:

• Major industrial companies: 3D printing has always been a niche indus-

try, with a few companies leading the field. That said, the space is rising
rapidly and is projected to be worth more than $30 billion by 2022. The
factors leading to this growth include mass customization, production of
complex parts, government investment in 3D printing, and improvements in
manufacturing performance. For those interested in jumping into this excit-
ing market, it’s worth getting acquainted with the major players.
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 5

• Specialized 3D printer vendors: The majority of 3D printer manufactur-

ers focus on specialized technologies for the creation of additive layers.
Some of the 3D printer companies have been concentrating on industrial
applications. The inventory turn for these large units is not very fast, and
the unsold inventory can very quickly become obsolete in this space.
Some of the major manufacturers are Hewlett-Packard (HP), Proto Labs
Autodesk, EOS, Exone, Stratasys, 3D Systems, Reprap, SLM Solutions
Group, Organovo, Voxeljet, and Ultimaker.
• 3DP service bureaus: Some manufacturers of 3D printers also provide after-
sales services and consulting services. According to a survey, when busi-
nesses plan to outsource a 3D print job to a service office, 34% of respondents
find consistency to be the most significant criteria. Some of the choices that
businesses have are: Advanced Manufacturing, Aspect, DiSanto Technology
(Arcam Unit), Hyphen Services, i.materialise, Ponoko, and Shapeways.
• Marketplace providers: Marketplaces are online platforms that serve as
intermediaries between individuals or companies who own a 3D printer
and users that want to produce 3D objects. They usually provide 3D print-
ing services across a large network of printers in a variety of locations
around the world. 3D Hubs, for example, links a file to a printer in one of
their 5,000 global hub locations which can be successful for the consumer
and increase the accessibility of 3DP to anyone. Other players are Additer,
Maker 6, Make XYZ, Materialise, and Spark.
• Software vendors: One key differentiator for companies to consider is an
open-source platform for crowdsourcing ideas and the provision of com-
pleted spare parts blueprints. Companies that have ventured down this
avenue have been announced by hobbyists eager to download upgrades or
replacement parts. Companies offering open source platforms for products
can create brand loyalty and, above all, can ensure that there is a single file
in the midst of a legitimate batch of counterfeit reverse-engineered replace-
ment pieces. C, for example, is the first open 3DP software platform (not
including the Reprap pioneer, as it was limited to hardware). C was created
by Autodesk and runs with a 3D printer from Ember.
• Professional services providers: Putting together various consultancy
expertise, including planning, supply chain, design and engineering, prod-
uct creation, technology, analytics, as well as tax and legal services, helps
navigate the end-to-end 3D printing cycle and assists companies on their
path toward adoption. In an inventory of thousands, the option of which
components are ideally suited to 3D printing involves diagnosis and meth-
odology. In addition, they can recommend and bring together the right 3D
printing route vendors.

1.5 3D PRINTING PROCESSES

There are many different 3D branded printing processes that can be grouped into
seven categories: A total of seven different types of additive manufacturing processes
6 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

have been established and identified. These seven 3D printing processes brought
forth ten different types of 3D printing technology that 3D printers use today.

• 3DPrinting Process: Material Extrusion

• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
• 3D Printing Process: Vat Polymerization
• Stereolithography (SLA)
• Digital Light Processing (DLP)
• 3D Printing Process: Powder Bed Fusion
• 3D Printing Process: Powder Bed Fusion (Polymers)
– Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• 3D Printing Process: Powder Bed Fusion (Metals)
– Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)/Selective Laser Melting
(SLM)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• 3D Printing Process: Material Jetting
• Material Jetting (MJ)
• Drop on Demand (DOD)
• 3D Printing Process: Binder Jetting
• Sand Binder Jetting
• Metal Binder Jetting
• Sheet Lamination
• Directed Energy Deposition

1.5.1 Material Extrusion
Material extrusion is a 3D printing process where a filament of solid thermoplastic
material is pushed through a heated nozzle, melting it in the process. The printer
deposits the material on a build platform along a predetermined path, where the fila-
ment cools and solidifies to form a solid object (Figure 1.1).

• Types of 3D printing technology: Fused deposition modeling (FDM),

sometimes called fused filament fabrication (FFF)
• Materials: Thermoplastic filament (PLA, ABS, PET, TPU)
• Dimensional accuracy: ±0.5% (lower limit ±0.5 mm)
• Common applications: Electrical housings; Form and fit testings; Jigs and
fixtures; Investment casting patterns
• Strengths: Best surface finish; Full color and multi-material available
• Weaknesses: Brittle, not sustainable for mechanical parts; Higher cost than
SLA/DLP for visual purposes

1.5.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Material extrusion devices are the most commonly available—and the cheapest—
types of 3D printing technology in the world. You might be familiar with them as
fused deposition modeling, or FDM. They are also sometimes referred to as fused
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 7

FIGURE 1.1  Material extrusion.

filament fabrication, or FFF. The way it works is that a spool of filament is loaded
into the 3D printer and fed through to a printer nozzle in the extrusion head. The
printer nozzle is heated to a desired temperature, whereupon a motor pushes the
filament through the heated nozzle, causing it to melt. The printer then moves the
extrusion head along specified coordinates, laying down the molten material onto
the build plate where it cools down and solidifies. Once a layer is complete, the
printer proceeds to lay down another layer. This process of printing cross-sections is
repeated, building layer-upon-layer, until the object is fully formed. Depending on
the geometry of the object, it is sometimes necessary to add support structures, for
example if a model has steep overhanging parts.

1.5.2 Vat Photopolymerization
Vat photopolymerization is a 3D printing process where a photo-polymer resin in
a vat is selectively cured by a light source. The two most common forms of vat
polymerization are SLA (stereolithography) and DLP (digital light processing). The
fundamental difference between these types of 3D printing technology is the light
source they use to cure the resin. SLA printers use a point laser, in contrast to the
voxel approach used by a DLP printer (Figure 1.2).

• Types of 3D printing technology: Stereolithography (SLA);Direct light pro-

cessing (DLP)
• Materials: Photopolymer resin (standard, castable, transparent, high
Temperature)
• Dimensional accuracy: ±0.5% (lower limit ±0.15 mm)
• Common applications: Injection mold-like polymer prototypes; Jewelry
(investment casting); Dental applications; Hearing aids
• Strengths: Smooth surface finish; Fine feature details
• Weaknesses: Brittle, not suitable for mechanical parts
8 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 1.2  Vat photopolymerization.

1.5.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
SLA holds the historical distinction of being the world’s first 3D printing technology.
Stereolithography was invented by Chuck Hull in 1986, who filed a patent on the tech-
nology and founded the company 3D Systems to commercialize it. An SLA printer
uses mirrors, known as galvanometers or galvos, with one positioned on the X-axis
and another on the Y-axis. These galvos rapidly aim a laser beam across a vat of resin,
selectively curing and solidifying a cross-section of the object inside this build area,
building it up layer by layer. Most SLA printers use a solid state laser to cure parts.
The disadvantage to these types of 3D printing technology using a point laser is that it
can take longer to trace the cross-section of an object when compared to DLP.

1.5.2.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Looking at digital light processing machines, these types of 3D printing technology
are almost the same as SLA. The key difference is that DLP uses a digital light pro-
jector to flash a single image of each layer all at once (or multiple flashes for larger
parts).Because the projector is a digital screen, the image of each layer is composed
of square pixels, resulting in a layer formed from small rectangular blocks called
voxels. DLP can achieve faster print as compared to SLA. That’s because an entire
layer is exposed all at once, rather than tracing the cross-sectional area with the point
of a laser. Light is projected onto the resin using light-emitting diode (LED) screens
or a UV light source (lamp) that is directed to the build surface by a digital micro-
mirror device (DMD). A DMD is an array of micro-mirrors that control where light
is projected and generate the light-pattern on the build surface.

1.5.3 Powder Bed Fusion

1.5.3.1  Powder Bed Fusion (Polymers)
Powder bed fusion is a 3D printing process where a thermal energy source will selec-
tively induce fusion between powder particles inside a build area to create a solid
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 9

object. Many powder bed fusion devices also employ a mechanism for applying and
smoothing powder simultaneous to an object being fabricated, so that the final item
is encased and supported in unused powder (Figure 1.3).

• Types of 3D printing technology: Selective laser sintering (SLS)

• Materials: Thermoplastic powder (Nylon 6, Nylon 11, Nylon 12)
• Dimensional accuracy: ±0.3% (lower limit ±0.3 mm)
• Common applications: Functional parts; Complex ducting (hollow designs);
Low run part production
• Strengths: Functional parts, good mechanical properties; Complex
geometries
• Weaknesses: Longer lead times; Higher cost than FFF for functional
applications

1.5.3.1.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Creating an object with powder bed fusion technology and polymer powder is gen-
erally known as selective laser sintering (SLS). As industrial patents expire, these
types of 3D printing technology are becoming increasingly common and lower cost.
First, a bin of polymer powder is heated to a temperature just below the polymer’s
melting point. Next, a recoating blade or wiper deposits a very thin layer of the
powdered material—typically 0.1 mm thick—onto a build platform. A CO2 laser
beam then begins to scan the surface. The laser will selectively sinter the powder
and solidify a cross-section of the object. Just like SLA, the laser is focused onto the
correct location by a pair of galvos. When the entire cross-section is scanned, the
build platform will move down one layer thickness in height. The recoating blade
deposits a fresh layer of powder on top of the recently scanned layer, and the laser
will sinter the next cross-section of the object onto the previously solidified cross-
sections. These steps are repeated until all objects are fully manufactured. Powder
which hasn’t been sintered remains in place to support the object that has, which
eliminates the need for support structures.

FIGURE 1.3  Powder bed fusion (polymers).

10 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

1.5.3.2  Powder Bed Fusion (Metals)

Metal powder bed fusion is a 3D printing process which produces solid objects,
using a thermal source to induce fusion between metal powder particles one layer
at a time. Most powder bed fusion technologies employ mechanisms for adding
powder as the object is being constructed, resulting in the final component being
encased in the metal powder. The main variations in metal powder bed fusion tech-
nologies come from the use of different energy sources; lasers or electron beams
(Figure 1.4).

• Types of 3D printing technology: Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS);

Selective laser melting (SLM); Electron beam melting (EBM)
• Materials: Metal Powder: Aluminum, stainless steel, titanium
• Dimensional accuracy: ±0.1 mm
• Common applications: Functional metal parts (aerospace and automotive);
Medical; Dental
• Strengths: Strongest, functional parts; Complex geometries
• Weaknesses: Small build sizes; Highest price point of all technologies

1.5.3.2.1 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)/Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Both direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) and selective laser melting (SLM) produce
objects in a similar fashion to SLS. The main difference is that these types of 3D
printing technology are applied to the production of metal parts.
DMLS does not melt the powder but instead heats it to a point so that it can fuse
together on a molecular level. SLM uses the laser to achieve a full melt of the metal
powder forming a homogeneous part. This results in a part that has a single melting
temperature (something not produced with an alloy).
This is the main difference between DMLS and SLM; the former produces
parts from metal alloys, while the latter forms single element materials, such as
titanium. Unlike SLS, the DMLS and SLM processes require structural support, in
order to limit the possibility of any distortion that may occur (despite the fact that

FIGURE 1.4  Powder bed fusion (metals).

Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 11

the surrounding powder provides physical support). DMLS/SLM parts are at risk of
warping due to the residual stresses produced during printing, because of the high
temperatures. Parts are also typically heat-treated after printing, while still attached
to the build plate, to relieve any stresses in the parts after printing.

1.5.3.2.2 Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Distinct from other powder bed fusion techniques, electron beam melting (EBM)
uses a high energy beam, or electrons, to induce fusion between the particles of
metal powder. A focused electron beam scans across a thin layer of powder, causing
localized melting and solidification over a specific cross-sectional area. These areas
are built up to create a solid object.
Compared to SLM and DMLS types of 3D printing technology, EBM generally
has a superior build speed because of its higher energy density. However, things like
minimum feature size, powder particle size, layer thickness, and surface finish are
typically larger. Also important to note is that EBM parts are fabricated in a vacuum,
and the process can only be used with conductive materials.

1.5.4  Material Jetting

Material Jetting is a 3D printing process where droplets of material are selectively
deposited and cured on a build plate. Using photopolymers or wax droplets that
cure when exposed to light, objects are built up one layer at a time. The nature of
the material jetting process allows for different materials to be printed in the same
object. One application for this technique is to fabricate support structures from a
different material to the model being produced (Figure 1.5).

• Types of 3D printing technology: Material jetting (MJ); Drop on demand

(DOD)

FIGURE 1.5  Material jetting.

12 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

• Materials: Photopolymer resin (standard, castable, transparent, high

temperature)
• Dimensional accuracy: ±0.1 mm
• Common applications: Full color product prototypes; Injection mold-like
prototypes; Low run injection molds; Medical models
• Strengths: Best surface finish; Full color and multi-material available
• Weaknesses: Brittle, not suitable for mechanical parts; Higher cost than
SLA/DLP for visual purposes

1.5.4.1 Material Jetting (MJ)

Material jetting (MJ) works in a similar way to a standard inkjet printer. The key
difference is that, instead of printing a single layer of ink, multiple layers are built
upon each other to create a solid part. The print head jets hundreds of tiny droplets
of photopolymer and then cures/solidifies them using an ultraviolet (UV) light. After
one layer has been deposited and cured, the build platform is lowered down one layer
thickness and the process is repeated to build up a 3D object. MJ is different from
other types of 3D printing technology that deposit, sinter, or cure builds material
using point-wise deposition. Instead of using a single point to follow a path which
outlines the cross-sectional area of a layer, MJ machines deposit build material in a
rapid, line-wise fashion. The advantage of line-wise deposition is that MJ printers
are able to fabricate multiple objects in a single line with no impact on build speed.
So long as models are correctly arranged, and the space within each build line is
optimized, MJ is able to produce parts at a speedier pace than other types of 3D
printer. Objects made with MJ require support, which are printed simultaneously
during the build from a dissolvable material that’s removed during the post-process-
ing stage. MJ is one of the only types of 3D printing technology to offer objects made
from multi-material printing and full-color.

1.5.4.2 Drop on Demand (DOD)

Drop on demand (DOD) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a pair of ink
jets. One deposits the build materials, which is typically a wax-like material. The
second is used for dissolvable support material. As with typical types of 3D printing
technology, DOD printers follow a predetermined path to jet material in a point-wise
deposition, creating the cross-sectional area of an object layer-by-layer. DOD print-
ers also use a fly-cutter that skims the build area after each layer is created, ensuring
a perfectly flat surface before commencing the next layer. DOD printers are usually
used to create patterns suitable for lost-wax casting or investment casting, and other
mold-making applications.

1.5.5 Binder Jetting
Binder jetting is a 3D printing process where a liquid bonding agent selectively
binds powder bed regions. Binder jetting is a 3D printing technology similar to SLS,
requiring an initial layer of powder on a built-in platform (Figure 1.6).
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 13

FIGURE 1.6  Binder jetting.

But unlike SLS, which uses a sinter powder laser, binder jetting moves the print
head over the powdered surface of the binder droplets, which are typically 80
microns in diameter. These droplets bind the powder particles together to make each
layer of the object. Once a layer has been printed, the powder bed is lowered and a
new layer of powder spreads over the newly printed layer. This process is repeated
until the whole object is formed. The object is then left in the powder to recover and
gain energy. Afterward, the object is removed from the powder bed and any unbound
powder is removed by compressed air.

• Types of 3D printing technology: Binder jetting (BJ)

• Materials: Sand or metal powder: Stainless/bronze, full sand, silica (sand
casting)
• Dimensional accuracy:±0.2 mm (metal) or ±0.3 mm (sand)
• Typical applications: Functional metal parts; Full color models; Sand
casting
• Strengths: Low cost; Large volumes; Functional metal parts
• Weakness: Mechanical properties not as strong as metal powder melting
beds

1.5.5.1 Sand Binder Jetting

These are low-cost types of 3D printing technology for the production of sandstone
or gypsum components with sand binder jetting devices.
For full color models, objects are manufactured using a plaster-based or PMMA
powder in conjunction with a liquid binding agent. The print head first jets the bind-
ing agent, while the secondary print head jets the color, allowing full color models
to be printed. Once the parts have been fully cured, they are removed from the
loose unbonded powder and cleaned. Parts are also exposed to infiltrant material
to improve mechanical properties. A large number of infiltrants are available, each
resulting in different properties. Coatings may also be added to improve the vibrancy
of colors. Binder jetting is also useful for the development of sand molds and cores.
14 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Cores and molds are generally sand-printed, although artificial sand (silica) can
be used for special applications. After printing, the cores and molds are removed
from the construction area and washed to remove any loose sand. Typically, the
molds are ready for casting immediately. After casting, the mold is broken apart
and the final metal component is removed. The major advantage of manufacturing
sand casting cores and molds with binder jetting is that the process can create large,
complex geometries at a relatively low cost.
In addition, the process is quite easy to integrate without disruption into existing
manufacturing or foundry processes.

1.5.5.2 Metal Binder Jetting

Binder jetting can also be used for the manufacture of metal objects. The metal
powder is bound by a polymer binding agent. The production of metal objects using
binder jetting enables the production of complex geometries well beyond the capa-
bilities of conventional manufacturing techniques. Functional metal objects can only
be produced via a secondary process like infiltration or sintering, however. The cost
and quality of the end result generally defines which secondary process is the most
appropriate for a certain application. Without these additional steps, a part made
with metal binder jetting will have poor mechanical properties.
The infiltration secondary process works as follows: Initially metal powder par-
ticles are bound together using a binding agent to form a “green state” object. Once
the objects have fully cured, they are removed from the loose powder and placed
in a furnace, where the binder is burnt out. This leaves the object at around 60%
density with voids throughout. Next, bronze is used to infiltrate the voids via capil-
lary action, resulting in an object with around 90% density and greater strength.
However, objects made with metal binder jetting generally have lower mechanical
properties than metal parts made with powder bed fusion. The sintering secondary
process can be applied where metal parts are made without infiltration. After print-
ing is complete, green state objects are cured in an oven. Next, they’re sintered in a
furnace to a high density of around 97%. However, non-uniform shrinkage can be an
issue during sintering and should be accounted for at the design stage.

1.5.6 Sheet Lamination
In the sheet lamination additive manufacturing process, thin sheets of material are
bonded together using adhesives or a heat source to form a three-dimensional product.
The sheet lamination processes are also known as: Ultrasonic additive manufacturing
(UAM) when ultrasonic bonding is used to laminate thermoplastic sheets together
and laminated object manufacturing (LOM) when adhesives are used for lamination.

1.5.6.1 Materials Used in Sheet Lamination

Polymers are often used but paper or metal foils are also typically processed and find
application in cases where heat sensitive materials cannot be used and low costs must
be realized. Almost any polymer can be used as long as it is available in thin sheet
form and can be bonded by either adhesives or heat.
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 15

The main advantages of sheet lamination are:

i. Low materials cost

ii. Many substrates are available (e.g. paper, film, foil)
iii. Process does not require a closed environment
iv. High volumetric build rates
v. Allows for combination of materials and embedding components

The key disadvantages are that complex geometries are difficult to manufacture and
may be less precise than other additive manufacturing methods. Many characteris-
tics of this method are as follows:

i. Using binding materials such as adhesives or energy (e.g. ultrasonic

welding)
ii. Relatively large components may be produced
iii. Possibility of low cost, easily accessible building materials such as paper,
plastic film, or metal foil
iv. Bonding equipment can be easy (even by hand) or automated
v. Significant applications: Large parts, tooling

1.5.7 Directed Energy Deposition

Directed energy deposition methods usually do not use polymeric materials but use
metal wire or powder. High energy sources, such as the laser, are directed at the
material to melt and build up the product. Directed energy deposition is assumed to
be a more complex and expensive additive manufacturing process, but is generally
used to repair or add extra materials to existing components. Other characteristics of
directed energy deposition include: Similar to powder bed fusion except material is
first injected into an energy field. Common substrates are metal, metal wire, glass,
and ceramics.
Strengths:

i. Can operate in open air

ii. Multiple materials can be used
iii. Large parts are possible
iv. High single point deposition rates
v. Not limited by direction or axis

Limitations:

i. Expensive equipment, lower resolutions, and reduced ability to manufac-

ture complex parts
ii. Final machining is often required

Major applications: Repair or build-up of high volume parts (Table 1.1).

16 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

TABLE 1.1
Recap and Description of These Processes
Process Description Technology
Photo A vat of liquid photopolymer resin is cured by Stereolithography (SLA)
polymerization selective exposure to light (through a laser or Digital light processing (DLP)
projector). This then initiates polymerization Continuous liquid
and transforms the exposed areas into a solid interphaseproduction (CLIP)
component. Scan, spin, and selectively
photocure (3SP)
Material jetting Material droplets are deposited layer by layer 3D printing (3DP)
to produce objects. Common varieties include Multi-jet modeling (MJM)
jetting and curing of photocurable resins with Drop on demand (DOD)
UV light, as well as jetting of thermally
molten materials, which then solidify at
ambient temperature. This process was the
origin of the term “3D printing.”
Binder jetting Bonding agents are applied selectively to thin Drop on powder (DOP)
layers of powdered material to form parts Powder bed printing
layer by layer. Binders shall contain organic
and inorganic materials. Metal or ceramic
powdered parts are commonly fired in the
furnace after they have been printed.
Material extrusion The material is extruded by a nozzle or an Fused deposition modeling
orifice in tracks or beads, which are then (FDM)
integrated into multi-layer models. Fused filament fabrication
Popular varieties include hot thermoplastic (FFF)
extrusion (similar to a hot glue gun) and
syringe dispensing.
Powder bed fusion Powdered materials are selectively deposited Selective heat sintering (SHS)
by melting together using a heat source such Direct metal laser sintering
as a laser or electron beam. The powder (DMLS)
surrounding the consolidated component Electron beam melting (EBM)
works as a support material for the Selective laser melting (SLM)
overhanging materials. Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Sheet lamination Material sheets are stacked and laminated with Selective deposition lamination
each other to form an object. The method of (SDL)
lamination can be adhesive, ultrasonic Laminated object manufacturing
welding, or brazing (metals). Excessive (LOM)
regions are cut layer by layer and removed Ultrasonic additive
after the object is built. manufacturing (UAM)
Direct energy Metal powder or wire is feed into a melt pool Laser metal deposition (LMD)
deposition formed on the surface of the part where it is Electron beam free-form
attached to the underlying part or layer. The fabrication (EBF3)
source of energy is normally a laser beam or Direct metal deposition (DMD)
an electron beam. In essence, this process is a Laser engineered net shaping
type of automated build-up welding. (LENS)
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 17

FIGURE 1.7  Classification of additive manufacturing systems.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

A better way to broadly classify AM systems is by the initial form of their material;
all AM systems can be easily categorized into:

A) Liquid-based
B) Solid-based
C) Powder-based

1.6.1 Liquid-Based
Building materials are in liquid state and the following additive manufacturing sys-
tems fall under this category (Figure 1.7):

i. Stereolithography apparatus (SLA)

ii. PolyJet 3D printing
iii. Multijet printing (MJP)
iv. Solid object ultraviolet-laser printer (SOUP)
v. Rapid freeze prototyping

1.6.2 Solid-Based
The building material is in solid state (excluding powder). The solid type may include
the shape of the wire, rolls, laminates, and pellets. The following AM systems fall
under this category:
18 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

i. Fused deposition modeling (FDM)

ii. Selective deposition lamination (SDL)
iii. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
iv. Ultrasonic consolidation

1.6.3 Powder-Based
Building material is powder (a type of grain). All powder-based AM systems use the
joining/binding method. The following AM systems fall under this category:

i. Selective laser sintering (SLS)

ii. ColorJet printing (CJP)
iii. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS)
iv. Electron beam melting (EBM), etc.

1.7 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

1. Layer by layer production makes the design process much more flexible and
creative. Designers no longer need to design for production; rather they can
build a component that is lighter and stronger by means of better design.
Parts can be fully re-designed in such a way that they are stronger in the
places they need to be and lighter overall.
2. 3D printing significantly accelerates the design and prototyping process.
There’s no problem creating one part at a time, and changing the design
every time it’s produced. Parts can be created in hours. The design time is
taken down to days or weeks, opposed to months. Also, as the price of 3D
printers has decreased over the years, some 3D printers are now within the
financial reach of ordinary consumers or small companies.
3. In general, the drawbacks of 3D printing include costly hardware and expen-
sive materials. This leads to expensive parts, making it difficult to compete
with mass production. A CAD designer is also needed to create what the
consumer has in mind and can be costly if the component is very complex.
4. 3D printing is not the solution for everyone involved in the production
method; however, its improvement is helping to accelerate design and engi-
neering more than ever before. Through the use of 3D printers, designers
are able to create one piece of art, intricate building and product designs,
and make parts while in space!
5. Many industries are beginning to see the impact of 3D printing. There have
been articles saying that 3D printing will bring about the next industrial
revolution, by returning a means of production back within reach of the
designer or the consumer.

1.8 ADDITIVE VS. CONVENTIONAL

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
The growing success of additive manufacturing is due to its advantages over con-
ventional manufacturing. However, these strengths often come along with certain
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 19

weaknesses. The weaknesses provide opportunities for corrective action through the
development of new polymeric materials.
Strengths:

• Elimination of design limitations

• Enable parts to be generated with complicated geometries: Honeycomb
structures, cooling channels, etc., and no additional costs associated with
complexity
• Build speed; Reduce lead time
• Flexibility of design
• No expensive tooling criteria
• Dimensional accuracy
• Broad variety of materials (polymers, metals, and ceramics)
• Well suited for the manufacture of high-value replacement and repair parts
• Green production, clean, minimal waste
• Small footprint for manufacturing and constantly rising equipment costs

Limitations:

• Surface roughness
• Low density, porosity
• Lack of data on the end-use properties of parts to be produced (e.g. thermal
and chemical stability, strength, etc.)
• Limited to relatively small parts

1.9 APPLICATIONS
The development of innovative, advanced additive manufacturing technologies has
progressed quickly yielding broader and high value applications. This accelerating
trend has been due to the benefits of additive manufacturing compared to more con-
ventional manufacturing processes. Some of these benefits are:

1. Lower energy consumption

2. Less waste
3. Less dedicated tooling
4. Reduced development costs and time to market
5. Innovative designs and geometries
6. Part consolidation (fewer parts with more complex design)
7. Customization of parts (e.g. for medical implants, specialty repair parts,
parts where other manufacturing facilities are not available such as on ships
or in space—Table 1.2).

1.10 EXERCISES
1. Discuss the development of additive manufacturing and 3D printing.
2. What are various major trends shaping the evaluation of 3D printing?
20 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

TABLE 1.2
Industries to Benefit Most in the Immediate Future from Additive
Manufacturing and the Value Provided
Industry Applications and Value
Aerospace and Defense
i. Concept modeling and prototyping
ii. Manufacturing of low-volume specific components (electronics,
engine parts, etc.)
iii. Manufacturing of spare parts everywhere
iv. Manufacture of structures using lightweight, high strength
materials
Automotive
i. Testing the design of the part to check correctness and completeness
ii. Parts for racing vehicles, luxury sports cars, vintage cars, etc.
iii. Replacement of parts that are defective or that cannot be
purchased
iv. Manufacture of structures using lightweight, high strength
materials
Electronics
i. Embedding radio frequency identification (RFID) systems
embedded in solid materials
ii. Short lead time for electronic goods
iii. Three-dimensional micro-electromechanical systems based on
polymer
iv. Microwave circuits built on paper substrates
Tool and Mold Making
i. Universal device holder with standard pocket sizes
ii. Die casting forms
iii. Injection molding devices
iv. Tools for prototyping short-term surgical systems

Medical
i. Design and modeling of customized implants and medical devices
ii. Processes for the manufacture of “smart scaffolds” and the
construction of 3D biological and tissue models

3. Discuss the technological improvement in additive manufacturing.

4. What are the various 3DP processes?
5. Classify the additive manufacturing systems.
6. Discuss the advantages of additive manufacturing.
7. 7.What are the differences between additive and conventional manufacturing
processes?
8. What are the various applications of 3DP?
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 21

1.11 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Additive manufacturing uses much less material than other subtractive man-
ufacturing processes.
a) True
b) False
Ans: (a)

2. Which of the following is typically the cheapest type of 3D printer?

a) FDM
b) SLA
c) Powder-based
d) SLM
Ans: (a)

3. SLA printing uses a plastic strand that’s pushed through a heated nozzle.
a) True
b) False
Ans: (b)

4. 3D printing technology is expanding and is now able to print metal parts.

a) True
b) False
Ans: (a)

5. Which of the following is typically the most expensive type of 3D printer?

a) SLA
b) SLM
c) FDM
d) None of the above
Ans: (b)

6. FDM stands for fused deposition modeling.

a) True
b) False
Ans: (a)

7. SLA stands for stereolighting amplification.

a) True
b) False
Ans: (b)

8. FDM printers can print multiple materials at one time.

a) True
b) False
Ans: (a)
22 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

9. Which type of printer uses an enclosed build area?

a) SLA
b) SLS
c) MDS
d) FDM
Ans: (a)

10. What printer melts metal?

a) SLS
b) SLM
c) SLA
d) FDM
Ans: (b)

11. SLA printer’s package material is in a…

a) Chain
b) Spool
c) Cartridge
d) None of the above
Ans: (c)

1 2. Which type of 3D printer uses a pool of resin to create the solid part?
a) FDM
b) SLA
c) SNL
d) None of the above
Ans: (b)

13. What material is not used in 3D printing?

a) Nylon
b) ABS
c) PLA
d) PVC
Ans: (d)

14. When printing a part on an FDM printer, the model should be oriented such
that the layers are parallel to the direction of stresses that will be placed on
the part.
a) True
b) False
Ans: (b)

15. Which should be considered when orienting the part on the build plate in the
slicing software?
a) Holes should always be printed horizontally
Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 23

b) The footprint of the part should be as small as possible

c) You should minimize the number of overhangs
d) All of the above
Ans: (c)

16. Which of the following does NOT influence how refined the 3D printed part
will be?
a) Layer thickness
b) Using support material
c) Part orientation
d) All the above
Ans: (d)

17. Which file type is most commonly exported from CAD software?
a) SLDRT
b) JPG
c) STL
d) X3G
Ans: (c)

18. FDM build plates are prepared by…

a) Putting hair spray on it
b) Putting a layer of painters tape on it
c) Putting a glue stick layer on it
d) All the above
Ans: (d)

19. What does SLS stand for?

a) Selective laser sintering
b) Selective lithographic solution
c) Separated light sintering
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)
 2 CAD for Additive
Manufacturing

2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is clear that additive manufacturing would not have been possible without com-
puters and have been developed so far if it were not for the development of 3D solid
modeling CAD (computer-aided design). The quality, reliability, feasibility, and
ease of use of 3D CAD meant that virtually any geometry could be modeled which
enhanced our design capability. Some of the most impressive models made using
additive manufacturing are those that illustrate the ability to manufacture com-
plex shapes in a single stage without the need to assemble or use secondary tools.
Virtually every commercial solid modeling CAD system is capable of output to an
AM machine. This is because, in most cases, the only information required by the
AM machine from the CAD system is the external geometric form. The machine is
not required to know how the part was modeled, any of the features, or any of the
functional elements. The part can be built as long as the external geometry can be
defined.

2.2 PREPARATION OF CAD MODELS: THE STL FILE

The first step in each product design process is to visualize and conceptualize the
function and appearance of the product. This can take the form of text information,
sketches, and three-dimensional computer models. As far as the process chain is
concerned, the first enabler of AM technologies is the 3D digital computer-aided
design (CAD) models where the conceptualized product exists in the “computer”
space and the values of its geometry, material, and properties are stored in digital
form and are easily retrievable.
Generally, AM process chains start with 3D CAD modeling. The process of cre-
ating a 3D CAD model from a concept in the designer’s mind can take several forms,
but all of them involve CAD software programs. The details of these programs and
the technology behind them do not fall within the scope of this text, but these pro-
grams are a critical enabler of the designer’s ability to generate a 3D CAD model that
can serve as the starting point for the AM process chain. There is a large number of
CAD programs with different modeling concepts, capacities, accessibility, and cost.
Examples include Autodesk Inventor, SolidWorks, CREO, NX, etc. Once a 3D
CAD model is produced, steps can be taken in the AM process chain. Although the
process chain generally progresses in one direction starting with CAD modeling
and ending with a finished part or prototype, it is often an iterative process where
changes to the CAD model and design are made to reflect feedback from each step

25
26 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

of the process chain. Special to metal powder bed technology, critical feedback may
come from geometry and anisotropic properties on parts due to build orientation,
distortion of parts, or features due to thermal background of construction, problems
with the generation, and removal of support structures, etc. Issues such as these may
occur in the AM process chain and may entail changes in design and revisions.
The STL file is derived from the term stereolithography, which was the first com-
mercial AM process developed by the US company 3D Systems in the late 1980s,
although some suggested that STL could stand for stereolithography tessellation lan-
guage. The STL files are created from 3D CAD data on the CAD system. Output is
a boundary representation that is approximated by a triangle mesh.

2.2.1 STL File Format, Binary/ASCII

Almost all of the AM technology available today uses the stereolithography (STL)
file format. The STL format of the 3D CAD model captures all surfaces of the 3D
model by stitching triangles of different sizes on its surfaces. The spatial locations of
the vertices of each triangle and the vectors that are normal to each triangle, when
combined, allow AM’s pre-process programs to determine the spatial locations of
the surfaces of the part in the build envelope, and on which side of the surface is the
interior of the part.
Although the STL format has been considered a de facto standard, there are
inherent limitations to the fact that only geometry information is stored in these files,
while all other information that the CAD model may contain is deleted. Information
such as the unit, color, material, etc., can play an important role in the functionality
of the built-in component being lost during a file translation process. As such, the
functionality of the finished parts is limited. The “AMF” format has been developed
specifically to address these issues and limitations and is now the standard ASTM/
ISO format.
Beyond geometry information, this file format also includes dimensions, color,
material, and additional information. Currently, the prevailing file format used by
AM systems and supported by CAD modeling programs is still the STL format.
Increasing numbers of CAD program companies, including plenty of major pro-
grams, have included support for AMF file formats. Currently, the actual use of
the information stored in the AMF file is still limited due to the capabilities of the
current AM systems and the state of the art technology. The STL file consists of a
number of triangular facets.
Each triangular facet is uniquely defined by a normal vector unit and three verti-
ces or corners. The normal vector unit is a line that is perpendicular to the triangle
and has a length equal to 1.0. The length of the unit could be in millimeters or inches
and is stored using three numbers corresponding to its vector coordinates. The STL
file itself does not hold any dimensions, so the AM machine operator must know
whether the dimensions are millimeters, inches, or any other unit. Since each vertex
also has three numbers, there are a total of 12 numbers for each triangle. The fol-
lowing file shows a simple ASCII STL file describing the right-angled, triangular
pyramid structure as shown in Figure 2.1.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 27

FIGURE 2.1  A right-angled triangular pyramid as defined in the STL sample file.

Note that the file starts with an object name defined as a solid. Triangles can be
identified in any order, each as a facet. The facet line also includes the normal vector
for the triangle. Note that this normal is calculated from any convenient location on
the triangle and may be from one of the vertices or from the center of the triangle. It
is defined that the normal is perpendicular to the triangle and the length of the unit.
In most systems, the normal is used to define the outer surface of the solid, essen-
tially pointing out the outer surface. The group of three vertices defining the triangle
is defined by the terms “outer loop” and “end loop.”
The outside of the triangle is better established by the right-hand rule approach.
As we look at the triangle from the outside, the vertices should be in the clockwise
order. Using the right hand with the thumb pointed upward, the other fingers curl in
the direction of the vertical order, the starting vertex being arbitrary. This method
is becoming more popular because it avoids having to make any calculations for an
additional number (i.e. facet normal) and thus STL files might not even allow the
normal to avoid ambiguity.
Note that the bottom left-hand corner is the same as the origin and that each ver-
tex coming out of the origin is of unit length.
28 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

A binary STL file can be described as follows:

• The 80-byte ASCII header that might be used to describe the component
• A long integer of 4 bytes that indicates the number of facets in the object
• A list of facets, each 50 bytes long

The facet record will be described in the following manner:

• Three floating values of 4 bytes each for the normal vector

• Three floating values of 4 bytes each for the first vertex
• Three floating values of 4 bytes each for the second vertex
• Three floating values of 4 bytes each for the third vertex
• One unsigned integer of 2 bytes, which should be zero, used for checking

2.2.1.1 Format Specifications
The STL file is a list of facet info. Each facet is uniquely identified by a normal unit
(a line perpendicular to the triangle and a length of 1.0) and three vertices (corners).
Normal and each vertex are described by three coordinates each, so a total of 12
numbers are stored for each facet.
Facet orientation: The facet defines the surface of a three-dimensional object.
As such, each facet is part of the boundary between the inside and the outside of the
object. The orientation of the facets (which path is “out” and which path is “in”) is
given redundantly in two ways that must be consistent. The direction of the normal is
outward, first. Second, the vertices are seen in the anti-clockwise order when looking
at the object from the outside (right-hand rule). These rules are shown in Figure 2.2.
Vertex-to-vertex rule: Each triangle must share two vertices with each of its
neighboring triangles. In other words, the vertex of one triangle cannot lie on the

FIGURE 2.2  The orientation of the facet shall be determined by the direction of the normal
unit and the order in which the vertices are indicated.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 29

FIGURE 2.3  Vertex-to-vertex rule. Figure (a) shows a violation of Rule (a). The correct
configuration is shown in Figure (b).

other side. This is shown in Figure 2.3. The object shown must be placed in the
all-positive octant. In other words, all vertex coordinates must be positive-defined
(non-negative and non-zero) numbers. The STL file does not contain any scale infor-
mation; the coordinates are stored in arbitrary units. The official 3D Systems STL
specification document states that there is provision for the inclusion of “special
attributes for building parameters” but that there is no format for the inclusion of
these attributes. Also, the document specifies the details for the “minimum length of
the triangle side” and “maximum triangle size,” but these numbers are of doubtful
significance. Triangle sorting in ascending z-value order is recommended, but not
required, in order to optimize the performance of the slice program. Typically, the
STL file is saved with the “STL” extension, case-insensitive. This extension may be
provided by the slice system or it may allow a specific extension to be defined.
The STL standard includes two ASCII and binary data formats. These are
described below separately.

2.2.1.2 STL ASCII Format

The ASCII format is primarily utilized for the development of new CAD interfaces.
The large size of its files makes it infeasible for general use.
The syntax of the ASCII STL file is as follows:
30 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Boldface indicates the keyword; it must appear in lowercase letters. Note that
there is space in “facet normal” and “outer loop,” while there is no space in any of
the keywords starting with “end.” The indentation must be with spaces; the tabs are
not allowed. The notation“{…} +” implies that the contents of the brace brackets
can be repeated one or more times. Italic symbols are variables to be replaced by
user-specific values. The numerical data for facet normal and vertex lines are single
precision floats, e.g. 1,23456E+789. A facet normal coordinate may have a leading
minus sign; it may not have a vertex coordinate.

2.2.1.3 STL Binary Format

The binary format uses IEEE integer and floating point numeric representation. The
syntax for the STL binary file is as follows:

Bytes Data type Description

80 ASCII Header. No data significant
4 Unsigned long integer Number of facts in file +
4 float i for normal
4 float j
4 float k
4 float i for vertext 1
4 float y
4 float z
4 float i for vertext 2
4 float y
4 float z
4 float i for vertext 3
4 float y
4 float z
2 Unsigned integer Attribute byte count

The notation“{…} +” implies that the contents of the brace brackets can be repro-
duced one or more times. The syntax of the attribute is not recorded in the formal
specification. It is defined that the byte count attribute should be set to zero.

2.2.2 Creating STL Files from a CAD System

Nearly all geometric solid modeling CAD systems can generate STL files from a
valid, fully enclosed solid model. Most CAD systems can quickly tell the user if a
model is not a solid. This test is particularly necessary for systems that use surface
modeling techniques, where it can be possible to create an object that is not fully
closed off. Such systems would be used for graphics applications where there is a
need for powerful manipulation of surface detail rather than for engineering detail-
ing. Solid modeling systems, like SolidWorks, may use surface modeling as part of
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 31

the construction process, but the final result is always a solid that would not require
such a test.
Most CAD systems use the “Save as” or “Export” feature to convert a native
format to an STL file. Typically, there has been some control over the size of the
triangles to be used in the model. Since STL uses flat surfaces to approximate curved
surfaces, the larger the triangles, the looser the approximation becomes. Most CAD
systems do not directly limit the size of the triangles, since it is also clear that the
smaller the triangle, the larger the resulting file for the given object.
An effective approach would be to minimize the offset between the triangle and
the surface to be represented. The ideal cube with perfectly sharp edges and points
can be described by 12 triangles, all with an offset of 0 between the STL file and the
original CAD layout. However, few designs would be as convenient and it is neces-
sary to maintain a good balance between surface approximation and an overly large
file. Figure 2.4 demonstrates the effect of adjusting the offset triangle parameter in

FIGURE 2.4  The original CAD model converted to an STL file using different offset height
(cusp) values, showing how the accuracy of the model changes according to the offset triangle.
32 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

the STL code. The appropriate value of the required offset would be largely depen-
dent on the resolution or accuracy of the AM process to be used. If the offset is
smaller than the basic process resolution, making it smaller will have no effect on
the accuracy of the resulting model. Since many AM processes operate around a 0.1
mm layer resolution, a triangle offset of 0.05 mm or slightly lower will be acceptable
for manufacturing most of the parts.

2.2.3 Calculation of Each Slice Profile

Practically every AM system will have the ability to read both binary and ASCII
STL files. As most AM processes operate by adding layers of the material of the
specified thickness, beginning at the bottom of the part and moving upward, the
definition of the part of the file must be processed in order to obtain the profile of
each layer.Each layer can be assumed a plane in a nominal Cartesian XY frame. The
incremental movement of each layer can then be along the orthogonal axis of the Z.
The XY plane, which is located along the Z-axis, can be called a cutting plane. Any
triangle intersecting this plane may be considered to contribute to the profile of the
slice. An algorithm such as the one in Flowchart 2.1 can be used to extract all the
profile segments of the STL file. The outcome of this algorithm is a set of intersect-
ing lines that are ordered according to a set of intersecting planes.
A program that is written as per this algorithm would have a number of additional
components, including a way to define the start and end of each file and each plane.
Furthermore, there would be no order for each line segment to be defined in terms
of the XY components and indexed to the plane corresponding to each Z value.
Also, the assumption is that the STL file has an arbitrary set of triangles which are
randomly distributed. It may be possible to pre-process each file so that searches can
be performed in a more efficient manner. One way to optimize the search would be
to order the triangles according to the minimum value of Z. A simple check for the
intersection of a triangle with a plane will be to check the value of Z for each vertex.
If the Z value of any vertex in the triangle is less than or equal to the Z value of the
plane, that triangle may intersect the plane. Using the above test, once it has been
established that the triangle may not intersect with the cutting plane, then every other
triangle is known to be above that triangle and therefore does not require a check.A
similar test could be performed with the maximum value Z of the triangle.
There are a number of discrete scenarios illustrating the intersection of each tri-
angle with the cutting plane:

1. All the vertices of the triangle are above or below the intersecting plane.
This triangle is not going to contribute to the profile on this plane.
2. A single vertex is directly on the plane. In this case, there is one intersec-
tion point that can be neglected, but the same vertex will be used in other
triangles satisfying another condition below.
3. There are two vertices lying on the plane. Here, one of the edges of the cor-
responding triangle is on that plane, and that edge contributes fully to the
profile.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 33

FLOWCHART 2.1  Algorithm used to test triangles and create line intersections. The result
is an unordered matrix of intersecting lines.
4. There are three vertices lying on the plane. In this case, the entire triangle
contributes entirely to the profile, unless there are also one or more adjacent
triangles on the plane, in which case the included edges can be neglected.
5. Another vertex is above or below the intersecting plane, and the other two
vertices are on the opposite side of the plane. In this case, the intersection
vector must be calculated from the edges of the triangle.

Most triangles should adhere to Scenario 1 or Scenario 5. Scenarios 2–4 may be con-
sidered as special cases and require special treatment. Assuming that we have car-
ried out the appropriate checks and that the triangle corresponds to Scenario 5, then
we have to take action and generate the corresponding intersecting profile vector.
34 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

In this case, there will be two vectors defined by the vertices of the triangle, and
these vectors will intersect with the cutting plane. The line joining these two inter-
section points will form part of the plane’s outline. The problem to be resolved is a
classical line intersection with a plane problem.
In this case, the line is defined using Cartesian coordinates in (x, y, z). The plane
is defined in (x, y) for a specific constant height, z. In a general case, we can therefore
project the line and plane onto the x = 0 and y = 0 planes. For the y = 0 plane, we can
obtain something similar to Figure 2.5. Points P1 and P2 correspond to two points
of the intersecting triangle. Pp is the projected point onto the y = 0 plane to form a
unique right-angled triangle. The angle θ can be calculated from

( Z2 - Z1) (2.1)
tan q =
( X2 - X1)
Since we know the z height of the plane, we can use the following equation:

( Zi - Z1) (2.2)
tan q =
( Xi - X1)
and solve for xi.
A point yi can also be found after projecting the same line onto the x = 0 plane
to fully define the intersecting point Pi. A second point of intersection can be cal-
culated using another line of the triangle that intersects the plane. These two points
will be a line on the plane that forms part of the outline of the model. It is possible
to determine the directionality of this line by exact use of the right-hand rule, thus

FIGURE 2.5  A vertex taken from an STL triangle projected onto the Y = 0 plane. Since the
height Zi is known, we can derive the intersection point Xi. A similar case can be done for Yi
in the X = 0 plane.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 35

turning this segment of the line into a vector. This can be useful in deciding whether
the completed curve is part of the enclosing outline or corresponds to a hole. After
all, the intersection lines have been calculated according to Flowchart 2.1; these
lines must be joined together to make complete curves. This would be done using an
algorithm based on the one described in Flowchart 2.2. In this case, each segment of
the line is checked to determine which segment is nearest to it.
The “nearest point” algorithm is necessary because the calculations may not pre-
cisely locate points together, even though the same line would normally be used to
determine the starting position of one segment and the end of another. Note that this
algorithm should actually have a further nesting to test whether a curve has been
completed. If the curve is complete, any other remaining line segments would cor-
respond to additional curves. These additional curves could form a nest of curves
lying inside or outside others, or they could be separated. The two algorithms listed
here concentrate on the intersection of the triangular facet with the cutting surface.
The normal vectors of each triangle could be used to further develop these algo-
rithms. In this way, the actual path of the curve could be determined. It will help to

FLOWCHART 2.2  Algorithm for ordering the intersections of the line into complete out-
lines. This assumes that there is only one contour in each plane.
36 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

assess the nested curves. Outside the section, the outermost curve will point. When
the curve set is pointing inward to itself, then it is obvious that there must be a further
curve enveloping it (see Figure 2.5). The use of normal vectors may also be helpful
in organizing curve sets that are very close to each other.
Once this stage has been completed, there will be a file containing an ordered
set of vectors to trace the complete outlines corresponding to the intersecting plane.
The way these outlines are used depends somewhat on which AM technology is to
be used. Many machines can use the vectors generated in Flowchart 2.2 to control
the plotting process for drawing the outlines of each layer. However, most comput-
ers will still have to fill in these outlines to make them solid. Flowchart 2.3 uses

FLOWCHART 2.3  Algorithm for filling a 2D profile based on vectors created using
Flowchart 2.2 and a raster scanning method. Assume that the profile suits within the build
volume, the raster scans in the X direction, and the lines increase in the Y direction.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 37

an inside/outside algorithm to determine when to switch on a filling mechanism to

draw scanning lines perpendicular to one of the plane axes. The assumption is that
the part is fully enclosed within the build envelope and therefore the default fill is
switched off.

2.2.4 Technology-Specific Elements
Flowcharts 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 are basic algorithms of a standardized type. These algo-
rithms need to be optimized to avoid errors and customize them to fit a specific
method. Many refinements can be used to speed up the cutting cycle by reducing
duplication, for example. Most AM systems need components designed using sup-
port structures. Supports are usually a loose-woven lattice pattern of material placed
below the area to be supported. Such a lattice pattern may be a plain square pattern
or something more complex like a hexagonal or even a fractal grid. In addition, the
lattice could be connected to a part with a tapered area that could be more convenient
to remove when compared to thicker connecting edges.
The identification of the regions to be assisted can be made by evaluating the
angle of the standard triangle. Those normals that point downward at some pre-
viously specified minimum angle will need help. Those triangles that are sloping
above that angle will not need support. The supports are extended until they con-
verge either with the base platform or with another upward-facing surface of the
portion. Supports attaching to the surface facing upward can also have a taper that
allows quick removal. The method that would usually be used would be to stretch
the supports from the entire build platform and eliminate any supports that do not
overlap with the component at a minimum angle or less (see Figure 2.6).
Support structures could be generated directly as STL models and can be imple-
mented into the already mentioned slicing algorithms. However, they are more likely
to be directly created by the proprietary algorithm in the slicing process. Other pro-
cessing specifications that would rely on different AM technologies include:
Raster scanning: Although many systems will use basic raster scans for each
sheet, there are alternatives. Some systems use a switchable raster scan, scan in the
X direction of the XY plane for a single layer, and then move to the Y direction for
alternate layers. Many systems subdivide the filling area into smaller square regions
and use switchable raster scans between squares.
Patterned vector scanning: The material extrusion technology requires a filling
pattern to be produced within the enclosed boundary. This is done by using vectors
generated using a patterning strategy. In the case of a particular layer, the pattern
would be determined by choosing a specific angle for the vectors to travel. The fill
is then a zigzag pattern in the direction defined by this angle. Once a zigzag has
reached its end, further zigzag fills may be needed to complete a layer (see Figure 2.7
for an example of a zigzag scan pattern).
Hatching patterns: Sheet lamination processes, such as the Helisys LOM and the
Solid Center system from Kira, involve material surrounding the part to be hatched
with a pattern that enables it to be de-coated once the part has been completed (see
Figure 2.8).
38 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 2.6  Supports generated for a part build.

FIGURE 2.7  A scan pattern by means of vector scanning in material extrusion. Note the
outline drawn first followed by a small number of zigzag patterns to fill the space.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 39

FIGURE 2.8  Hatching pattern for LOM-based (sheet lamination) processes. Note the outer
hatch pattern that results in cubes that will be separated from the solid component during
post-processing.

2.3 PROBLEMS WITH STL FILES

Although the STL format is quite simple, there may still be errors in the files result-
ing from the conversion to CAD. Typical problems that may occur in bad STL files
are as follows:
Unit changing: This is not strictly the result of a bad STL file. Since US machines
still use imperial measurements and most of the rest of the world uses metric, some
files may appear scaled because there is no explicit reference to the units used in
the STL format. If the person constructing the model is unaware of the purpose of
the part, they may construct it approximately 25 times too large or too small in one
direction. In addition, the units must correspond to the position of the origin of the
system to be used. This typically means that the physical origin of the system is in
the bottom left-hand corner, so that all triangle coordinates inside the STL file must
be positive. However, this may not be the case for a particular part of the CAD sys-
tem and therefore some adjustment of the STL file may be required.
Vertex-to-vertex rule: Each triangle must share two of its vertices with each
triangle adjacent to it. This means that the vertex cannot intersect the other side, as
shown in Figure 2.9. This is not something explicitly stated in the description of the
STL file and therefore the generation of the STL file may not comply with this rule.
However, a variety of tests can be carried out in the file to determine if this rule has
been violated. For example, the number of faces of the proper solid identified using
40 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

the STL must be the even number. In addition, the number of edges must be divisible
by three and the equation must be followed:
No. of Faces 3
= (2.3)
No. of Edges 2
Leaking STL files: As mentioned earlier, the STL files should describe fully
enclosed surfaces that represent the solids generated by the originating CAD system.
In other words, STL data files should build one or more multiple entities according
to Euler’s solids rule.
No. of faces – No. of edges + No. of vertices = 2 × No. of bodies
If this rule does not hold, the STL file is said to leak and the file slices will not
represent the actual model. There may be too few or too many vectors for a particular
piece of paper. Slicing software may add additional vectors to close the outline, or it
may just ignore additional vectors. Small defects may be ignored in this way. Large
leaks may lead to unacceptable final models. Leaks can be created by facets that
cross each other in 3D space as shown in Figure 2.10. This can result from poorly

FIGURE 2.9  A case that violates the vertex-to-vertex rule.

FIGURE 2.10  Two triangles intersecting each other in 3D space.

CAD for Additive Manufacturing 41

FIGURE 2.11  Two surface patches that do not match up with each other, resulting in holes.

generated CAD models, especially those that do not use Boolean operations to gen-
erate solids. A CAD model can also be created using a method that stitches surface
patches together. If the triangular edges of the two surface patches do not suit each
other, then the holes, like in Figure 2.11, may occur.
Degenerated facets: These facets are usually the result of a numerical truncation.
The triangle may be so small that all three points are practically the same as each
other.
After truncation, these points lay on top of each other, causing a triangle with no
area. This can also occur when the truncated triangle does not return to any height
and all three vertices of the triangle lie on a single straight line. While the resulting
slicing algorithm will not cause incorrect slices, there may be some difficulty in
checking algorithms and such triangles should actually be removed from the STL
file. It is worth mentioning that while a few errors may occur in some STL files, most
professional 3D CAD systems today produce high-quality, error-free results.
In the past, more common problems have arisen from surface modeling systems,
which are now becoming scarcer, even in areas outside CAD engineering, such as
computer graphics and 3D gaming software. Also, in earlier systems, STL generation
was not properly tested and faults were not found in the CAD system. Potential prob-
lems are now well understood, and there are well-known algorithms for identifying
and resolving these problems. However, the recent boom in home-use 3D printers
has resulted in a wide range of software routines that are readily available but not
thoroughly tested and may suffer from the problems mentioned in this chapter.

2.4 STL FILE MANIPULATION

Once a part has been converted to STL, there are only a few operations that can be
performed. This is because the triangle definition does not allow for radical changes
to the data. Associations between individual triangles are based solely on common
points and vertices. A point or a vertex may be shifted, which will impact the con-
nected triangles, but generating a regional effect on larger groups of points would
be more difficult. Consider modeling a simple geometry, like the cut cylinder in
Figure 2.12a. Making a minor change to one of the measurements may result in a
very radical change in the distribution of the triangles.
42 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 2.12  The STL files of a cut cylinder. Notice that while the two models in (a) are
very similar, the position of the triangles is somewhat different. Adding a simple filet to (b)
shows an even greater change in the STL file.

While it is possible to modify the model by reducing the number of triangles, it

is quite easy to see that the boundaries in most models cannot be easily achieved.
Adding the filet to Figure 2.12b shows an even more radical change to the STL file.
In addition, if one were to attempt to move the oval representing the cut surface,
the triangles representing the filet would no longer have a constant radius curve.
Building models using AM are often done by people working in departments or
companies that are different from the original designers. It may be that whoever
builds a model may not have direct access to the original CAD data. Therefore, it
may be necessary to modify the STL data before the part is to be built. The following
sections explain the generally used STL tools.

2.4.1 Viewers
A variety of STL viewers is available, mostly as a free download. An example is the
Marcam STL view (see Figure 2.13). Like many other systems, this software allows
restricted access to the STL file, making it possible to view triangles, apply shading,
display sections. By buying a complete version of the program, other tools may be
used, for example, to allow the user to measure the part at various places, to annotate
the part, to show sliced information, and to identify possible data problems. Often
free tools allow for passive viewing of STL data, while more advanced tools allow
for data modification, either by rewriting the STL or by providing additional infor-
mation with STL data (such as measurement information). These viewers are often
linked to part-building services and provided by the company as an incentive to use
these services and to help decrease errors in data transfer, either from incomplete
or inaccurate conversion of the STL or from incorrect interpretation of the design
intention.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 43

FIGURE 2.13  The VisCAM viewer from Marcam that can be used to inspect STL models.

2.4.2 STL Manipulation on the AM Machine

The STL data for a part consists of a set of points defined in space, based on an
arbitrary point of origin. This point of origin will not be sufficient for the machine
on which the component is to be designed. In addition, even if the part is correctly
specified within the machine space, the user may choose to move the part to another
location or create a duplicate to be installed next to the original component. Other
tasks, such as scaling, changing orientation, and merging with other STL files, are all
things that are routinely done using the STL manipulation tools on the AM machine.
The development of support structures is also something that would usually be
expected to happen on the AM system. This would normally be done automatically
and would be an operation applied to the downward-facing triangles. Supports would
be enlarged to the base of the AM machine or to any upward-facing triangle placed
directly below it. For some AM technologies, triangles that are only just moving
away from the vertical (e.g. less than 10) may be ignored. Note, for example, the sup-
ports produced by the cup handle in Figure 2.6. There is little or no control over the
placement of support or manipulation of STL model data with some AM operating
systems. Looking at Figure 2.6 again, it may be possible to build the handle feature
without so much support or even without support at all. A small amount of sagging
around the handle may be visible, but the user would choose to have the model
cleaned to remove the support content. If this type of control is required by the user,
it may be necessary to purchase additional third party software such as MAGICS
and 3-matic systems from Materialise. These third party tools can also be used to
44 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

perform additional functions. For example, MAGICS has a range of modules that are
useful for many AM technologies.
Other STL file manipulators may have similar modules as follows:
– Check the integrity of the STL files on the basis of the problems described
above.

• Incorporating support structures, including tapered support features, which

may make them easier to remove.
• Maximizing the use of AM computers, such as ensuring that the system
is effectively packed with components, minimizing the number of support
structures, etc.
• Adding serial numbers and markings to the parts to ensure correct identifi-
cation, easy assembly, etc.
• Re-meshing of STL files that may have been generated using reverse engi-
neering tools or other non-CAD-based programs. Such files may be overly
large and can often be reduced in size without compromising the accuracy
of the part.
• Segmenting large models or merging several STL files into one model data
set.
• Performing Boolean tasks such as subtracting model data from a blank tem-
plate insert tool to create a mold.

2.5 BEYOND THE STL FILE

The STL definition was created by 3D Systems right at the beginning of the develop-
ment history of AM technology and has served the industry well. There are, how-
ever, other ways in which files can be defined for the creation of a slice. Furthermore,
the fact that the STL file only represents surface geometry may cause problems for
parts requiring certain heterogeneous content. Some of the issues surrounding this
area will be discussed in this section.

2.5.1 Direct Slicing of the CAD Model

Since generation of STL files can be time-consuming and error-prone, there may be
some advantage from using inbuilt CAD tools to directly generate slice data for AM
machines. For most 3D solid modeling CAD systems, it is a trivial task to calculate
the intersection of a plane with a model, thus extracting a slice.
This slice data would normally have to be processed to suit the AM drive sys-
tem, but this can be handled in most CAD systems using macros. Support struc-
tures can be generated using standard geometry specifications and projected to
the part from a virtual interpretation of the AM machine build platform. Although
this approach has never been a popular method for generating sliced data, it has
been studied as a research subject and even produced to suit a commercialized
variant of the Stereolithography process by a German company called Fockle &
Schwarz.
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 45

The main barrier to using this approach is that each CAD system must include
a suite of different direct cutting algorithms for a variety of machines or technolo-
gies. This would be a cumbersome approach that may require periodic technology
updates as new machines become available. There may be some future benefits in
creating an integrated design and manufacturing solution, especially for niche appli-
cations or low-cost solutions. At present, however, it is more prudent to distinguish
the creation of design tools from that of AM technology by using the STL format.

2.5.2 Color Models
Currently, many AM technologies are available in the market that can produce color
variance components, including full color production, including 3D Systems color
binder jetting technology, 3D Systems and Stratasys material jetting machines, and
Mcor Technologies sheet lamination systems. Colored parts have proven to be very
popular, and other color AM machines are likely to make their way to the market.
The traditional STL file does not contain any details pertaining to the color of the
component or any of its features. Coloring of STL files is possible and there are cur-
rently color definitions of STL files available, but you will be constrained by the fact
that a single triangle can only be one particular color. It is therefore much easier to
use the VRML painting options that allow you to allocate bitmap images to various
facets. In this way, you can take advantage of the color options that the AM machine
can give you.

2.5.3 Multiple Materials
From the previous section, color is one of the clearest examples of multiple mate-
rial products that AM is capable of producing. As described in other chapters, parts
can be made using AM from composite materials, with varying porosity rates or
with regions containing discretely various materials. For many of these new AM
technologies, STL is starting to become an obstacle. Because the STL description is
for surface data only, it is therefore presumed that the solid material between these
surfaces is homogeneous. This may not be the case, as we can see from the above.
Although considerable consideration has been given to the issue of representations
for heterogeneous solid modeling, there is still a great deal to consider until we can
arrive at a standard to supersede STL for future AM technology.

2.5.4 Use of STL for Machining

STL is used for applications beyond transforming CAD to additive manufactur-
ing input. Reverse engineering packages can also be used to convert point cloud
data directly to STL files without the need for CAD. Such technology, which is
directly connected to AM, could conceivably form the basis for a 3D fax machine.
Subtractive manufacturing is another technology that can easily make use of STL
files. Subtractive manufacturing systems can easily use the surface data described
in the STL to assess the machining boundaries. With some additional knowledge on
46 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 2.14  DeskProto software is used to extract machine tool paths from the STL file
data to shape a mold to create a motorcycle windscreen.

the sizes of the starting block of material, tool, machining center, etc., it is possible
to calculate machining strategies for the creation of a 3D surface model.
As stated earlier, it is likely that complex geometries cannot be completely
machined due to undercutting features, internal features, etc., but there is no reason
why STL files cannot be used to build computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) pro-
files for machining centers. For several years now, Delft Spline has been using STL
files to create CAM profiles. Figure 2.14 shows the progress of the model to the tool
used to manufacture the final product using their DeskProto software. The SRP (sub-
tractive rapid prototyping) technique developed by Roland for their desktop milling
machines is another technology that uses a combination of subtractive and additive
processes to produce parts.

2.6 ADDITIONAL SOFTWARE TO ASSIST AM

As well as actually controlling the manufacturing process, other software systems
can be helpful in running an efficient and effective AM-based facility.

2.6.1 Survey of Software Functions

Such software may include one or more of the following functions.
Simulation: Many operating systems can perform a simulation of the machines
operations in a build process, showing how the layers will be formed step by step in
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 47

accelerated time. This can allow the user to detect obvious errors in the slice files and
determine whether critical features can be built. This may be particularly important
for processes like material extrusion where the hatch patterns can have a critical effect
on thin wall features, for example. Some work has been done to simulate AM systems
in order to get a better impression of the final result, including the images rendered to
give an understanding of the surface roughness of the given layer thickness.
Build-time estimation: AM is an extremely automated process and the recent
machines are very reliable and can operate unattended for a long period of time.
It is very important to know when the construction will be completed for effective
process planning. Knowing this will help determine when operators will be required
to change their jobs.
Good estimates would also help to balance the builds; adding or subtracting a part
from the work batch can ensure that the machine cycle is completed within a day-shift
span, for example, making it possible to keep machines running at night unattended.
Also, if you run multiple machines, it would be helpful to stagger builds throughout
the shift to optimize the manual work required. Early build-time estimation program
was highly inefficient, conducting a rolling estimate of the average build time per row.
Since the time of the layer depends on the geometry of the part, such estimates could
be very imprecise and vary wildly, especially at the beginning of the construction.
Later software versions saw the benefit of more accurate build-time estimates.
Machine setup: Since every AM machine has an operating system that makes it
possible to build, such systems can be very basic, especially when it comes to han-
dling STL files. However, the determination of building parameters based on a given
material is typically very detailed.
Monitoring: This is a relatively new feature of most AM systems. Although
almost every AM machine will be connected either directly or indirectly to the
Internet, it has traditionally been used to upload model files to the building site.
Exporting information from the machine to the Internet or within the intranet was
not common except for larger, more expensive machines. The easiest monitoring
systems would provide basic information on the status of the build and how much
longer it is to be completed. However, more complex systems may tell you how much
material remains, the current status parameter such as temperatures, laser power,
etc., and whether there is a need for manual intervention through the alerting system.
Some monitoring systems may also provide video feedback on the build.
Planning: Simulation of the AM process running on a different computer may be
helpful for those working in process planning. System planners can be able to decide
what a building could look like, allowing for the possibility of preparing new jobs, eval-
uating uncertainty, or quoting. Again, such applications can be available from the AM
system provider or from a third party vendor. The downside of third party applications
is that it is more likely to be updated to meet the exact specifications of the customer.

2.6.2 AM Process Simulations Using Finite Element Analysis

Finite element analysis (FEA) techniques are increasingly popular tools for predict-
ing how the output of different manufacturing processes changes with changing
48 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

process parameters, geometry, and/or material. Commercial software packages such

as SYSWELD, COMSOL, Moldflow, ANSYS, and DEFORM are used to predict the
results of welding, forming, molding, casting, and other processes.
AM technologies are particularly difficult to simulate using finite element
predictive tools. For example, the multi-scale nature of metal powder bed fusion
approaches such as metal laser sintering and electron beam melting are incredibly
time consuming to accurately simulate the use of FEA-based physics. AM processes
are inherently multi-scale in nature, and fine-scale finite element meshes that are 10
μm or smaller in size are needed to accurately capture solidification physics around
the melt stream, whereas the total component size could be 10,000 times larger than
the element size.
In three dimensions, this means that if we apply a uniform 10 μm mesh size, we
would need 108 elements in the first layer and more than 1012 elements in total to cap-
ture the physics for a single part that fills much of a powder bed. Since rapid move-
ment of a point heat source is used to create parts, capturing the physics requires a
time step of 10 ms or less during laser/electron beam melting, which for a complete
build would require more than 1010 total time steps. To solve this problem, it would
take billions of years for a number of elements to take this manytime phases on a
fairly high-speed supercomputer. Thus, to date all AM simulation tools are limited
to predictions of only a small fraction of a part, or very small, simplified geometries.
Using existing FEA tools, several researchers are looking for ways to make assump-
tions whereby they can cut and paste solutions from simplified geometries to form a
solution for large, complex geometries.
This approach has the advantage of faster solution time; however, for large, com-
plex geometries, these types of predictions do not accurately capture the effects of
changing scan patterns, complex accumulation of residual stress, and localized ther-
mal characteristics. In addition, minor changes to the input conditions may invali-
date simplified solutions. Thus, a simulation infrastructure that can quickly build up
a “new” response to any arbitrary geometry, input condition, and scan pattern is the
ultimate goal of a predictive AM simulation tool. Researchers have recently begun
using dynamic, multi-scale moving mesh to accelerate FEA analysis for AM. These
types of multi-scale simulations are many orders of magnitude faster than standard
FEA simulations. However, multiscale simulations alone are still too slow to allow
complete part simulation, even on the world’s fastest supercomputers. A new com-
putational approach for AM is therefore needed, which can extend the FEA beyond
its historical capabilities.
3DSIM, a new software start-up, is trying to do that for the AM industry. The
software tools of 3DSIM include:

1. A new approach to formulating and resolving multi-scale moving mesh

2. A novel, finite element-based autosolver that predicts thermal evolution and
residual stress very quickly in low thermal gradient regions
3. An insignificant number truncation Cholesky module, which eliminates the
“null multiplication” calculations that occur when the finite element matri-
ces are fixed, and
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 49

4. A stand-alone approach to the identification of periodicity in AM computa-

tions to enable feed-forward “insertion” of solutions in regions where peri-
odicity is present and the solution is already known from a previous stage
of time. These approaches are reported to reduce the time to solve large-
scale AM problems by orders of magnitude. Taken together, these tools
should make the full part of the problem solvable on a desktop GPU-based
supercomputer in less than a day when algorithms are fully implemented
in a combined software infrastructure. If realized, the ability to predict
how process parameters and material changes affect part accuracy, distor-
tion, residual stress, microstructure, and properties would be a significant
advance for the AM industry.

2.7 THE ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING FILE FORMAT

It has already been mentioned that, although successful, there are numerous difficul-
ties with regard to the STL format. As AM technologies move forward to include
multiple materials, lattice frameworks, and textured surfaces, an alternative for-
mat is likely to be needed. In May 2011, the ASTM Committee F42 on Additive
Manufacturing Technology published ASTM 2915-12 AMF Standard Specification
for AMF Format 1.1. This file format is still under development, but has already been
incorporated in some commercial and beta-stage applications.
Substantially more complex than the STL format, AMF aims to embrace a whole
host of new parts descriptions that have hindered the development of current AM
technologies. These shall include the following features:
Curved triangles: In STL, the normal surface lies on the same plane as the verti-
cal triangle, but in AMF, the starting position of the normal vector does not have to
lie on the same plane. If this is the case, the corresponding triangle must be curved.
The definition of curvature is such that all triangle edges at that vertex are curved
so that they are perpendicular to the normal and in the plane defined by the normal
and the original straight edge (i.e. if the original triangle has straight edges rather
than curved edges). By specifying the triangles in this way, far fewer triangles need
to be used for a typical CAD model. This addresses the problems related with large
STL files resulting from complex geometry models for high resolution systems. The
curved approach of the triangle is still an approximation, since the degree of curva-
ture cannot be too high. However, overall accuracy is significantly improved in terms
of the deviation of the cusp height.
Color: Color can be nested in such a way that the main body of the part can be
colored according to the function of the original design. Coloring of red, green, and
blue may be applied along with a transparency value to vertices, triangles, volumes,
objects, or materials. Note that many AM processes, such as vat photopolymeriza-
tion, can make clear parts so that the transparency value can be an effective param-
eter. Color values may work along with other material-based parameters to provide
a versatile way to control the AM process.
Texture: The color assignment described above cannot deal directly with the
image data assigned to the objects. However, this can be achieved by the texture
50 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

operator. Texture is allocated geometrically first, by scaling it to an element in such a

way that individual pixels are added to the object in a uniform manner. These pixels
will have the intensity, which is then assigned to the color. It should be noted that
this is an image texturing process similar to computer graphics rather than a physical
texture, such as ridges or dimples.
Material: It is possible to delegate specific volumes to be produced using differ-
ent materials. Currently, Stratasys Connex machines and some other extrusion-based
systems have the capacity to build multiple material parts. At the moment, the design
of the parts requires a time-consuming redefinition process within the operating
system of the machine. By having a material definition within AMF, it is possible to
carry it all the way from the design stage.
Material variants: AMF operators may be used to changing the basic structure
of the component to be produced. For example, a variety of medical and aerospace
applications may require a lattice or porous structure. The operator can be used in
such a way that the specified volume can be constructed using an internal lattice
structure or porous material.
In addition, some AM technologies would be able to make parts of materials that
gradually blend with others. A periodic operator can be applied to a surface that con-
verts it into a physical texture, rather than the color mapping mentioned above. It is
even possible to use a random operator to provide the AM part with unusual effects.
It should be noted that a component designed and encoded using the AMF would
almost certainly look different when it is constructed using different machines. This
will be especially true for parts that are coded according to different materials, col-
ors, and textures. Each machine will have the capacity to accept and interpret the
design of the AMF according to its functionality.
For example, if a part is defined with a fine texture, a lower resolution process
will not be able to apply it as well. Opaque materials will not be able to make great
use of the transparency function. Some machines will not be able to make parts with
multiple materials, and so on. It should also be noted that all machines should be able
to accept the definition of geometry and make a part of the AMF defined part. As a
result, AMF is backward compatible so that it can recognize a simple STL file, but
with the ability to specify any conceivable design in the future.

2.8 SOLVED EXAMPLE
Part Build Time in STL
Time to complete a single layer:
Ai
Ti = + Td (2.4)
vD
where Ti = time to complete layer i;
Ai= area of layer i;
v =average scanning speed of the laser beam at the surface;
D = diameter of the “spot size,” assumed circular; and
Td=delay time between layers to reposition the worktable
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 51

Once the Ti values have been determined for all layers, then the build cycle
time is:
Tc = å i =1 Ti
ni

where Tc = STL build cycle time; and

nl = number of layers used to approximate the part

• Time to build a part ranges from one hour for small parts of simple geom-
etry up to several dozen hours for complex parts

Example: A prototype of a tube with a square cross-section is to be fabricated

using stereolithography. The outside dimension of the square = 120 mm
and the inside dimension = 110 mm (wall thickness = 5 mm except at
corners). The height of the tube (z-direction) = 90 mm. Layer thick-
ness = 0.15 mm. The diameter of the laser beam (“spot size”) = 0.30
mm, and the beam is moved across the surface of the photopolymer at
a velocity of 600 mm/s. Compute an estimate for the time required to
build the part, if 15 s are lost each layer to lower the height of the plat-
form that holds the part. Neglect the time for post-curing.

Solution: Layer area Ai is the same for all layers.

Ai = 1202–1102 = 2300 mm2.
Time to complete one layer Ti is the same for all layers.

Ai
Ti = + Td
vD
2300
Ti = + 15
600 ´ 0.30
Ti = 27.7 s

Number of layers

90
nl = = 600 Layes
0.15

Tc = 600 ( 27.7 ) = 16620 s = 277.0 min = 4.61 hr

2.9 EXERCISES
1. How would you change Flowchart 2.2 to include multiple contours?
2. Under what conditions would you like to combine more than one STL file
together?
52 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

3. Write the ASCII STL file for a perfect cube, aligned with the Cartesian
coordinate frame, starting at (0, 0, 0) and all dimensions are positive. Model
the same cube on a CAD system. Does that render the same STL file? What
happens when you make slight changes to the design of the CAD?
4. Why is it possible that a part might inadvertently be made 25 times too
small or too large in any one direction?
5. Is it all right to ignore the vertex of the triangle that lies directly on the
intersecting cutting plane?
6. Prove with a few simple examples that the number of faces divided by the
number of edges is 2/3.
7. A prototype of a tube with a square cross-section is to be fabricated using
stereolithography. The outside dimension of the square = 110 mm and the
inside dimension = 100 mm (wall thickness = 5 mm except at corners). The
height of the tube (z-direction) = 100 mm. Layer thickness = 0.10 mm. The
diameter of the laser beam (“spot size”) = 0.27 mm, and the beam is moved
across the surface of the photopolymer at a velocity of 550 mm/s. Compute
an estimate for the time required to build the part, if 10 s are lost each layer
to lower the height of the platform that holds the part. Neglect the time for
post-curing.

2.10 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The first step in each product design process is to __________ and concep-
tualize the function and appearance of the product.
a) Summarize
b) Imagine
c) Visualize
d) None of the above
Ans: (c)
2. The STL format of the 3D CAD model captures all surfaces of the 3D model
by stitching ________ of different sizes on its surfaces.
a) Angles
b) Triangles
c) Planes
d) All of the above
Ans: (b)
3. The outside of the triangle is better established by the
a) Left-hand rule approach
b) Right-hand rule approach
c) Thumb rule approach
d) None of the above
Ans: (b)
CAD for Additive Manufacturing 53

4. The appropriate value of the required offset would be largely dependent on

the ___________ of the AM process to be used.
a) Resolution or accuracy
b) Precision or accuracy
c) Threshold
d) All of the above
Ans: (a)
5. The identification of the ________ to be assisted can be made by evaluating
the angle of the standard triangle.
a) Surface
b) Plane
c) Face
d) Region
Ans: (d)
6. Which technology requires a filling pattern to be produced within the
enclosed boundary?
a) Binder jetting
b) Material extrusion
c) Vat polymerization
d) None of the above
Ans: (b)
7. All geometric solid modeling CAD systems can generate ______ files from
a valid, fully enclosed solid model.
a) HTML
b) DHTML
c) STL
d) All of the above
Ans: (c)
 3 Liquid-Based Additive
Manufacturing Systems

3.1 3D SYSTEMS STEREOLITHOGRAPHY APPARATUS (SLA)

The stereolithography apparatus (SLA) process was the first commercialized RP
process and represents the stereolithography process. Stereolithography, patented
in 1986, started a rapid prototyping revolution. It works on the concept of solidi-
fying a photosensitive resin using a UV light layer-by-layer laser to create a 3D
model. Stereolithography uses photocurable resins that can be classified as epoxy,
vinyl, or acrylate. Acrylics cure only about 75% or 80% since curing stops as soon
as UV light is removed. Epoxies tend to heal even when the laser is not in contact.
The device, as shown in Figure 3.1, consists of a platform which is moved down as
each layer is formed in a resin-containing tank. In the X–Y plane, the laser light is
moved by a positioning system. In some cases, a support structure must be set up to
support the overhanging parts. Some of the commercial SLA machines are shown
in Figure 3.2.
The stereolithography process transforms 3D computer image data into a series of
very thin cross-sections, as if the object had been sliced into hundreds or thousands
of layers. A vat of photosensitive resin comprises a vertically moving platform. The
part under development is supported by a platform that moves down a layer thickness
(usually about 0.1 mm or 0.004 in.) for each layer. The laser beam then traces a single
layer of liquid polymer onto the surface of the vat as shown in Figure 3.3. The ultra-
violet light causes the polymer to harden exactly at the point where the light reaches
the surface. As shown in Figure 3.3a, the model is constructed on a platform located
just below the surface of a vat of liquid epoxy or acrylate resin.
A low-power, highly concentrated UV laser traces the first layer (see Figure 3.3b
as the laser traces in the center of the layer), solidifying the cross-section of the
model while leaving excess areas liquid. The UV laser is controlled by a galvanom-
eter scanner to generate X–Y motion, which means that the table does not need to
move in the x and y directions. Then, the elevator progressively lowers the platform
to the liquid polymer as shown in Figure 3.3c. The laser tracks down from the left.
The weeper coats the solidified layer with the liquid, and the laser traces the second
layer above the first layer. The process is repeated until the prototype is completed
(Figures 3.3d and 3.3e). Afterward, the solid part is removed from the vat and the
excess liquid is rinsed clean as shown in Figure 3.3f. In all cases where a part is
built, there is a small structure attached to the bottom called “supports.” Its purpose
is to raise the part off the platform and provide a “bridge” type structure that only
touches the part by small points. This structure is removed after the part is finished.
The brackets are broken off and the model is then put in an ultraviolet oven for

55
56 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 3.1  An illustration of the SLA process.

FIGURE 3.2  Commercial SLA machines.

Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 57

FIGURE 3.3  Stereolithography process step-by-step: (a) A layer of resin to be solidified on

a platform; (b) UV laser selectively traced out the first layer; (c) Second layer with laser trac-
ing from the left; (d, e) Repeat to build the remaining of the layers; (f) The final part after the
support structures are removed.

complete curing. Current stereolithography processes have advanced their technol-

ogy. For example, the Viper Pro SLA system by 3D Systems has adjustable beam
sizes to accelerate part building speed. It has the capacity to build a volume of 1500
× 705 × 500 mm3.
An example of a part of a dashboard is shown in Figure 3.4. For example, in
Formula 1, Renault uses only SLA and selective laser sintering (SLS) models to test
the wind tunnel. There are many good day-to-day examples that people can easily
associate with the benefits of today’s and the future development of technology.
The uniqueness of this process is its resolution and precision. The end product is a
very near physical model or prototype with 3D design—giving designers, engineers,
suppliers, sales managers, marketing managers, and prospective customers the abil-
ity to experience a new product or prototype. In this way, concept improvements can
be created quickly and cheaply, ensuring customers of the best possible product as
quickly as possible.
It has become a much-used technology in so many industries. Examples include
aircraft, arms, automotive, consumer electronics, consumer products, toys, construc-
tion equipment, medical equipment, surgical applications, and dental applications.
58 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 3.4  An SLA model of a dashboard part.

Since this was the first technology, stereolithography is assumed to be the bench-
mark by which other technologies are judged. Early stereolithography prototypes
were relatively fragile and prone to curing-induced warping and distortion, but the
latest advancements have largely corrected these problems.
It is essential that the RP process is very stable, and stereolithography is a pro-
cess that has the character of an unattended building process—once it is started,
the process is fully automatic and can be unattended until the process is completed.
It has good dimensional accuracy, too. The process is capable of maintaining the
dimensional accuracy of the components to within ±0.1 mm. Due to the liquid prop-
erties, the produced product has a good surface finish—glass-like finishing can be
achieved on the top surfaces of the part. While stairs can be found on the side walls
and curved surfaces between the construction layers, 3D Systems Inc. has devel-
oped Quickcast software for building parts with a hollow interior which can be used
directly as an investment casting wax pattern. This is a perfect example of how RP
processes are applied to tooling applications.
One drawback is that the absorption of water into the resin over time in thin areas
will result in curling and warping. The cost of the system is relatively high and the
material available is only photosensitive. The parts cannot often be used for durabil-
ity and thermal testing. In most cases, the parts were not completely healed by the
laser inside the vat. This is due to the fact that, when a laser is curing a spot, the
energy is a cone shape, as shown in Figure 3.5, and during processing, there are some
uncured regions throughout the part, and therefore a post-curing process is normally
required. The price of the resin and laser guns is very high. In addition, the optical
sensor requires regular fine-tuning in order to maintain its optimal operating condi-
tion, which will be very costly, as are the labor requirements for post-processing, in
particular cleaning.
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 59

FIGURE 3.5  The cone features generated by the laser curing process resulting in uncured
regions throughout the part.

3.2 STRATASYS POLYJET
There is an alphabet soup of AM methods that have been developed over the last
30-plus years. The big players are 3D Systems and Stratasys, which have a combined
capitalization of $4.15 billion and have been beating competitors and service offices
and accumulating patent portfolios at a massive rate. Unfortunately for them, their
stock values have fallen just as quickly recently. The industry is cautiously anticipat-
ing Hewlett-Packard’s entry. Hewlett-Packard has a new technology in 2016 that is
said to be more capable.
FDM: Fused deposition modeling was patented in 1989 by Stratasys. Stratasys
bought Makerbot for over $400 million in 2013. This technology has become quite
famous among hobbyists as patents have expired, and the gold rush of industries
and individuals has started to make low-cost printers that produce components from
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, a traditional thermoplastic polymer—Lego is
made from the same material), PLA (polylactide, a biodegradable thermoplastic and
aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources).
FFF: Fused filament manufacturing is equivalent to FDM; however, the term is
unrestricted by Stratasys, a trademark of FDM.
SLA: Stereolithography was patented in 1986 by 3D Systems. This technique
uses photopolymers exposed to UV lighter lasers to harden tiny liquid goo elements
that, when aggregated, create a solid surface. SLS/DMLS/SLM: Selective laser
sintering/direct metal laser sintering/selective laser melting is a method that uses
focused lasers to melt powders (plastic or metal) into tiny pools of material that are
then cooled and aggregated into pieces. The fight for patent rights can continue until
all of them have expired.
CJP: ColorJet printing was developed by MIT in 1993 and sold by ZCorp until it
was purchased by 3D Systems in 2012. In this process, a layer of powder is infused
with a liquid binder and cured to form the component. This method is remarkable
because it works like a color inkjet printer.
PolyJet: Invented by Objet Geometries in 1998, Stratasys acquired PolyJet in
2011. It is a 3D-printing system that uses two or more photopolymer resins stored in
tiny droplets, such as an inkjet printer, which are mixed in real time and cured with
60 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

UV light to create a solid object. PolyJet technology can produce over 100 types of
durable plastic materials, including hard, soft, clear, and full color. PolyJet is a strong
3D printing technology that creates smooth, accurate parts, prototypes, and tools,
with microstructural layer resolution and accuracy down to 0.014 mm, thin walls,
etc. Complex geometries can be developed using the widest range of materials avail-
able with any technology.
Benefits of PolyJet:

i. Develop smooth, accurate prototypes that convey esthetics to the final

product
ii. Produce accurate molds, jigs, fixtures, and other manufacturing devices
iii. Achieve complex shapes, complex details, and delicate features
iv. Implement the vast variety of colors and materials in a single component for
unmatched efficiency

3.2.1 Fused Deposition Modeling from Stratasys

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) produced and developed by Stratasys, United
States, is by far the most common extrusion-based AM technology. FDM uses a
liquefied polymer heating chamber, which is fed into the system as a filament. The
filament is pushed into the chamber by the arrangement of the tractor wheel, and it is
this thrust that generates the pressure of the extrusion. A typical FDM machine with
a picture of the extrusion head can be seen in Figure 3.6.

FIGURE 3.6  Typical Stratasys machine showing the outside and the extrusion head inside.
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 61

The original FDM patent was issued to Stratasys founder Scott Crump in 1992
and the business has gone from strength to strength to the point that there are more
FDM machines than any other AM machine in the world. The key strength of FDM
lies in the variety of materials and the efficient mechanical properties of the result-
ing components developed using this technology. Parts made using FDM are among
the best parts for any polymer-based additive manufacturing process. The biggest
downside to using this technology is the speed of building. As stated earlier, the
inertia of the plotting heads means that the maximum speeds and accelerations that
can be reached are much lower than the other systems. In addition, FDM needs mate-
rial to be plotted in a point-wise, vector-mode that involves a number of directional
changes.

3.2.2 Material Jetting Machines

The major three companies involved in the growth of the RP printing industry
are still the key players offering printing machines: Solidscape, 3D Systems, and
Stratasys (after their merger with Objet Geometries). Solidscape sells the T66 and
T612, both descendants of the previous ModelMaker line and based on the first gen-
eration melted wax technique. Each of these devices uses two single jets—one for
depositing a thermoplastic part of the material and one for depositing a waxy sup-
port material—to shape 0.0005 inch thick layers. It should be observed that these
machines often fly-cut layers after deposition in order to ensure that the layer is flat
for the next layer. Due to the slow and precise construction style as well as the waxy
materials, these tools are often used for the production of investment castings for
the jewelry and dentistry industries. 3D Systems and Stratasys offer machines with
the ability to print and process acrylic photopolymers. Stratasys markets the printer
series Eden, Alaris, and Connex. These machines print a variety of different acrylic-
based photopolymers materials in 0.0006 inch head layers containing 1,536 separate
nozzles, resulting in fast, linear deposition performance, as compared to the slower,
point-wise approach used by Solidscape. Each photopolymer layer is immediately
cured by ultraviolet light as it is printed, producing fully cured models without post-
curing. Support structures are made of gel-like material, which is extracted by hand
and water jetting, see Figure 3.7 for the example of the Stratasys PolyJet method,
which is used in all Eden machines. The Connex line of machines has multi-material
functionality. For several years, only two different photopolymers could be printed at
one time; however, by automatically changing the construction types, the computer
can print up to 25 different effective materials by varying the relative composition
of the two photopolymers. Machines are emerging that print a growing number of
materials.
In comparison with Stratasys, 3D Systems markets ProJet printers with printing
layers 0.0016 inch thick use of heads with hundreds of nozzles, half for part material
and half for support material. Layers are then flashed with ultraviolet light, which
triggers the polymerization induced by the photo. The ProJets are the third genera-
tion of the 3D Systems multi-jet modeling family, following the ThermoJet described
above and the InVision series.
62 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 3.7  Stratasys PolyJet build process.

3.3 3D SYSTEMS’ MULTI-JET PRINTING SYSTEM (MJP)

MJP or multi-jet printing is an inkjet printing process that uses piezo printhead tech-
nology to either deposit photocurable plastic resins or cast wax materials layer by
layer. MJP is used to build parts, patterns, and molds with fine detail to discuss a
wide range of applications. These high-resolution printers are economical to own
and operate and use a separate, malleable, or dissolvable support material to make
post-processing a breeze. Another major benefit is that the removal of support mate-
rial is practically hands-free and allows even the most delicate features and complex
internal cavities to be rigorously cleaned without damage (Figure 3.8).
MJP printers offer the highest resolution Z-directional resolution with layer thick-
nesses of up to 16 microns. In addition, selectable print modes allow the user to
choose the perfect combination of resolution and print speed, making it easy to find
a combination that suits your needs. Parts have a smooth finish and can achieve SLA-
competing precision for many applications. Recent advancements in materials have
enhanced the durability of plastic materials and are now suitable for some end-use
applications. One good thing about MJP printers is that they are office compati-
ble, using regular office electricity to provide easy and inexpensive access to high-
quality prototypes and indirect development aids. Office compatibility with their
capabilities makes MJP printers ideal for direct investment casting applications in
jewelry, dental, medical, and aerospace applications where digital workflows deliver
significant time, labor, quality, and cost advantages. MJP wax printers also provide
a digital drop-in alternative to conventional waste-wax casting processes, reduc-
ing time-consuming and expensive process steps while utilizing traditional casting
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 63

FIGURE 3.8  Multi-jet printing system (MJP).

methods and materials. All in all, these printers can print virtually any geometry and
deliver scalable, high-volume throughput.

3.4 ENVISIONTEC’S PERFACTORY
Many companies are selling VP systems focused on mask projection technology,
including EnvisionTEC and 3D Systems. New companies in Europe and Asia have
also recently launched the market for MPVP (mask projection vat photopolymer-
ization) systems. EnvisionTEC first introduced its MPVP systems in 2003. They
now have a range of machine lines with different build envelopes and resolutions
depending on the MPVP process, including Perfactory, Perfactory Desktop, Aureus,
Xede/Xtreme, and Ultra. Variants of some of these models are available, including
specialized Perfactory machines for dental restoration or hearing aid shells. A pho-
tograph of the Perfactory Standard machine is shown in Figure 3.9 and its technical
specifications are shown in Table 3.1.
Their machines are very similar, schematically, to the Georgia Tech machine in
Figure 3.10 and use a lamp to illuminate the DMD and the vat. However, several of
their machine models have an essential difference: They build upside-down parts and
do not use a coating mechanism. The vat is illuminated upward vertically through a
clear window. After the system radiates a layer, the cured resin sticks to the window
and cures to the previous layer. The build platform pulls out of the window at a slight
angle to gently segregate the part from the window. The benefit of this approach
is threefold. First, there is no need for a separate coating mechanism since gravity
forces the resin to fill the area between the cured part and the window. Second, the
64 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 3.9  EnvisionTEC Perfactory model.

TABLE 3.1
Specifications on EnvisionTEC Perfactory Standard Zoom Machine
Lens system f = 25–45 mm
Build envelope Standard 190 × 140 × 230 mm
High-resolution 120 × 90 × 230 mm
Pixel size Standard 86–163 µm
High-resolution 43–68 µm
Layer thickness 25–150 mm

top surface of the vat being irradiated is a flat window, not a free surface, which
enables more precise layers to be produced. Third, they invented a construction pro-
cess that would remove a daily vat. Instead, they have a supply-on-demand feed sys-
tem. The disadvantage is that small or fine features can be damaged when the cured
layer is separated from the window. In 2008, 3D Systems introduced their V-Flash
machine. It uses MPVP technology and a novel approach to material handling. The
V-Flash was designed to be an affordable prototyping machine (under $10,000) that
was as easy to use as a typical home inkjet printer. Its built-in envelope was 230 ×
170 × 200 mm (9 × 7 × 8 in.). Parts were built upside-down during service. For each
layer, the blade coated a layer of resin onto a film that spanned the building chamber.
The construct platform slid down until the resin layer and the film was contacted
by the platform or the in-process component. The cartridge provided for each layer
a supply of unused film. That layer was cured by the UV Imager machine, which
consisted of the MPVP technology. Some rinsing of the part was required, similar to
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 65

FIGURE 3.10  Schematic and photo of mask projection VP machine.

SL, and support structures may have to be removed during the post-processing phase
of part manufacturing.

3.5 CMET’S SOLID OBJECT ULTRAVIOLET-LASER PRINTER (SOUP)

A number of Japanese companies focused on AM technology in the early 1980s
and 1990s. This included start-up companies such as Autostrade (which appears to
be no longer in operation). Large companies such as Sony and Kira, which have
established subsidiaries to build AM technology, have also been involved. Much of
Japanese technology was based on the process of photopolymer curing. With 3D
Systems prevalent in much of the rest of the world, these Japanese companies have
struggled to find a market, and many of them have failed to become commercially
viable, even though their technology has shown some initial promise. Some of this
may have resulted in the unusually slow adoption of CAD technology in the Japanese
industry in general. While CMET still seems to be doing very well in Japan, you are
likely to find more non-Japanese machines than home-grown ones in Japan. There
is, however, some evidence that this is starting to change. Solid object ultraviolet-
laser plotter (SOUP) is what Mitsubishi’s CMET (Tokyo, Japan) calls its SLA-like
stereolithography system.
CMET sold 56 units to organizations such as Mercedes, Fujitsu, Matsushita
Electric, two Japanese universities, and Dornier Deutsche Aerospace in Germany. In
addition to the consumer, Dornier is also a SOUP distributor in Europe. CMET sells
variations of the SOUP 600 and 850 brands. The 600 uses either Helium Cadmium
66 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 3.11  Schematic of SOUP system. (Adapted from CMET Brochure.)

or Argon ion laser and produces parts up to 600 × 400 × 400 millimeters (24 × 16
× 16 inches) of epoxy resin. The 850 uses the more powerful Argon ion laser and
produces parts of up to 850 × 600 × 500 millimeters (33 × 16 × 20 inches). Instead
of using a galvanometer mirror x–y scanner, the SOUP system uses an X, Y plot-
ter mechanism to direct the laser light to the surface of the liquid resin. As a result,
the laser beam remains perpendicular to the resin surface, minimizing unwanted
light spread. Figure 3.11 shows the SUP System Schematic (adapted from the CMET
Brochure).

3.6 ENVISIONTEC’S BIOPLOTTER
EnvisionTEC is the world’s leading provider of professional 3D printers and mate-
rials. Founded in 2002 with its pioneering commercial DLP printing technology,
EnvisionTEC is now selling 3D printers based on six distinct technologies that build
objects from digital design files. The company’s premium 3D printers serve a wide
range of medical, technical, and industrial markets and are respected for accuracy,
surface quality, flexibility, and speed.
Additive production is also one of the disruptive techniques in the area of bioma-
terials. In particular, the capacities provided by EnvisionTEC’s 3D-Bioplotter allow
us to build prototype implants with a special architecture that could not be created
in any other way. Another example is the EnvisionTEC 3D-Bioplotter capable of
producing a vast variety of soft and hard scaffolds using single or multiple materials
(see Figure 3.12).
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 67

FIGURE 3.12  (a) Fourth generation 3D Bioplotter manufacturer series; (b) Schematic of the
building platform. (EnvisionTEC 2017.)

Extrusion processes have been extensively used in the medical field, for example,
to develop a more realistic airway trainer (Figure 3.13a), for the fabrication of cus-
tomized molds for the pressing of a thin titanium sheet that will act as an orbital
floor implant (Figure 3.13b), for the fabrication of bone bio-models for in-depth
assessment and pre-surgical rehearsal resulting in a smoother operation process
in which implants are more accurately fitted to the curvature of the patient’s bone
(Figure 3.13c), and the fabrication of exoskeletons (Figure 3.13d).

3.7 REGENHU’S 3D BIOPRINTING
The RegenHU 3DDiscovery is a 3D bioprinter developed by RegenHU, a manufac-
turer based in Switzerland. Bioprinting is a precise deposit of biomaterials such as
cells, proteins, bacteria, and bio-gels in 2D or 3D. This technology can be used as
a method for high-performance applications or to replicate biological systems that
are similar and more precise to real living systems for study, testing, and diagnostic
purposes. The aim of the RegenHU 3DDiscovery was to explore the potential of 3D
tissue engineering through a bioprinting approach.
RegenHU provides state-of-the-art bioprinting solutions to enable your scientific
and clinical ambitions. RegenHU 3D bioprinters are used for tissue engineering, per-
sonalized medicine, regenerative medicine, and basic drug discovery experiments.
RegenHU’s 3D bioprinting platforms are known worldwide for their industry-lead-
ing flexibility and precision. Customers use RegenHU 3D bioprinters to print bone,
muscle, tendon, skin, kidney, liver, and lung tissue (Figure 3.14).
68 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 3.13  (a) Technician assembling a prototype airway trainer; (b) Patient’s missing
orbital floor (left) versus original shape before impact (right) and the customized mold for
titanium sheet pressing; (c) Corrective osteotomy (realignment of bone from deformity) to
complex bone fractures; (d) Custom orthopedic exoskeleton.

FIGURE 3.14  RegenHU’s 3D bioprinter.

Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 69

3.8 RAPID FREEZE PROTOTYPING

Rapid freeze prototyping (RFP) is a relatively new solid freeform manufacturing
process that builds a three-dimensional part according to the CAD model by deposit-
ing and freezing water droplets layer by layer.
Rapid freeze prototyping is a solid freeform manufacturing (SFF) method that
uses ice water as its medium. The system consists of a pressurized water container
unit, an X–Y table for manipulating the plate to obtain the correct geometry of the
component, a Z-axis elevator for raising the nozzle for successive layers, a circuit-
driven nozzle, and a freezer. Figure 3.15 shows the schematic of the configuration.
The nozzle is a precision micro-dispensing drop-on-demand nozzle that is cyclically
opened by a function generator. The nozzle is supplied with water through a Teflon
tube. Once the water leaves the Teflon tube, it enters the nozzle where it encounters
stainless steel, polyphenylene sulfide, polyetherketone, ethylene/propylene rubber,
butyl, epoxy, and finally sapphire before it is released to the substrate below. The
materials with which the water comes into contact are critical because, if the water
sticks to these materials, the flow rate would be greatly reduced due to adhesion.
Materials that comprise the feed tube and the nozzle are materials that the water
flows through with minimal adhesion.
There are many advantages to using rapid freeze prototyping over other SFF tech-
niques, including stereolithography, fused deposition modeling, selective laser sinter-
ing, laminated object manufacturing, three-dimensional printing, and direct material
deposition. Many SFF techniques use various materials in their methods, including
UV curable resin, wax, ABS, metal/ceramic/polymer powders, and adhesive coated
papers. As RFP uses water as a working material, the working environment is much

FIGURE 3.15  Principle of rapid freeze prototyping.

70 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

cleaner than alternative SFF techniques. Water is also easily available and inexpen-
sive to use. RFP also provides quick construction time, less energy usage, clean and
simple substrate detachment, and a very good surface finish.

3.9 FDM 3D PRINTING FOR ZYGOMATIC

IMPLANT PLACEMENT MOCK SURGERY FOR
PROSTHODONTIC DENTISTRY: A CASE STUDY
Dr. Priya Gupta, PG Student at VSPM Dental College, Nagpur, India, Dr. Saee
Deshpande, VSPM Dental College, Nagpur, India, and Mr. Abhijeet Raut, Research
Fellow, VNIT, Nagpur (MS), India, have done this case study of zyogomatic implant
placement mock surgery for prosthodontic dentistry.
The quality of surgery depends on the anatomy of surgery. Three-dimensional
(3D) anatomy visualization is very important for better understanding and a better
outcome. Complex maxillofacial surgeries are usually time-consuming procedures
due to the need for initial medical imaging for root complications, the determination
of an appropriate course of treatment, pre-operative planning, before and after sur-
gery. Pre-operative preparation is the most important and usually aims at executing
an ideal procedure that minimizes the length of surgery and any possible problems
that might occur in the future. For traditional dental procedures, the process begins
by collecting the patient’s impression using a powder mold until it is moved to the
dental grade of alginate powder coated. These topography data are generally suf-
ficient for the majority of cases; however, they are less acceptable for intricate cases
where an implantable device may be essential.
In addition, medical imaging data offer little insight, since patient representation
is a collection of two-dimensional planar images. In such situations, 3D informa-
tion on the internal bone tissue structure is necessary for optimal surgical planning
in order to determine the precise geometry of the affected area of interest and to
properly assess the size and orientation of the implant. More recently, 3D printing
technology has shown tremendous potential to increase and streamline pre-operative
surgery preparation and care.

3.9.1 Zygomatic Implant
In recent years, edentulous patients seeking fixed recovery have increased. Yet the
condition is unacceptable when the maxilla is heavily resorbed and atrophic. A
zygomatic implant can be a successful way to rehabilitate a badly resorbed maxilla.
While zygomatic implants are responsive to the technique, they have predictable out-
comes if performed correctly. The purpose of this case study was to modify the fac-
ets of the implant and to create a more patient-specific design. The idea of developing
two abutment designs with an expanded base plate and modified abutment widths,
lengths, and angles to suit the patient’s requirements has been discussed. Physicians
and researchers took advantage of 3D printing technology and began a case study in
2018. The 3D printed prototype of the patient’s jaw was designed using CBCT data
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 71

for ease of preparation and comprehension. A mock surgery was performed in the
model as shown in the figure. The proper location of the implant and the expected
result of the operation were evaluated. The final optimized design was validated by
a finite element analysis (FEA) to analyze the force distributions that are likely to be
observed after surgery. This process is vitally important to ensure that there are no
structural flaws in the design, which could otherwise lead to a catastrophic failure.
It was relevant in the present case, due to the high force exerted on the maxilla and
mandible elements during eating and chewing and the ultimate goal was to ensure
patient health and a good outcome of treatment (Figures 3.16 and 3.17).

FIGURE 3.16  Shows the anatomical landmarks drawn in the model for the future position
of zygomatic implants.

FIGURE 3.17  CAD model.

72 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

3.9.2 Conclusion
In this case study, Dr. Priya Gupta, Dr. Saee Deshpande, and Mr. Abhijeet Raut,
along with the authors of the book, demonstrated the synergistic use of CT medi-
cal imaging, 3D CAD, and additive manufacturing in order to carry out the process
of optimizing surgery planning and designing a personalized, patient-specific 3D
model. And the 3D printing technology makes a complex process simpler for doc-
tors. The use of medical imaging to establish a representative patient model has
allowed the design of the zygomatic implant to be based on the specific anatomical
characteristics of the patient. Using low-cost FDM 3D printing can also create medi-
cal models that allow mock surgery to be performed to test and optimize the design
along with streamlining the procedure for actual surgery. Pre-surgical preparation
has made the low-cost model possible and reduces the difficulty and time spent on
the surgical innovation. This was also instrumental in achieving superior end esthet-
ics and functionality. The findings of this case study provide a basis for future 3D
printing of implantable devices. Such methodologies can result in lower costs for
healthcare providers, thus increasing surgical effectiveness and enhancing the qual-
ity of treatment provided to the patient.

3.10 EXERCISES
1. Describe the concept of 3D Systems’ stereolithography apparatus (SLA).
2. Discuss Stratasys PolyJet with its advantages.
3. Explain fused deposition modeling from Stratasy.
4. Explain 3D Systems’ multi-jet printing system (MJP).
5. Discuss EnvisionTEC’s Perfactory.
6. Describe CMET’s solid object ultraviolet-laser printer.
7. Describe EnvisionTEC’s Bioplotter.
8. Discuss RegenHU’s 3D bioprinting.
9. Explain rapid freeze prototyping.

3.11 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Stereolithography works on the concept of ___________ a photosensitive resin
using a UV light layer-by-layer laser to create a 3D model.
a) Solidifying
b) Liquefying
c) Modifying
d) None of the Above
Ans: (a)

2. Stereolithography was patented by 3D Systems in

a) 1984
b) 1986
c) 1966
d) 1989
Ans: (b)
Liquid-Based Additive Manufacturing 73

3. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was patented by Stratasys in

a) 1984
b) 1986
c) 1966
d) 1989
Ans: (d)

4. EnvisionTEC is the world’s leading provider of professional 3D printers and

materials and was founded in
a) 2001
b) 2002
c) 2010
d) 2003
Ans: (b)

5. RegenHU 3DDiscovery is a 3D bioprinter developed by RegenHU, a manufac-

turer based in
a) Germany
b) Japan
c) China
d) Switzerland
Ans: (d)

6. The aim of RegenHU 3DDiscovery was to explore the potential of __________

through a bioprinting approach.
a) Bone engineering
b) 3D tissue engineering
c) Cell engineering
d) None of the above
Ans: (b)

7. Bioprinting is a precise deposit of ____________ such as cells, proteins, bacte-

ria, and bio-gels in 2D or 3D.
a) Biocells
b) Biochemicals
c) Biomaterials
d) All of the above
Ans: (c)

8. Rapid freeze prototyping (RFP) is a relatively new solid freeform manufactur-

ing process that builds a three-dimensional part according to the CAD model
by depositing and __________ water droplets layer by layer.
a) Freezing
b) Solidifying
c) Evaporating
d) Liquefying
Ans: (a)
 4 Solid-Based Additive
Manufacturing Systems

4.1 STRATASYS FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)

Fused deposition modeling is a layer AM process that uses a thermoplastic filament
by fused deposition. FDM was trademarked by Stratasys Inc. in the late 1980s and a
similar term is FFF. The filament is extruded from a nozzle to print a cross-section
of an item and then travels up vertically to replicate the procedure with a new layer
(Figure 4.1).
The most frequently used FDM materials are ABS, PLA, and PC (polycarbon-
ate), but new blends containing wood and stone as well as rubber-like filaments can
be found. Compared to ABS, PLA reacts differently to moisture, to UV ageing with
discoloration, and to material removal. In order to forecast the mechanical behavior
of the FDM components, it is important to understand the material properties of the
raw FDM process material and the effect that FDM builds parameters have on the
properties of anisotropic materials (Ahn et al. 2002). The support material is often
made from another material and is detachable or soluble from the actual material at
the end of the manufacturing process (with the exception of low-cost solutions using
the same raw material). The disadvantages are that the resolution on the z-axis is
low compared to the other AM process (0.25 mm); therefore, if a smooth surface is
needed, a finishing process is needed, and it is a slow process that sometimes takes
days to build large, complex parts (Wong and Hernandez 2012).
FDM technology is the most popular 3D desktop printer and the cheapest pro-
fessional printer to date. FDM was invented in the 1980s by Scott Crump (1992,
1994). The main strength of FDM lies in the variety of the materials and the effi-
cient mechanical properties of the resulting components that have been produced
using this technique. Components manufactured using FDM are among the best
components for any polymer-based additive manufacturing process. The main
drawback to the use of this technology is the speed of construction. The inertia
of the plotting heads means that the maximum speeds and accelerations that can
be achieved are slightly lower than other instruments. In addition, FDM allows
information to be plotted in a point-wise, vector-mode that involves a number of
directional changes.

4.2 SOLIDSCAPE’S BENCHTOP SYSTEM

Solidscape was founded in 1993 under the name of Sanders Prototype, Inc. by
Royden C. Sanders to create PC-based 3D wax printers for rapid prototyping and
master molds for investment casting. Sanders Prototype was initially located in

75
76 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 4.1  FDM.

Wilton, New Hampshire, and then moved to its current location in Merrimack, New
Hampshire, United States. A new management team was set up in early 1998 and a
major reorganization followed.
Sanders Prototype was renamed Solidscape Inc. in the fall of 2000. The first
product was the Model Creator, a DOS-based desktop printer capable of producing
high-resolution, three-dimensional wax models developed in CAD software pack-
ages. This machine was precise to less than 1,000th of an inch, allowing operators
to produce very small, very detailed models. The wax models could then be cast
without the need for a master pattern or a rubber mold. Solidscape’s machines have
established themselves as a favorite among custom jewelers, who enjoy the ability
to create custom designs for customers and deliver finished goods faster and more
accurately than by hand.
The first computer of Solidscape was Model 6 PRO. In relation to the vacuum
cleaner, a desk-sized tower comprising an Intel 486DX processor was shipped on
a standard motherboard, a 15-inch CRT monitor, and a keyboard. A proprietary
interface card that interacted with the printer was also mounted onto the PC. The
computer was running MS-DOS. The machine had to prepare the CAD models (con-
verting them from the STL file to the proprietary format that the printer could use)
and run the printer.
Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing  77

Conversion for most files took several hours to complete and several more to
print. Depending on the model to be developed, the entire process from file to fin-
ished output frequently took 24–30 hours. Most of these units were development
models, and very few were sold.
The 6 PROs were revised to become the Modelmaker in 1997.
In 2004, Solidscape launched the BenchTop 3D printer series (T66BT and
T612BT), a BenchTop-ready solution. The BenchTop series was based on DOS and
did not include an external PC. The control software could run on the printer process-
ing unit and the front-end software ModelWorks could be installed on the customer
PC. Together with the BenchTop 3D printers, Solidscape has launched InduraCast
and InduraFill model-making materials.
In 2006, Solidscape launched higher-performance BenchTop printers (T66BT2
and T612BT2).
In 2007, Solidscape launched the Windows platform-based BenchMark series of
printers (T76, R66) including touchscreen functionality.
In 2009, Solidscape launched the preXacto series of printers (D76+, D66+)
dedicated to dental applications, incorporating the proprietary SCP technology and
DentaCast material.
In 2010, Solidscape launched the BenchMark (T76+, R66+), incorporating the
proprietary SCP technology.

4.3 MCOR TECHNOLOGIES’ SELECTIVE

DEPOSITION LAMINATION (SDL)
Selective deposition lamination (SDL) or 3D paper printing was discovered by Dr.
Conor and Fintan MacCormack in 2003. Dr. MacCormack first revealed the concept
of 3D printing in 1986, when he was a high school student in Ireland watching a BBC
special television show. Technology captured his imagination in a similar manner
to how cars, rockets, computers, and space travel had already done. Originally, he
saw the technology in person as he received his doctorate at Trinity College, Dublin.
Unfortunately, the school’s 3D printer was nothing more than a tease: Because of
the very high price of the material, only one or two people could possibly print a
component at the end of the year, beating the whole purpose of having the tech-
nology. When he began working with Airbus as an engineer, he had ample access
to a 3D printer—access to which most students and engineers had been refused. It
wasn’t perfect. While 3D printer prices were decreasing, the cost of their materials
was increasing. So Dr. MacCormack and his older brother, Fintan, a trained aircraft
mechanic and electrical engineer, set out to develop a 3D printing machine with an
operating cost so small that the technology would be available to everybody.
It was also essential to make the printer reliably sufficient for serious use in com-
mercial settings, yet easy to use and without the toxic chemicals that so many 3D print-
ers rely on. This vision has now become a reality in the co-founded MacCormacks
Corporation, Mcor Technologies, which produces monochrome and full-color 3D
printers that cost a fraction of any other 3D printing technology. The main explana-
tion for this? While most technologies produce models of costly plastic or chemically
78 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

infused powder, Mcor 3D printers use ordinary, inexpensive, and ubiquitous office
paper as a building material.
SDL must not be confused with the old laminated object creation (LOM) technol-
ogy. LOM used laser, laminated paper, and glue, so that everything, including the
support material around the model, was glued together.
The model excavation was an awful experience, often resulting in a 3D part break-
age. Mcor uses the blade to cut, and the 3D printer selectively deposits the adhesive
only where it is required. This white paper will specify how a paper-based 3D printer
produces a physical 3D model using the SDL process and document the specific fea-
tures of an Mcor 3D printer that delivers MacCormack’s vision. Generating digital
file 3D printing starts with a 3D data file; Mcor 3D printers support an industry stan-
dard 3D product design file format, STL, as well as OBJ and VRML (3D color print-
ing). All standard 3D computer-aided design (CAD) software products, including
free programs like SketchUp, generate STL files. The completed designs offered for
download are usually presented in the STL, as are files produced by scanning a phys-
ical object. Mcor 3D printers contain control software called SliceIT (Figure 4.2).
SliceIT reads digital data and cuts the computer model into printable layers of paper
thickness equivalent. The program also enables you to place the component, or mul-
tiple parts, inside the 3D printer’s built-in chamber. SliceIT works on any standard
64-bit Windows (2000, XP, Vista, or Windows 7) PC with a dedicated Ethernet card
(10/100 speed or higher) directly connected to a 3D printer.
IRIS also comes with an additional piece of software, called ColorIT, which
is used in conjunction with SliceIT to apply color to digital 3D files (Figure 4.3).

FIGURE 4.2  Mcor’s SliceIT software reads digital data and cuts the computer model into
printable layers of paper thickness equivalent. Compatible file formats include STL, OBJ,
and VRML.
Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing  79

FIGURE 4.3  ColorIT applies color to the 3D digital files prior to slicing in SliceIT.

ColorIT can open a number of file formats: STL, WRL, OBJ, 3DS, FBX, DAE, and
PLY. Once the file is inside ColorIT, its integrity can be checked to ensure that it is
waterproof, but the primary purpose of ColorIT is to apply colors to digital files prior
to SliceIT. Once the color has been applied, the model is exported as a WRL file,
which is then imported into SliceIT for building planning and preparation.
The first sheet is manually mounted to the building wall. The location of the first
sheet is not significant, as the first few pages are attached as a base layer before the
actual portion is cut (Figure 4.4). Once the depth of the blade and the level of adhe-
sion are correct, the doors are closed and the machine is ready to accept SliceIT data.
The user selects print from the PC and SliceIT, and the 3D printer starts making the
part.
The first thing that occurs is that a coating of adhesive is added to the top of
the first manually placed board. The adhesive is selectively applied—thus the name
SDL—“Selective.” This means that a much higher adhesive density is deposited in
the region that will become part of the adhesive and a much lower adhesive density
is applied in the surrounding area that will serve as support (Figure 4.5). A new sheet
of paper is fed from the paper feed mechanism into the printer and placed precisely
on top of the freshly applied adhesive. The building plate is moved up to the heat
plate and the pressure is applied. The pressure ensures a positive bond between the
two sheets of paper (Figure 4.6). When the construction plate returns to the height
of the construction, the adjustable tungsten carbide blade cuts one sheet of paper at
a time, tracing the outline of the object to create the edges of the part (Figure 4.7).
When this cutting sequence is done, the machine starts depositing the next layer of
adhesive and the whole process is repeated until all the sheets of paper are glued
together and cut and the pattern is finished. After the last layer has been completed,
the portion can be removed from the construct chamber (Figure 4.8).
80 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 4.4  First sheet of paper is added to the platform.

FIGURE 4.5  The adhesive is added to the select areas of the paper.

4.4 CUBIC TECHNOLOGIES’ LAMINATED

OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)
There are a lot of different 3D printing processes available today, but have you ever
heard of laminated object manufacturing? Laminated object manufacturing (or
LOM) is really a very fast and affordable way to print 3D objects in a variety of
materials. Material sheets are bonded together and cut in the right geometry accord-
ing to the 3D model. Laminated object manufacturing is primarily used for rapid
prototyping and not for production purposes.
Laminated object manufacturing is a 3D printing method developed by Helisys
Inc. (now Cubic Technologies), but what happens in this process? Layers of material,
plastic, or layers of paper are combined or laminated using heat and pressure. In
LOM technology, the coated material is rolled onto the building platform. Usually,
Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing  81

FIGURE 4.6  Heat and pressure is applied to help bond the paper.

FIGURE 4.7  A tungsten carbide blade cuts the paper one sheet at a time along the cut line.
82 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 4.8  This process continues until the model is finished.

the material is coated with an adhesive layer and the feed roller heats to melt the
adhesive. The layer is then bound to the previous one. The blade or laser is used to
draw the geometry of the object to construct and draw crosses on the rest of the sur-
face to facilitate the extraction of the final objects.
At the end of the building platform, there is a block composed of the final objects
and the parallelepipeds to be removed. Objects printed using paper that have wood-
like properties can benefit from sand casting finishes, while paper objects are usu-
ally sealed with paint or lacquer to keep moisture away. The technology has been
introduced to the public by Cubic Technologies (formerly Helisys Inc.), which is
proposing a plastic LOM system. Mcor has recently launched a paper-based system
that adds color to the technology.
This technology is very versatile, as almost any material can be glued together.
During this additive manufacturing process, layers of adhesive-coated paper, plastic,
or metal laminates are successively bonded together. The most common material
used is paper, because it is quickly cut. Plastic can also be used with a blade or laser
during the cutting stage. The metal sheets are more unusual because the cutting stage
is more complicated.

4.4.1 Working Process
In laminated object manufacturing, the paper is unwound from the feed roll (A)
onto the stack and bonded to the previous layer by means of a heated roller (B). The
roller melts a plastic coating on the bottom of the paper to form a bond. The profiles
are tracked by an optical device that is placed on the X–Y stage (C). The method
produces substantial smoke and a localized flame. Either a chimney or a carbon
filtration system (E) is required and the construction chamber must be sealed. After
cutting the geometric features of the layer, the excess paper is cut to separate the
Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing  83

layer from the web. The extra paper of the network is wound on a roll (D) as shown
in Figure 4.9.

4.4.2 Applications
LOM machines are primarily used for rapid prototyping of plastic parts. Its low price
and speed make it convenient to create prototypes, even though the items produced
are far from the end-use pieces. Mcor proposes a particular type of LOM that they
have named selective deposition lamination (SDL). It’s a paper-based technology that
adds color to the text. Paper sheets are printed in color, selectively bonded, and cut
with a blade. The adhesive is only applied to the surface corresponding to the object,
and the final object can be excavated more easily. In introduction, the addition of
color allows this technology to compete with binder jetting technologies to produce
multicolor artifacts, even if the consistency is not the same.

4.5 ULTRASONIC CONSOLIDATION
Ultrasonic consolidation or ultrasonic additive manufacturing was invented and pat-
ented by Dawn White. In 1999, White formed Solidica Inc. to sell UAM industrial

FIGURE 4.9  Laminated object manufacturing process.

84 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

equipment—the Forming Machinery Suite. Around 2007, the Edison Welding

Institute (EWI) and Solidica began working together to redesign the welding tooling
to overcome bond consistency limitations and extend the process’ weldable met-
als—so-called very high-power UAM. In 2011, Fabrisonic LLC was formed to com-
mercialize the improved UAM process—SonicLayer machine suite. The process
works by scrubbing metal foils together with ultrasonic vibrations under continuous
pressure, i.e. classification of sheet lamination in additive manufacturing. Melting
is not a mechanism of formation. Metals are instead connected to the solid state by
disrupting surface oxide films between metals, i.e. ultrasonic metal welding mecha-
nisms. CNC contour milling is used interchangeably with the additive stage of the
process to incorporate internal features and add details to the metal part. UAM has
the ability to combine multiple types of metals, i.e. dissimilar metal joints, with no or
minimal inter-metallic formation and allows the embedding of temperature-sensitive
materials at relatively low temperatures—usually less than 50 percent of the melt-
ing temperature of the metal matrix. As with most other additive manufacturing
processes, UC creates objects directly from the CAD model. The file is then “sliced”
into layers that result in the production of an STL file that can be used by the UC
machine to build the required object layer by layer (Figure 4.10).

FIGURE 4.10  Schematic of ultrasonic consolidation example part.

Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing  85

The general manufacturing process is as follows:

• The base plate is placed on the anvil machine and set in place.
• The metal foil is then drawn under the sonotrode, which exerts pressure
through normal force and ultrasonic oscillations, and bonded to the plate.
• This process is then repeated until the necessary area is covered by ultra-
sonic consolidated material.
• The CNC mill is then used to trim the excess foil from the part and to
achieve the required geometry.
• Deposit and trim cycle shall be repeated until the specified height (usually
3–6 mm) is reached. A smaller finishing mill is used at this height to create
the required tolerance and surface finish of the part.
• The deposit, trim, and finishing cycle shall continue until the finished
object has been produced; at which point the anvil shall be removed and the
finished article shall be removed from the base plate.

The advantage of this technology is the combination of different types of materials

including aluminum and fiber optics. The disadvantage is that the process is limited
to malleable metals that can be ultrasonically welded. The decision tree for this
process is shown in Figure 4.11. Ultrasonic consolidation is a developing process for
hybrid manufacturing and provides good capability for the combination of malleable
materials and embedded electronics and fiber optics.

FIGURE 4.11  Decision tree for ultrasonic consolidation.

86 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

4.6 EXERCISES
1. Explain Stratasys’ fused deposition modeling (FDM).
2. Describe Solidscape’s BenchTop system.
3. Discuss Mcor Technologies’ selective deposition lamination (SDL).
4. Explain Cubic Technologies’ laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
5. Briefly describe ultrasonic consolidation.

4.7 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Fused deposition modeling is a layer AM process that uses a

_______________ filament by fused deposition.
a) Thermoplastic
b) Thermoelastic
c) Polylactic
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)
2 . Solidscape was founded in _______________.
a) 1963
b) 1986
c) 1993
d) 1999
Ans: (c)
3. Selective deposition lamination (SDL) or 3D paper printing was discovered
by Dr. Conor MacCormack and Fintan MacCormack in _______________.
a) 2003
b) 2006
c) 2007
d) 2009
Ans: (a)
4 . LOM machines are primarily used for rapid prototyping of _______________.
a) Metallic parts
b) Ceramic parts
c) Wooden parts
d) Plastic parts
Ans: (d)
5 . The main drawback to the use of FDM technology is _______________.
a) Quality
b) Surface finish
c) Speed of construction
d) All of the above
Ans: (c)
Solid-Based Additive Manufacturing  87

6 . Which one is NOT related to the definition of rapid prototyping?

a) Layer by layer
b) Physical model
c) From 3D CAD data
d) Production line
Ans: (d)
7 . Which one of the following processes does NOT use laser?
a) LOM
b) SLA
c) SLS
d) FDM
Ans: (d)
8 . How many processes are there in the design process?
a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 6
Ans: (c)
9 . Which of the following are processes in the RP cycle?
a) Post-processing
b) Transfer to machine
c) Pre-processing
d) All of the above
Ans: (d)
1 0. Which of the following processes is available in color?
a) SLA
b) FDM
c) MJM
d) 3D printer
Ans: (d)
 5 Powder-Based Additive
Manufacturing Systems

5.1 3D SYSTEMS’ SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)

Selective laser sintering (SLS) was invented and patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and
academic adviser Dr. Joe Beaman at the University of Texas, Austin, in the mid-
1980s, sponsored by DARPA. Deckard and Beaman participated in the resulting
start-up company DTM, which was set up to design and manufacture SLS machines.
In 2001, DTM was acquired by 3D Systems, the biggest competitor for DTM and
SLS technology. The latest patent on Deckard’s SLS technology was issued on 28
January 1997 and expired on 28 January 2014.

5.1.1 Technology
Selective laser sintering (SLS) printers from 3D Systems can perform rapid pro-
totyping and produce high-resolution nylon parts up to seven times quicker than
competing SLS 3D printers. The ability of SLS to manufacture many parts at once
also makes the process a good choice for products needing strength and heat resis-
tance from direct digital manufacturing (DDM) products. Additive production layer
technology SLS involves the use of a high-power laser (e.g. carbon dioxide laser) to
fuse small particles of plastic, metal, ceramic, or glass powder into a mass that has
the desired three-dimensional shape. The laser selectively fuses the powdered mate-
rial to the surface of the powder bed by scanning cross-sections created from a 3D
digital representation of the object (e.g. from a CAD file or scan data). Once each
cross-section is checked, one layer thickness lowers the powder bed, a new layer of
material is applied to the rim, and the process continues until the portion is finished.
The SLS system usually uses a pulsed laser because the final component density
depends on peak laser power rather than laser duration.
The SLS system heats the bulk powder content well below its melting point in
the powder bed, making it much simpler for the laser to raise the temperature of the
selected regions to the melting point the rest of the way. Figure 5.1 shows the process
of selective laser sintering (SLS).
In comparison to some other additive manufacturing techniques, such as stereo-
lithography (SLA) and fused deposition modeling (FDM), which most often require
specific support structures for the manufacture of overhanging designs, SLS does not
need a different feeder for supporting material because the part being constructed is
surrounded by uninterrupted powder at all times, which allows for the construction
of a previous feeder.

89
90 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 5.1  Selective laser sintering (SLS).

Also, since the chamber of the machine is always full of powder material, the
manufacture of various parts has a much lower impact on the overall difficulty and
price of the design because, by means of a method known as “Nesting,” various parts
can be positioned to fit within the limits of the machine. One design feature that
should be noted, however, is that it is “impossible” for SLS to produce a hollow but
fully enclosed element. This is because the uninterrupted powder cannot be drained
inside the element.

5.1.2 Materials
Commercially available materials used in SLS come in powder form and include, but
are not restricted to, polymers such as polyamides (PA), polystyrenes (PS), thermo-
plastic elastomers (TPE), and polyaryletherketone (PAEK). Due to its ideal sinter-
ing behavior as a semi-crystalline thermoplastic, polyamide is the most frequently
used SLS material which results in parts with desirable mechanical properties.
Polycarbonate (PC) is a material of great interest to SLS due to its high strength,
thermal stability, and flame resistance; however, these amorphous SLS-processed
polymers continue to result in components with reduced mechanical properties,
dimensional accuracy, and are therefore restricted to applications where these are of
low significance. Since the advancement of selective laser melting metal materials
were not commonly used in SLS.
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  91

5.1.3 Powder Production
Powder particles are typically formed by cryogenic grinding in a ball mill at tem-
peratures below the material’s glass transition temperature which can be achieved
by grinding with added cryogenic materials such as dry ice (dry grinding) or liquid
nitrogen and organic solvent combinations (wet grinding). The process can result in
spherical or irregular shaped particles that are as small as five microns in diameter.
Powder particle size distributions are usually Gaussian and range from 15 to 100
microns in diameter, but they can be modified to match different layer thicknesses
in the SLS process. Chemical binder coatings can be applied to post-process powder
surfaces; these coatings aid in the sintering process and are particularly useful for
the formation of composite material parts such as aluminum particles coated with
thermoset epoxy resin.

5.1.4 Sintering Mechanisms
The sintering mechanism in SLS occurs primarily in a liquid state when the powder
particles form a micro-melt layer on the surface resulting in reduced viscosity and a
concave radial bridge between the particles forming, due to the material’s reaction
to lower surface energy, known as necking. In the case of coated powders, the laser’s
purpose is to melt the surface coating that acts as a binder. Solid state sintering is
also a contributing factor but has a decreased effect, and occurs at temperatures
below the material’s melting point. The key driving force behind the cycle is again
the material’s reaction to lower its free energy level, which results in the particle-
wide diffusion of molecules.

5.1.5 Advantage
One of the main advantages of SLS is that it does not require the support structures
used by many other AM technologies to protect the design from collapsing during
production. Since the product is in a powder bed, no support is required. This attri-
bute alone, while also conserving materials, ensures that SLS is capable of creating
geometries that no other technology can produce. In addition, we don’t need to worry
about damaging the part when removing the supports, so we can create complex
interior components, so complete sections. As a consequence, we can save time on
the assembly process. As with other AM techniques, there is no need to compensate
for the issue of tool clearance—and therefore the need for joints—that subtractive
methods frequently encounter. So we can make geometries that were previously dif-
ficult, minimize assembly time, and reduce poor joints. SLS is capable of producing
highly durable components for real-world testing and mold construction, whereas
other methods of additive manufacturing may become brittle over time. Since SLS
parts are so durable, they compete with those made in conventional production meth-
ods such as injection molding, and are already being used in a range of end-use
applications such as automotive and aerospace applications. Another major benefit of
additive manufacturing with SLS is the ability to store and reproduce parts and die
92 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

as 3D CAD data that will never corrode, lose transport, or require expensive storage.
The designs are always available and ready to be produced when we need them, even
if the original is not available.

5.1.6 Application
Due to its ability to easily manufacture complex geometries with little to no addi-
tional fabrication effort, SLS technology is commonly used in many industries
around the world. It’s most common application is early in the design cycle in pro-
totype parts, such as investment casting patterns, automotive hardware, and wind
tunnel models. In addition, limited production of SLS is increasingly being used to
produce end-use parts for aerospace, military, medical, and electronic equipment.
SLS can be used on the shop floor to rapidly assemble machines, jigs, and fixtures.
Since the process requires the use of a laser and other costly, bulky equipment, it is
not suitable for personal or residential use; however, applications in the field of art
have been established.

5.2 3D SYSTEMS’ COLORJET PRINTING (CJP) TECHNOLOGY

Binder jetting technology was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in 1993. One of the licensors of the technology was Zcorp or Zcorporation, which
named built 3D printers depending on binder jetting and renamed Zprinting tech-
nology (as in Z-axis printing). When Zcorp was owned by 3D Systems, the market
leader in stereolithography, in the early 2000s, the company began offering binder
systems and renamed its ColorJet printing (CJP) technology because, with the addi-
tion of an inkjet head, it was possible to color the outer layer and thus the surface of
the parts. ColorJet 3D printing, or CJP, is a 3D system 3D printing process that uses
a core and a binder to create 3D objects.
This 3D printing process is famous for the printing of detailed, multi-color 3D
parts for art, medical, consumer goods, and architecture and experimentation mod-
els. Parts can also be used as templates or master patterns for metal castings. The
final pieces are delicate. Parts can be easily printed for a few days of turnaround.

5.2.1 Technology
As with many other rapid prototyping methods, the component to be printed with
CJP/ZPrinting is made up of many thin parts of the 3D model. In ZPrinters, the
inkjet-like printing head moves across the powder bed, selectively depositing the
liquid binding material in the shape of the section. A fresh layer of powder is spread
over the top of the model and the process is repeated. Once the pattern is finished,
unbound powder is removed automatically. Parts can be produced on a ZPrinter at
a rate of around 1 vertical inch per hour, making it one of the fastest technologies
available today. In ColorJet printing, the outer edge of each layer is colored, result-
ing in complete colored final items. Figure 5.2 demonstrates the basic concept of
ColorJet printing (CJP) technology.
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  93

FIGURE 5.2  ColorJet printing (CJP) technology.

5.3 EOS’S EOSINT SYSTEM

5.3.1 About EOS (Electro Optical Systems)
Founded in 1989 and headquartered in Germany, EOS is a technology and market
leader in additive manufacturing (AM) integrated e-manufacturing solutions, an
industrial 3D printing process. EOS offers a modular portfolio of solutions, including
systems, software, materials, and advancement materials as well as services (service,
training, special application consulting, and support). As an industrial manufactur-
ing technique, it allows for quick and scalable development of high-end components
based on 3D CAD data at a quality level of the reproducible industry. It paves the way
for a paradigm change to revolutionary technologies in product design and manu-
facture. This accelerates product development, gives versatility in design, optimizes
component structures, and allows both lattice structures and functional integration.

5.3.2 EOSINT M 280 System

The EOSINT M 280 is an upgraded and further improved version of the EOSINT
M 270, the industry-leading tool for additive metal part manufacturing. On the basis
of three-dimensional CAD data, it directly produces high-quality metal parts—fully
automated—in just a few hours and without the need for instruments. The direct
metal laser sintering (DMLS) method produces layer-by-layer parts by melting fine
metal powder with a laser beam that allows extremely complex geometries such as
94 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

free-form surfaces, deep grooves, and three-dimensional cooling channels to be cre-

ated. Alternatively, the device is fitted with a 200 or 400 watt laser fiber. This type
of laser offers extremely high beam efficiency and power stability, which can be
controlled during the construction process using the laser power monitoring (LPM)
method. The system operates in both argon and nitrogen protection atmospheres.
This allows the machine to handle a wide variety of materials: From light metals to
stainless steel equipment and super alloys. Process software has been developed and
improved over a number of years and includes a range of intelligent exposure tech-
niques and features, which make it possible to refine and adapt the design process for
a variety of material types and applications. EOS provides a variety of powder metal
materials for the EOSINT M 280 with corresponding parameter sets that have been
designed for use. They manufacture parts with uniform Part Property Profiles (PPPs).
In addition, EOS ensures maximum reliability through intensive process develop-
ment and thorough quality assurance of all products. The capability of the system can
be tailored to specific customer requirements with a range of choices and additional
equipment. Integrated process chain management (IPCM) modules allow higher effi-
ciency, higher quality, and improved user-friendliness, and can also be added at any
time. The distinctive characteristics of the EOSINT M 280 system are the consistency
of the components it manufactures and the ergonomically designed peripherals. Such
features make the device the perfect manufacturing method for the economical batch-
size, automated manufacturing of parts at all stages of the product life cycle. The
machine is therefore ideally suited to the industrial environment (Figure 5.3).

FIGURE 5.3  EOSINT M 280 system.

Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  95

5.4 OPTOMEC’S LASER ENGINEERED NET SHAPING

(LENS) AND AEROSOL JET SYSTEM
5.4.1 About Optomec
Optomec is a privately owned, fast-growing provider of additive manufacturing sys-
tems. Optomec’s proprietary aerosol jet systems for printed electronics and LENS
3D metal part printers are used by industry to reduce product costs and boost perfor-
mance. These revolutionary printing techniques work together with the broad variety
of used materials, from electronic inks to structural metals and even biological mate-
rials. Optomec has over 200 branded customers around the world, targeting manufac-
turing applications in the electronics, energy, life sciences, and aerospace industries.

5.4.2 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

LENS systems are used for the repair and rapid manufacturing of metal parts in
state-of-the-art materials such as titanium and stainless steel. The LENS MR-7 sys-
tem can be used to quickly create materials of extremely high quality. The LENS
MR-7 system offers a working envelope of 300 mm cubed, making it ideal for the
manufacture or maintenance of smaller parts. LENS systems use high-power fiber
laser energy to create structures directly from metal powders, alloys, ceramics, or
composites, one layer at a time. Both powder feeders allow for the processing of
gradient materials—each layer may have a different chemistry. This allows for the
development and study of new materials at incredible pace. LENS systems are used
for applications ranging from rapid alloy growth and practical prototyping to rapid
manufacturing or repair over the entire product lifecycle (Figure 5.4).

5.4.3 How the LENS System Works

LENS systems use a high-power laser together with powdered metals to create
entirely dense structures directly from a three-dimensional solid CAD model. The
CAD model is automatically divided into a path of the tool which instructs the
LENS machine to build the part. Under the supervision of software the component is
designed layer by layer, which monitors a variety of parameters to ensure geometric
and mechanical integrity. The LENS process is housed in an argon-purged chamber
so that the level of oxygen remains below 10 parts per million to ensure no impurity
is present during deposition. The metal powder is fed to the process by Optomec’s
proprietary powder feeding system which is capable of very accurately flowing small
amounts of powder. When completed, the part is removed and can be heat-treated,
hot-isostatic pressed, machined, or finished in any other way.

5.5 ARCAM’S ELECTRON BEAM MELTING (EBM)

Arcam supplies equipment for the manufacture of fully dense metal parts by electron
beam melting (EBM). EBM technology uses a strong electron beam (4 kW power)
96 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 5.4  LENS MR-7 system.

to create part layer by layer of melting metal powder. The EBM process is con-
ducted in a vacuum at an elevated temperature of 1000°C, resulting in stress-relaxed
parts that have stronger material, mechanical, and chemical properties than cast and
forged. The process is based on high-level energy utilization that delivers high melt-
ing capacity and high productivity.
The EBM process is planned primarily for the manufacture of refractory and
resistant materials (tantalum, niobium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, hafnium,
zirconium, titanium) and their alloys. The EBM process is characterized primarily
by high-speed production, rapid tooling, and complex geometry components with
similar mechanical features to heat-treated materials. The Italian company Bticino
has used EBM technology to produce light switch injection molding equipment in
ABS plastic with a production volume of 1 million parts per year, with cobalt chro-
mium alloy conformal cooling channels with high abrasion resistance and chemical
corrosion. They were able to improve productivity, reduce cycle time, and lower
the cost of production. Additionally, the efficiency of the manufactured parts has
also been enhanced by improving the cooling system. The EBM tools in CoCr, a
material with excellent wear and corrosion resistance properties, enabled BTicino
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  97

to manufacture tools with extended geometrical freedom and longevity. Electron

beam melting (EBM) is a new alternative for rapid manufacturing and prototyping
of metal components. This technique is quickly gaining interest because of its abil-
ity to produce completely dense components, with properties comparable to those of
wrought materials, at a cost and speed substantially lower than those of metal-based
additive manufacturing methods.
EBM not only produces unparalleled strength-to-weight ratios, decreases the cost
of raw materials, and decreases the weight of the parts, but also opens the door to
new design configurations. EBM technology stands out for its ability to produce
parts of titanium in hours versus days. For industries such as aerospace, this technol-
ogy creates new opportunities for prototyping and low-volume component produc-
tion. Time, costs, and challenges of machining or investment casting are eliminated,
making titanium parts readily available for functional testing or installation on
mechanical systems. EBM is patented by Arcam and distributed by Stratasys in the
United States.
As the name suggests, EBM uses an electron beam to melt titanium powder.
Additive manufacturing processes build parts on a layer-by-layer basis. After one
layer of titanium powder is melted and solidified, the process is repeated for sub-
sequent layers. Within the electron beam gun, the incandescent filament of tung-
sten and the electron cloud boil (Figure 5.5a). These electrons flow through the gun
at about half the speed of light. Two magnetic fields are organizing and directing
fast-moving electrons. The first act as a magnetic lens which focuses the beam on
the desired diameter and the second magnetic field deflects the beam to the target
point of the powder bed. When high-speed electrons strike metal powder, the kinetic
energy is instantly transformed into thermal energy. Raising the temperature above
the melting point, the electron beam quickly liquefies the titanium powder. Arcam
A2 (Figure 5.5b) developed by Arcam is capable of manufacturing parts up to 7.87
in. × 7.87 a.m. × 13.0 a.m. (200 mm × 200 mm × 330 mm in length). Parts produced
with EBM are near-net shape like those made with metal-casting processes. As the
electron beam completely melts the titanium, the liquefied metal conforms to the
surrounding metal powder, which creates a surface finish similar to a precision sand
casting; as a result, some light secondary grinding or grinding may be needed.

5.6 CONCEPT LASER’S LASERCUSING

The company, founded in 2000 by Frank Herzog, is one of the world’s largest provid-
ers of machine and plant technology for 3D printing of metal parts. Since December
2016, Concept Laser has been part of GE Additive, the world’s largest digital indus-
trial group, General Electric. GE Additive was founded in 2016 and purchased,
among others, 75% of the company’s shares in Concept Laser.

5.6.1 Concept Laser’s Patented LaserCUSING 3D-Printing Technology

The term LaserCUSING, also known as direct metal laser melting (DMLM),
describes the technology: The fusion method develops components layer by layer
98 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 5.5  Electron beam melting (EBM).

using 3D CAD data. Concept Laser’s patented Laser CUSING 3D-printing tech-
nology is a metal additive manufacturing technique used to manufacture mechani-
cally powerful and thermally robust components. The name of the technology,
“LaserCUSING,” is coined using the term laser “C” and the word “FUSING,” which
accurately defines the technology as a fusion method for the production of layer-by-
layer metal components using a three-dimensional CAD model.

5.6.2 Working of LaserCUSING 3D-Printing Technology

LaserCUSING is a metal 3D-printing technology. This works similarly to powder
bed fusion technology where the material is powdered and the laser is used to fuse
the particles together. In the course of LaserCUSING, one layer of fine metal pow-
der is dispersed around the building floor. The laser machine shines a high-energy
fiber laser beam that is guided to the powder using a mirror redirector (scanner).
The laser melts the powdered material. The adjacent particles merge together and
solidify to develop a solid bond after cooling. Once the entire geometry of the layer
is traced by the laser, the build platform shifts down and a second layer of powder
spreads over the top of the first layer. This cycle continues until the entire portion is
written. In addition to the patent for the process, Concept Laser also has a patent for
what it calls stochastic control. This is what makes the whole system unique. The
stochastic power of the slice segments (also abbreviated to as “islands”) is processed
successively. This proprietary method ensures a substantial reduction in stress in the
manufacture of very large components (Figure 5.6, Figure 5.7).
The LaserCUSING layer construction process enables the development of close-
contour cooling mold inserts and direct components for the jewelry, medical, dental,
automotive, and aerospace industries. This refers to both prototypes and batch parts.
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  99

FIGURE 5.6  Concept Lasers’ DMLM 3D printer.

FIGURE 5.7  Sample part 3D printed with LaserCUSING technology for polyshape.
100 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

5.6.3 Additional Features of LaserCUSING 3D-Printing Technology

• The complete printing process is carried out in an inert atmosphere so that
the building chamber is not heated. This also minimizes the need to heat
the material before the laser melting process. Process gasses are common
when printing with different materials. Some of them are as follows:
• For tool steels and mold-making applications—nitrogen gas is used
• Titanium and aluminum—argon gas is used
• Selected steels—argon gas is used
• The same laser may be used for etching or engraving patterns/text on the
metal component being printed.
• Often the vital pieces are more extruded and the laser surface finishes the
top layer for a smooth finish.
• Nearly 99.5 percent content density is achieved.
• The layer resolution ranges from as low as 15 microns to as high as 500
microns.

5.6.4 Advantages of LaserCUSING 3D-Printing Technology

The LaserCUSING process offers many advantages, such as those listed below:

Green technology: The LaserCUSING process is a production method that

produces almost no waste. Metal powder which has not been melted can be
fully reused without the loss of any material for further processing. In fact,
the laser process is almost emission-free. Due to the high degree of perfor-
mance of the laser systems used at Concept Laser, the energy that is applied
is efficiently transformed into working power.
Freedom of geometry: Complex geometry of components or geometry of com-
ponents that cannot be generated by traditional means without the use of
laser melting devices. There are no restrictions on the production of hollow
or grid parts on the inside with this technology.
Near net shape: The design of components with close-net or ready-to-install
geometry reduces manufacturing time and saves costs.

5.7 SLM SOLUTIONS’ SELECTIVE LASER MELTING (SLM)

SLM Solutions from Germany launched the SLM500 HL machine in 2012, which
uses double beam technology to increase the build rate up to 35 cm3/hour and has a
build volume of 500 × 350 × 300 mm3. Two sets of lasers are used in this machine,
each set having two lasers (400 W and 1000 W). This means four lasers scan the
powder layer simultaneously.
Selective laser melting (SLM) is a powder bed AM technology in which parts are
fabricated layer by layer using the action of a high-energy beam on a powder bed. In
this process, the powders are fully melted and solidified. The process is very similar
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  101

to the SLS process but the energy of the beam is much higher and the process is per-
formed under a controlled atmosphere. SLM is currently very popular for fabrication
of metallic parts (Figure 5.8).
Several attempts have been made to produce ceramic materials directly with-
out sintering or post-processing using SLM technology. The Fraunhofer Institute of
Laser Technology was able to produce completely ceramic net-shaped specimens of
almost 100 percent density without post-processing by the complete melting of the
powder with the Nd:YAG laser beam. Nevertheless, ultra-high preheating was used
to prevent crack formation during the construction process. That makes the process
very difficult. A eutectic mixture of Al2O3 ± ZrO2 was used to lower the melting
point of the material. While a good prototype has been shown, the mechanical prop-
erties of the parts are not comparable to ceramics developed by traditional methods.
Figure 5.9 shows the images of produced parts using this method.
SLM has been identified for sintering refractory ceramics such as ZrB2 for high-
temperature applications. Zirconium metal was used as a binder and ZrB2-Zr cer-
mets with a density of more than 95% and appropriate mechanical properties were
obtained.

FIGURE 5.8  Schematic of selective laser melting (SLM).

102 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 5.9  Ceramic parts manufactured by the selective laser sintering process.

In general, the following are the key drawbacks of SLM technology for the manu-
facture of ceramic materials:

• Balling effect due to low conductivity of ceramic material

• Extensive cracking due to high temperature fluctuations during processing
• Limited flowability of ceramic after melting and inability to form a dense
layer
• Porosity formation that is severely detrimental to the mechanical properties
of the component
• High preheating of the chamber is needed to reduce temperature gradient
and subsequent cracking

However, the direct additive manufacture of ceramic is still a major advantage of

the process. Extensive research is needed to minimize the harmful aspects of the
process defect.

5.8 EXERCISES
1.
Explain 3D Systems’ selective laser sintering (SLS).
2.
Discuss 3D Systems’ ColorJet printing (CJP) technology.
3.
Describe EOS’s EOSINT systems.
4.
Briefly describe Optomec’s laser engineered net shaping (LENS) and aero-
sol jet system.
5. Explain the concept of Arcam’s electron beam melting (EBM).
6. Briefly discuss Concept Laser’s LaserCUSING.
7. Briefly write about SLM Solutions’ selective laser melting (SLM).

5.9 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. What is the full name of SLS?
a) Selective laser simulator
b) Sintering laser simulator
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  103

c) Selective laser sintering

d) Stereolithography laser sintering
Ans: (c)
2. What is the other name for multi-jet modeling?
a) FDM
b) PolyJet
c) 3D printer
d) Extrusion
Ans: (b)
3. Which one of the following is the design process?
a) Build
b) Concept
c) Pre-processing
d) Transfer to machine
Ans: (b)
4. What is the file format for prototyping?
a) .prt
b) .slt
c) .stl
d) .iges
Ans: (c)
5. Which CAD software cannot be used to create data for prototyping?
a) CREO
b) CATIA
c) NX UniGraphics
d) Adobe Illustrator
Ans: (d)
6. Which one of the following processes is subtractive prototyping?
a) 5-axis CNC milling
b) Fused deposition modeling
c) Multi-jet modeling
d) Stereolithography apparatus
Ans: (a)
7. In which of the following processes are the input materials in solid form?
a) SLA
b) SLS
c) FDM
d) MJM
Ans: (c)
8. In which of the following processes are the input materials in liquid form?
a) LOM
b) SLS
104 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

c) FDM
d) MJM
Ans: (d)
9. In which of the following processes are the input materials in powder form?
a) LOM
b) SLS
c) FDM
d) MJM
Ans: (b)
1 0. Which material is NOT available for the LOM process?
a) Paper
b) Plastic
c) Metal
d) Glass
Ans: (d)
1 1. Which of the following processes uses the extrusion concept?
a) SLA
b) SLS
c) FDM
d) MJM
Ans: (d)
1 2. Which model of 3D printer is available in PERDA-TECH?
a) Z310
b) Z450
c) Z510
d) Z650
Ans: (c)
1 3. Which of the following is NOT the color binder of a 3D printer?
a) Cyan
b) Black
c) Magenta
d) Yellow
Ans: (b)
1 4. Which of the following is the process of the pre-processing stage?
a) Remove support
b) Checking 3D CAD data
c) De-powdering loose material
d) Dip in binder to strengthen the part
Ans: (b)
Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing  105

1 5. What is the infiltrant used to strengthen parts in the Z510 machine?

a) Water
b) Paint
c) Epson salt
d) Color bond
Ans: (d)
 6 Materials in Additive
Manufacturing

6.1 CHOOSING MATERIALS FOR MANUFACTURING

Advances in technology, along with subsequent material innovations, have had
a significant effect on the way 3D printing is treated and relied on by engineers,
designers, and manufacturers during development and production. Through addi-
tive manufacturing, technology transforms the material through heat, light, or other
guided energy.
There are four main types of materials corresponding to specific technologies:
Photopolymers, powdered thermoplastics, filament thermoplastics, and metals.
Materials must be adapted to the application in order to produce successful results.
The properties of any material become increasingly important as the product moves
from conceptual and functional prototyping to production. However, the material
properties can only be assessed when the manufacturing process is considered. It is
the combination of the material and the process that defines the characteristics of the
material. For example, an alloy manufactured by die casting has different properties
when it is molded by injection of metal.
In the same way, thermoplastics will have different properties if they are injection
molded or CNC machined. Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing is unique.
This varies from all other manufacturing processes because the material properties
and characteristics of the parts that it manufactures are different, even though it uses
almost the same metal or thermoplastic. In terms of material properties, it is not a
matter of being better or worse; it is simply important to recognize that the effects
will be different. Recognizing that there is a distinction, the following information
will help identify and eventually select materials from three commonly used indus-
trial 3D printing processes: Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser sin-
tering (SLS), and stereolithography (SLA). Picking the right material comes down
to a number of factors. It may be difficult to keep track of each property required for
the material of the component and to decide if the material is suitable for the manu-
facture of the goods.
Below are some material considerations which help to find the suitable material
for the manufacturing of products.

6.1.1 Application
When choosing a material and 3D printing method for your project, make sure
your material suits the certifications and/or key features needed for the application.
Depending on where the part is in the life cycle of the product, you will have distinct

107
108 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

durability needs. For example, a concept model may need to reflect the look and
feel of the end product, but it does not necessarily need to have the same durability
of the end product. Once you have identified the needs of your usage, the Material
Wizard allows you to filter through all of our available materials that meet these
requirements by clicking on the Key Characteristics tabs or adjusting the material
properties’ sliders to specific measurements.

6.1.2 Asthetics
As stated above, 3D printing materials are often inseparable from technology,
and each technology delivers parts with a variety of resolutions. PolyJet builds
parts with the smallest layer and the full color of the CMYKW, resulting in highly
detailed cosmetic parts. It provides expert finishing services; some materials con-
vert better than others into sanding, polishing, and painting. You can use the Key
Characteristics buttons in the Material Wizard, such as High Resolution/High
Detail, Clear/Translucent, and Flexible, to filter through the best materials for
highly esthetic parts.

6.1.3 Function
3D printing materials are subjected to stringent testing in order to react to the type
of stress that they can withstand and to the degree of the demanding environment in
which the material can excel. Filter through Key Characteristics such as Toughness,
Flame Retardance, Impact Resistance, and Product Properties to find the product
that suits the primary feature of your application.

6.1.4 Certifications
Certain 3D printing materials provide biocompatibility, sterilization capabilities,
FDA skin contact certifications, flame smoke and toxicity certifications, chemical
resistance, or other certifications that may be essential to your project. It’s important
to ensure that your material can produce what you need when selecting a material
and 3D printing process for your project. Stratasys Direct Manufacturing, a printing
service provider with ISO 9001 and AS 9100 certifications, will ensure strict content
and technical specifications are met.
While our collection of available 3D printing materials is expansive, it isn’t all-
inclusive. The breadth of 3D printing material options is growing, bridging gaps
between prototype and end-use production. Machine manufacturers and third-party
materials developers have seen huge implications of future evolution to accommo-
date new and innovative applications.
Listed below are the materials used for industrial 3D printing.

6.1.4.1 Nylon
Nylon (known as polyamide) is a thermoplastic synthetic linear polyamide and is the
most popular material in plastics. Because of its versatility, longevity, low friction,
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 109

and corrosion resistance, it is a well-known 3D printing filament. Nylon is also a

common material used in making clothes and accessories. Nylon is suitable for use
when constructing delicate and complex geometries. It is used primarily as a fila-
ment on 3D printers in FDM (fused deposition modeling) or FFF (fused filament
fabrication). This material is inexpensive and considered one of the hardest plastic
materials.

6.1.4.1.1 Distinct Characteristics
• Nylon is known for its strength and durability.
• It has an excellent ratio of strength to flexibility.
• Nylon has a very small warpage.

This type of material can be smoothly dyed or colored.

6.1.4.1.2 Disadvantages
• Because nylon is hydroscopic, it should be kept dry.
• It has a shelf life of 12 months.
• Such material can shrink during cooling, so printing may be less accurate.
• The suitability of printers also varies.

6.1.4.2 ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)

ABS is a thermoplastic that is commonly used as a 3D printer filament. It is also a
material generally used in personal or household 3D printing and is a go-to material
for most 3D printers.

6.1.4.2.1 Distinct Characteristics
• It is one of the most accessible and cheap materials for 3D printing.
• ABS is highly available and has a wide variety of colors.
• This material has a longer lifespan compared to nylon.
• It is also mechanically strong.
• This material is not suitable for hobbyists. It is mainly used by producers
and engineers looking for high-quality prototype production.

6.1.4.2.2 Disadvantages
• When going to print, it requires a heated bed.
• Because ABS materials have a high melting point, they tend to experience
warping when cooled when printing.
• The type of filament is a non-biodegradable toxic material that releases
toxic fumes with a terrible smell at high temperatures.

6.1.4.3 Resin
Resin is one of the most widely used 3D printing materials. It is generally used
in technologies such as SLA, DLP, multi-jet, or CLIP. There are different types of
resins that can be used for 3D printing, such as castable resins, hard resins, flexible
resins, etc.
110 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

6.1.4.3.1 Distinct Characteristics
• It can be used in a number of applications.
• It has a low shrinkage rate.
• Resin materials are of high chemical resistance.
• This is a solid and delicate material.

6.1.4.3.2 Disadvantages
• It’s expensive.
• This type of filament will also expire.
• Due to its high photo-reactivity, it needs to be stored safely.
• It may cause premature polymerization when exposed to heat.

6.1.4.4 PLA (Polylactic Acid)

PLA or polylactic acid is derived from renewable sources such as sugar cane or
cornstarch. It’s also called “black plastic.” It is often used in primary and secondary
schools because it is safe to use and easy to print. This is also used for FDM screen
printing.

6.1.4.4.1 Distinct Characteristics
• PLA is easy to print as it has a low warping effect.
• It can be printed on a cold surface, too.
• It can be printed with sharper edges and features compared to ABS material.
• This material is available in a variety of colors.

6.1.4.4.2 Disadvantages
• PLA materials are not very durable and can deform when exposed to
intense heat.
• This type of material is less durable.

6.1.4.5 Gold and Silver

Nowadays, 3D printing can be done using gold and silver. These filaments are robust
materials and are processed in powder form. These materials are generally used in
the jewelry sector. These metals use either the DMLS (direct metal laser sintering)
or the SLM method for printing.

6.1.4.5.1 Distinct Characteristics
• It has a high electrical conductivity.
• It has proof of heat.

6.1.4.5.2 Disadvantages
• Gold and silver printing is expensive.
• It consumes a lot of effort and energy to get it right.
• Both gold and silver are difficult to operate with lasers due to their high
reflectivity and high thermal conductivity.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 111

• Since these materials require extremely high temperature printing, a regu-

lar FDM 3D printer is not suitable for use.

6.1.4.6 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is printed by fusion or laser sintering. There are mainly two possible
technologies that could be used for this material. It could be DMLS or SLM tech-
nologies. Since stainless steel is all about strength and detail, it is perfect for use in
miniatures, bolts, and key chains.

6.1.4.6.1 Distinct Characteristics
• Stainless steel can be heat treated to improve strength and hardness.
• It works well in high strength applications.
• It provides a strong resistance to corrosion.
• Ithashigh ductility.

6.1.4.6.2 Disadvantages
• Building time for 3D printing using these metals is much longer.
• Stainless steel printing is expensive.
• The size of printing is limited.

6.1.4.7 Titanium
Titanium is the strongest and lightest 3D printing material. It is used for a process
called direct metal laser sintering. This metal is mainly used in high-tech areas such
as space exploration, aeronautics, and the medical industry.

6.1.4.7.1 Distinct Characteristics
• This offers greater flexibility and design resolution.
• It gives production accuracy to industrial designers.
• It has an average roughness of the surface.
• Titanium is also biocompatible and resistant to corrosion.

6.1.4.7.2 Disadvantages
• 3D titanium printing is expensive.

6.1.4.8 Ceramics
Ceramics is one of the latest technologies used in 3D printing. Glass is more durable
than metal and plastic as it can withstand intense heat and pressure without cracking
or warping. Therefore, this type of material is not susceptible to corrosion like other
metals or wears away like plastics. This material is commonly used in binder jetting,
SLA (stereolithography), and DLP (digital light processing) technologies.

6.1.4.8.1 Distinct Characteristics
• It has high-precision components with a smooth, glossy surface.
• It also has resistance to acid, heat, and lees.
• It has a wide range of colors.
112 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

6.1.4.8.2 Disadvantages
• Ceramics require a high amount of temperature to melt.
• This is not appropriate for glazing and cooking processes.
• Since it is fragile, it has limitations on printing objects with enclosed and
interlocking parts.
• It is not suitable for the assembly of pieces.

6.1.4.9 PET/PETG
Like nylon, PET or polyethylene terephthalate is also one of the most widely used
plastics. This material can be used in thermoforming process. It can also be com-
bined with other materials such as glass fiber to produce engineering resins. PETG
is used for 3D printing. This is a modified version of PET where the G stands for
“glycol-modified.” As a result, a filament that is less fragile, clearer, and easier to use
than PET is formed. This filament is applicable to FDM or FFF technologies.

6.1.4.9.1 Distinct Characteristics
• The material is robust.
• It is impact-resistant and recyclable.
• It can also be sterilized.
• It has excellent adhesion to the layer.
• It has the combined functionality of ABS (temperature-resistant, stronger)
and PLA (easy to print).

6.1.4.9.2 Disadvantages
• The material may be weakened by UV light.
• It’s prone to scratching.
• More testing of 3D printing parameters is needed.

6.1.4.10 HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene)

HIPS or high impact polystyrene is plastic filaments which are used for support
structures in FDM printers. It is equivalent to ABS when it comes to ease of use.
The only dissimilarity is its ability to dissolve. HIPS is highly soluble to a liquid
hydrocarbon called limonene.

6.1.4.10.1 Distinct Characteristics
• It has excellent mechanical properties. It can also be used to create compli-
cated structures.
• It’s very smooth and lightweight.
• It is completely waterproof and impact resistant.
• It’s very cheap.

6.1.4.10.2 Disadvantages
• Produces strong fumes. Thus, it is recommended to be used in a ventilated
area.
• Without continuous heat flow, this material will clog up the nozzle and dis-
tribution tubes of the printer.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 113

6.1.4.11 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are suitable for functional applications, including the manufacture of
end-use components and functional prototypes. They have good mechanical proper-
ties, high impact, abrasion, and chemical resistance. They may also be filled with
carbon, glass, or other additives to improve their physical properties. 3D print engi-
neering thermoplastics (such as nylon, PEI, and ASA) are widely used in the produc-
tion of end-use parts for industrial applications.
SLS components have better mechanical and physical properties and higher
dimensional precision, but FDM is more affordable and has shorter lead times.

Typical 3D printing thermoplastics

SLS Nylon (PA), TPU
FDM PLA, ABS, PETG, Nylon, PEI (ULTEM), ASA, TPU

The pyramid below shows the most common 3D printing thermoplastic materials.
As a rule of thumb, the higher the material in the pyramid, the better its mechanical
properties and the more difficult it is generally to print (higher cost) (Figure 6.1).

FIGURE 6.1  Common thermoplastic materials for 3D printing.

114 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

6.1.4.12 Thermosets (Resins)
Thermosets (resins) are widely used for applications where esthetics are impor-
tant, as they can produce parts with smooth injection-like surfaces and fine details.
Normally, they have high stiffness but are more porous than thermoplastics, so that
they are not ideal for practical applications. Specialty resins are used for engineer-
ing applications (mimicking the properties of ABS and PP) or dental extensions and
implants. Material jetting produces components with superior dimensional accuracy
and generally smoother surfaces, but at a higher cost than SLA/DLP. Both processes
use similar acrylic-based photocurable resins.

Typical 3D printing thermosets (resins)

Material jetting Standard resin, digital ABS, durable resin (PP-like), transparent resin, dental resin
SLA/DLP Standard resin, tough resin (ABS-like), durable resin (PP-like), clear resin, dental resin

6.1.4.13 Metals
Metal 3D-printed components have outstanding mechanical properties and can be
worked at high temperatures. The freeform 3D printing capabilities make it suitable
for lightweight applications in the aerospace and medical industries. DMLS/SLM
components have excellent mechanical properties and tolerances, but binder jetting
can be up to ten times cheaper and can generate much larger parts.

Typical 3D printing metals

DMLS/SLM Stainless steel, titanium, aluminum
Binder jetting Stainless steel (bronze-filled or sintered)

6.2 MULTIPLE MATERIALS
The unique aspect of the additive manufacturing (AM) technology is the ability to
produce multi-material parts. Multiple types of materials may be used for the manu-
facture of a single part. Components with specially tailored functionally graded,
heterogeneous, or porous structures and composite materials were some of the
achievements of this method. A broad variety of materials, such as metals, plastics,
and ceramics, have been used in various AM methods to produce multi-material
goods in order to satisfy the existing requirements of the industry that would oth-
erwise not have been met. All AM techniques have the potential to be applied to
multiple materials in nature. In addition, a number of studies have been conducted
to investigate the possibility of applying multi-material development to various AM
methods. The process of making composite materials by AM can be carried out
either during the material deposition process or through a fusion process in which
the combination of various materials can be performed before or after AM as a
previous or successive stage of the production of a component. Composite processes
can be used to produce heterogeneous scaffolds and functionally graded materials
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 115

(FGMs). One of the features of AM processes is the development of customized

gradient multi-phase or porous materials. As a result, different properties can be
achieved within a single integrated component. In addition, when making a compo-
nent with composite materials, the required properties of the included materials can
be combined while compensating for some of their limitations.

6.2.1 Multi-Material and Composite Additive Manufacturing Methods

Various modifications of the AM and the combination thereof with other manu-
facturing methods for the production of multi-material or composite products are
mentioned below. The subjects are mostly categorized as process adaptations for the
implementation of multi-materials, different materials used in these processes, and
AM hybrids and other manufacturing methods.

6.2.1.1 Stereolithography Methods
Stereolithography (SLA) has been developed on the basis of photopolymerization
phenomena and often includes the implementation of a light source for bonding pho-
tocurable resins mixed with other materials for the manufacture of solid composite
parts. Multi-material SLA processes have been carried out by successive applica-
tion and washing of various types of photopolymerizable resins in single or multiple
vat configurations (Figure 6.2). The versatility of these approaches has spread from
the manufacture of electronic parts to biomedical implants in a variety of fields.
Typically, the liquid precursor infiltration method has been used for the production
of ceramics and their composites. A porous component is immersed in a liquid infil-
tration material in this method. As a result of the infiltration of the precursor into the
pores of the ceramic component, a huge variety of microstructures such as gradient,
partially or fully dense materials, and also an increase in density and mechanical
properties of the compact powder can be achieved. In the SLA of ceramic materi-
als, a ceramic suspension including photocurable liquid resin is used to produce the
green part of the de-ceramic component. Drying and other debinding processes are
then carried out in order to achieve a component with high density and minimal
defects which has been infiltrated by an SLA process of aluminum ceramics by
immersing the printed products in liquids of various altering components to create a
multi-phase composite by filling the interconnected porosities with infiltrated mate-
rials. A photo-initiator material was added to the aluminum suspension to make it
UV-curable and suitable for the SLA process. Debinding and subsequent infiltration
were followed by precipitation (Figure 6.2b). As a result of the infiltration process,
the hardness of the part increased but the fracture strength decreased.

6.2.1.2 Binder Jetting Methods

Binder jet printing deposits binder materials on powder bed for selective bonding of
powder materials layer by layer for the construction of three-dimensional parts. In
binder jetting, additional extractable powder materials can be used in the binding
process to achieve the desired percentage of materials in different layers of parts.
Subsequently, additional materials can be extracted to achieve the desired porous or
116 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.2  (a) Multiple vat setup for stereolithography of multi-material parts; (b) SLA
followed by infiltration and precipitation process.

functionally graded material (FGM) by means of extraction techniques such as sol-

vent materials. The application of infiltration processes to ceramic materials devel-
oped by AM was used to build multi-phase composites. As for the binder jet process,
the process uses the nature of the binder jet’s porous products. While the binder mate-
rial is cured to form a solid part, it burns off and leaves the porosity in the final
component. The main purpose of the infiltration procedure is to fill the porosity with
other functional materials in order to obtain a fully dense part. Ceramic metallic com-
posites can be produced by bonding, curing, and sintering ceramic powder materials
under special conditions in order to achieve a solid homogeneous structure and by
immersing them in a molten metal bath to fill the porosities with metal. The sinter-
ing temperature of the printed ceramic component can affect the density and volume
fraction of the metal phase and, as a result, the microstructure and the mechanical
properties of the final part. The submerging time of the sintered ceramic component
in the molten metal is another conceivable parameter that can change the properties
of the products as the more sintered ceramic parts are deposited in the molten metal;
apart from the phase of penetration, the more metallic material permeates the ceramic
particles and the properties of the products will have a higher resemblance to the pure
metallic parts made of the molten metal. This technique has also been used for the
production of metallic composites. For one test, it was shown that the thickness of
the printed component has a critical influence on the different properties of the final
component as it alters the microstructure and chemical composition of the product.

6.2.1.3 Extrusion-Based Printing Methods

Extrusion-based AM uses an extrusion nozzle to position materials on a substrate
to print the desired part layer by layer. Low-temperature deposition (LDM) is an
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 117

extrusion-based AM method capable of manufacturing multi-material components

with custom-built porosities (Figure 6.3). Because the LDM process operates at low
temperatures, bioactivity and biocompatibility of biomaterials can be maintained.
This method is capable of creating scaffolds with functionally graded or compos-
ite materials. Biomaterial scaffolds consisting of synthetic and natural polymers
in tissue engineering applications such as bone and cartilage structure scaffolds
or nerve and vascular tissues are the main focus of this manufacturing technique.
The technique typically involves depositing a mixture of materials on an ultra-low
temperature platform with a sterilized syringe followed by a freeze drying process
to remove the solvent material and the micro pores formed by phase separation. In
order to improve their mechanical and physiochemical properties, LDM made scaf-
folds with a core-shell composite structure. The inner and outer feedstock tube and
the nozzle head were assembled together to simultaneously extrude the core and the
sheath material. A multi-nozzle LDM system using disposable syringes has been
used to manufacture scaffolds with gradient biomaterials and tissue engineering
functions.
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) uses filaments comprising thermoplastic poly-
mers which are melted and extruded on the desired substrate layer by layer through
the nozzle. One of the polymers manufactured by this method is polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF), which has recently been extended to energy harvesting systems.
In ceramic AM FDM, a polymer and ceramic composite can be used as feedstock
material to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of the final product
introduced by FDM to produce PP and TCP composite scaffolds with optimized
interconnected porosities. Various scaffolding architectures and compatibility of

FIGURE 6.3  Schematic of multiple nozzle extrusion based AM of gradient materials.

118 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

scaffolding materials for vitro cell culture were evaluated and the results suggested
the process’ ability to generate biomaterial components. The quality and durability
of the composite filament for the extrusion process is a crucial factor in achieving
the desired properties of the products. Other AM-related parameters, such as raster
gap and width as well as slice thickness, are effective in the structure of the scaffold
and therefore in the mechanical properties and dispersion of the porosity. The use
of sacrificial polymeric mixture or UV-curable resins mixed with ceramic particles
is common in many AM methods for the production of ceramic components. The
additive mixture plays the role of binder in the AM process of producing a green
product and is removed from the part by a subsequent debinding process. However,
each of these approaches usually suffers from certain barriers of its own, such
as excessive material consumption, low sintering density, the need for additional
steps, lack of functionality, and limitations in the dimensions of the components
produced. The addition of photopolymerizable dispersion to the raw material of the
AM-based extrusion process was attempted to take advantage of the robustness of
the green product with UV-cured resin and the economical AM-based syringe pro-
cess. UV-light irradiation is carried out during the printing process and UV-resin is
removed by a traditional sintering operation. However, deficiencies such as partial
polymerization of the layers and cracking of the component due to a high shrinkage
ratio and during sintering have yet to be dealt with.

6.2.1.4 Material Jetting Printing Methods

The principle of inkjet printing (IJP) usually involves the deposition of a jet stream
of droplets or particles of materials so that the materials can combine and attach
together. Various actuating systems for the ejection of droplets have been studied,
including thermal bubble form, piezoelectric nozzle head, pneumatic diaphragm
actuator, and the use of an electrical field to produce ink flow. The use of multiple
nozzles or the mixing of raw materials for printing on the printhead enables the pro-
duction of multi-material, multi-phase composites and FG materials. A combination
of tape casting technique and IJP was applied to the manufacture of electrolytes and
micro-battery electrodes. Flexible super capacitors have been manufactured by IJP
with graphene-based materials on metal film. Ink-jetted dielectrics were also used
for printing insulators for packaging of electronic embedding devices and for secur-
ing crossovers of metallic materials. IJP was used to store photoactive layer materi-
als for solar cells and multiple photodetector materials, both in combination with
applications such as spin coating deposition. For the manufacture of flexible photo-
transistors, a combination of reverse offset printing, IJP, and bar coating was used.
IJP is responsible for the polymeric active semiconductor and conductive polymer
for gate electrodes in this method. Multi-jet modeling (MJM), also known as mate-
rial jetting system or PolyJet printing of materials, uses multiple jet nozzles to store
photopolymers for part structures that are immediately cured after deposition, and
gel-like wax materials for sacrificial support structures. A schematic representation
of the method is shown in Figure 6.4. This AM technique is capable of manufactur-
ing components with greater resolution and geometric complexity, such as microflu-
idic devices with narrow gaps and high aspect ratios.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 119

FIGURE 6.4  Schematic of PolyJet 3D printing.

The implementation of the electrospinning technique in syringe-based AM

production was carried out in order to achieve micro-/nano-scale fiber diameters.
Using electro-spinning in biomaterial AM manufacturing methods will lead to
improved mechanical and biological properties and encourage cell proliferation
in tissue engineering. A few of the limitations of electrospinning methods, such as
buckling and jet stream coiling, have been resolved by performing a hybrid process
with melt-electrospinning. A combination of AM-based syringe and wet-spinning
technique, which includes the extrusion of a polymer mixture filament into a pre-
cipitating bath to solidify and manufacture continuous composite fibers, has been
performed to produce microfibers for microporous composite scaffolds. Since high
temperature, high voltage, or toxic solvents are not needed, wet spinning allows the
development of fibers, including biomolecules, which makes it ideal for bioprint-
ing. Figure 6.5 displays the configuration of electro-spinning and wet-spinning
processes.

6.3 METAL AM PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

A variety of different technologies used in the metal additive manufacturing systems
are available today. Systems may be categorized by the energy source or the manner
in which the material is joined, e.g. by means of a binder, laser, heated nozzle, etc. It
is also possible to classify the group of materials being processed, such as plastics,
metals, or ceramics. The feedstock condition, the most common of which is solid
(powder, wire, or sheet) or liquid, is often used to describe the process.
120 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.5  (a) Hybrid of inkjet printing and electrospinning; (b) Setup of wet-spinning
method.

6.3.1 Powder-Bed Systems
Almost every powder-bed AM system uses a powder deposition method comprised
of a coating mechanism to spread a powder layer onto a substrate plate and a powder
reservoir. Usually the layers are 20 to 100 μm thick. Once the powder layer has been
distributed, a 2D slice, known as 3D printing, is bound together or melted using an
energy beam applied to the powder bed. For the second example, the energy source
is usually one high-powered laser, but the state-of-the-art systems can use two or
more lasers of distinct power in an inert gas atmosphere.
Direct process powder-bed systems are known as laser melting processes and are
available commercially under various trade names such as selective laser melting
(SLM), laser cusing, and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). The only exception
to this process principle is the electron beam melting (EBM) process, which uses a
full-vacuum electron beam. The melting cycle is repeated by slice, layer by layer,
until the last layer is melted and the pieces are finished. It is then removed from the
powder bed and processed as required (Figure 6.6).

6.3.2 Powder-Fed Systems
Since the powder-fed systems are using the same feedstock, the manner in which
the material is applied layer by layer varies considerably. The powder flows through
the nozzle, which is melted from the beam right on the surface of the treated part
(Figure 6.7)
Powder-fed systems are also known as laser cladding, direct energy deposition,
and laser metal deposition. The process is highly efficient and is based on the auto-
mated deposition of a layer of material with a thickness of between 0.1 mm and a few
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 121

FIGURE 6.6  Schematic diagram of the selective laser melting (SLM) powder-bed process.

centimeters. Some features of this process are the metallurgical bonding of the clad-
ding material with the base material and the lack of undercutting. The process is dif-
ferent from other welding techniques in that a low heat input penetrates the substrate.
One of the advancements in this technology is the laser engineered net shap-
ing (LENS) powder delivery system used by Optomec. This technique allows the
addition of material to an existing part, which means that it can be used to repair
expensive metal components that may have been damaged, such as chipped turbine
blades and injection molding tool inserts, offering a high degree of flexibility in the
clamping of the parts and the “coating” materials.
The companies that offer systems based on the same principle are: BeAM from
France, Trumpf from Germany, and Sciaky from the United States. An interesting
approach to the hybrid system is the one offered by DMG Mori. The combination
of the laser cladding theory and the 5-axis milling method opens up new fields of
application in many industrial branches.

6.3.3 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) Materials

DMLS uses pure metal powders to manufacture products with properties that are
generally accepted to be equal to or better than those of wrought materials. Due
to rapid melting and solidification in a small, continuously moving area, DMLS
can produce differences in grain size and grain boundary that have an effect on
122 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.7  Schematic of the laser cladding process and the laser cladding process in
action (right).

mechanical efficiency. Research is ongoing to characterize grain structures that can

change with laser parameters, post-construction heat treatment, and hot isostatic
pressing. The results, however, are not widely available. At the end of the day, this
difference will become an advantage when the grain structure can be manipulated to
offer different mechanical properties to the part.

(a) Stainless steel is a commonly used DMLS material and is available in

two grades at Protolabs: 17-4 PH and 316L. Select 17-4 for its significantly
higher tensile strength (190 ksi vs. 70 ksi), yield strength, and hardness (47
HRC vs. 26 HRC), but recognize that it has far less elongation at break (EB)
than 316L (8 percent vs. 30 percent), which means it will be less malleable.
Both 17-4 and 316L offer corrosion resistance, but 316L is better suited to
acid resistance. 316L is also more temperature-resistant than 17-4. Note that
17-4 can be heat treated to change mechanical properties, whereas 316L is
only usable in a stress-relieved state.
(b) DMLS aluminum (Al) is equivalent to the 3000 series of alloys used in
casting and die casting processes. It’s made of AlSi10Mg. Al has an out-
standing strength-to-weight ratio, good temperature, and corrosion resis-
tance, and good fatigue, creep, and rupture strength.
Compared to die-cast aluminum series 3000, the Al properties for tensile
strength (36 ksi to 43 ksi) and yield strength (30 ksi to 32 ksi) much surpass
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 123

the average values. However, the elongation at break is significantly lower

(1 percent vs. 11 percent) relative to the 3000 series aluminum average.
(c) DMLS titanium (Ti-64 ELI) is most commonly used for aerospace and
defense applications due to its strength-to-weight ratio, temperature resis-
tance, and resistance to acid/corrosion. It is also used for medical applica-
tions. Versus Ti grade 23 annealed, the mechanical properties are almost
identical with a tensile strength of 130 ksi, a break elongation of 10%, and a
hardness of 36 HRC.
(d) Cobalt chromium (CoCr) is one of two superalloys of DMLS that tend
to be used for aerospace and medical specialty applications. CoCr has an
exceptional EB (20 percent) and is resistant to creep and corrosion. Versus
ASTM F-75 CoCr (depending on heat treatment), DMLS CoCr provides
moderate material properties (DMLS vs. F-75): Tensile strength of 130 ksi
vs. 95–140 ksi, EB 20 percent vs. 8–20 percent, yield strength of 75 ksi vs.
65–81 ksi, and hardness of 25 HRC vs. 25–35 HRC. Of all DMLS metals,
CoCr has the best biocompatibility—which requires additional biocompat-
ibility treatment outside of Protolabs—making it ideal for medical applica-
tions such as dental implants.
(e) Inconel 718 (IN718) is a nickel chromium superalloy used in high-tem-
perature applications such as aircraft engine components. DMLS IN718
parts have an impressive operating temperature range of -423°F to 1300°F
combined with excellent corrosion resistance and good fatigue, creep, and
rupture strength.
DMLS IN718 has a higher tensile strength (180 ksi vs. 160 ksi) and com-
parable yield strength (133 ksi vs. 160 ksi) than the conventional IN718. Its
EB, however, is half that of conventionally processed IN718 (12 percent vs.
25 percent) (Table 6.1).

6.3.4 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Materials

SLS uses thermoplastic powders, primarily polyamide (PA), to manufacture usable
parts with higher strength and impact strength than those provided by SLA, as well

TABLE 6.1
Metal 3D Printing Materials Comparison Chart
Material Tensile Strength 0.2% Yield Elongation Hardness
Aluminum (ALSI10MG) 37.7 ksi 20 ksi 10% 47.2 HRB
Cobalt Chrome 130 ksi 75 ksi 20% 25 HRC
Inconel 718 180 ksi 150 ksi 6–12% 35.5 HRB
Titanium 129 ksi 164 ksi 10% 40 HRC
(TI-6AL-4V)
Stainless Steel 17-4PH 190 ksi 170 ksi 8% 40–47 HRC
Stainless Steel 316L 70 ksi 25 ksi 30% 76.5 HRB–25.5 HRC
124 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

as high HDTs (351°F to 370°F). The tradeoffs are that SLS lacks the smoothness of
the surface finish and the fine specifics of the features available with SLA.

(a) DuraForm HST Composite is a fiber-filled PA that is equivalent to a

25 percent mineral-filled PA 12. The HST fiber content significantly
improves strength, stiffness, and HDT. Compared to other SLS and SLA
options (excluding ceramic-filled materials), HST has the maximum tensile
strength, flexural modulus, and impact strength and maintains an elevated
HDT. This makes HST a great choice for practical applications where tem-
peratures above 300°F can be present. However, the material is somewhat
fragile, with an EB of 4.5 percent. Also, consider that there is a significant
delta in the Z-axis values, such as injection molded fiber-filled materials.
(b) PA 850 Black delivers ductility and flexibility with a tensile modulus of 214
kpsi and an EB of 51 percent, all without sacrificing tensile strength (6.9
ksi) and temperature resistance (370°F HDT). These characteristics make
PA 850 a common general purpose material and the best solution for mak-
ing living hinges for limited testing.
Compared to the PA 11 injection molded average, PA 850 has a higher
HDT (370°F vs. 284°F) with equal tensile strength and stiffness. However,
its EB, although the strongest in all AM plastics, is 60 percent lower than
that for PA 11 molded plastics.
Another aspect that distinguishes PA 850 is its uniform, deep-black
color. Black has a high contrast, which makes the features pop, and hides
dirt, grease, and grime. Black is also desirable for optical applications
because of low reflectivity.
(c) ALM PA 650 is a balanced, economical, general-purpose material. PA 650
is stiffer than PA 850 (tensile modulus 247 ksi vs. 214 ksi) and has a higher
tensile strength (7.0 ksi vs. 6.9 ksi). Although it’s EB is half that of PA 850,
it is still one of the top performers in terms of ductility at 24 percent. PA
650 is loosely comparable to the average PA 12 injection molding proper-
ties. It has similar stiffness but approximately half the tensile strength and
the EB. Nevertheless, the HDT is slightly higher: 351°F vs. 280°F.
(d) PA 615-GS is a polyamide powder filled with glass spheres that make it
rigid and dimensionally stable. However, the glass filler makes PA 615-
GS brittle, significantly reducing impact and tensile strength. Glass spheres
also make PA 615-GS parts much heavier than any other AM material.PA
615-GS mimics the average value of glass-filled injection molded nylon.
Compared to 33 percent of glass-filled nylon, HDT is lower at 350°F vs.
490°F with much lower tensile strength (4.5 ksi) and EB (1.6 percent)
(Table 6.2).

6.3.5 Stereolithography (SLA) Materials

SLA uses photopolymers, ultraviolet (UV) cured thermoset resins. It offers the
wide range of materials with a wide range of tensile strengths, tensile and flexural
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 125

TABLE 6.2
Nylon 3D Printing Materials Comparison Chart
Material Tensile Strength Tensile Modulus Elongation Heat Deflection
PA 650 6.96 ksi 247 ksi 24% 186–351°F
PA 850 Black 6.1–6.95 ksi 214 ksi 51% 180–370°F
DuraForm HST 4.5–7.35 ksi 164 ksi 2.7–4.5% 276–363°F
PA 615-GS 4.5 ksi 170 ksi 1.60% 273–350°F

modules, and EBs. Note that the impact strengths and HDTs are lower than those
of normally utilized injection molded plastics. There are also choices for color and
hardness in the range of materials. Combined with a good surface finish and high
resolution, SLA can produce parts that resemble injection molding in terms of per-
formance and appearance.

(a) Accura Xtreme White 200 is a widely used SLA material. In terms of
flexibility and strength, it falls between polypropylene and ABS, making
it a good choice for snap fits, master patterns, and challenging applica-
tions. Xtreme is a robust SLA material with a very high impact strength
(1.2 ft.-lb./in.) and a high EB (20 percent) while it is medium in strength
and stiffness. However, its HDT (117°F) is the lowest of all SLA materials.
Compared to the average value for injection molded ABS, Xtreme may have
a slightly higher tensile strength (7.2 ksi vs. 6.0 ksi) but slightly lower EB
(20 percent vs. 30 percent). Under a flexing load, the Xtreme is 26% less
rigid and its impact strength is 70% lower.
(b) Somos WaterShed XC 11122 provides a rare combination of low moisture
absorption (0.35%) and near-colorless transparency. Secondary operations
will be required to ensure that the material is completely clear, and will also
retain a very light blue hue afterward. Although good for general-purpose
applications and pattern-making, WaterShed is the best choice for flow-
visualization models, light pipes, and lenses.
WaterShed’s tensile strength and EB are among the best in 3D-printed,
thermoplastic-like materials, making it tough and durable. WaterShed
offers a slightly higher tensile strength (7.8 ksi vs. 6.0 ksi) compared to
average injection molded ABS values, but falls short in EB (20 percent vs.
30 percent) and HDT at 130°F vs. 215°F.
(c) RenShape 7820 is another alternative for the prototyping of injection
molded ABS parts. Not only does it imitate the mechanical properties of
ABS, its deep black color and the glossy surfaces of the top profile offer the
appearance of a molded part, while the layer lines can be visible in the side
profile. RenShape 7820 also has a low absorption of moisture so that the
pieces are more dimensionally stable.
Compared to other SLA materials, there are midrange values for all
mechanical properties. Compared to the average ABS values (injection
126 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

molded), the tensile strength is slightly higher (7.4 ksi vs. 6.0 ksi), but the
EB is lower (18 percent vs. 30 percent) and the HDT is 124°F vs. 215°F. The
most significant departure from ABS is a low impact force of 0.91 ft.-lb./in.
(d) Accura 60 is an alternative to both RenShape SL 7820 and WaterShed XC
11122 when stiffness is required. Like RenShape SL 7820, this material pro-
duces clear, crisp details; like WaterShed, this material offers translucency.
However, this material sacrifices ductility with 29 to 36 percent lower EB
and 10 to 44 percent lower impact strength. Furthermore, Accura 60 has a
high absorption rate of moisture, which can impair dimensional stability.
Accura 60 has a high tensile strength of 9.9 ksi and a high tensile strength
of 450 ksi. Compared to the average values for injection molded, 10 percent
glass-filled polycarbonate, it has equivalent tensile strength and flexural
modulus, 25 percent higher EB but 80 percent lower impact strength.
(e) Somos 9120 is the best choice of SLA resins when polypropylene-like parts
are needed. This material is the most flexible SLA choice, with a flexural
modulus of 210 ksi and it is the most ductile, with an EB of 25%. It also has
the second highest impact strength (1.0 ft.-lb./in.) for SL products. In direct
comparison to the average values of injection molded polypropylene, 9120
has comparable tensile strength (4.7 ksi), tensile modulus (212 ksi), flexural
modulus (210 ksi), and impact strength (1.0 ft.-lb./in.). The only deviation
from the shaped PP is a 75% lower EB.
(f) Accura SL 5530 provides a strong, rigid part with high temperature resis-
tance. In addition, a post-cure thermal option can increase HDT from 131°F
to 482°F. 5530 has the highest tensile and flexural moduli (545 ksi and 527
ksi) of all unfilled SLA materials and the second highest tensile strength
(8.9 ksi). The post-cure can, however, make 5530 less durable, resulting in
an impact strength of only 0.4 ft.-lb./in. and the EB is 2.9 percent. Without
post-curing thermal heat, 5530 maintains its tensile strength and becomes
more flexible. Already, the EB is rising by 50%.Compared to injection
molded thermoplastics, 10% of the glass-filled polycarbonate is the clos-
est match. For post-cure thermal, 5530 has comparable tensile strength
and flexural modulus (compared to average values) with 66% higher HDT.
However, the impact strength and EB are much lower for 5530 (81% and
72%, respectively).
(g) MicroFine GreenTM is custom designed in Protolabs to deliver the highest
degree of detail—0.002 inch features are possible—and the strictest toler-
ance available from any SLA content. The material is used to produce small
parts, generally less than 1 in. by 1 in. by 1 in.
In terms of mechanical properties, MicroFine GreenTM falls in the mid-
range of SLA materials for tensile strength and modulus (6.5 ksi and 305
ksi, respectively) and in the low end for impact strength and EB (0.46 ft.-lb./
in. and 6 percent, respectively).
MicroFine GreenTM has hardness (329 ksi vs. 333 ksi) and tensile strength
(6.5 ksi vs. 6.0 ksi) comparable to injection molded ABS, but MicroFineTM
has a lower HDT than ABS of 138°F vs. 215°F.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 127

TABLE 6.3
Metal 3D Printing Materials Comparison Chart
Material Tensile Strength Elongation Heat Deflection
Accura Xtreme White 200 6.3–7.2 ksi 7–20% 108–117°F
Somos WaterShed XC 11122 6.8–7.8 ksi 11–20% 115–130°F
RenShape 7820 5.2–7.4 ksi 8–18% 125°F
Accura 60 8.41–9.86 ksi 5–13% 118–131°F
Somos 9120 4.4–4.7 ksi 15–25% 126–142°F
Accura SL 5530 6.8–8.9 ksi 1.3–4.4% 131–482°F
MicroFine 6.5 ksi 6.10% 122–138°F
Metal Plated 14–29 ksi 1% 122–516°F

Protolabs offers another proprietary material, SLArmor, which combines nickel

plating with Somos NanoTool parts to offer an alternative to die-cast aluminum.
Plating increases the tensile strength of NanoTool to 14.5 ksi to 29 ksi, depending
on the percentage of metal thickness. HDT is dramatically increased over NanoTool
with a spectrum of 122°F to 516°F and, relative to die-cast aluminum, HDT is greater
than 500°F with a tensile strength of 43.5 ksi (Table 6.3).

6.4 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a process used to make a
solid object from a three-dimensional digital model, usually by laying down several
successive thin layers of a material. In recent years, developers have found ways to
print composite materials, such as carbon fiber and fiberglass, which improve the
durability and structure of 3D-printed items. While the technology of 3D printing
composite materials is not mainstreamed yet, many manufacturers have begun to use
it to print everything from vehicle and aircraft parts to the walls of future buildings.
Composite materials are preferred above some traditional materials because of their
strong, lightweight, and more affordable properties. Composite material is a mate-
rial consisting of two or more constituent materials with very different physical and
chemical properties. When combined, they produce characteristics that are different
from each variable.
The two constituent materials can be divided into two categories: The matrix
(binder) and the reinforcement. A composite material requires a matrix and rein-
forcement. The matrix is used to support the reinforcement material by surrounding
it so that it can maintain its relative position. The reinforcement relies on its special
mechanical and physical properties to strengthen the properties of the matrix. This
creates an enhanced synergy that would otherwise not exist in the individual constit-
uent materials. It also enables product designers to optimize the combination of com-
posites. In spite of the relatively high cost, fiber-reinforced composite materials have
become prevalent in high-performance products for their lightweight yet powerful
properties. They can withstand tough loading conditions in aerospace components,
128 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

boat and scull hulls, bicycle frames, and racing car bodies. They are also used in
fishing rods, storage tanks, pool panels, and baseball bats. The new Boeing 787 con-
struction, including wings and fuselage, is primarily made of composites. These are
also gaining prominence in the field of orthopedic surgery.

6.4.1 Generic Composite Materials

Concrete is the most common artificial composite. Usually, it consists of loose stones
(aggregate) and is attached to a cement matrix. The term “plywood” is derived from
thin layers known as “plies” of wood veneer that are bonded together. Plywood
sheets are bonded to each other with wood grains rotated up to 90 degrees to achieve
reinforcing properties. Plywood is known as an engineered wood in the board family
which includes medium-density fiberboard (MDF) and particleboard (chipboard).
The two composite components of plywood are resin and wood fiber sheets, consist-
ing of long, strong, and thin cellulose cells. Cross-graining, which alternates grains,
reduces the tendency of the wood to divide by nailing at the edges and decreases
expansion and shrinkage to improve dimensional stability. It also provides more con-
sistent power across all panel directions. In order to reduce warping, an odd number
of folds is generally present to help with the balance. Cross-graining an odd number
of composites also increases the strength of the wood so that it becomes difficult to
bend perpendicular to the grain direction of the surface ply.

(a) Fiberglass is a common type of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) reinforced

with glass fiber. Glass fibers are embedded in the material by sporadically
arranging, compressing into a flat sheet, or interweaving into a fabric. The
plastic matrix is either a thermoset polymer matrix (epoxy, polyester, or vinyl
ester) or a thermoplastic matrix. Fiberglass is a more cost-effective and flex-
ible alternative than carbon fiber; it is also stronger than many metals and
can be molded into complex shapes. Fiberglass is used in a wide range of
applications such as aircraft, automobiles, bathtubs, and enclosures, boats,
castings, cladding, exterior door leathers, hot tubs, pipes, roofing, septic
tanks, surfboards, swimming pools, and water tanks. Fiberglass is some-
times referred to as glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), glass-fiber reinforced
plastic (GFRP), or GFK (Glassfaserverstärkter Kunststoff). One important
distinction to be made is between glass fiber and fiber-reinforced plastic,
because sometimes the glass fibers themselves can be called “fiberglass.”
(b) Carbon fiber is an incredibly strong and lightweight fiber-reinforced compos-
ite made up of carbon fiber. While it tends to be costly, it is generally applied
to industries requiring high strength-to-weight ratios and rigidity, such as
aerospace, automotive, civil engineering, and sports goods. Its implementa-
tion is increasingly advanced in the various consumer and technical applica-
tions. The carbon fiber binder is usually a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but
can also be thermoplastic polymers such as polyester, vinyl ester, or nylon.
Other fibers such as aramid (Kevlar, Twaron), titanium, ultra-high-molecu-
lar-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), or glass fibers as well as carbon fiber
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 129

can also be included in the composite. Carbon fiber is sometimes referred to

as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite-reinforced polymer. Many com-
mon names include carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced
thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, and CFRTP) or generally referred to simply as
carbon fiber, carbon composite, or even carbon.

6.4.2 Composite Materials for 3D Printing Processes

(a) The aluminum content is a combination of polyamide and a very low
amount of gray aluminum powder. Laser sintering is a technique used to
create complex, conceptual, functional, or series models that are strong and
relatively rigid. Models made of aluminum can also absorb small impacts
and withstand a certain amount of pressure under bending conditions. It
is the ideal material for novice designers seeking affordability, maximum
design freedom, and increased printing capabilities. In addition, it delivers
a higher stiffness than polyamide would have on its own and features an
aluminum appearance. The surface is mildly porous with a gritty, granular
appearance and can be finished in a natural gray matt state or painted with
a variety of colors.
(b) Fiber-reinforced nylon enables 3D printing of engineering parts that are as
strong as aluminum at the cost of plastic. It is specifically designed with
aluminum strength and has a higher strength-to-weight ratio than 6061-T6
aluminum, and is up to 27 times stiffer and 24 times stronger than ABS.
Fiber-reinforced nylon enables users to refine their printed end-use pieces,
in particular functional prototypes and tests, structural parts, jigs, fixtures,
and devices, while concentrating on strength, stiffness, weight, and tem-
perature resistance. It is not suitable for small parts with complex designs.
(c) Full-color sandstone provides photo-realistic full-color models and sculp-
tures and is particularly suited to architectural models, life-like sculptures,
gifts and memorabilia, and fine arts. Essentially, it is made of gypsum and
has a colored texture on the surface. The brittleness of the material limits
its use as functional parts or as intricately designed parts. This sandstone
material is sometimes referred to as multicolor.

6.5 BIOMATERIALS, HIERARCHICAL
MATERIALS, AND BIOMIMETICS
6.5.1 Biomaterials
Biomaterials rapid prototyping (RP), recently recognized as additive manufactur-
ing (AM), has emerged as a revolutionary technology, promising to turn science into
medical therapy. RP is a layer-by-layer manufacturing process that directly trans-
lates computer data such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer tomography
(CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) into three-dimensional (3D) objects.
RP innovations play a significant role in the biomedical industry, such as anatomical
130 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

models for training/planning, recovery, dentistry, personalized implants, drug deliv-

ery devices, tissue engineering, and organ printing. The incorporation of biomaterials
and rapid prototyping techniques has been an exciting avenue in the development
of biomaterial implants over the last decade. Biomaterials are used to develop func-
tional regeneration of different tissues to improve human health and quality of life.
Biomaterials may be natural or synthetic. Additive manufacturing (AM) is a new
material processing approach for creating layer-by-layer parts or prototypes directly
from a computer-aided design (CAD) file. The combination of additive manufacturing
and biomaterials is very promising, particularly for patient-specific clinical applica-
tions. The challenges of AM technology, along with related material issues, need to be
addressed in order to make this approach workable for broader clinical needs.

6.5.1.1 Biomedical
3D printing implemented in the medical sector has been available for a number of
years through various applications. Organ transplantation has difficulties and 3D tis-
sue engineering-based jet printing offers a possible solution. Some research defines
organ printing as a fast prototyping computer-aided 3D-printing technology based
on the use of layer-by-layer deposition of cell and/or cell aggregates into a 3D gel
with sequential maturation of the printed structure into perfumed and vascularized
living tissue or organ. Bio-printing is a desirable way to create tissues and organs
in hospitals. Successful implantation depends on compatible materials. A variety
of biomaterials can be found, such as curable synthetic polymers, synthetic gels,
and naturally derived hydrogels. Prosthetics is the first biomedical field to use 3D
printing and presents a number of achievements. We can quote a patient’s skull anat-
omy reproduced by 3D printing for pre-surgical use in manual implant design and
production, and by enhancing the stability of the fixation of the custom-made total
hip prosthesis and restoring the original biomechanical characteristics of the joint.
Several applications combine some compostable or allergenic scaffolding with cellu-
lar bio-printing to create personalized biologic prosthetics that have the potential to
act as a transplantable replacement tissue. New articles have shown that the medical
3D printing market could reach $983.2 million by 2020.

6.5.2 Hierarchical Materials and Biomimetics

Biological materials with hierarchical architectures (e.g. macroscopic hollow struc-
ture and microscopic cellular structure) bring unique inspiration for the design and
manufacture of advanced biomimetic materials with outstanding mechanical perfor-
mance and low density. Most traditional biomimetic materials benefit only from bio-
inspiring architecture on a single-length scale (e.g. microscopic material structure),
which significantly limits the mechanical performance of the resulting materials.
There is great potential to improve the mechanical performance of biomimetic mate-
rials by using a bio-inspiring hierarchical structure. The three-dimensional (3D) ink-
based printing technique for the development of ultra-light biomimetic hierarchical
graphene materials (BHGM) with exceptionally high rigidity and durability is dem-
onstrated. By simultaneously engineering 3D-printed macroscopic hollow structures
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 131

and constructing an ice-crystal-induced cellular microstructure, BHGMs can achieve

high elasticity and stability at compressive strains of up to 95%. Multiscale finite ele-
ment analyses indicate that the hierarchical structures of BHGMs effectively reduce
the macroscopic strain and turn microscopic compressive deformation into rotation
and bending of interconnected graphene flakes. This 3D printing study underscores
the great potential that exists for the assembly of other functional materials into
hierarchical cellular structures for various applications where high stiffness and low
density resilience are simultaneously required.
Nature creates a wide range of materials to suit specific structural functions, such
as protection and mechanical support. In spite of the mechanically inferior compo-
nents, the outstanding mechanical properties of biological materials can be achieved
through hierarchically structured structures. In this context, a hierarchical structure
refers to a special arrangement of structural elements in such a way that the geom-
etry and properties of the structure change from one length scale to another. Bone,
mother-of-pearl, tooth enamel, antler, sea sponge exoskeletons, diatoms, alpha-
helix-based protein filaments, geckos’ feet, lotus leaf, and spider silk are just a few
examples of materials using inferior components and structural hierarchy to achieve
remarkable collections of properties and functionalities. Biopolymers and minerals
are basic building blocks of nearly all biological materials. In terms of mechanical
properties, the polymers are soft and deformable, whereas the latter on it becomes
rigid and brittle. Soft polymers provide ductility and flexibility to biological mate-
rials, while rigid minerals provide stiffening and reinforcement. Nature therefore
provides numerous examples of how soft and rigid ingredients can be combined to
achieve higher levels of ductility and strength at the same time. It contrasts, however,
with the approach that human beings have taken for a long time, i.e. by enhanc-
ing the mechanical properties of a single material by materials science techniques
and/or by inventing new materials, such as steel, copper, and silver, which are not
found in natural materials. However, the combination of materials with mechanical
properties complementing each other is not sufficient to produce high-performance
materials. For example, numerous attempts to imitate the structure and performance
of mother-of-pearl, the shiny inner layer of many mollusk shells, have produced
interesting materials, but with properties and mechanics that are still inferior to the
natural model. The level of mechanical properties of the components achieved in
natural mother-of-pearl is far beyond that of synthetic counterparts. Behind this per-
formance is a highly sophisticated microstructure in which features are well defined
and controlled over several length scales, which is the result of a bottom-up approach
to manufacturing. In this approach, small building blocks are self-assembled (a pro-
cess in which a disordered element compound is rearranged into a well-organized
structure), mineralized (in the case of hard biological materials), and shaped larger
elements. The cycle of hierarchical structuring has made this transition from lower
to higher levels possible. “Growing” from small to large scale through this technique
allows the material a high degree of flexibility to adapt/optimize the structure to dif-
ferent length scales according to specific functional requirements. By contrast, the
traditional approach to the manufacture of engineering materials is top-down, where
the material is removed to achieve the desired shapes and components. For example,
132 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

in order to produce a punch, the steel block is machined down to the final shape with
more details according to the blueprint.
Nacreous shells and bones are two typical examples of natural materials with
a hierarchical structure. In the nanoscale, aragonite nanograins, a natural calcium
carbonate crystal and a biopolymer complex comprise the building blocks of the red
abalone nacre hierarchy (Figure 6.8a). At one step further, the nano-5 grains form
~0.5 nm thick and ~6 nm wide polygon tablets surrounded by ~30 nm organic glue
(biopolymers). These tablets are further organized in a staggered arrangement at the
next level of the hierarchy. This type of arrangement gives a brick-and-mortar micro-
structure to the mother-of-pearl when viewed from a cross-section under a scanning
electron microscope. At the millimeter scale, a ~20 µm thick organic layer called a
growth line separates ~300 µm thick mesolayers which are visible to the eye. Finally,
on the largest scale, the red abalone shell consists of two distinct layers: Calcite, the
outer layer of mollusk shell made of large calcite crystals, and the inner nacre layer.
The hierarchical structure of the bone is schematically presented in (Figure 6.8b) as

FIGURE 6.8  Hierarchical structures of (a) bone and (b) red abalone nacre.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 133

another typical example of natural hierarchical structures. The basic building blocks
of the hierarchy are nanoscale, self-assembled triple-helix collagen molecules, and
plate-shaped hydroxyapatite nanocrystals. The staggered arrangement of the build-
ing blocks on a larger scale forms collagen fibers that can be organized into collagen
fibers. Collagen fibers can be further arranged into lamellar bones at microstructural
length scales. Finally, on the largest scale, this lamellar bone may form a cylindrical
helical structure called osteon.
Finally, the nature, function, and mechanical properties of the structure are inti-
mately interlinked in such a way that one cannot be considered exclusively with-
out the other. For extreme situations, the function determines the structure, such
as bone remodeling. This is again in comparison to the research methods used in
engineering: Mechanical engineers define the function of a component and select
existing materials that meet the requirements; material scientists are concerned with
developing new materials or enhancing the properties of existing materials, without
necessarily taking into consideration specific applications and functions for these
materials.

6.5.3 Biomimetics
The natural world around us offers excellent examples of usable structures consisting
of a range of materials. Over the centuries, nature has evolved to adapt and develop
highly sophisticated methods for solving problems. Various examples of functional
surfaces, fibrous structures, structural colors, self-healing, and thermal insulation,
etc., offer important lessons for future fiber products. Biomimetic research is a rap-
idly growing field, and its true potential for developing new and sustainable fibers
can only be realized through interdisciplinary research based on a holistic under-
standing of nature. The design of the material mimics the structural concepts of the
dermis of sea cucumbers. These creatures feature soft connective tissue with muta-
ble mechanical properties; within seconds, the animal can switch between low and
high stiffness. Nature relies on a nanocomposite in which collagen fibrils reinforce a
low-modulus matrix to realize this effect. The degree of binding and stress transfer
between adjacent fibrils to regulate the macroscopic properties of the system varies
with the regulatory protein. Animals, plants, and insects in nature have evolved over
billions of years to develop more efficient solutions, such as superhydrophobicity,
self-cleaning, self-repair, energy conservation, drag reduction, dry adhesion, adap-
tive growth, and so on, than comparable man-made solutions to date. Some of these
approaches may have motivated humans to achieve outstanding results. For example,
the concept of fishing nets may have originated from spider webs; the strength and
stiffness of the hexagonal honeycomb may have contributed to its acceptance for
use in lightweight aircraft structures and in many other applications. Although the
science of biomimetics has gained popularity relatively recently, the idea has been
around for thousands of years. Since the Chinese tried to make artificial silk more
than 3,000 years ago, there have been many examples of people learning from nature
to develop new materials and devices. Leonardo da Vinci, for example, designed
ships and aircraft by looking at fish and birds, respectively. The Wright brothers
134 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

designed a successful aircraft only after realizing that birds do not flap their wings
continuously; rather, they glide on air currents. In 1866, while visiting the dissect-
ing room of the anatomist Hermann Von Meyer, engineer Karl Culmann found a
remarkable resemblance between the stress lines (tension and strain lines) in the
crane head and the anatomical structure of the bone trabeculae in the head of the
human femur. In other words, nature reinforced the bone precisely in the manner
determined by modern engineering. One of the most well-known examples of bio-
mimetics is possibly a textile product. According to the story of George de Mestral,
the Swiss inventor, he and his dog went to the woods. Upon his return, he noticed
the burrs stuck to his pants and his dog’s fur. Upon closer inspection of the burrs,
de Mestral discovered their hook-like construction, which led to the invention of the
Velcro hook and loop fastener.
There are many more examples of inventions that draw their inspiration from
biological systems. This study examines the area of biomimetics as it relates to fiber.
The exploration begins with a general overview, followed by a historical perspec-
tive; it outlines some ongoing efforts in biomimetic materials. Finally, it explores
the potential use of biomimetic materials and products to achieve sustainable fibers.
In general, the aim is not to emulate a particular biological architecture or system,
but to use that knowledge as a source of guiding principles and ideas. The underly-
ing philosophy is therefore based on what might be termed “soft interpretation,”
along with a large element of imagination. By combining known technologies such
as lithography or surface probe microscopy. Complex functions or recognition capa-
bilities of biological systems, micro and nanometer-scale architectures that inte-
grate features such as anisotropy specific binding or motion have been developed
for potential applications in active nano-devices dealing with electronic information
and mechanical tasks, pre-coded surface coatings for clinical testing and screening,
structure-function elucidation and new interface probes.
However, the interest here is in how these organic architectures can be combined
with inorganic solids to produce unique and exquisite bio-minerals, e.g. diatoms frus-
tules, coccoliths, sea shells, bones, etc., in which the composition, size, shape, ori-
entation, texture, and alignment of the mineral constituents are precisely controlled.
Bio-inorganic materials are a source of inspiration for material synthesis for many
scientists. In fact, what really captured the imagination is how this relatively simple
inorganic material, such as CaCO3, SiO2, Fe3SO4, etc., can be formed into precise
functional architectures, including tough, durable, and adaptive polymer-ceramic
composites, which can be produced using calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
by organized assembly based on specific molecular interactions. If these biological
archetypes can be reformulated in a synthetic sense, the biomimetic design of nano-
microscale materials and composites based on inorganic materials could be a real
possibility in future processing strategies.
The main thrust in the field of biomimetic/bio-inspired materials is the discovery
of a radically new approach to the design of bio-inspired, synthetic polymers with
stimulus-responsive mechanical properties. Materials that induce a reversible change
in the mechanical properties of the external stimulus are the target. This technol-
ogy can also be used in a range of material systems that have the potential to enable
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 135

applications ranging from biomedical implants to robotic components to the adapta-

tion of protective clothing to orthopedic devices with controllable characteristics.

6.5.3.1 Definition of Biomimetic Material

Biomimetic materials are materials developed using inspiration from nature and the
definitions of Biomimetic materials are given as follows.

(a) Biomimetic materials are materials invented using inspiration from nature.
This may be useful when designing composite materials or material struc-
tures. Many inspiring examples have evolved from natural structures that
have been used by man. Popular examples are the honeycomb structure of
the beehive, the fiber structure of wood, spider silk, mother-of-pearl, bone,
and hedgehog quills.
(b) Biomimetic is an examination of nature, its models, systems, processes,
and elements to be emulated or inspired in order to solve human problems.
Related terms shall include bionics. The term “biomimicry” or imitation of
nature has been defined as “copying or adaptation or derivation from biol-
ogy.” The term “bionics” was first coined in 1960 by Steele as “a study of
systems having some kind of feature copied from nature or reflecting the
features of natural systems or their analogues.” The term “biomimetics”
introduced by Schmitt is derived from bios, meaning life (Greek) and mime-
sis, meaning imitation. This “modern” research is based on the belief that
nature follows the path of least resistance (lowest energy expenditure) while
often using the most common materials to accomplish a task. Biomimetics,
ideally, should be a process of incorporating principles that promote sus-
tainability in the same way that nature does, from “cradle to grave,” from
raw material use to recyclability, all in this physical world. Biomimetic
material chemistry is also referred to as bio-inspiring chemistry, which is
an important and diverse field, such as bio-ceramic, bio-sensing, biomedi-
cal engineering, bio-nanotechnology, and bio-induced self-assembly.

Throughout the history of life on earth, nature has gone through a trial and error
process to refine the living organisms, processes, and materials on planet Earth. The
emerging field of biomimetics has emerged as new technologies based on biologi-
cally inspired engineering at both macro and nanoscale levels. Biomimetics is not
a new idea. Humans have been looking at nature for answers to both complex and
simple problems throughout our lives. Nature has solved many of today’s engineer-
ing problems, such as hydrophobicity, wind resistance, self-assembly, and the use of
selective advantages for solar energy through evolutionary mechanics.

6.5.3.2 History of Biomimetic Materials

One of the early examples of biomimetics was just the study of birds to enable human
flight. Although he never succeeded in creating a flying machine, Leonardo da Vinci
(1452–1519) was a keen observer of the anatomy and flight of birds, and made vari-
ous notes and sketches on his observations as well as sketches of various flying
136 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

machines. The Wright brothers, who succeeded in flying the first heavier-than-air
aircraft in 1903, were inspired by observations of pigeons in flight. Otto Schmitt, an
American scholar and scientist, coined the term biomimetics to explain the transition
of ideas from biology to technology. The term biomimetics only entered Websters
Dictionary in 1974 and is defined as
a study of the formation, structure or function of biologically produced substances and
materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein
synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar prod-
ucts by artificial mechanisms that mimic natural ones.

In 1960, the word bionics was coined by psychiatrist and engineer Jack Steele to
describe “cell sciences that have some sort of feature copied from nature.” In 1960,
bionics entered Webster dictionary as “a discipline concerned with the application
of data on the functioning of biological systems to solve engineering problems.” The
term bionic took on a different connotation when Martin Caidin referred to Jack
Steele and his work in the novel “Cyborg” which later resulted in the 1974 television
series “The 6 million Dollar Man” and its spin-offs. The term bionic was then asso-
ciated with “the use of electronically operated artificial body parts” and “the use of
ordinary human powers increased by or as if by means of such devices.” The term
bionic has assumed the influence of supernatural strength, and the scientific commu-
nity in English-speaking countries has largely abandoned it. The term biomimicry
was introduced as early as 1982. The term biomimicry was popularized by the sci-
entist and author Janine Benyus in her 1997 book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired
by Nature. Biomimicry is described in her book as “a new science that studies the
models of nature and then imitates or draws inspiration from these designs and pro-
cesses to solve human problems.” Benyus suggests that Nature is a “Model, Measure,
and Mentor” and emphasizes sustainability as a biomicrobial objective. Biological
material science is evolving rapidly as a new area at the intersection between mate-
rial science and biology. The causes are very different. First, progress in regen-
erative medicine generates an ever-increasing need for new types of biomaterials
with specific and well-defined interactions with the biological host system. Second,
recent advances in material characterization and manufacturing technologies have
prompted scientists to ask how the structure of natural materials developed in the
course of evolution can be reformulated into biomimetic designs for engineering
applications. This leads to new types of advanced materials with an odd combination
of properties that self-assemble, repair, or grow. Finally, it is increasingly recognized
that the material properties can be critical to the biological function of molecules,
tissues, and organs. Therefore, the approach to material science also applies to cer-
tain fields of biology. Three separate paths constitute the vast and increasing field of
biological material science (see Figure 6.9):

(a) Material science methods are used to elucidate the relationship of structure-
property in biological materials. Light and electron microscopic images
show the cellular network of osteocytes and the mineralized extracellular
matrix surrounding them.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 137

FIGURE 6.9  Three research areas of biological material science exemplified by research
on bone.

(b) A better understanding of cell–material interactions will improve, for

example, implantable biomaterials and tissue engineering. The picture
shows the bone-forming cells developing on the ceramic scaffold.
(c) The design principles of natural materials may help in the development
of new materials with unusual properties. The image shows a biomimetic
scaffold built by rapid prototyping.

6.6 CERAMICS AND BIO-CERAMICS

6.6.1 Ceramics
Due to its various excellent properties, ceramics are used in a wide range of applica-
tions, including the chemical industry, machinery, electronics, aerospace, and bio-
medical engineering. The properties that make these flexible materials include high
mechanical strength and hardness, good thermal and chemical stability, and viable
thermal, optical, electrical, and magnetic performance. Ceramic components are gen-
erally formed in the desired shapes, starting with a mixture of powder with or without
binders and other additives, using conventional techniques, including injection mold-
ing, die pressing, tape casting, gel casting, etc. In order to achieve densification, the
sintering of green parts at higher temperatures is further required. However, these
ceramic forming techniques lead directly to restrictions in terms of long processing
times and high costs. Structures with highly complex geometries and intertwined
holes cannot be created as molding is usually part of these techniques. On the other
hand, the machining of ceramic components tends to be extremely difficult due to
138 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

their extreme hardness and brittleness. Not only are cutting tools subject to heavy
wear, but defects such as cracking could also be caused in ceramic parts, not to men-
tion the complexity of achieving good surface quality and dimensional precision. The
advent of three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies, also referred to as additive
manufacturing (AM), is seen as a manufacturing revolution. 3D printing is a series
of advanced manufacturing technologies used to produce physical parts in a discreet
point-by-point, line-by-line, or layer-by-layer additive way from 3D CAD models that
are digitally cut into 2D cross-sections. 3D printing is a unique manufacturing phi-
losophy that enables the flexible preparation of highly complex and precise structures
that are difficult to implement using traditional manufacturing methods such as cast-
ing and machining. Productivity can also be significantly increased as many artifacts
can be constructed on a single run. As a result, 3D printing has increased rapidly
across science and engineering communities since its introduction in the 1980s.
The advent of 3D printing in the development of ceramic components provides com-
pletely new opportunities to address the problems and challenges described above. The
3D printing of ceramics was first documented by Marcus et al. and Sachs et al. in the
1990s. To date, with the latest developments in materials science and computer tech-
nology, a wide variety of 3D printing technologies have been specifically developed
for ceramic manufacturing. Depending on the type of pre-processed feedstock prior to
printing, these technologies can generally be classified as slurry-based, powder-based,
and bulk solid-based processes, as outlined in Table 6.4. Note that slurry-based tech-
nologies use ceramic/polymer mixtures with viscosities ranging from low viscosity
(approximately mPas) inks with low ceramic loads (up to 30 vol percent) to high viscos-
ity (approximately Pas) pastes with much higher ceramic loads (up to 60 vol percent).

6.6.2 Bio-Ceramics
Over the last few decades, many advanced biomaterials have been introduced in
the biomedical field, including various ceramic materials for skeletal repair and

TABLE 6.4
Ceramic 3D Printing Technologies
Feedstock form Ceramic 3D printing technology type Abbreviation
Slurry-based Stereolithography SL
Digital light processing DLP
Two-photon polymerization TPP
Inkjet printing IJP
Direct ink writing DIW
Powder-based Three-dimensional printing 3DP
Selective laser sintering SLS
Selective laser melting SLM
Bulk solid-based Laminated object manufacturing LOM
Fused deposition modeling FDM
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 139

reconstruction. These materials in the field of medical implants are often referred
to as bioceramics. Bioceramics are unique in nature due to their extraordinary bio-
logical and osteo-inducing properties. These materials are unique to scaffolds due
to their ability to spread, self-adhesion, and differentiate and regenerate bone tissue.
In addition, excellent chemical and mechanical properties, such as improved osteo-
conductivity, superior wear resistance, and biocompatibility, have made it possible to
replace bone reconstruction. Bioceramics can be predicted to have a future due to a
rise in bone replacement surgery each year due to an increase in aging populations.
The clinical significance of the design and implantation of AM ceramic scaffolding
envelops an invaluable method for the rapid and reliable production of hard tissue
replacement replicas of the natural bone biological context. In view of the way in
which customized scaffolding can be prepared that suits the individual patient’s skel-
etal imperfection, layer-by-layer sintering is considered a lucrative discipline for the
use of ceramic bone substitutes in regenerative medicine. In addition, the use of AM
ceramic scaffolds as medicine conveyance systems is becoming more attractive and
important to the bioengineering environment.

6.7 SHAPE-MEMORY MATERIALS, 4D PRINTING,

AND BIO-ACTIVE MATERIALS
6.7.1 Shape-Memory Materials
Materials science is all about selecting the best material available to do a specific
job. For example, when you design a jet engine, you choose strong materials that are
extremely light and can cope with high temperatures. You could choose aluminum,
titanium, or metal alloy. But what if you want to make an aircraft component that
reacts in one way at low temperatures and in another way when it heats up? This is
the kind of situation where you could use a shape-memory alloy, which can reshape
itself automatically as the temperature changes.
Ordinary metal artifacts do not have a memory of their form. If you sit on a pair of
aluminum eyeglass frames and bend them permanently (in scientific terms, “subject
to plastic deformation”), it’s tricky to get them back exactly as they were. You have to
use your own recollection of what the frames were originally like and painstakingly
twist and bend; even then, there is no assurance that the frames would look as they
used to, and they can even crack completely—through fatigue—if you wiggle them
back and forth too often.
Shape-memory materials act differently. They are strong, lightweight alloys (usu-
ally two or two-metal mixtures) with very special properties. They can be “pro-
grammed” to remember their original shape, so if you bend or squeeze them, you
can get them back to that original shape just by heating them up again. This is called
the shape-memory effect (or thermal shape-memory effect, because thermal energy
causes it to happen). Some shape-memory alloys remember one shape when they’re
hot and another when they’re cold, so if you cool them, they’re going to jump into
one shape, and if you heat them, they’re going to “forget” the shape and flexion into
another. This is known as the two-way form-memory effect. Now, what if you could
140 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

make a shape-memory object that bends and twists a huge amount but still returns
perfectly to its original shape, even without heating? This is an element of shape-
memory called pseudo-elasticity or super-elasticity and is used in those super-bendy,
virtually indestructible eyeglass frames that manufacturers say are at least ten times
more flexible than steel.
Although nitinol (also called nickel-titanium, Ni-Ti) is perhaps the most known
form-memory alloy, there is much more to it, including copper, zinc, and aluminum
alloys (Cu-Zn-Al); copper, aluminum, and nickel (Cu-Al-Ni); iron, manganese, and
silicone (Fe-Mn-Si); and quite a few others.

6.7.1.1 How Does Shape-Memory Work

The easiest way to understand shape-memory is to understand that what’s going on
inside a material (at the nanoscale of atoms and molecules) can be quite different
from what seems to be going on outside.
Stretch the elastic band and, inside, untangle the long, knotted rubber molecules
and cut them apart. Remove the stretching force and the molecules will pull back
together again. That’s exactly how elasticity functions. The memory of the form is
different. Bend an object made of a shape-memory alloy and deform its internal
crystalline structure. Let it go, and it stays as it is, bent out of shape permanently.
Now apply some heat and the crystalline structure inside shifts to a completely dif-
ferent form, causing the object to return to its original form. Pseudo-elasticity is
similar, but you do not need to change the temperature to make the object return to
shape after you deform it. If you bend a pair of shape-memory eyeglasses, the stress
that you apply makes the titanium alloy from which they are made flip into a com-
pletely different crystalline structure; let go, and the crystalline structure returns, so
that the glasses return to their original shape.
What happens to shape-memory and pseudo-elasticity is that the internal struc-
ture of a solid material shifts back and forth between two very different crystalline
forms: In other words, the molecules rearrange them in a totally reversible way. It’s
called a solid-state phase change—and it sounds more complicated than it actually
is. We are all used to phase changes: Every time you place an ice cube in a drink and
watch it melt, you are seeing a change of phase. As the frozen water heats up, its mol-
ecules change from being in a tightly packed rigid structure to an arrangement that is
much looser and more fluid, so that the water changes from its solid phase (ice) to its
liquid phase (ordinary liquid water). A broadly similar thing happens in a solid-state
phase change, it’s just that the material is solid both before and after transformation,
because the molecules remain very close together.
Shape-memory alloys rotate back and forth between two solid crystalline states
called austenite and martensite. At lower temperatures, they take the form of mar-
tensite, which is relatively soft, plastic, and easy to shape; at a (very specific) higher
temperature, they transform into austenite, which is a tough material and much more
difficult to deform. (Note that this is different from steel, where martensite is the
hardest of the two.) Let’s say you have a shape-memory wire and you can bend it
into new shapes relatively easily. It is martensite inside, and that’s why it’s easy to
deform. No matter how you bend the wire, it’s still in its new shape; like any ordinary
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 141

wire, it seems to be undergoing a very ordinary plastic deformation. But now it’s the
magic part! Heat it up a little, above its transformation temperature, and it will turn
into austenite, with the heat energy you supply to rearrange the atoms inside and turn
the wire back into its original shape. Now cool it down and it’s going to return to the
martensite, still in its original form. If the material is above its transition temperature
all the time, you can deform it, but it will spring back to shape as soon as you release
the force you apply.
The surprising (and, for some people, confusing) thing about shape-memory is
that the change between austenite and martensite is not a “symmetrical” one. You
can take a “programmed” piece of shape-memory wire (one that has a definite shape
that you can remember) and bend it in any number of different ways. But, having
done that, if you heat up your randomly bent piece of wire, it will always turn back
into a single, very definite shape. We can appreciate this by understanding that our
material can happily take any number of crystalline forms while it is in a martensite
state. But when it’s in the form of austenite, there’s only a crystalline form it can take.
It is the most stable form—the one with the lowest state of energy.

6.7.1.2 Shape-Memory Alloys
Despite the fact that small- and medium-sized enterprises were found in an AuCd
alloy as early as 1932, the attraction of this phenomenon was not so evident until
1971, when significant retrievable strain was observed in an NiTi alloy at the Naval
Ordnance Laboratories, United States. A wide variety of SMAs have now been
produced in solid, film, and even foam shapes. Just three alloy systems, namely
NiTi-based, Cu-based (CuAlNi and CuZnAl), and Fe-based, are currently of more
commercial value. A systematic comparison of the NiTi, CuAlNi, and CuZnAl SMAs
has been made with respect to the various performance indexes of interest to engi-
neering applications. NiTi should be the first choice because it has high performance
and good biocompatibility. This is crucial for biomedical applications, such as stents
and guide wires in minimally invasive surgery. Cu-based SMAs have the advantages
of low material cost and good workability in processing, and some of them have a
rubber-like behavior after aging in a martensite state. The SME in Fe-based SMAs
is generally known to be relatively much weaker and Fe-based SMAs were most
likely used only as a one-time actuation fastener/clamp, largely due to the extremely
low cost. However, a ferrous polycrystalline SMA has recently been reported with
an enormous superelasticity (13 percent) and high tensile strength (over 1 GPa). All
of these SMAs are thermo-responsive, i.e. heat is the stimulus needed to trigger
the shape recovery. In recent years, good progress has been made in developing
magneto-responsive ferromagnetic SMAs. However, thermo-responsive SMA has
matured more from the point of view of real engineering applications, and many
commercial applications have so far been realized.
With the current trend toward micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and
even nano-electromechanical systems (NEMS), thin film SMAs (mainly NiTi-based,
produced by sputter deposition) have become a promising candidate for motion gen-
eration in these micron/submicron systems. This is further supported by the finding
that the SME even occurs in nano-sized SMAs and that the laser beam can be used
142 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

for local annealing and/or controllable growth of SMA thin films. In addition to the
SME, some SMAs also have a temperature memory effect (TME) so that the high-
est temperature(s) in the previous heating process(es) within the transition range can
be registered and precisely detected in the next heating phase. Partially different
martensite after the thermal programming phase is assumed to be the underlying
mechanism for the TME. On the basis of the same principle, a piece of SMA strip
can be thermo-mechanically programmed to bend forward and then backward after
heating (Figure 6.10). This is a kind of phenomenon, known as the multi-SME, in
which a piece of SMM recovers its original shape step-by-step through one or a few
intermediate shapes. Multi-SME can be used to work virtually as a machine, but
the fascinating point here is that the material is a machine. Since there is only one
intermediate shape, the behavior shown in Figure 6.10 is triple-SME. It should be
noted that, fundamentally, this phenomenon does not share common ground as a
multi-SME in a piece of SMA with a gradient transition temperature, either by pre-
straining or local heat treatment.

6.7.1.3 Shape-Memory Polymers
From the engineering point of view, the material properties of polymers are much
simpler to modify than those of metals/alloys. In addition, the cost (both material

FIGURE 6.10  Triple-SME in an NiTi SMA strip upon heating. Since there is no apparent
visible deflection during subsequent cooling, the material does not have the two-way SME.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 143

and processing costs) of polymers is traditionally much lower. A number of SMPs

have been discovered and well recorded in literature, while new ones are still emerg-
ing every week, if not every day. In addition to the above-mentioned advantages, the
SMPs are much lighter, have a much higher (at least higher order) recoverable strain
than the SMAs, and can be triggered at the same time for the recovery of shape by
various stimuli and even multiple stimuli. In addition to heat, light (UV and infrared
light) and chemical (moisture, solvent, and pH change) are two of these types of
stimuli. In addition, many SMPs are naturally biocompatible and biodegradable. As
a result, we have more degrees of freedom to manipulate SMPs to meet the needs of
a specific application.
The thermoplastic polyurethane SMP was originally invented by Dr. S. Hayashi
at the Mitsubishi Heavy Industry Nagoya R&D Center in Japan and has been suc-
cessfully marketed for over 15 years. The same SMP was developed into open-cell
foams for space missions and biomedical applications based on the concept of cold
hibernated elastic memory (CHEM) proposed by Dr. W. Sokolowski at Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, United States. Figure 6.11 demonstrates the possibility of delivering a
coil, consisting of a thermo-moisture responsive SMP, to a jellyfish. This concept can
be extended to, for example, the delivery of a tiny machine to a living cell for future
cell surgery or to a tiny microbe for special function/operation within a microbe.
Biomedical application is currently emerging as a promising field for SMPs, although
surface patterning (to modify various surface-related properties, such as reflection,
surface tension, etc.) is another area. Figure 6.12 is a zoom-in view of the patterned

FIGURE 6.11  Delivery of an SMP coil into a jellyfish by injection. (a) Original coiled shape;
(b) After being straightened at high temperature; (c) Ready for injection; (d) Recovered shape.
144 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.12  Zoom-in view (three-dimensional) of patterned surface atop SMP produced
by laser after one single exposure.

surface above the SMP, which is produced by a laser beam after a single exposure
through a microlens, compared to patterning on top of SMAs, in particular for dif-
ferent shaped/size patterns. Indentation-polishing-heating (IPH) patterns are made,
while those at the top of the SMAs are usually reversible between two shapes during
thermal cycle; those at the top of the SMPs are fixed and permanent. A further step is
to integrate micro-/nano-sized wrinkles with such surface patterns for dramatically
improved performance, such as self-cleaning, cell adhesion, water splitting, and light
extraction, etc.
The underlying mechanism for small- and medium-sized enterprises in SMPs is
the dual-segment/domain structure (one is often hard/elastic, while the other may
be soft/ductile or rigid depending on whether the stimulus is correct). The former is
known as the elastic segment, and the latter is the transition segment. Take an exam-
ple of the thermo-responsive SMP. The SME mechanism is shown in Figure 6.13.
As we can see, the SMP is typically much weaker at high temperatures than at low
temperatures. This mechanism differs from the well-known and highly predictable
reversible martensitic transformation between the high-temperature austenite phase
(which is hard and rigid) and the low-temperature martensite phase (which is soft
and flexible) in SMAs.
Since SMPs have a much greater recoverable strain and, as a rule, a wider recov-
ery temperature range, it is possible to have more than one intermediate shape in
the multi-SME through a proper programming procedure, as Xie has recently dem-
onstrated. We have shown that during a constrained recovery (i.e. heat with a tem-
porary SMP shape fixed), the maximum reaction force/stress should appear at the
temperature that the SMP is deformed (which should be within the Xie transition
temperature range). This feature shows the TME in the SMPs. The exact mechanism
behind this function is the step-by-step release of the elastic energy stored in the
elastic section during programming, which varies from that of the SMAs.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 145

FIGURE 6.13  Illustration of the mechanism of the SME in thermo-responsive SMP. (a) Hard
at low temperature; (b) Easily deformed at high temperature; (c) Hard again after cooling; (d)
Temporary (deformed) shape after constraint removed; (e) Shape recovery upon heating.

Conversely, multi-SME in SMPs can be accomplished by setting various shape

recovery conditions, e.g. different stimuli or multiple changes across different tem-
perature ranges and even a gradient transition temperature. As such, the programmed
recovery can be realized in a well-controlled manner.
SMP composites have remarkably broadened the potential applications of SMPs;
in addition to the use of various types of fillers (including different types of clay,
SiC nanoparticles, etc.) to strengthen SMPs. Heating of thermo-responsive SMPs
can also be achieved by heating Joules (by means of filling with different forms
of conductive inclusions), by induction heating (by means of dissipation of energy
by hysteresis by applying an alternating magnetic/electrical field, etc.), and also by
radiation. Figure 6.14 shows scanning electron microscope images that show the
dispersion of Ni powder (3–7 μm in diameter) in SMP/carbon black composite poly-
urethane. As reported by Leng with an additional 0.5 vol percent of Ni powders,
and after forming chains (under a weak magnetic field before curing), the electrical
resistance of SMP/carbon black composites reduces by more than ten times, so that
low electrical voltage heat can be achieved, just like SMAs.
As compared to SMAs, SMPs usually soften in the presence of the right stimulus;
thus, most SMPs (with the exception of a few) are not appropriate for cyclical action
and cannot be conditioned to have the so-called two-way SME (which is the ability
to repeatedly move between two shapes depending on how the stimulus is applied).
On the other side, the shape recovery of SMPs can be followed by color change,
excellent clarity, reversible adhesion/peeling, and even self-healing. The SME has
been shown to be similar to SMAs in submicron size SMP (Figure 6.15). While it
has been difficult to manufacture high-quality porous SMAs so far, it is always easy
to produce SMP foams using many conventional polymer foaming techniques. As
146 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.14  Enhanced electrical conductivity in an SMP/carbon black composite through

alignment of Ni powder (SEM image). (a) SMP/carbon black only; (b) With randomly distrib-
uted Ni; (c) Chained Ni.

reported in the complete form recovery, 94 percent of pre-compressed polyurethane

SMP foam is detected even after a few months of storage.

6.7.1.4 Shape-Memory Composites
We have seen that SMPs can be synthesized/designed to have the required properties
for a specific application. However, trial and error, as well as a strong background
(professional knowledge and experience), is needed. Form memory composites
(SMCs), which contain at least one type of SMM, either SMA or SMP, as one of the
components can be managed easily by design engineers, if the properties of SMA/
SMP are well understood. Via careful design, along with the introduction of addi-
tional mechanisms (e.g. elastic buckling), further phenomena and new features can
be realized in SMCs (e.g. polymer self-healing).

6.7.1.5 Shape-Memory Hybrids
Shape-memory hybrid (SMH) is a more open and versatile solution for the average
user, even with minimal scientific/engineering history. SMHs are made of conven-
tional materials (properties are well known and/or can be easily found, but all with-
out the SME as an individual). Thus, the SMM can be designed in a do-it-yourself
(DIY) manner to achieve the required function(s) in a specific application.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 147

FIGURE 6.15  The SME demonstrated by indentation test (using a Berkovich diamond
indenter) in a 170 nm thick thin film polyurethane SMP. Top: Three-dimensional and two-
dimensional surface scanning images. Bottom: Cross-sectional view.

Similar to SMPs, SMHs are also based on a dual-domain system in which one is
always elastic (elastic domain) while the other (transition domain) is able to change
its stiffness remarkably if a correct stimulus is presented. However, the selection
of transition domains for SMHs must be based on the principle that any possible
chemical interaction between the elastic domain and the transition domain should
be reduced if it cannot be entirely avoided. This is even better than an organic-
inorganic mix. As such, we can accurately predict the thermo-mechanical response
(or any other of our concerns) of the SMH based on the material properties of
these two domains. The benefits of the SMHs are evident. For example, the elastic
domain can be selected to meet the requirements for the stiffness and the sum of
the shape recovery ratio of the SMH, while the appropriate stimulus form can be
realized by selecting the correct material for the transition domain. In addition, the
manufacturing/synthesis method is based on the well-known properties of domain
materials, which is simple. It is manageable by almost anyone, even without a lot
of experience.
148 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

We have developed a silicone-based SMH system for demonstration purposes. All

features found in conventional SMAs and SMPs, namely dual-SME, triple-SME (as
shown in Figure 6.16), two-way reversible SME (as shown in Figure 6.17), thermo-
responsive (including by means of Joule heating by passing electrical current),

FIGURE 6.16  Triple-SME. Upon immersing into hot water, the SMH beam bends down-
ward and then upward.

FIGURE 6.17  Two-way SME. Upon heating (top half, from left to right), the SMH beam
pushes down the elastic beam (see inset for the illustration of set-up). Subsequently, upon
cooling (bottom half, from right to left), the elastic beam pushes the SMH beam upward.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 149

thermo/moisture-responsive, etc., have been reproduced. A narrow temperature

recovery range within 5°C has been achieved. This principle has been further applied
to the design of pressure-responsive SMH, thermo (on cooling or at extremely high
temperatures)-responsive SMH with some success.
In addition, SMH has been shown to be rubber-like (not only in the high tempera-
ture range as superelastic SMAs, but also within the full application temperature
range both below and above the transition/recovery temperature and, more impor-
tantly, with small hysteresis, as shown in Figure 6.18). Irrespective of the rubber-like
feature, after cooling, the SMH retains more than 90% of the amount of pre-strain
when extended to double its length at high temperatures. Subsequently, full-form
recovery is observed immediately after heating in hot water. More interestingly, this
SMH has a real crack healing function when it’s heated, but not just for shape recov-
ery and crack closure. Unlike conventional polymer self-healing, which involves a
curing agent for polymerization and can only be used once, after more than ten
cracking/healing cycles, this SMH does not display any deterioration in terms of the
strength recovered after healing.
For a more successful demonstration of the repeatable self-healing function, we
manufactured a piece of cylindrical SMH with a piece of SMA spring embedded
inside, as illustrated in Figure 6.19a. Remember that this SMA spring can be easily
extended in a seemingly plastic way at room temperature. Upon heating, it returns
to its original shape/length. We pulled the SMH until it broke into two pieces, as
shown in Figure 6.19b1. The SMA spring was also extended, resulting in a wide gap
between the two sections of the SMH even after the pulling force was completely

FIGURE 6.18  Rubber-like SMH (in original and pre-bent shapes) under cyclic loading at
room temperature (about 22°C) and at high loading speed.
150 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.19  Self-healing of SMH. (a) SMH with an embedded SMA spring inside (illus-
tration); (b1-b2) Pulling SMH till fracture; (b3-b4) Joule heating SMA coil for self-healing;
(c) Healed sample; (d) Healed sample in bending.

removed (Figure 6.19b2). Subsequently, an electrical current was passed through

the SMA spring (Figure 6.19b3). The SMA was heated for the recovery of the form
so that the gap was closed (Figure 6.19b4). In the meantime, the SMH was also
heated to achieve self-healing, with the aid of the compressive force produced by the
SMA spring during yoke heating. After cooling back to room temperature, the SMH
became one piece again (Figure 6.19c). There was no apparent crack even when it
was severely bent, as shown in Figure 6.19d. This cracking-healing procedure can be
repeated several times.

6.7.2 4D Printing and Bio-Active Materials

One of the primary objectives of 3D printing in health science is to mimic biological
functions. To accomplish this goal, 4D printing can be applied to 3D-printed objects
that will be distinguished by their ability to change over time and under external
pressure by changing their form, properties, or composition. Such capabilities are
a promise of great opportunities for biosensing and biomimetic systems to move
toward more physiological imitation systems.
Bioactive material is a material capable of interacting actively with biological
compounds or living organisms. This ability typically originates from the material-
integrated recognition components, which are biomolecules (enzymes, antibodies,
carbohydrates, living cells, etc.), chemical functions (adhesive or repulsive surfaces),
or surface microstructures. Active interactions can lead to sensing (in the biosen-
sor field) or mimicking behavior (in the tissue engineering field) depending on the
field of application of the bioactive material. When dealing with sensing material,
the interaction occurs with a particular analysis and produces a signal that is trans-
formed into a measurable response. When dealing with tissue engineering material,
the interaction can be unique to the tissue being studied and can contribute to biomi-
metic activity (elasticity, cell growth, strength, movement, etc.).
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 151

FIGURE 6.20  From 1D to 4D concept: 4D printing is adding new capabilities to multi-

material 3D-printed objects: Either physical, electronic, chemical, biological, or biochemical
properties.

The 4D concept was first introduced into the architectural lexicon in 2013 by
Skylar Tibbits, founder of the Self-Assembly Lab hosted by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) International Design Center. This idea introduces the
notion of time in 3D printing to add new capabilities to multi-material 3D objects.
For Skylar Tibbits and his team, as well as several other teams involved in the field,
4D materials are constructed through 3D printing in such a way that they later react
and change shape in response to external stimulus such as heat or moisture. One
example of such a well-known system is their Hilbert Gen 1 Water self-folding tool.
Similar work was done by Jennifer Lewis’ team at the Wyss Institute for Biologically
Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, which proposed several flower-shaped
devices inspired by natural structures that respond to and alter their shape in response
to environmental stimuli.
The definition of 4D is generalized so as not to limit 4D printing to the ability
to program physical and biological materials to change shape, but also to describe
4D printing as adding new capabilities to multi-material 3D printing tools: Either
physical, electronic, chemical, biological, or biochemical properties (Figure 6.20).
This concept is now also complemented by the definition of bioprinting, which is
now widely classified in this 4D printing category, due to its post-printing maturation
steps that occur over time.

6.8 ADVANCED AM MATERIALS
The main objective of additive manufacturing technology is to allow the develop-
ment of high-performance, more advanced parts and components. The creation of
new and more sophisticated materials is therefore a crucial factor in the advance-
ment of AM technologies. Developing and refining advanced 3D printing materials
allows faster processing and more complex parts to be created; at the same time,
the advancement of 3D printing processes depends on refining ever more advanced
materials for higher-performance parts. In general, by means of advanced materials,
152 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

the industry refers to all those materials which are at the cutting edge of material
science production. These include composites, high-performance polymers, high-
temperature metals (refractory), and ceramics.
Composites used in AM are mainly composites of carbon fiber, glass fiber, or
Kevlar inside a thermoplastic matrix (unlike conventional composites in a thermo-
plastic matrix). They can be made available as powders, pellets, or filaments and typi-
cally used as chopped fibers (although technologies capable of producing continuous
fiber composites are in development). Nevertheless, the concept of composites is
incredibly broad and can be expanded to include metal composites, polymer-ceramic
composites, and even carbon-ceramic composites.
Advanced AM materials also include high-performance polymers, in particu-
lar PAEK family polymers such as PEEK, PEKK, and PEI (ULTEM). These are
high-temperature, high-stress thermoplastics that melt at temperatures of 400°C.
The ability to print 3D using these materials for a number of medical and metal-
replacement industrial applications is expected to significantly boost the demand for
additive manufacturing.
Ceramics is also a very large family of materials that can range from cement
and clay to diamonds. Advanced 3D ceramic printing materials are primarily repre-
sented by technical ceramics such as alumina (aluminum oxide), zirconia (zirconium
oxide), and other advanced ceramic materials based on silicon. These materials offer
almost unparalleled properties in terms of heat resistance, strength, and light weight,
but they are difficult to shape using traditional technologies. This is why they are
considered especially important for the future of AM.
Advanced materials in metal additive manufacturing include mainly refractory met-
als (as well as certain metal composites). These are extremely high-temperature resistant
metals that can withstand temperatures in excess of 4000°C. The list of 3D printable
refractory metals (mainly powder-bed fusion processes) includes tungsten, niobium
molybdenum, and other metals that can greatly benefit from the geometrical possibili-
ties provided by AM. Finally, 3D printing soon became a critical technology for the
creation of completely new categories of materials. Which involve applications involving
graphene and graphene allotropes (the different forms that graphene may produce, such
as nanotubes or buckyballs), ultra-light or ultra-dark or even so-called 4D materials.
Broadly speaking, these are materials that can be programmed to perform a par-
ticular action after they have been used for the manufacture of an object. They there-
fore add the “4th dimension” in that the objects continue to evolve over time after the
3D printing process has been completed. For example, shape-memory materials that
can turn back to previous states and shapes, or auto-assemble structures that change
shape as they heat up or cool down. The list goes on and on, and in many cases 3D
printing has proved to be of key importance in allowing rapid testing of new theories
in material behavior.

6.9 SUPPORT MATERIALS
In FDM 3D printing, support structures are required when printing has overhangs or
features suspended in mid-air. They allow the successful printing of complex shapes
by protecting these otherwise unsupported areas.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 153

The support material for 3D printers is simply the material in which these sup-
ports are printed. Different materials provide different compromises between price,
ease of use, and print quality, so selecting the right material for your models can
make your printing experience much more enjoyable.

6.9.1 Build Material Supports

The easiest, most common support material is essentially the same material from
which model is made. This is because many 3D printers are still single extruder
machines capable of printing only one material at a time, making a dedicated sup-
port material impossible (Figure 6.21).
In addition to being more accessible, common building materials tend to be more
affordable than dedicated support materials. Build material supports may therefore
be an attractive option for those on a budget. Build material Installed structure sup-
ports are also expected to conform better to the pattern, made of the same structure.
However, this adhesion is a double-edged sword: Prints are less likely to fail, but
support for removal, will require more effort and will yield poorer surface quality.
As shown in Figure 6.22, the use of an X-Acto knife or sandpaper may be required
to achieve a smooth surface on the model after removal of the support.

6.9.1.1 Materials as Their Own Support

Since PLA is more fragile, if your model requires smaller support clusters that are
less dense, it may be more difficult to remove than ABS and PETG, which are more
ductile materials. Besides that, anecdotal evidence indicates that the printing of PLA
supports under PETG, and vice versa, has good results because the two materials do
not bind together and can therefore be clipped more easily.
Works on: Single extruder, multi-extruder 3D printers
Pros:

• Works on single extruder 3D printers

• More competitive
• Compatibility of materials is not a problem

FIGURE 6.21  Cleaning up build material supports with an X-Acto knife.

154 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 6.22  Breakaway supports being removed.

Cons:

• Poorer consistency of surface

• Removal of support may be a problem

6.9.2 Quick Removal: Breakaway Supports

Breakaway promotes research much like construction materials. Yet since breakaway
supports have a different content, they are less likely to over-adhere to your prints. It
means that the same support systems printed in breakaway materials would be much
easier to remove and leave much cleaner surfaces behind (as shown in Figure 6.22).
Material compatibility is a problem, as is often the case with multi-material 3D
printing, because the supporting material cannot conform adequately to all building
materials. The quality of breakaway support materials is also low, which is the least
popular choice on this list. Options include Matterhacker’s PRO Series Breakaway,
Ultimaker’s Breakaway, E3D’s Scaffold (also water-soluble), and Scaffold’s Snap
(only breakaway) materials.
Works on: 3D multi-extruder printers
Pros:

• Fast and clean removal

Cons:

• Compatibility of materials is a factor

• Low availability
• Works only on multi-extruder 3D printers
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 155

6.9.3 Best Quality: Soluble Supports

Soluble support materials offer great possible surface quality. Instead of requir-
ing manual removal, soluble supports simply dissolve away, leaving behind clean,
unmarred surfaces. This allows for dense, solid supports with optimum dimensional
accuracy, as well as complex geometries to which solvents, but not pins or X-Acto
blades, can be applied. Moving assemblies, such as the gyro above, also benefit from
such dense support and clean removal (Figure 6.23).
Apart from being literally more expensive, soluble support materials are usu-
ally harder to monitor. The most common water-soluble material, PVA, is extremely
hygroscopic and therefore degrades with moisture. Proper handling of the filament is
a must. Material compatibility is also a concern, as no single soluble material works
well with all building materials. If PVA doesn’t work, alternatives such as HIPS will
often require nasty chemicals to dissolve, which is less than ideal. Soluble support
can take up to two hours to completely dissolve, making it a poor option for those
pressed for time.
Works on: Multi-extruder 3D printers
Pros:

• Cleanest removal and surface finish

• Complex structures can be supported (internal structures, moving parts)

Cons:

• Material compatibility is a consideration

• Material storage can be a hassle
• Dissolving times are long
• Only works on multi-extruder 3D printers

FIGURE 6.23  Complex geometries are no match for dissolvable support material!
156 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

6.9.4 Supporting with the Original Material

This is the only option when you print with one extruder. Using this process, the
necessary support is printed with the same material as the product. This method is
simple to use; you only need one material. Such support structures can be generated
by a slicing software package, such as simplify 3D. Note that it is important not to
use too much supporting material, as supporting structures of the same material are
more difficult to remove from the model than other options.

6.9.5 Supporting with PVA Filament

There are various special support filaments available that are completely soluble, and
PVA is one of them. You need a 3D printer with a double extruder to be able to print
with PVA. PVA stands for polyvinyl alcohol and is a soft, biodegradable polymer
that is very prone to moisture. As PVA is exposed to sunlight, it dissolves. This is
also ideal as a support material for 3D printing. After printing, the filament can be
quickly extracted by dissolving it in cold or warm water. PVA is still used in conjunc-
tion with PLA filament, but is now also added more and more to other filaments such
as PET-G. In addition, there are several new modifications that make it possible to
use PVA with higher temperatures.

6.9.6 Supporting with PVA+ Filament

Previously, HIPS was mostly used as support material for ABS printing. With the arrival
of PVA+, HIPS is used much less. The explanation for this move is that HIPS must be
dissolved in limonene. It is a radioactive material that is difficult to acquire. HIPS is
also often substituted by PVA+ (modified PVA), a filament that is easily soluble in water,
much like PVA. At this time, PVA+ is being tested for its suitability to be combined with
all other filaments. It is also necessary to use a double extruder for PVA+.
The major advantage of printing with support material is that it is quickly removed
without leaving pieces behind or damaging the 3D model. The disadvantage is that
support filaments are often more expensive than base filaments and can only be
printed on a 3D printer with a double extruder.

6.10 EXERCISES
1. Explain the factors to be considered when choosing materials for additive
manufacturing.
2. Describe the multi-material and different composite additive manufactur-
ing methods.
3. What are the different metal AM processes and materials? Explain in
detail.
4. Explain the composite materials in details.
5. Discuss biomaterials, hierarchical materials, and biomimetics.
Materials in Additive Manufacturing 157

6. Explain ceramics and bio-ceramics materials.

7. Briefly describe the history of biomimetic materials.
8. Explain the concept of shape-memory materials, 4D printing, and bio-
active materials.
9. State and explain the different advanced AM materials.
10. Explain support materials.

6.11 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. When choosing a material and 3D printing method for your project, make
sure your material suits the _______________ needed for the application.
a) Certifications and/or key features
b) Color and appearance
c) Quality
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)

2. ABS materials have a _______________ melting point.

a) Low
b) Moderate
c) High
d) Very low
Ans: (c)

3. Stainless steel is printed by fusion or _______________.

a) Stereolithography
b) Laser sintering
c) Material jetting
d) None of the above
Ans: (b)

4. Stereolithography (SLA) has been developed on the basis of ______________.

a) Photopolymerization phenomena
b) Material jetting
c) Drop on demand
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)

5. The sintering temperature of the printed ceramic component can affect the
_______ fraction of the metal phase.
a) Viscosity and gravity
b) Thickness and length
c) Density and volume
d) All of the above
Ans: (c)
158 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

6. The aluminum content is a combination of __________ and a very low

amount of gray aluminum powder.
a) Polylactide
b) Ceramic
c) Aluminum
d) Polyamide
Ans: (d)

7. The 3D printing of ceramics was first documented by Marcus et al. and Sachs
et al. in the __________.
a) 1990s
b) 1980s
c) 1970s
d) 1960s
Ans: (a)

8. The 4D concept was first introduced into the architectural lexicon by Skylar
Tibbits in __________.
a) 2005
b) 2008
c) 2009
d) 2013
Ans: (d)
 7 Applications and
Examples

7.1 APPLICATION–MATERIAL RELATIONSHIP
When it comes to 3D printing, the sky is (almost) the limit in terms of what materials
you can use—and researchers are constantly making new 3D printable materials.
There are a few major types of materials used in 3D printing. Also popular are
plastics that can vary from engineering grades, such as PEEK, to very easy-to-use
plastics, such as PLA. Resin is another common material used with SLA printers.
Composites are another type and as the name suggests, they are generated by com-
bining two materials in order to obtain the best properties of product. Metals are the
last major category of materials, which can only be printed using modern equipment.

7.1.1 Polymer
From realistic display models to functional prototypes, tooling, and end-use parts,
the opportunities created by polymer 3D printing are immense. Did you know that
some high-performance thermoplastics are even tougher than aluminum?

a) Polyamide (PA 6)
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLS, MJF
Applications: Piping and media flow/storage parts; Fluid reservoirs; Multi-
purpose industrial goods
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 38 to 66
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 1.6 to 16
Hardness: Object, print direction, and technology dependent
b) Polyamide (PA 11)
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLS, MJF
Applications: Insoles; Living hinges; Prostheses; Snap fits
Tensile strength (MPa): ~50
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 35 to 50
Hardness: ~Shore D 80
c) Polyamide (PA 12)
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLS, MJF
Applications: Connectors; Drones; Enclosures; Housings
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 41 to 48

159
160 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 15 to 20

Hardness: ~Shore D 80
d) Glass Bead Filled Polyamide
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: MJF
Applications: Fixtures; Tooling; Enclosures; Housings
Tensile strength (MPa): ~30
Elongation at break (%): ~10
Hardness: ~Shore D 82
e) TPU
Method: Extrusion; Powder bed fusion
Technology: FFF/FDM, SLS, MJF
Applications: Footwear, hoses, and tubes; Sealings
Tensile strength (MPa): ~10
Elongation at Break (%): ~250
Hardness: ~Shore A 90
f ) Silicone
Method: Vat polymerization; Material jetting
Technology: DLP, SLA, DOD
Applications: Sealings, molds, medical devices
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 6 to 9
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 160 to 800
Hardness: Ranging from Shore A 20 to 70
g) PEEK
Method: Extrusion; Powder bed fusion
Technology: FFF/FDM, SLS
Applications: Aerospace, medical, electrical
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 85 to 100
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 2.6 to 3
Hardness: Object and technology dependent
h) PEI
Method: Extrusion
Technology: FFF/FDM
Applications: Aerospace, automotive, electrical
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 70 to 80
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 3 to 6
Hardness: Object and technology dependent
i) Polypropylene
Method: Extrusion; Powder bed fusion
Technology: FFF/FDM, SLS
Applications: Low-friction mechanical parts and food packaging
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 20 to 25
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 20 to 75
Hardness: ~Shore D 65
Applications and Examples 161

j) Polycarbonate
Method: Extrusion
Technology: FFF/FDM
Applications: Brackets, fixtures, clamps
Tensile strength (MPa): ~57
Elongation at break (%): ~4.8
Hardness: ~Rockwell R 115
k) ABS
Method: Extrusion
Technology: FFF/FDM
Applications: Models, alignment jigs, light prototyping
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 33 to 41
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 4 to 6
Hardness: ~Shore D 109

7.1.2 Metal
Some of the most difficult 3D printing materials are metals. They also deliver ther-
mal properties and high strength. Most of those metals are suitable for various appli-
cations in several alloys.
a) Stainless Steel
Method: Extrusion; Binder jetting
Technology: FFF/FDM, BJ
Applications: Tools, gears, jewelry, miniatures, molds
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 521 to 582
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 36 to 55
Hardness: ~Rockwell B 71
b) Aluminum
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLM, DMLS
Applications: Spare parts, functional components
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 410 to 440
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 4 to 6
Hardness: ~Brinell HB 119
c) Titanium
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLM, DMLS
Applications: Biomedical implants and tooling, jewelry
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 1000 to 1200
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 7 to 11
Hardness: ~Rockwell B 40
d) Maraging Steel
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLM
162 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Applications: Furnace parts; Tooling

Tensile strength (MPa): ~1135
Elongation at break (%): ~11
Hardness: ~Vickers HV10 373
e) Cobalt-Chrome
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLM, DMLS
Applications: Engine parts; Furnace parts; Implants
Tensile strength (MPa): Ranging from 1050 to 1450
Elongation at break (%): Ranging from 8 to 28
Hardness: ~Rockwell C HRC: 35
f ) Tungsten
Method: Powder bed fusion
Technology: SLM
Applications: Balance weights, MRI
Tensile strength (MPa): N/A
Elongation at break (%): N/A
Hardness: Ranging from Vickers HV30 300 to 650

7.2 FINISHING PROCESSES
3D printing is a revolutionary emerging technology that enables manufacturers to
produce components fairly rapidly, in small batches, and with a high degree of flex-
ibility. Sometimes, though, when a component comes out of a printer, it needs to
undergo a surface finishing process before it’s ready for use, particularly if it’s a
consumer product or a plastic piece you’re going to use under harsh conditions.
For several of the same purposes, you can want to finish a 3D-printed component
by applying finishing processes to a product created using injection molding or other
manufacturing technology. Maybe you’ll finish it to:

• Improve its appearance

• Increase its durability by increasing its resistance to wear, corrosion, heat,
or other elements
• Clean the rough surfaces
• Change its size and shape
• Improve its electrical conductivity

These are only a few ways surface finishing can be useful. Although many of the same
reasons for using a surface finish apply to both 3D-printed parts and parts created
using more conventional methods, you should also recognize the specific features of
your part when selecting the surface finishing processes to be used. The manufactur-
ing process that you use will have an effect on these features, which may include:

• The material that your part is made of

• The shape of the part
Applications and Examples 163

• Its thickness
• Its weight

Its expected function and the environment will be exposed to when used.
In fact, the surface finishing of 3D-printed parts should be part of your design
process long before you have a finished product, as this step can be an integral part
of the product’s functionality. Below are some of the surface finishing processes that
you can consider when making parts using 3D-printing technology.

7.2.1 Plating
Plating means coating a metal surface with a plastic or metal substratum by subject-
ing the surfaces either to electrical current or to a chemical solution. The metal forms
used for the plating differ. On the first layer of plastic plating you will most likely
use nickel or copper, or even gold and silver. After that, you can apply almost any
metal, including:

• Platinum
• Chromium
• Tin
• Palladium
• Rhodium

The best metal for your project depends on which features you want to upgrade or
add to your printed component. Plating, whatever method or metal you use, has a
number of advantages when used with 3D-printed parts. Many of the components
produced by this technique are made of plastic, which has its advantages but leaves
the part susceptible to damage due to impact, wear, and other external factors. A
metal coating can enhance its strength and durability by providing a protective exte-
rior layer. A metal part can be used to improve resistance to corrosion, oxidation,
wear, and other factors, as well as to increase strength. This finishing technique
will enhance a printed item’s appearance too. The item may have an uneven color
or a slightly uneven surface coming out of the printer. Covering the ground with a
smooth, polished layer of metal offers a touch of beauty and sophistication. New
properties such as electrical conductivity and thermal transfer properties can also be
applied to your component by a metal sheet.

7.2.2 Sanding
Sanding is a surface finishing technique that is well known. It involves using rough
material such as sandpaper to smooth out and remove small imperfections from the
surface.
When you remove any 3D-printed items from the printer, one can see the thin
lines where each new layer begins. It does not matter for certain industrial products,
but for consumer goods, prototypes, and other things on display, when the product
164 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

is to be as esthetically appealing as possible. Sanding eliminates imperfections and

gives a surface that is smooth.
Sanding comes in handy when planning to apply any kind of coat to the surface
because it’s going to have to be smooth so that the coating comes out evenly. While
sanding is effective, one downside is that it can be time consuming, especially if
done by hand. Some spots, particularly small holes and undercuts, can also be dif-
ficult to reach.

7.2.3 Bead Blasting
Bead blasting is more effective for those hard-to-reach areas. In this process, you
use a spray gun to fire finely ground thermoplastics at the surface, blow away imper-
fections, and smooth out the surface in a manner similar to sanding. Bead blasting,
however, can be done in a much shorter time and can reach the inside of the channels
and other tricky spots.
As with sanding, bead blasting is useful for enhancing the product’s esthetics. It
will result in a smooth, matt surface. This is also an easy way to smooth out the sub-
stance before applying the coating so that it adheres correctly. If you are using bead
blasting, be sure to start at low pressure and slowly increase it if you need to stay too
long in any place. Pressure that’s too high or that stays on one spot for too long can
blow away too much of your part and create small divots.

7.2.4 Shot Peening
Shot peening is a method similar to bead blasting, but it is used with a specific target
in mind. Other than removing imperfections or unnecessary defects from the surface
of the product, this technique is primarily used to improve the strength and durabil-
ity of the part.
Pressurized air fires tiny metal or plastic beads on the surface at high speeds,
similar to bead blowing. These particles create small dimples on the surface of the
object under which the stress of compression is formed, and as the beads bomb the
component, the dimples begin to overlap.
The compressive stress, the type of stress that decreases the length of the object,
replaces the tensile stress in the object, which increases the length of the object. The
stress of compression makes the surface stronger and helps to resist fatigue, wear,
cracking, and cavity erosion.

7.2.5 Heat Treatments
3D-printed objects, whether metal or plastic, may also undergo one of several types
of heat treatment as part of the finishing process. Like shot peening, heat treatments
improve the material by reducing the stress strain. It compensates for the high and
low stress areas of the item, helping to avoid failure. You may also use heat treatment
to increase density or help shape the item to the final desired shape.
Applications and Examples 165

Following more normal heat treatments, which reduce tension and increase
energy, some artifacts may undergo hot isostatic pressing. Also called HIP, this heat
treatment eliminates pores and repairs any defects before the part reaches 100% the-
oretical density. This step is critical if the part is exposed to some harsh conditions or
if fatigue failure is likely to have serious consequences. This applies to components
which will be used in sectors such as:

• Aerospace
• Marines
• Medical
• Generation of power

Initial heat treatment normally takes place in a vacuum furnace, while HIP generally
occurs in a pressure vessel. However, some equipment can perform both functions
and use rapid cooling.

7.2.6 Vibratory Systems
Vibration systems can be used to process and polish multiple 3D-printed objects at
once. To use this process, position the items to be polished in a unit that contains a
ground-up material that is smoother than the 3D-printed component. This material
is often ceramic, plastic, corn cob, or synthetic medium. The vibratory unit is usually
tubular or bowl-shaped and may come in a variety of sizes. The unit pulsates until
the medium polishes the components repeatedly.
This technique is most commonly used for metal components because the polish-
ing medium must be softer than the component, but it can also be used to polish dif-
ferent types of heavy plastics. The biggest benefit is that you can finish several items
at once with minimum manual effort.
One downside is that this method can damage uneven edges and corners of the
piece. Because of this, it is mostly applied to round products or those with rounded
edges. This method is not as reliable as some others, because it finishes the whole
surface at once.

7.2.7 Tumbling
Tumbling is similar to vibration, except the components and the polishing medium
rotate around in the drum instead of vibrating. It is a gentler movement that makes
tumbling perfect for the more delicate sections and those with the finest details. The
unit used is sometimes referred to as a centrifugal barrel device. The same polishing
materials are used for tumbling as vibratory systems—ceramic, rubber, corn cob,
and synthetic materials. You can also finish several sections at once, as with vibra-
tion. Nevertheless, you need to be vigilant when combining various types of media,
as certain combinations cause inconsistency and result in uneven finishing or harm
to pieces.
166 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

7.2.8 Vapor Smoothing
Vapor smoothing is another method of removing the surface of printed piece, but
results in a glossy finish rather than a matte one. This sheen can be removed, how-
ever, if desired, with bead blasting or sanding. The vapor smoothing process uses a
solvent to melt the surface of your component. After putting the product in a vapor
chamber where it is exposed to a solvent, you immediately place it in a cooling cham-
ber to avoid the liquefaction. This cooling ensures that only the surface is melted and
the form of the object is preserved.
This method often fills any holes in the exterior of the product and seals the
surface, making it especially useful for products intended to hold liquids or gases.
Vapor smoothing cannot be used on any form of material, as it can cause harmful
chemical reactions in certain materials, including polycarbonate, polyphenylsul-
fone (PPSF), ULTEM 1010, and ULTEM 9085. Of course, you will also need a
chamber that fits your object, which can be restrictive when printing large compo-
nents in particular.

7.2.9 Solvent Dipping
The alternative to vapor smoothing is solvent dipping, which, as the name suggests,
calls for the part to be dipped into a solvent rather than exposed to a vaporized
solvent. This method may be useful if the component is bigger than the size of the
vapor chamber.
The findings are very similar to those of vapor smoothing, but it is more dif-
ficult to preserve dimensional precision since the solvent works more rapidly and
aggressively.

7.2.10 Epoxy Coating
The use of a solvent is not the only choice during the 3D-printing process for sealing
a part’s surface. You can also apply an epoxy coating to the surface of your item to
create an airtight seal around it which will also enhance high temperature resistance
to various chemicals. This approach is ideal for components that face harsh operat-
ing conditions. The epoxy coating is typically applied manually. Although this low-
ers costs as you do not have to buy costly equipment, it increases the time and energy
required to install it and makes it more suitable for limited manufacturing runs,
small parts, or products that need just a portion of their sealed surface. You may also
not have access to certain areas, such as internal channels and undercuts. It may also
not be ideal for parts requiring very precise dimensions, as the epoxy coating adds a
small amount of thickness to the part.

7.2.11 Epoxy Infiltration
Nonetheless, there is another form of epoxy application available that addresses
many of the drawbacks of manual epoxy application. In the case of epoxy
Applications and Examples 167

infiltration, you plunge the product into an epoxy resin and use a vacuum chamber
to draw the resin into the part so it can fill any pores. The seal formed by epoxy
infiltration is airtight and watertight, as well as high temperature and resistant to
many chemicals. The method takes about three hours to complete and requires
less manual labor, which means that it is more efficient for large parts and large
amounts of parts than to apply epoxy by hand. You can also avoid significant
changes in dimensions if the process is carried out precisely. The key drawback of
epoxy infiltration compared to the application of hand coating is its higher cost.
You need a vacuum chamber, an oven to pre-heat and cure the resin, and the cost
of the epoxy resin is also higher.

7.2.12 Painting
Another common finishing technique is painting, which improves esthetic appeal
and also has certain sealing properties, but it will not be airtight and resistant to
high temperatures and chemicals like more durable sealing methods. Although
the methods and effects of applying 3D-printed paint differ greatly depending on
its intended application, the key motive behind painting a product is usually an
esthetic one.
Often, before you add paint, the object is likely to have undergone various other
processes to smooth, seal, or otherwise finish it. Once you paint, you may want
to add a primer and fill any pores with body putty, which must be sanded down
to make the surface smooth again. Then you could put on another coat of primer
before applying one or more layers of paint and, finally, a clear coat to protect the
paint.

7.3 APPLICATIONS IN DESIGN
7.3.1 CAD Model Verification
The initial objective of the designers is the need for the physical part to confirm the
design of the CAD system. The parts or products to be designed shall be verified
whether or not the esthetic functions of the printed parts are fulfilled.

7.3.2 Visualizing Objects
Models built on CAD systems need to be easily visualized, generated, and sold
between designers and other departments. Simple visualization of objects allows all
those people in every conversation to refer to the same thing.

7.3.3 Proof of Concept
Proof of concept applies to adaptation, to specific details of the material environ-
ment, to esthetic aspects, and to specific details of the design concerning the practi-
cal performance of the material.
168 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

7.4 APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING, ANALYSIS, AND PLANNING

7.4.1 Scaling
Rapid prototyping technologies allow simple scaling down (or up) the size of the
model by scaling the original CAD model. In the case of designs with different hold-
ing capacities, the designer can simply scale the CAD model to the desired capacity
and display the renderings on the CAD program.

7.4.2 Form and Fit

Sizes, volumes, and forms must be considered from an asthetic and functional point
of view. How a part fits into a design and its environment are important aspects that
need to be addressed. The model will be used to determine how it meets both the
visual and functional requirements. Form and fit models are used in the automotive,
aerospace, consumer electronics, and appliances industries.

7.4.3 Flow Analysis
The designs of products that influence by air or fluid flow cannot be easily changed
if they are manufactured by conventional manufacturing methods. The original 3D
concept data can be stored in a virtual model and any adjustment in object data based
on different tests can be made with virtual help. Flow analyses are necessary for
products manufactured in the aerospace, automotive, biomedical, and shipbuilding
industries.

7.4.4 Pre-Production Parts
In cases where mass-production is implemented after the design of the prototype
has been tested and validated, pilot-production runs of ten or more parts are typi-
cal. Pilot-production parts are used to validate the design and specifications of the
tooling. Many of the rapid prototyping methods are capable of producing pilot parts
quickly, thus helping to shorten the process development time and thus accelerate the
overall time-to-market process.

7.5 APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING AND TOOLING

7.5.1 Direct Soft Tooling
This is where the mold tool is created directly by fast prototyping systems. These
methods may be used for liquid metal sand casting in which the mold is broken by
a single casting.

7.5.2 Indirect Soft Tooling

In this fast tooling process, a master pattern is first created using rapid prototyping.
Using the master design, the molding tooling can be made from a range of materials
such as silicone rubber, epoxy resin, low melting point metals, and ceramics.
Applications and Examples 169

7.5.3 Direct Hard Tooling

Hard tools produced by rapid prototyping systems have been a major research area
in recent years. The main advantage of hard tooling produced by rapid prototyping
methods is a fast turnaround time to create highly complex molding tools for high-
volume production. The rapid response to changes in standardized designs can be
almost instant.

7.5.4 Indirect Hard Tooling

Indirect hard tooling approaches use fast prototyping aid in a variety of ways. Many
of these processes remain largely similar in nature, with the exception of small dif-
ferences in the binding system formulations or the type of system used. Processes
include the rapid solidification process (RSP). Indirect methods for manufacturing
hard tools for plastic injection molding include using liquid metal casting or steel
powders in a binder system.

7.6 AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
3D-printing technology provides unparalleled versatility in product design and
development. 3D-printing technology in the aerospace industry has the ability to
manufacture lightweight components, enhanced and complex geometries which can
reduce energy requirements and resources. At the same time, it can lead to fuel sav-
ings using 3D-printing technology, as it will reduce the material used to manufac-
ture aerospace components. In addition, 3D-printing technology has been commonly
used in the manufacture of spare parts for some aerospace products, such as engines.
The engine part is easily damaged, requiring regular replacement. 3D-printing tech-
nology is also a good option for the production of these spare parts. In the aerospace
industry, nickel-based alloys are preferred due to their tensile properties, oxidation/
corrosion resistance, and damage tolerance (Figure 7.1).
The aerospace and defense (A&D) industry was one of the first to embrace 3D
printing, with the first application of technology dating back to 1989. Now, three
decades later, A&D represents 12% of the $7 billion additive manufacturing market
and contributes heavily to ongoing research efforts within the industry.
The advancement of AM within A&D is largely driven by key industry players,
including GE, Airbus, Boeing, Safran, and GKN. Such businesses and others have
described the value proposition that 3D printing brings to:

• Functional prototypes
• Tooling
• Lightweight components

As we can see, aerospace 3D printing is not limited to prototypes. Actual, functional

components are often printed in 3D and used in aviation. Examples of components
that can be produced with 3D printing include air ducts (SLS), wall panels (FDM),
and components of structural metal (DMLS, EBM, DED).
170 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.1  3D-printed aerospace parts.

7.6.1 The Benefits of 3D Printing for Aerospace and Defense

7.6.1.1 Low-Volume Production
3D printing is suitable for industries such as aerospace and defense, where highly
complex parts are manufactured in small quantities. Using technology, complex
geometries can be created without having to invest in expensive tools. It gives aero-
space OEMs and manufacturers a cost-effective way to manufacture small batches
of parts in a cost-effective manner.

7.6.1.2 Weight Reduction
Including aerodynamics and engine efficiency, weight is one of the most important
factors to be considered when it comes to designing an aircraft. Reducing aircraft
weight will reduce carbon dioxide emissions, fuel consumption, and payload sig-
nificantly. That is where 3D printing comes in: Technology is the perfect method
for producing lightweight parts, resulting in significant fuel economy. When paired
with design optimization tools such as generative design software, the component’s
potential to increase complexity is nearly infinite.

7.6.1.3 Material Efficiency
Since the 3D printing process works by creating parts layer by layer, most of the
material is used only where it is required. As a consequence, less waste is produced
than traditional subtractive methods.
The selection of available aerospace and defense 3D printable materials varies
from engineering thermoplastics (e.g. ULTEM 9085, ULTEM 1010, PAEK, rein-
forced nylon) to metal powders (high-performance alloys, titanium, aluminum, and
stainless steel). The variety of 3D printable materials available is constantly expand-
ing, allowing advanced aerospace applications.
Applications and Examples 171

7.6.1.4 Consolidation of the Part

One of the main benefits of 3D printing is the aspect of convergence: The ability to
combine several parts into one piece. Reducing the amount of parts available would
minimize the assembly and repair period considerably by reducing the time needed
for assembly.

7.6.1.5 Maintenance and Repair

The average lifespan of an aircraft can range from 20 to 30 years, making main-
tenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) an important function in the industry.
Metal 3D-printing techniques such as direct energy deposition are widely used
to repair aerospace and military hardware. Turbine blades and other high-end
devices may also be restored and repaired by applying material to the worn-out
surface.

7.7 AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
Nowadays, 3D-printing technology has drastically changed our industry to design,
develop, and manufacture new things. In the automotive industry, 3D-printing
technology has created phenomena that carry new shine, allowing for lighter and
more complex structures in a fast time. For example, the first 3D-printed electric
car was printed by Local Motors in 2014. Local Motors has also expanded the
wide range of applications of 3D-printing technology to the maker of a 3D-printed
bus called OLLI. OLLI is a driverless, electronic, recyclable, and extremely smart
3D-printed vehicle. In addition, Ford is a leader in the use of 3D-printing technol-
ogy and also applies 3D-printing technology to the production of prototypes and
engine parts. In addition, BMW uses 3D-printing technology to develop hand tools
for vehicle research and assembly. Meanwhile, in 2017, Audi cooperated with SLM
Solution Group AG in the development of spare parts and prototypes. As a result,
the use of 3D-printing technology in the automotive industry enables the company
to try out different alternatives and to emphasize right at the stage of improvement,
creating an ideal and efficient automotive design. At the same time, 3D-printing
technology can reduce material waste and consumption. In addition, 3D-printing
technology can reduce costs and time, making it possible to test new designs in a
very fast time.
The automotive industry is a growing user of additive manufacturing: In 2018
alone, the automotive 3D-printing market was estimated to be worth $1.4 billion.
This figure is only set to increase, as the market is projected to reach $5 billion by
2023, according to one study. Across fields such as motorsports and performance
racing, techniques such as generative design and topology optimization are slowly
changing traditional approaches to parts design. While prototyping continues to
be the main application of 3D printing in the automotive industry, companies are
increasingly finding other applications, such as tooling. In addition, many automo-
tive companies are beginning to find creative end-use applications for 3D printing,
which represent an exciting trend for the industry (Figure 7.2).
172 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.2  3D-printed automotive engine parts.

7.7.1 The Benefits of 3D Printing for Automotive

7.7.1.1 Faster Product Development
Prototyping has become a vital part of the product development process, providing a
way to check and verify the parts before they are made. 3D printing provides a sim-
ple and cost-effective approach to the design and manufacture of components. When
the need for tools is reduced, product teams will greatly shorten product develop-
ment cycles.

7.7.1.2 Greater Design Flexibility

The ability to produce designs quickly gives designers more flexibility when testing
multiple design options. 3D printing allows designers to make quick design changes
and modifications within a fraction of the time.

7.7.1.3 Customization
3D printing offers a cost-effective and flexible way for automakers to produce cus-
tomized parts. In the luxury and motorsport segment of the market, businesses are
now using the technology to manufacture custom parts for both the interior and
exterior parts of a car.

7.7.1.4 Create Complex Geometries

With the majority of car components requiring complex geometries such as internal
channels (for conformal cooling), thin walls, and fine mesh, AM makes it possible to
produce highly complex parts that are still lightweight and durable.

7.8 JEWELRY INDUSTRY
An unexpected use of 3D printing is in the apparel industry. 3D-printed jewelry has
become a popular niche for those looking for a unique look. With the advent of 3D
Applications and Examples 173

printers, jewelers can experiment with designs and not limited to using conventional
jewelry-making methods. In addition, 3D printers make it cheaper to manufacture
individual, unique pieces of jewelry or customize pieces for customers. Jewelry
manufacturing is one industry that embraces 3D printing. Most jewelers now use
technology to challenge the way things have been done for decades. Usually 3D
printing is used to make jewelry using two methods: investment casting and direct
printing.

7.8.1 Investment Casting
The investment casting process is one of the most common methods of producing
jewelry via 3D printing. Parts are created by investment casting through an eight-
step process:

1. Pattern formation: This was traditionally done by pouring a special cast of

wax into a metal mold. The 3D printing also allows direct printing of the
pattern from wax or castable resin (Figure 7.3).
2. Mold assembly: The molded or printed pattern is then assembled on a
“casting tree.” This allows multiple parts to be cast at the same time. Some
3D-printing methods disrupt this step by printing part patterns and a tree in
one step (Figure 7.4).
3. Shell building: Upon completion of the pattern assembly, the entire assem-
bly is immersed in slurry several times. The slurry coating is then left to dry
and solidify, forming an outer ceramic layer over the pattern (Figure 7.5).
4. Burnout: The structure is then put inside the furnace and the original wax/
resin structure is melted/burned resulting in a hollow negative mold (cavity)
(Figure 7.6).
5. Pouring: When all the original pattern material has been removed from the
negative ceramic, the final casting material is poured into molds and left to
cool and solidify. Parts are often cast in brass and electroplated in precious
metals during the finishing stage (Figure 7.7).

FIGURE 7.3  Pattern formation process.

174 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.4  Mold assembly process.

FIGURE 7.5  Shell building process.

Applications and Examples 175

FIGURE 7.6  Burnout process.

FIGURE 7.7  Pouring process.

176 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

6. Knock off: The outer ceramic mold must be removed. This is usually done
by vibrating the mold to knock off the outer shell (Figure 7.8).
7. Cut off: Once the ceramic shell has been fully removed, the individual cast
objects are cut off from the mold tree (Figure 7.9).
8. Finishing: The cast parts then go through traditional jeweler finishing tech-
niques (Figure 7.10).

There are many criteria for 3D-printing technology for the efficient development of
jewelry molds for investment casting. These are:

• Engineering must be capable of manufacturing products with a very high

degree of detail and minute, intricate features.
• At the burnout/melt stage, the material used to print the pattern must be
completely removed. The remains of the original pattern material have a
negative effect on the consistency of the final cast product. Due to this,
strict burnout procedures are in place for most 3D-printed castable resins
(Figure 7.11).

7.8.2 Direct Printing
A much less common method of manufacturing jewelry by 3D printing is the direct
printing of parts made of metal powder. Parts may be printed by means of gold,

FIGURE 7.8  Knock off process.

Applications and Examples 177

FIGURE 7.9  Cut off process.

FIGURE 7.10  Finishing process.

silver, or platinum alloys and then require a large amount of post-processed finish-
ing. Direct jewelry printing is generally more expensive than investment casting,
even for single pieces, and requires a very high level of precious powder manage-
ment. DMLS/SLM, direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), or selective laser melting
178 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.11  A cast jewelry tree before removal of the parts from the tree.

FIGURE 7.12  Jewelry produced via metal 3D printing still attached to the build plate and
showing support material.

(SLM) are powder bed melting techniques used in the production of metal parts. For
the accurate production of DMLS/SLM pieces, a large amount of support must be
provided during printing. High temperatures result in high levels of stress, meaning
that parts are often susceptible to warping or deformation. This leads to the need for
significant post-processing to remove the support and finish the surface where it was
attached (Figure 7.12).

7.9 COIN INDUSTRY
The value of 3D printing is greatest when used to produce the coveted “impossible
objects.” Direct precious metal 3D printing has best demonstrated this in the jewelry
Applications and Examples 179

sector, where the process has opened up unique design and weight-loss capabilities.
So what happens when you introduce this level of innovation to a completely differ-
ent traditional industry like coin making?
Cooksongold, part of the Heimerle + Meule Group, has a long history of produc-
ing precious metal products for the jewelry and watchmaking industries. In 2014, in
collaboration with EOS, the company introduced the Precious M 080, an advanced
manufacturing technology that allows the user to create complex jewelry and watch
components in the Advanced Precious Metal Powder range: 18k gold, 950 Platinum,
and 925 Silver.
In its most recent project, technology has been used to tackle another type of
industrial production—the mint. Cooksongold already supplies blank coins to a
number of mints around the world, which then hit the coins with their own images.
With that, the supplier of precious metals decided to set itself the challenge of print-
ing the world’s first truly 3D image directly onto the face of an existing blank coin
using a different alloy.
To accomplish this, the building foundation was first milled to house the current
18k yellow gold coin blank. Using a CAD image of the “crown” design, the image
was 3D printed in 20-micron layers using 500 g of 18k white powder directly on
the coin. The 3D-printing process of precious metal melted the powder directly to
the surface of the coin, ensuring a strong bond between the metals. Using a special
manufacturing method, it was possible for the coin to have undercuts and display a
true 3D image that is simply not possible using conventional stamping techniques
(Figure 7.13).

FIGURE 7.13  3D-printed coin.

180 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

7.10 TABLEWARE INDUSTRY
As 3D-printing technology continues to improve, consumers suddenly find the abil-
ity to manufacture their own products. While 3D desktop printing has its limitations,
there are a lot of useful objects that can be created right at home.
There have been 3D ceramic printers in the past, but most of them have been
printed in very poor materials, with information that leaves a lot to be desired. Such
printers have never been able to print useful, reliable tableware, such as teacups,
bowls, etc.
The world’s first 3D ceramic tableware printer was created by Bristol University
students. The printer from the University of West England currently prints a por-
celain content much superior to what has been seen with previous printers. The
machine will be very attractive to artists, designers, and manufacturers of tableware
and other ceramic products. The entire process of printing, glazing, and firing each
piece may still take a few days, but those in the ceramics industry are used to such
waiting times (Figure 7.14).

7.11 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) APPLICATIONS

The geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to collect, store, pro-
cess, interpret, handle, and present spatial or geographical data. GIS applications are
tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-generated searches), analyze
spatial data, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations. GIS
(more commonly GIScience) sometimes refers to geographic information science
(GIScience), the science behind geographic concepts, applications, and systems.
Since the mid-1980s, geographic information systems have become a valuable tool
used to support a variety of urban and regional planning functions.
Similar to 2D maps, 3D GIS maps represent objects in more detail by adding
another dimension (z). The 3D technology of GIS maps is an explanatory representa-
tion of the size of real-world objects. 3D models assist in the presentation of surveys
in a large number of different domains. For example, 3D maps can show the height
of a hotel or a mountain, and not just its location. The 3D tools must be used along
with the 2D GIS and then configured in a 3D setting.

FIGURE 7.14  (a) Bowl set; (b) Salt and pepper shaker.
Applications and Examples 181

There was a time when more than one program was required to view objects on
the streets and in different parts of the city. The modern geographic information
system (GIS) has changed the dynamics of Geographic and Earth Sciences. With
the advent of a digital medium, the modern GIS interface allows its users not only to
envisage and analyze, but also to handle spatial facts and figures.
Over the years, GIS has had a significant impact in creating mapping as a key tool
to solve problems. Conventionally, GIS information was based on a two-dimensional
recording, which apparently limited its use in most applications. The incorporation
of 3D technology in GIS customizes the entire experience, making it more personal
and enabling detailed visualization (Figure 7.15).
Let us look at some of the applications of 3D GIS:

i) City planning: Today, most cities face a shortage of basic amenities such as
water, electricity, and living space. The issues can be attributed to an incor-
rect allocation of resources. Incorporating 3D technology into GIS can help
government agencies, architects, and engineers plan, evaluate, and analyze
how certain changes in the city will look and how they can meet the needs of
future generations. A typical 3D model will consist of construction details,
satellite imagery, and traffic data that urban planners would use to efficiently
identify potential approaches and resolve emergency situations efficiently.
ii) Building information modeling: Building information modeling (BIM) is
an important technology that depicts the settings of the real-world envi-
ronment. The integration of BIM and GIS offers the requisite know-how

FIGURE 7.15  Geographic information system (GIS).

182 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

to build a robust model. The combination of 3D GIS and BIM can help to
produce error-free building management plans that would eventually allow
for a more detailed analysis of the data.
iii) Coastal modeling and analysis: Coastal areas are important because they
connect a country to the rest of the world for trade. Globally, coastal areas
face major threats and construction problems. It is important for planners to
recognize what all factors affect the construction and conservation of ports,
fisheries, and mining operations. Efficient and effective 3D GIS resource
planning can provide some level of understanding in the economic and
environmental movements along the coast.
iv) Disaster response: 3D GIS can help people and societies better deal with
natural disasters. In the event of a disaster, accurate mapping will give a
broad understanding to disaster response teams by making them aware of
the area in which they would be working. It will also require the collection
of details such as:
• Precise coordinates of the conflict point and the fastest way to get there
• Description of the environment, including the type of terrain
• An alternate path for safe evacuation

7.12 ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

Trained architects, engineers, and construction (AEC) recognize the essential value
of reliable and practical scale models. It helps them and their clients to visualize
ideas realistically and vividly. Modern methods of designing and constructing scale-
models are time-consuming, expensive, and rely heavily on a handful of professional
craftsmen.
3D printing is intended to revolutionize the way architects approach architecture
and innovate. 3D printing for architects enables them to easily create complex, accu-
rate, and durable scale models quickly and cost-effectively. Magnificent 3D-printed
architectural scale models will help architects attract their clients by creating more
opportunities. This can be done in-house, in a matter of clicks (Figure 7.16).

FIGURE 7.16  3D-printed architect design.

Applications and Examples 183

7.12.1 Benefits of 3D Printing for Architects

Many leading model manufacturers and architectural firms have already reaped the
benefits of 3D printing in architecture. 3D-printed architectural scale models accu-
rately reflect the final appearance of the design, rendering the design visible, leaving
a lasting visual impression. The following advantages are offered by 3D printing for
architects:

• Save time and money: One of the key advantages of 3D printing for archi-
tects is time-saving and cost-effectiveness. In contrast to traditional meth-
ods, 3D-printed architectural scale models can be developed in a matter
of hours. Conventional methods take several days, several man-hours, and
professional craftsmen, adding to the expense.
• Seamless integration: Many architectural companies now have in-house
design teams that use CAD applications. 3D printers can easily interact
with these applications in order to accurately make scale models without
the presence of human error, thereby seamlessly incorporating them into
the design process.
• Added design possibilities: 3D printers allow architects to design freely
without worrying about human error in the final production. 3D-printed
architectural scale models are impeccably accurate. This freedom empow-
ers architects to push the boundaries of design while allowing multiple cop-
ies to be rendered faster than ever before.
• Better perspective: No number of drawings, blueprints, or digital 3D mod-
els can replicate the “real-life” viewpoint provided by 3D-printed archi-
tectural scale models. Architects can identify, test, and evaluate the scale
model for design flaws by taking pre-construction corrective action. These
visually attractive scale models can also be used in promotions and presen-
tations to customers.

7.13 CONSTRUCTION
3D printing offers a variety of technologies that use 3D printing as the main means
of constructing buildings or building components. 3D-printing technologies used on
a construction scale include extrusion (concrete/cement, wax, foam, and polymers),
powder bonding (polymer bonding, reactive bonding, sintering), and additive weld-
ing. 3D printing in construction has a wide range of applications in the residential,
commercial, industrial, and public sectors. The advantages of these technologies
include allowing for more complexity and accuracy, faster construction, lower labor
costs, greater functional integration, and less waste.
The first fully finished 3D-printed residential building was built in Yaroslavl,
Russia, in 2017. 600 elements of the walls were printed in the shop and assembled
on site, followed by the completion of the roof structure and interior decoration for
a total area of 2985 square meters (3213 sq. ft.). This project is the first in the world
whereby the entire technological cycle had passed on building requirements, from
184 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.17  Largest 3D-printed building.

design, building permits, registration, to the integration of all engineering systems.

The building wasn’t built just for presentation; it’s a real building, with normal fami-
lies living there today.
Concrete 3D printing has been in progress since the 1990s as a faster and cheaper
way to build buildings and other structures. Large 3D printers designed specifically
for printing concrete can pour foundations and build walls on site. They can also be
used for printing modular concrete parts, which are later installed on the job site.
In 2016, the first pedestrian bridge was printed in 3D in Alcobendas, Madrid,
Spain. It was printed in micro-reinforced concrete with a length of 12 meters (39 ft.)
and a width of 1.75 meters (5.7 ft.). The bridge illustrates the complexities of nature
and has been designed for both parametric (using a set of rules, values, and rela-
tionships that guide the design) and computational design, allowing for an optimal
distribution of materials while maximizing structural performance.
The first large-scale application of 3D-printing technology in the field of civil
engineering in a public space was a landmark in the international construction
industry.
3D printing is used to create architectural scale models, allowing a quicker turn-
around of the scale model and increasing the overall speed and complexity of the
artifacts produced (Figure 7.17).

7.14 FASHION AND TEXTILES

The growth in fast fashion already has disrupted the seasonality of the fashion indus-
try, and 3D printing has the power to further accelerate production. It also allows
Applications and Examples 185

consumers to get involved in designing of the clothes they wear. Because 3D printing
works well with hard materials, it has been introduced to the fashion industry with
jewelry, shoes, and ornamentation. Brands like Adidas, Reebok, and New Balance
have all launched 3D-printing initiatives.
On the jewelry front, Lockheed Martin filed a patent application for a 3D printer
that produced synthetic diamonds in 2016. Another company, Sandvik, prints dia-
monds using composite materials. While the applications for composite diamonds
are manufacturing-focused (e.g. drills), the technology could eventually spread to
consumer diamonds. Many fashion houses, enabled by 3D-technology companies
such as CLO, are now using 3D scanning and 3D printing to create custom products.
Designer Iris Van Herpen unveiled a collection of 3D-printed clothes during the
Paris Fashion Week 2018 show.
Despite the potential of 3D printing in the fashion industry, there are limitations
to what it can do with soft materials and non-geometric shapes. Some envisage a
hybrid future in which 3D printing works in tandem with traditional methods to
leverage the best of both worlds (Figure 7.18).

FIGURE 7.18  3D-printed textile.

186 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

7.15 WEAPONS
In 2012, Defense Distributed, a US-based group, announced plans to “[design] a
working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anyone with a 3D
printer.” Defense Distributed also designed a 3D printable AR-15 type rifle lower
receiver (capable of more than 650 rounds in duration) and a 30-round M16 maga-
zine. The AR-15 has multiple receivers (both the upper and lower receiver), but the
legally controlled part is the one that is serialized (the lower part, in the case of
the AR-15). Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the first work-
ing blueprint for the production of a plastic 3D printer gun in May 2013, the US
Department of State requested that the instructions be removed from their website.
After Defense Distributed released its plans, questions were raised about the poten-
tial impact of 3D printing and widespread consumer CNC machining on gun control
effectiveness.
In 2014, a man from Japan became the first person in the world to be jailed for
making 3D-printed weapons. Yoshitomo Imura posted online videos and gun blue-
prints and was sentenced to two years in prison. In his home, the police found at least
two weapons capable of shooting bullets (Figure 7.19).

FIGURE 7.19  3D-printed weapons.

7.16 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
The shape and material of the instrument influences the sound it makes. Although
3D printing has yet to see substantial progress in the music industry, it may allow for
new possibilities for instrument design, composition, and sound.
Applications and Examples 187

FIGURE 7.20  3D-printed guitar.

Instrument makers have started experimenting with 3D printing, revealing inven-

tions such as a titanium violin and a range of custom string instruments.
Printed tools will become more popular as 3D-printing technology evolves to
work with more materials outside of plastic and metal (Figure 7.20).

7.17 FOOD
The 3D printer is an exciting tool that produces three-dimensional artifacts. The
printer creates an item by placing the printing medium in layers. Instead of using
ink as a medium, many consumer level 3D printers use melted plastic that solidi-
fies almost immediately after it is released from the printing nozzle. However, other
printing media are available, including a relatively new one—powdered or liquid
food material. Sugar, liquid chocolate, and puréed food have all been used to create
new food items with interesting and complex shapes and patterns. For certain situa-
tions, the use of a 3D printer to manufacture a food item is simpler than the creation
of a food item by hand.
In the near future, 3D food printers may have additional benefits. NASA has part-
nered with a Texas company to develop a more capable printer type. The printer
would be able to mix powdered material with liquid to create a wide range of foods.
The aim of NASA is to increase the quality, stability, and protection of food pro-
vided to astronauts while in space. It will be especially important during deep space
188 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.21  3D-printed food.

missions. It has been proposed that the new printer could also reduce world hunger.
Experimentally, another form of food printer was used to produce meat (Figure 7.21).

7.18 MOVIES
3D-printing technology is changing almost every area of our lives. It is used in medi-
cine, in the automotive sector, in architecture, and now also in the film industry. 3D
printing enables the creation of unique props in a fast and extremely accurate man-
ner. This is crucial when you expect realism on screen, but also science-fiction. 3D
printing allows directors to bring their wildest visions to life.
The first time you watch a movie, you probably just want to get swept away and
get caught up in an adventure. It’s only later when you let the photos tumble in your
mind that you start to think about it on other levels.
You might think of the weapons, the various objects that are integral to the story,
the animated figures, the cool vehicles, or the outrageous costumes. You might won-
der how they made them or how they came to look so real.
For more than a decade, 3D printing (or additive manufacturing) has been used
by film industry craftsmen. In the last few years, however, the industry has rapidly
expanded and become more mainstream. 3D printing has continued to offer better
resolution, faster production times, and a variety of available materials—all of which
are important for film making.
Film production teams often turn to professionals outside the studio to get the
right skills to deliver what they need. Other times, they will acquire 3D-printing
technology and use it to further streamline the process and gain control over every
aspect and detail (Figure 7.22).
Applications and Examples 189

FIGURE 7.22  3D-printed props used in a movie.

7.19 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A PROSTHETIC

HAND THROUGH 3D PRINTING: CASE STUDY
Mr. Mukul Pande is a Director (IT Infrastructure) at Gaikwad-Patil Group of
Institution, Nagpur (MS), India. A prosthetic robot hand is his personal project initiated
with authors of this book working at Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering
and Technology (TGPCET), Nagpur (MS), India. The objective of this case study was
to create a freely-available, three-dimensional (3D) printable prosthetic hand. Current
3D-printed prosthetic hand designs are openly available and inexpensive to produce
with a 3D printer; however, these prosthetics are also prone to failure. Tolerance issues,
printing errors, and poor instructions lead to a significant number of prosthetics that
cannot be assembled, do not work correctly, or break with light use.
The aim was to provide a solution to these problems through the use of equation-
based scaling and proper instructions. Resizing available 3D-printed prosthetics
does not always work, as holes and joints will scale with the rest of the device by the
same amount, reducing functionality when larger or smaller than the initial design.
190 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.23  Types of wrist movements.

There are two main methods of operation for these prosthetics: Wrist powered
and elbow powered. A decision was made to focus on wrist powered devices, as
they are more common and provide another joint of movement. These devices work
by the wearer bending down their wrist, allowing the tensioning cables to pull the
fingers closed. Releasing the wrist allows elastics to return the fingers to a resting
state. This specific prosthetic is intended for users with a moving wrist that has at
least part of their palm attached to the device. The design scales using equations
to scale different features at different rates, and a provided text file allows for vari-
able editing. It is also as reliable and easy to assemble as currently available hands
(Figures 7.23–7.26).
This project was initiated in June 2017 as the first 3D-printed open source pros-
thetic robotic hand and it has led to many projects in the area of 3D printing and
its applications. This case study was done on a TEVO-Tarantula I3 Aluminum 3D
printer with a 2 roll filament 8GB SD card, LCD, and extruder supports 25 filaments.
This kind of robot hand is replicable on any FDM 3D printer with a 20 × 20 ×
22cm area. This idea was conceived as a development platform for the laboratory
established at Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology,
Nagpur, India, which is one of the most unique laboratories in central India
(Figures 7.22–7.30).
This human-sized robot hand provides an appearance with five fingers and a grasp-
ing function to forearm and is entirely printed with 3D printing and has replaced the
gripper of the Pick and Place 6 axis articulated industrial robot (Model: ARISTO
6XT Machine NO. 147). It provides a realistic appearance that is the same as the cos-
metic prosthetic hand and a grasping function. A simple link mechanism with one
linear actuator for grasping and 3D-printed parts achieve low cost, light weight, and
Applications and Examples 191

FIGURE 7.24  Bones in the hand.

FIGURE 7.25  Case study Picture 1.1. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)
192 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.26  Case study Picture 1.2. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)

FIGURE 7.27  Case study Picture 1.3. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)
Applications and Examples 193

FIGURE 7.28  Case study Picture 1.4. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)

FIGURE 7.29  Case study Picture 1.5. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)

ease of maintenance. In this case each finger of the robot hand is activated through
threads passed through it and synchronized with the drive motors of industrial robot
and to perform the pick and place operation for the products with payload capacity
of 2 kg. The sketching was performed with this 3D-printed robot synchronized with
an articulated industrial robot (Figures 7.31 and 7.32).
194 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 7.30  Case study Picture 1.6. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)

FIGURE 7.31  Case study Picture 1.7. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)

7.19.1 Conclusion
7.19.1.1 Prototype Assessment
Testing of the final prototype confirmed that Mr. Mukul Pande and the authors of the
book, Dr. G.K. Awari and Mr. V.V. Ambade, were successful in completing the main
objectives of the case study. The prototype, shown in the figures, conforms to the pre-
viously laid out design specifications. After performing a series of tests, the prosthetic
was able to hold a cell phone, hold and throw a tennis ball, and it was operating with
Applications and Examples 195

FIGURE 7.32  Case study Picture 1.8. (Courtesy: TGPCET, Nagpur, India.)

the industrial robot available in the laboratory. Through a number of design iterations,
printability, ease of assembly, tolerance, and esthetics were improved.

7.20 EXERCISES
1. Discuss different materials and their material relationship.
2. Explain the finishing processes.
3. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in design.
4. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in engineering, analysis, and
planning.
5. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in manufacturing and tooling.
6. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the aerospace industry.
196 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

7. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the automotive industry.

8. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the jewelry industry.
9. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the coin industry.
10. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the tableware industry.
11. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in geographic information system
(GIS) applications.
12. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in arts and architecture.
13. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in construction.
14. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in fashion and textiles.
15. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the weapons industry.
16. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in musical instruments.
17. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the food industry.
18. Discuss the applications of 3D printing in the movie industry.

7.21 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Tensile strength of polyamide (PA 6) (in MPa) ranges from
a) 38 to 66
b) 25 to 45
c) 15 to 25
d) 65 to 85
Ans: (a)
2. Tensile strength of polyamide (PA 11) (in MPa) is
a) 40
b) 50
c) 60
d) 70
Ans: (b)
3. Tensile strength of polyamide (PA 12) (in MPa) ranges from
a) 21 to 31
b) 31 to 41
c) 41 to 48
d) 51 to 61
Ans: (c)
4. Tensile strength of glass bead filled polyamide (in MPa) is
a) 30
b) 40
c) 50
d) 60
Ans: (a)
5. Tensile strength of silicon (in MPa) ranges from
a) 1 to 2
b) 3 to 4
Applications and Examples 197

c) 5 to 6
d) 6 to 9
Ans : (d)
6. Tensile strength of polypropylene (in MPa) ranges from
a) 10 to 15
b) 15 to 20
c) 20 to 25
d) 25 to 30
Ans: (c)
7. Tensile strength of aluminum (in MPa) ranges from
a) 310 to 400
b) 410 to 440
c) 450 to 480
d) 490 to 510
Ans: (b)
8. Tensile strength of aluminum (in MPa) ranges from
a) 800 to 1000
b) 1000 to 1200
c) 1300 to 1500
d) 1600 to 1800
Ans: (b)
 8 Additive Manufacturing
Equipment

8.1 PROCESS EQUIPMENT—DESIGN AND PROCESS PARAMETERS

Each metal AM product has its own unique set of product requirements. The selec-
tion of process parameters to satisfy these product specifications is complicated by
an enormous number of process parameters. There is no “Machinist Manual” for
creating metal additive manufacturing (AM) products. Seven distinct AM process
categories, an ever-increasing base of AM-compatible materials and material suppli-
ers, and a wide range of process inputs, formulating the right parameters for appli-
cation requires a level of expertise that is not widely available. As a matter of fact,
material-unique, one-size-fits-all process parameters are typically applied.
Here is a step-by-step approach to help you select the optimum process parameters:

• Set the requirements of your product and understand the trade-offs

• Choose your AM method
• Change the configuration of your method
• Choose and qualify your feedstock
• Choose your process parameters and understand the trade-offs
• Validate the parameters of your process
• Help you identify a printing partner on a scale (if required)

8.1.1 Seven Distinct AM Processes

Additive manufacturing is the method of applying 3D printing to industrial produc-
tion that enables products to be manufactured without joints and with minimal post-
processing. During this process, multiple materials can be used, making it easy to
create new products with minimal waste and lower material costs. There are seven
additive manufacturing techniques available. Each of them varies due to the materi-
als, layering, and machine technology needed.

8.1.1.1 Powder Bed Fusion

This method of additive manufacturing uses either a laser or an electron beam to
melt and fuse the powder material together to manufacture the products. Here are the
variations between the two forms of powder bed melting:

• Laser Powder Bed Fusion: Laser powder bed fusion uses a laser to heat
powdered material into 3D objects. After a layer of powder has been indexed,
a new layer of powder is spread to continue the process. Ultimately laser
powder bed fusion technique does not require support of other methods.

199
200 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

• Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion: This type of powder melting bed
is used to melt the particles together in specific areas. The beam can be
manipulated very quickly, which speeds up the overall process by allowing
multiple melt pools to occur simultaneously.

8.1.1.2 Directed Energy Deposition

In the case of directed energy deposition (DED), powder or metal wire is used with
an energy source to add material or to fuse a material onto an existing part or to cre-
ate a new part. Here are the three types of energy-directed deposition:

• Laser DED: Laser DED deposits powder on the material while the beam
is melting at the same time. This process can produce much faster build-up
speeds than traditional laser powder bed fusion.
• Arc DED: An EWI specialty that is more dynamic than any other additive
manufacturing process. Arc DED is suitable for large constructions. The
advantage for manufacturers is that there are existing arc-welding robots
and power supply systems.
• Electron Beam DED: EB-DED allows incredibly quick production of large
parts, which gives it an advantage over other additive manufacturing types.
The process is used in heavy machinery, manufacturing, mining, and aero-
space industries to produce large, low-volume components.

8.1.1.3 Binder Jetting
Binder jetting additive manufacturing uses an ink-jet printing head to print a binder
on a powder that “binds” the metal particles together in a green state. The parts are
then extracted from the powder bed and must undergo a de-binding and sintering
process (in the oven) to make the parts completely dense and rough. Parts usually
shrink by 20–25% during sintering.

8.1.1.4 Sheet Lamination
This type of additive manufacturing connects the sheets of material to form part of
it. There are two types of sheet lamination additive production:

• Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing: This type of sheet lamination uses

ultrasonic vibrations to weld metal tapes together until it is capable of form-
ing objects.
• Friction Stir Welding: Using friction stir welding improves the proper-
ties of the material when each layer is stirred. This creates diffusion and
reduces the size of the grain for a secure bond.

8.1.1.5 Material Extrusion
Filament or thermoplastic material is used for the production of parts in material
extrusion. The filament (or thermoplastic) is heated in this process, and then layered
continuously through the nozzle to produce the final product or component. New
items are available inside the plastic “rods” which are extruded with metal filler. The
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  201

parts then move through the process of de-binding and sintering to produce metal
bits, like binder jetting.

8.1.1.6 Material Jetting
In this additive manufacturing process, new materials are available that have a metal
filler inside the plastic rods which are extruded. The parts then move through the de-
binding and sintering process, like binder jetting, to create metal pieces.

8.1.1.7 Vat Photopolymerization
In contrast to other types of additive manufacturing, vat photopolymerization uses
liquid resin. This photopolymer resin is applied layer by layer, and then the UV light
hardens the resin to make the final part or object.

8.1.2 Designing for 3D Printing

All parts produced using a 3D printer must be designed using some kind of CAD
software. This type of production depends mainly on the quality of the design of the
CAD and also on the precision of the printer. There are several types of CAD soft-
ware available, some of which are free, others require you to purchase the software
or have a membership or subscription. Selecting what kind of CAD software is per-
fect for you will depend on what you are designing. However, any of the free CAD
software packages will do for beginners who simply want to learn CAD and create
basic shapes and features.
The following points must be kept in mind when designing a part to be printed
in 3D:

• The part needs to be a solid part, that is, not just a surface; it needs to have
a real volume.
• The production of very small or delicate features may not be properly
printed, depending on the type of 3D printer that will be used.
• Supports will be required for parts with overhanging features to be properly
printed. This should be taken into account as the help needs to be removed
after the model has been cleaned. This may not be an issue unless the part
is very delicate, because it might break.
• Be sure to calibrate the 3D printer before using it; it is essential to ensure
that the part is properly attached to the built-in plate. If it isn’t, the compo-
nent may be lost at some point and the whole print job may be destroyed.
• Some thought should be given to the orientation of the component, since
some printers are more accurate on the X and Y axes than the Z-axis
(Figures 8.1 to 8.3).

8.2 GOVERNING BONDING MECHANISM

This is aimed at describing the most critical factor governing the formation of bonds
related to the ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) bonding mechanism.
202 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 8.1  2D CAD model.

8.2.1 Overview of the Bonding Process

There are three stages in the ultrasonic additive manufacturing bonding process.
In the first stage, the surfaces to be welded are drawn together by normal com-
pression of the sonotrode. At the microscale, asperity tips are brought into con-
tact and plastically deformed by the combined effect of normal stress caused by
normal compression and interfacial shear stress caused by interfacial vibration.
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  203

FIGURE 8.2  Extruding process.

FIGURE 8.3  Revolving process.

Simultaneously cracks are produced in brittle surface oxides due to the difference in
hardness between hard oxides and pure metals. The metal becomes even softer and
the plastic regions are formed as the ultrasonic energy and the plastic and frictional
heat dissipate into the material, making it easier to dissolve the surface oxides.
In the second stage, the metal-to-metal contact area increases and the interfacial
voids are closed by the plastic flow as the welding cycle proceeds. Meanwhile, the
broken oxides are carried by the metallic flow and dispersed to the edge of the weld-
ing zone.
In the third stage, a strong bond is formed across the interface where surface
oxides are removed and metallic contacts are maintained. The bonds already formed
are maintained by a plastic deformation that accommodates the interfacial vibration.
The three stages of the bond cycle take place within very short time periods and are
thus difficult to distinguish. For modeling purposes, the underlying assumption can
be derived from the generalized three stages: Plastic deformation promotes bond-
ing by dispersing surface oxides and contaminants, increasing contact areas of pure
metal, and maintaining the bonds already formed.
204 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

8.2.2 Bond Mechanisms
The bonding mechanism of the UAM has been studied for decades, but no uniform
conclusion has been reached. As a bonding mechanism, metallurgical adhesion is
endorsed by several researchers. The theory states that atom layers move across the
bond interface and form “adhesive” bonds due to Van der Waals forces under inti-
mate metal–metal contact. Intimate contact requires surface asperities and adjacent
bulk material to undergo elasto-plastic deformation for the removal of surface oxides
and the generation of metallic flows that fill the valleys between asperities. Diffusion
through the welding interface is reported by some researchers on the basis of evidence
of high strain rate plastic deformation observed. The high strain rate is expected to
dramatically increase diffusion by rising vacancy concentrations within materials. In
addition, the high vacancy concentration resulting from the high strain rate is expected
to significantly lower the melting temperature of the material, allowing localized melt-
ing to occur. Recrystallization is also proposed as a source of bonding. The grains
are observed to become finer in aluminum and copper after the UAM phase, suggest-
ing the occurrence of recrystallization. Severe plastic deformation and temperature
increase due to continuous input of ultrasonic energy are believed to provide the nec-
essary conditions for recrystallization. Mechanical interlocking is reported by a few
researchers who have studied the bonding of dissimilar materials as one material being
soft and the other hard. Severe deformation of plastic is observed in soft material. In
summary, plastic deformation is defined as the main factor regulating the bonding
cycle. Specifically, it plays a vital role in the formation of bonds at all stages:

1) At the beginning of the bonding cycle, plastic deformation is observed in a

thin layer of pure metal (~20 μm thick) below the surface oxides. The metal-
lic flow helps to break up brittle oxides and disperse broken fragments.
2) When the oxides are removed and the pure metals are in contact, the plastic
deformation of the asperity increases the metal-to-metal contact areas and
the metallic flow closes the voids, resulting in a more complete, intimate
foil contact and higher bonding quality.
3) When bonds are partially formed, layers of metal (20–60 μm thick) below
bonded sites are believed to undergo plastic deformation in order to accom-
modate differential motion and to protect the bonds from breaking up.
Moreover, although the exact bond mechanism is still subject to debate
among researchers, plastic deformation is shown to improve bonding irre-
spective of the theories in use: Metal adhesion, diffusion, recrystallization,
mechanical interlocking, and localized melting. As a result, it can be con-
cluded that plastic deformation is a critical factor in the promotion of bond
formation regardless of its causes.

8.3 COMMON FAULTS AND TROUBLESHOOTING

There are a lot of 3D printing troubleshooting issues that are bound to come up when
we use machines. Some of the most common 3D-printing problems with the solu-
tions in 3D printing are as follows.
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  205

8.3.1 The Printer Is Working but Nothing Is Printing

8.3.1.1 The Problem—Out of Filament
You have correctly designed the model in the slicing program, but nothing seems to
happen; there’s absolutely no printing going on. You have repeatedly sent a print to
the printer, but all you get in return is a filament spit coming out of the nozzle, or
may be the model is about to be printed, and out of nowhere the filament extrusion
starts running, but the nozzle keeps going, printing nothing (Figure 8.4).

8.3.1.2 The Cause
While this problem is obvious on machines that have their filament reel in full view,
like the PRUSA i3, there are machines that are not designed with exposed filament
reels, such as the MOOZ, Ultimaker, and Robox, which will make it a little difficult
to immediately detect the problem. These types of 3D printers either have their fila-
ments encased or hidden at the back of the printer.

8.3.1.3 The Solution
The 3D-printing troubleshooting process here is relatively simple. No matter what
type of 3D printer you use, all you have to do is remove the remaining file and load
the new material. Check the filament reel for loading in another reel if there is no
material at all.

8.3.2 Nozzle Is Too Close to the Print Bed

8.3.2.1 The Problem
You’ve loaded the filament perfectly, and nothing seems to be wrong with the print
head, but there’s no filament on the print surface (Figure 8.5).

FIGURE 8.4  Filament.

206 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 8.5  Nozzle too close to the print bed.

8.3.2.2 The Cause
Simply put, the nozzle and the print bed may be too close to each other. You may have
accidentally turned your print bed a little away from your nozzle opening, thereby
giving the melted filament little room to exit. The best case ideal situation with this
issue is that your print will possibly miss its first few layers and the opportunities of
it not sticking when the filament does not extrude will be high. In case of worst situa-
tion, the printer’s hot-end will have a buffer of a molten filament which will certainly
increase the chances of a blockage.

8.3.2.3 The Solution
There are two main ways to do this with 3D-printing troubleshooting:

i. The Z-axis offset: This technique involves raising the nozzle a little bit.
Most 3D printers have Z-axis offset settings in their system settings. With
this setting, you can raise your nozzle a little high from the printing bed by
setting a positive value to the Z-axis. Putting a negative value in the Z-axis
offset setting will help you to resolve sticking issues, that is, if your prints
don’t stick to the print bed. Therefore, you need to make sure that when you
set a value, it’s not too high for your prints to stick to the bed.
ii. Lower the bed: This is an alternative solution, as not all 3D printers allow
the printing bed to be lowered. If printer allows this to happen, you can do it
to fix this problem. It’s a more upsetting fix, though, given that you’re going
to have to level and recalibrate your bed.

8.3.3 Over-Extrusion
8.3.3.1 The Problem—Print Looks Droopy and Stringy
Simply put, this common 3D-printing problem simply means that the printer uses
more material than it requires; thus, it creates more material than is required. Printed
versions are likely to have excess materials on them (Figure 8.6).
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  207

FIGURE 8.6  Over-extrusion.

FIGURE 8.7  Incomplete and messy infill.

8.3.3.2 The Cause
Essentially, the setting of the Flow or Extrusion multiplier in your slicing program
is higher than usual.

8.3.3.3 The Solution
To troubleshoot this 3D-printing problem, go to your slicer program and test the set-
tings of your Extrusion multiplier. Ensure that you have selected the correct value. If
everything seems to be all right, then go to the Flow settings and decrease it.

8.3.4 Incomplete and Messy Infill

8.3.4.1 The Problem
Your print’s internal structure is either broken or missing (Figure 8.7).
208 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

8.3.4.2 The Cause
To be frank, there are a number of reasons why the internal structure of your model
can be broken or missing. While the most common one is that your slicing program
has incorrect settings, a slightly blocked nozzle may also cause this problem.

8.3.4.3 The Solution
Take a look at the fill density—open your slicing software and take a look at the fill
density. The best value is 20%; if the value is less than that, you’re bound to encoun-
ter problems. However, if you’re running large prints, you might want to raise this
value to ensure that the model you’re about to print is supported enough.

8.3.5 Warping
8.3.5.1 The Problem—Bending
The printed model bends upward at the base until it no longer aligns with the print-
ing platform. This results in the print being unplugged on the printing bed and the
horizontal cracks developing in the upper parts of the printed models (Figure 8.8).

8.3.5.2 The Cause
Warping or cracking occurs because it is a natural characteristic of plastics. When
your PLA or ABS filament begins to cool down, it gradually begins to contract. If the
plastic cooling process happens too quickly, it results in warping or bending.

8.3.5.3 The Solution
There are different ways to troubleshoot this 3D printing issue.

1. Use a heated platform—it is the simplest solution; all you need to do is set the
heated platform to a glass transition temperature (a temperature just below
the melting point of the plastic). You can do this by using the slicer program

FIGURE 8.8  Warping.

Additive Manufacturing Equipment  209

and you can easily change the required filament temperature to the spool or
wrapping of your filament. If you set the appropriate temperature, the first
layer will remain flat on the surface.
2 . If the calibration of the print platform is not right, you are bound to encounter
this issue. So what kind of 3D-printing troubleshooting tip is going to work
here? Well, all you have to do is level the print by checking the calibration
again, make sure the bed is aligned, and the nozzle height is perfect.

8.3.6 Messy First Layer

8.3.6.1 The Problem
This is another common 3D-printing issue faced by many users. The first layers of
printing are always troublesome. Problems are usually a non-stick print, or the bot-
tom shell has an incorrect look due to unwanted lines. Also, instead of getting a fine
detail on the bottom of your print, you find a blurry, congealed design that doesn’t
look like a surface design (Figure 8.9).

8.3.6.2 The Cause
The blurred and undefined detail on your print simply means that the temperature
of the printing bed is too high. Unwanted lines arise as a result of the nozzle and the
bed being too far away, blobs occur if the nozzle is too close to the bed. In addition,
a non-stick print is the product of a bed that has not been properly leveled.

FIGURE 8.9  Messy first layer.

210 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

8.3.6.3 The Solution
Reduce the temperature of the bed and by lowering the temperature by five degrees
at a time; continue to reduce the temperature until the desired adhesion result is
achieved without losing any detail.

8.3.7 Elephant’s Foot
8.3.7.1 The Problem
Elephant’s foot is a 3D-printing term that corresponds to the outward bulge of the
base of the model. Simply put, it’s when the printing bows or curves at the bottom
(Figure 8.10).

8.3.7.2 The Cause
This usually happens when the weight of the model is pressing down on its base
before it cools back to solid.

8.3.7.3 The Solution
Another 3D-printing troubleshooting tip you can use is to ensure that the base layers
are cool enough to support the top structure. You need to make sure that the cooling
is just the right level, since too much cooling causes the base layers to be warped.
You might find this part tricky, but the easiest way to do this 3D-printing trouble-
shooting process is to lower the printing platform’s temperature by 5°C intervals to
about plus or minus 25°C of the recommended temperature. If the bottom/top thick-
ness is set to 0.6 mm, you can start the fan at a height slightly lower than that.

FIGURE 8.10  Elephant’s foot.

Additive Manufacturing Equipment  211

8.3.8 Print Looks Deformed and Melted

8.3.8.1 The Problem
This issue is one of the most frequently asked questions in our 3D-printing FAQ. The
filament has a highly resilient feature of all forms of misconfiguration, which makes
it difficult for users to identify when the hot-end of their 3D printer is overheating.
You just notice uneven layers, and when you take a closer look at the cabin, you’ll
see that the model is melted while you get something on the chimney that’s close to
the wax that’s melted down the candle (Figure 8.11).

8.3.8.2 The Cause
The cause of the problem is an overheated hot-end. The temperature of your printer
needs to be properly balanced to allow the filament to flow well and to allow it to
solidify quickly. The balanced temperature will also make it possible to place the next
layer on a more solid surface. However, before you adjust the temperature, make sure
that the correct material is set up for the printer. If you check the material settings
and everything looks fine, then all you might need to do is make a slight adjustment.

8.3.8.3 The Solution
i. Check if your material settings are correct. Proper material temperature
settings range from 180°C to 260°C.
ii. Reduce the hot-end temperature of printer. This can be done with the hot-
end temperature settings of software or printer. Reduce the temperature by
five degrees Celsius, depending on the temperature recorded.

8.3.9 Snapped Filament
8.3.9.1 The Problem
Nothing comes out of the nozzle, but you can see it’s full when you look at the
filament spool and the feed tube seems to have some filament in it too. Bowden

FIGURE 8.11  Deformed and melted print.

212 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

feed printers are unique to this problem; it is not usually found in direct feeds. That
is because normally the filament is covered, so that you can’t see it immediately
(Figure 8.12).

8.3.9.2 The Cause
This problem can be caused by different factors but the most common one is cheap
or old filament. Although it’s true that most ABS and PLA filaments have a long
lifetime, if held in bad weather, they may become brittle, once they go wrong, then
when they are fed to the printer, no amount of change will make them right.

8.3.9.3 The Solution
i. Try to make use of another filament. If you find the same problem after
the filament has been reloaded, try using another script. This would let you
know if the brittle filament is actually causing the problem.
ii. Check the temperature and flow rate of your printer. This simply means that
if the problem persists, check to see if the hot-end is at the right temperature
and gets as hot as per suitable range. You should also check to see if the flow
rate of the filament is no more than 100%.

FIGURE 8.12  Snapped filament.

Additive Manufacturing Equipment  213

8.3.10 Getting Cracks in Tall Objects

8.3.10.1 The Problem
You get cracks on the sides of your models, particularly when you’re making taller
models. This is considered to be one of the most surprising problems that can be
experienced in 3D printing. That is because it usually appears in bigger prints, which
typically happens while you’re not looking (Figure 8.13).

8.3.10.2 The Cause
The reason for this problem is that the materials cool down faster in the higher layers
of your print. The heat produced by the printing bed does not reach the upper pieces,
making the upper layers less adhesive.

8.3.10.3 The Solution
Increase the extruder temperature by 10°C. Take a look at the side of the filament’s
box, you’ll find the recommended temperatures for the hot-end. Try to keep your 3D
printer’s temperature setting within these values.

8.4 PROCESS DESIGN
The category of process design consists of research aimed at describing how the
design is prepared for production. Liu and Rosen (2010) divide the process design

FIGURE 8.13  Cracks in objects.

214 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

into three steps: Component orientation, slicing, and process variable optimization.
Jin et al. (2017) added the, steps generation, path generation and post-processing
steps to the definition of AM process design.
The choices made will have an effect on what the best design of the part (and
probably the system) would look like, and iterations are therefore important. The
exact steps to be taken in the process design step could be argued, but all steps from
design to manufacturing are discussed in this review. In this review, the three catego-
ries of support structure, manufacturing settings, and AM simulation of manufactur-
ing are chosen.

8.4.1 Creation End Evaluation of Support Structure

In the case of metal powder bed fusion, the AM support structure needs to be
added in overhanging regions. The added support structure adds extra material to
the manufacturing process, which adds production time, waste material, and post-
processing time for the removal of the structure. Overhanging regions and the addi-
tion of support structures also create worse surface structures compared to other
areas. In order to minimize the support required for the construction of a part, there
are three alternatives: Optimization of the form and location of the support struc-
ture, optimization of the build direction, and modification of the design to make the
part self-supporting. The support structure is directly linked to the choice of con-
struction direction during development. Leutenecker-Twesiek et al. (2016) underline
the importance of an early decision on part orientation for a product manufactured
using AM. The purpose is to allow the implementation of design rules and guide-
lines that enable the development of self-supporting components and reduce the
amount of support structure. Automated methods for choosing the best construction
path to minimize the amount of support structure are described in (Strano et al.,
2013a, 2013b) and (Zwier and Wits, 2016). Das et al. have merged various output
goals for multi-objective optimization. In one analysis, the amount of support struc-
ture is minimized and the error of the part produced due to the effect of the stairs
is minimized.
The amount of support structure and build-up time is minimized in another study.
The creation of a support structure could be carried out in different ways and is often
based on some mathematical algorithm that analyzes geometry in combination with
the construction direction. Challenges in the design of a support structure include
identifying areas that need support, reducing the amount of support, providing sup-
port with adequate mechanical properties (structural strength and heat dissipation),
and providing support that is easy to remove.

8.4.2 Additive Manufacturing Preparation

The preparation step of the additive manufacturing process is to set up the sys-
tem before the manufacturing process is carried out. This includes manufactur-
ing settings that are highly relevant to the result of the part produced with AM.
Nonetheless, it is difficult to provide an outline of the subject and there are no
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  215

general guidelines. The types of settings that are available depend on which
machine and which software is used to control the machine. Which settings are
optimal also depends on the material, the geometry, and whether the other compo-
nents are made at the same time. The manufacturing settings could be divided into
four types: Energy-related, scan-related, powder-related, and temperature-related.
Energy-related settings include energy source power, spot size, pulse duration, and
pulse frequency. Scan-related settings include scanning speed, scanning spacing,
and scanning pattern. Powder-related settings are connected to the substance used
and include the shape and size of the particle as well as how the powder is dispersed
and the thickness of the coating used. Temperature-related parameters include the
temperature of the powder bed, the feeder, and the temperature consistency. Both
parameters are highly dependent on each other, and changing one would also affect
the other parameters. Many additive manufacturing companies use standard set-
tings for various materials and machines, making it difficult for the design engineer
to change the settings. Instead, the most common way is to change the design if
there are manufacturing errors. In a perfect future, the design phase would involve
a feedback loop where geometry and manufacturing settings are managed together
to optimize the device as a whole.

8.4.3 Validation of Build Time and Cost

The estimation of the construction time of the part is crucial in order to be able to
calculate the cost of production. In the area of cost simulations for additive manu-
facturing, Costabile et al. (2017) carried out a comprehensive review of the different
research studies and concluded that, no matter which AM technique is used, the cost
model looks similar. Several different models are highlighted and presented in more
detail. Chiu and Lin (2016) investigated the possibility of producing a simulated
business case to determine whether or not a product is suitable for conversion to AM,
including a cost model combined with design for additive manufacturing to optimize
costs based on design and production techniques.

8.4.4 Additive Manufacturing Simulation

Numerous methods have been used in both research and commercial applications
to model the additive manufacturing process, resulting in efficiency, surface qual-
ity, and dimensional accuracy of the final component. Bikas et al. (2016) divided
the simulation approaches into three categories—analytical, numerical, and empiri-
cal—on the basis of which principle is used. Analytical simulation models are based
on physical laws that have the advantage that they can be easily adapted to different
processes, machines, and machine settings.
However, they are limited by the initial observations that need to be made in order
to apply the laws of physics. The analytical method is focused on observation and is
therefore reliable for the exact set-up of the test, but is more difficult to adjust to other
devices and set-ups. The numerical approaches attempt to combine the two other
methods and start with an analytical model that is combined with a numerical model.
216 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

8.5 LOW COST, RAPID DEPLOYMENT WIRELESS PATIENT

MONITORING SYSTEM DEVELOPED WITH ADDITIVE
MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT: CASE STUDY
Mr. Summet Gattewar is the Director of Pye Technologies India and he has initiated
this venture as Pye Technologies India, which is a Nagpur-based startup that has
indigenously developed a low-cost wearable device to meet the patient monitoring
requirements of the COVID-19 pandemic in India. COVID-19 in India is going to be
a very different challenge than China, Italy, France, and the United States owing to
its higher population density and lower healthcare infrastructure. The Government
of India is taking extreme steps to control the spread of coro
navirus in India. However, if the number of COVID-19 patients in India increases,
there will be a need to set up temporary ICU wards and isolation zones. Efforts
to establish isolation wards have already begun, but the patient monitoring needs
of these wards are difficult to meet given the high cost of monitoring equipment
ranging from forty thousand to two lacs of rupees per bed, and the large quantity
required.
Health monitoring systems have rapidly evolved during the past two decades and
have the potential to change the way health care is currently delivered. Although
smart health monitoring systems automate patient monitoring tasks and thereby
improve the patient workflow management, their efficiency in clinical settings is still
debatable. This case study presents a review of smart health monitoring systems and
an overview of their design and modeling with 3D printing.
For the patient monitoring requirements of COVID-19 in India, a low cost
device—a wrist band—is designed and developed using 3D printing. This watch
monitors three medical parameters viz. blood oxygen saturation, heart rate, and
body temperature. The band communicates wirelessly to a central station which
captures and stores data. This data can be viewed and analyzed remotely with the
help of cloud platform. Multiple bands can be monitored centrally on site using
our dashboard which opens on any standard desktop or mobile device. Doctors
can monitor patients’ parameters in real time, view trends, and get notifications
for cases which need attention. The complete system has also been tested for the
cloud.
The following hardware, which has been indigenously developed at Pye
Technologies India, costs around Rs. 10,000 per patient. The system is based on
wireless communication which ensures high scalability and rapid deployment for
creating temporary wards or isolation zones equipped with real time patient moni-
toring capability (Figures 8.14 to 8.16).
This prototype was developed on low-cost in-house developed CNC machines
which also utilizes the various parts printed with FDM 3D printing (Figures 8.17
and 8.18).
The device was tested at New Era Hospital and Research Institute, Lakadganj,
Nagpur under the supervision of Dr. Anand Sancheti. The device was found to be
acceptable and has been recommended by doctors on the basis of the field tests
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  217

FIGURE 8.14  Case Study picture 8.1. (Courtesy: Pye Technologies, India.)

FIGURE 8.15  Case Study picture 8.2. (Courtesy: Pye Technologies, India.)
218 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 8.16  Case Study picture 8.3. (Courtesy: Pye Technologies, India.)

FIGURE 8.17  Case Study picture 8.4. (Courtesy: Pye Technologies, India.)

carried out. Furthermore, a critical analysis of the efficiency, clinical acceptability,

strategies, and recommendations on improving current health monitoring systems
has been tested. The main aim is to review the current state of the art monitoring
systems and to perform extensive and in-depth analysis of the findings in the area of
smart health monitoring systems developed through 3D printing.
Additive Manufacturing Equipment  219

FIGURE 8.18  Case Study picture 8.6.

8.5.1 Conclusion
Finally, major advances in the system design level and current issues facing health
care providers have been investigated, and the potential challenges to the health
monitoring field have been identified and compared to other similar systems. The
results demonstrated by Mr. Summet Gattewar, along with the authors of the book,
suggested that the proposed system could be comparable to medical grade devices.
The patent on a low-cost, rapid deployment wireless patient monitoring system has
been filed and mass production is expected to start to sustain the effects of COVID-
19 in India.

8.6 EXERCISES
1. Name the design and process parameters of process equipment and briefly
explain seven distinct AM processes.
2. Explain the designing for 3D printing and factors to be considered when
designing for 3D printing.
3. Explain in detail the governing bonding mechanism.
4. Discuss the common faults and troubleshooting in 3D printing.
220 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

8.7 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1 . Parts produced using a 3D printer must be designed using some kind of
a) CATIA software
b) ProE software
c) CAD software
d) Manual design
Ans: (c)
2. Elephant’s foot is a 3D-printing term that corresponds to the ________________
bulge of the base of the model.
a) Outward
b) Inward
c) Curved
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)
3 . Choose the remedy to reduce the chance of a messy first layer.
a) Increase the temperature of the bed
b) Reduce the temperature of the bed
c) Increase the temperature of the nozzle
d) Reduce the temperature of the nozzle
Ans: (b)
4 . Select the solution to reduce the chance of getting cracks in tall objects.
a) Decrease the extruder temperature by 10°C
b) Increase the bed temperature by 10°C
c) Decrease the extruder temperature by 10°C
d) Increase the extruder temperature by 10°C
Ans: (d)
5. If I have a model with hands that stand out for the sides, what do I have to
turn on to print it?
a) Raft
b) Structure
c) Supports
d) Fixture
Ans: (c)
6. If I want to quickly make a cup and only use a spline/line to create it. Which
tool do I use to make it 3D?
a) Sweep
b) Loft
c) Extrude
d) Revolve
Ans: (d)
 9 Post-Processing

9.1 INTRODUCTION
AM parts also require post-processing to enhance surface finishing and mechanical
properties. For metals, the dimensional precision of additive processes is not yet
adequate to produce a component that can reach tight tolerances without further pro-
cessing. Many AM processes need post-processing to prepare the component for its
intended shape, fit, and function after partial construction. Depending upon the AM
procedure, the explanation for post-processing varies. This chapter will concentrate
on post-processing techniques for convenience purposes which are used to enhance
components or address AM limitations. These include:

• Support material removal

• Surface texture improvements
• Accuracy improvements
• Asthetic improvements
• Easy to use as a pattern
• Improvements to properties using non-thermal techniques
• Enhancements in property using thermal techniques

There are a number of process parameters that can be varied to influence the physi-
cal, mechanical, thermal properties, cost, speed, and quality of an AM component.
The combination of process parameters coupled with post-processing directly influ-
ences the microstructure (e.g. grain size, porosity, cracking density), and mechanical
properties, such as tensile, fatigue, and creep properties.
The willingness of numerous AM professionals to conduct post-processing is
one of the most distinguishing characteristics of competitive service providers.
Companies that can effectively and accurately post-process parts to the customer’s
specifications will often charge a premium for their services, whereas companies
that compete solely on price can compromise post-processing quality in order to
reduce costs.

9.2 SUPPORT MATERIAL REMOVAL

Support removal is the most common type of post-processing in AM. Help materials
can be loosely divided into two categories:

(a) Material that surrounds the part as a naturally occurring by-product of the
construction process (natural supports) and
(b) Rigid structures that are designed and built to support, restrain, or attach
the part that is being built to the building platform (synthetic supports)

221
222 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

9.2.1 Natural Support Post-Processing

Until usage, the part must be separated from the surrounding material in pro-
cesses where the part being manufactured is entirely encapsulated in the building
material.
Processes which provide natural support are primarily processes based on pow-
der and surface. In particular, both processes of powder bed fusion (PBF) and binder
jetting require removal of the part from the loose powder surrounding the part; and
processes of bond-then-form sheet metal lamination require removal of the encap-
sulating sheet material. In polymer PBF processes, it is usually important to allow
the component to pass through a cool-down stage after the component has been con-
structed. The part will remain inside the powder to reduce the distortion of the com-
ponent due to non-uniform cooling. The cool-down time depends on the building
material and the scale of the part(s). When cool-down is complete, many methods are
used to separate the part(s) from the surrounding loose powder. The entire structure
(made of loose powder and fused parts) is usually removed from the machine as a
block and transferred to the “breakout” station where the pieces are separated manu-
ally from the powdered material surrounding it. Brushes, compressed air, and light
bead blasting are widely used to extract loosely bound powder; also, woodworking
devices and dental cleaning tools are generally used to extract powders that have
been sintered to the surface or powder that has been trapped in small channels or
features. Internal cavities and hollow spaces can be difficult to clean, and can take
considerable time after processing.
Natural support removal methods for binder jetting processes are the same as
those used for PBF, except for extended cool-down periods. Components made
from binder jetting are in most cases brittle out of the system. Therefore, the pieces
must be treated with caution before the pieces have been strengthened by infiltra-
tion. It also applies to post-infiltration PBF materials, such as other elastomeric
materials, investment casting materials from polystyrene, and green sections from
metal and ceramics. More recently, automated processes for extracting material
have been developed, which can be stand-alone or incorporated into the build
chamber. One of the first ZCorp (now 3D Systems) binder jetting machines with
this capability is shown in Figure 9.1. Several metal PBF machine manufactur-
ers have also begun to integrate semi-automated powder removal techniques into
their devices. Current trends suggest that a number of future PBF and binder jet-
ting machines may implement some form of automated powder removal after part
completion.
Bond-then-form sheet lamination processes, such as Mcor machines, also
require the removal of natural support material prior to use. When using complex
geometries with overhanging components, internal cavities, channels, or fine fea-
tures, it can take time to remove the support. When enclosed cavities or channels
are formed, de-laminating the model at a particular z-height is often necessary to
gain access to the internal de-cube feature; and then re-gluing it after removing
excess support materials. An example of LOM de-cubing operation is shown in
Figure 9.2.
Post-Processing 223

FIGURE 9.1  Automated powder removal using vibratory and vacuum assist in a ZCorp 450
machine.

FIGURE 9.2  LOM support removal process (de-cubing), showing: (a) The finished block
of material; (b) Removal of cubes far from the part; (c) Removal of cubes directly adjacent to
the part; (d) The finished product.

9.2.2 
Synthetic Support Removal
Processes that don’t support components necessarily need synthetic support for over-
hanging features. For certain cases, for example, synthetic supports are also needed
to withstand distortion when using PBF techniques for metals. Synthetic supports
may be made from a material of construction or a material of secondary significance.
The production of secondary support materials has been a critical step in simplifying
the removal of composite supports, as these components are either engineered to be
softer, dissolve in a liquid solution, or melt at a lower temperature than the build-
ing material. The part’s orientation toward the primary axis of the building greatly
affects support generation and removal. For example, if a thin part is laid flat, the
amount of support material used may considerably exceed the amount of build mate-
rial (see Figure 9.3).
Support orientation often affects the surface finish of the part, as the removal of
the support usually leaves “witness marks” (small bumps or divots) where the sup-
ports were attached. In addition, the use of support in regions with small features
may cause these features to be broken when the support is removed. The orientation
and location of the supports is therefore a key factor in the achievement of desirable
finished part characteristics in many processes.
224 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 9.3  The flat FDM-produced aerospace part white build material is ABS plastic
and the black material is the water-soluble WaterWorks™ support material.

FIGURE 9.4  Breakaway support removal for: (a) An FDM part; (b) An SLA part.

9.2.2.1 Supports Made from the Build Material

All material extrusion, material jetting, and vat photopolymerization processes need
support for overhanging structures and for connecting the component to the con-
struction platform. Since these processes are used mainly for polymer parts, the
low strength of the supports enables them to be removed manually. These forms of
support are also commonly referred to as support for breakaways. Removing the
supports from the downward-facing features leaves traces on witness where the sup-
ports were connected. It may include subsequent sanding and polishing of these
surfaces. Figure 9.4 demonstrates the breakaway removal techniques for parts made
from extrusion material and vat photopolymerization techniques.
PBF and DED processes for metals and ceramics often typically require support-
ing materials. An example of a dental framework, designed to prevent the removal of
support from the vital surfaces, is shown in Figure 9.5.
For these methods, metal supports are often too strong to be extracted by hand;
thus, the use of milling, bandsaws, cutting blades, wire-EDMs, and other metal
Post-Processing 225

FIGURE 9.5  SLM dental framework.

cutting techniques is commonly used. The components made by electron beam melt-
ing have fewer supports than those made by metal laser sintering, as EBM keeps
the part at high temperatures throughout the construction process and induces less
residual stress.

9.2.2.2 Supports Made from Secondary Materials

Over the years, a number of secondary support materials have been developed to
reduce the labor-intensive manual removal of support materials. Two of the first
techniques to use secondary supporting materials were the Cubital layer-wise vat
photopolymerization process and the Solidscape surface jetting process.
The use of wax support materials made it possible for the support block/build to
be placed in a warm water bath; therefore, the melting or dissolving of the wax pro-
duces the final parts. Since then, secondary supports have become common commer-
cially in material extrusion (Figure 9.3) and material jetting processes. Secondary
support for form-then-bond sheet metal lamination and DED processes in research
environments has also been demonstrated. The most common secondary support
materials for polymers are polymer materials that can be melted and/or dissolved
in a water-based solvent. Water can be jetted or ultrasonically vibrated to accelerate
the recovery process. For metals, lower melting-temperature alloys or alloys are the
most common secondary support materials that can be chemically dissolved in a
solvent (in this case, the solvent does not influence the build material).
226 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

9.3 SURFACE TEXTURE IMPROVEMENTS

AM parts have common surface texture characteristics that may need to be changed
for esthetic or performance reasons. Popular undesired surface texture features
include: Stairway, powder adhesion, filling patterns from extrusion material or DED
systems, and testimonial marks from support material removal. Stair-stepping is a
key issue in layered production, although a thin layer thickness may be chosen to
minimize error at the expense of construction time. Powder adhesion is a key feature
of binder jetting, PBF, and powder-based DED processes.
The amount of powder adhesion can be regulated to some degree by changing
the orientation of the part, the morphology of the powder, and the thermal control
technique (e.g. by modifying the scan pattern).
The kind of post-processing used to improve the texture of the surface depends on
the desired finish. If a matte surface finish is required, a simple surface bead blast-
ing will help even the texture of the wall, remove sharp edges from the stairs, and
give an overall matte appearance. If a smooth or polished finish is required, wet or
dry sanding and hand polishing shall be carried out. In certain situations, it is best
to paint the surface before sanding or polishing (e.g. with cyanoacrylate or sealant).
Painting the surface has the dual benefit of sealing the porosity and smoothing the
stair-step effect through viscous forces, making sanding and polishing simpler and
more efficient.
Many automated techniques have been explored to improve surface texture. Two
of the most commonly used are tumbling for external characteristics and abrasive
flow machining, mainly for internal functions. Such processes have been shown to
be smooth on the surface, but at the cost of small feature resolution, good corner
retention, and accuracy.

9.4 ACCURACY IMPROVEMENTS
Between AM processes, there is a large variety of accuracy capabilities. Several pro-
cesses are capable of submicron tolerances, while others have precision of around 1
mm. Usually, the higher the build volume and faster the build speed, the worse the
precision. It is especially evident, for example, in directed energy deposition pro-
cesses where the slowest and most reliable DED processes have accuracy of a few
microns; while larger bulk deposition machines have accuracy of several millimeters.

9.4.1 Sources of Inaccuracy
Process-dependent errors affect the X–Y plane accuracy differently than the Z-axis
accuracy. These errors arise from the positioning and indexing limitations of par-
ticular system architectures, the lack of closed-loop process monitoring and control
techniques, and/or issues that are fundamental to the volumetric rate of material
addition (such as melt pool or droplet size). However, for many operations, accuracy
depends heavily on the operator’s abilities. Future improvements in AM accuracy
will require fully automatic real-time monitoring and control systems, rather than
Post-Processing 227

relying on expert operators as feedback mechanisms. Additive plus subtractive pro-

cessing integration is another method for improving process accuracy.
Material-dependent anomalies also play a role in precision, including shrink-
age and residual stress-induced distortion. Reproducible shrinkage and distortion
can be compensated by scaling the CAD model; however, predictive capabilities
are currently not accurate enough to fully understand and compensate for varia-
tions in shrinkage and residual stress depending on the scan pattern or geometry.
To improve these predictive capabilities, quantitative understanding of the effects
of process parameters, design style, component orientation, support structures, and
other factors are required on the magnitude of shrinkage, residual stress, and distor-
tion. Furthermore, additional material must be applied to the essential features for
parts that require a high degree of precision, which are then extracted by milling
or other subtractive methods to achieve the desired accuracy. To satisfy the needs
of applications where the advantages of AM are required with the accuracy of the
CNC machined component, a rigorous strategy may be implemented to achieve this
accuracy.
One such technique involves pre-processing the STL file to compensate for inac-
curacies that are followed by the finishing of the final portion. The following sections
describe the steps that need to be considered when developing a detailed finishing
machining strategy.

9.4.2 Model Pre-Processing to Compensate for Inaccuracy

The location of the part within the build chamber and the orientation will affect the
precision of the part, the surface finish, and the construction time for many AM pro-
cesses. Then, translation and rotation operations are applied to the original model to
improve the component’s position and orientation. During the AM time, shrinkage
also occurs. Shrinkage often occurs during post-process furnace operations required
for indirect processing of green metal or ceramic pieces. Pre-process manipulation
of the STL model will make it possible to use a scale factor to compensate for the
average shrinkage of the process chain. Nonetheless, when the average shrinkage is
compensated, there will always be some features that decrease slightly more or less
than the average (shrinkage variation).
In order to compensate for shrinkage variance, if the maximum shrinkage value
is used, the ribs and similar features will always be at least as large as the desired
geometry. But the channels and holes will be too large. Therefore the easy use of the
greater shrinkage value is not an acceptable solution. To ensure that there is enough
material left on the surface to be machined, the original model must be replaced with
“skin.” This removal of skin, such that material is left to the machine everywhere,
can be called making the “steel-safe” component.
Several studies have shown that differences in shrinkage rely on geometry,
even when applying the same post-processing parameters for AM or furnace.
Shrinkage variance compensation also requires offsetting of the original model to
ensure that even the features with the highest shrinkage rates and all channels and
holes are steel-safe. There are two principal methods for applying the skin to the
228 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

part’s surface. The first is offsetting the surface, and then recalculating all surface
intersections.
Although most common, this technique has many disadvantages for triangular
facets shaped STL files. In response to these drawbacks, an algorithm developed to
offset all the individual vertices of the STL file using the normal vector information
for the connected triangles, and then to reconstruct the triangles using the new ver-
tex values, has been developed. In the STL file, each vertex is commonly shared by
several triangles whose normal vector unit is different. When offsetting the vertices
of a graph, the new value of each vertex is determined by the normal unit values of
its related triangles.
Suppose V ⃗ offset is the unit vector from the original position to the new position
of the vertex to be moved, and N1, N2……Nn is the unit of the normal vectors of the
triangles which share that vertex; V ⃗ offset can be determined by the weighted mean
of

Voffset = å i =1 Wi N i (9.1)
n

where Wi are coefficients whose values are determined to satisfy the equation

Voffset = N = 1 (i - 1, 2, n ) (9.2)

After solving for V ⃗ offset, the new position Pnew of the vertex is given by the equation

Pnew = Poriginal + Voffset * d offset (9.3)

Where doffset is the offset dimension set by the user.

The procedure referred to above is repeated until the new position values are cal-
culated for all vertices. The model is then reconstructed using the new information
on the triangle. Thus, in order to use this offset methodology, it is only necessary to
enter a doffset value that is the same as the most anticipated shrinkage variation. In
practical terms, the doffset should be set at two or three times the absolute standard
deviation of the shrinkage measured for a particular machine/material combination.

9.4.3 Machining Strategy
Machining strategy plays an important role in the finishing of AM parts and tools.
Considering both precision and machine efficiency, adaptive surface grinding, plus
hole drilling and sharp edge grinding can meet the needs of most parts.

9.4.3.1 Adaptive Raster Milling

For milling operations, the stepover distance between adjacent tool paths is a very
important parameter that controls the precision and surface quality of the machine.
It is known that better accuracy and surface quality require a smaller stepover dis-
tance. Normally, the height of the material left after the model has been machined is
used as a measure of the surface quality.
Post-Processing 229

Figure 9.6 shows the triangle face being machined by the ball end mill. The rela-
tionship between the cusp height h, the cutter radius r, the stepover distance d, and
the incline angle α is given in the following equation:

d = 2.0 r 2 - (r - h)2 cos a (9.4)

α is determined by the triangle surface normal and stepover direction. Suppose N

triangle is the unit normal vector of the triangle surface, and NStepover is the unit vec-
tor along stepover direction, then
æp ö
cos ç - a ÷ = sin ± = N Triangle × N Stepover (9.5)
è2 ø
From (9.4) and (9.5), the following equation for stepover distance is derived,

( )
d = 2.0 h(2 r - h ) 1 - (N Triangle × N Stepover )2 (9.6)

The cutter radius and milling direction are the same for all triangle surfaces when
machining the pattern. If the maximum cusp height h is defined by the user, d is only
connected to the usual vector triangle. For surfaces with different normal vectors,
the distance obtained will be different.
If a constant stepover distance is used to ensure a consistent machining tolerance,
the minimum measured d for the whole part should be used. However, the use of
minimum stepover distances will lead to longer programs and machining times. An
adaptive stepover distance for milling operations based on local geometry should
therefore be used to allow both precision and machine performance. This means that
stepover distances for each just completed tool pass are dynamically determined,

FIGURE 9.6  Illustration for determining stepover distance.

230 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

using the maximum cusp height to evaluate the stepover distance for the next pass.
An example of how to use this type of algorithm for generating tool paths is shown
in Figure 9.7. As can be shown, the tool paths are more closely spaced for tool paths
that move through a high angle region; while tool paths that only cross fairly flat
regions are broadly spaced.

9.4.3.2 Sharp Edge Contour Machining

Sharp edges are often curves of intersection between features and surfaces. Normally,
the critical dimensions are defined by these edges. Using raster milling, edges paral-
lel to the milling path can be skipped, resulting in significant errors. As shown in
Figure 9.8, if the stepover distance d is used to machine a part with a slot width W,
even if the CNC machine is perfectly aligned (i.e. ignoring machine positioning
errors), the slot width error will be at least,
Werror = 2d - d1 - d2 (9.7)

where δ1, δ2 represent the offset between the actual and desired edge location.
When δ1, δ2 become 0, Werror = 2d. This means that the possible maximum error
for a slot using raster milling is approximately two times the stepover distance.
For complicated edges that are not parallel to the milling path, raster milling is
ineffective for producing smooth edges, as the edge will have a step-step appear-
ance, with a step size equal to the local step-step width, d. Therefore, after raster
milling, it is advantageous to run a machining pass along the sharp edges (contours)
of the component. In order to be machined along sharp edges, the STL model must

FIGURE 9.7  Finish machining using adaptive raster milling of a copper-filled polyamide
part made using polymer laser sintering: (a) CAD model, (b) tool paths, (c) machined part.
Post-Processing 231

first identify all sharp edges. Normal vector information for each triangle is used to
check the edge property. The angle between the normal vectors of the two adjacent
triangles is calculated. When this angle is greater than the user-specific angle, the
edge shared by these two triangles will be identified as a sharp point. All triangle
edges are checked in this way to generate a sharp edge list. Hidden edges and redun-
dant paths of the tools are eliminated before measuring the paths of the tools. The x,
y orientation of the endmill is obtained by offsetting the edges by the cutter radius.
The value z is calculated by determining the intersection with the 3D model and
finding the maximum value z corresponding. The sharp edges can be identified and
easily machined using this approach. Figure 9.9 shows the part of Figure 9.7 marked
with sharp edge contour paths (Figures 9.8 and 9.9).

FIGURE 9.8  Influence of stepover distance on dimensional accuracy.

FIGURE 9.9  Sharp edge contours identified for milling.

232 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

9.4.3.3 Hole Drilling
Circular holes are common features of the components and tools. It is expensive to
use the milling tools to create holes and the circularity of the holes is low. A machin-
ing strategy for the identification and drilling of holes is therefore preferable. The
most difficult aspect is to identify holes in the STL or AMF file, as the 3D geometry
is represented by a set of unordered planar triangular facets (and thus all the feature
information is lost). The curve of the intersection between the hole and the surface is
usually a closed loop. Using this information a hole recognition algorithm begins by
finding all the closed loops consisting of the pattern’s sharp edges. The intersection
curves between the holes and the surface are not actually such closed loops, and a set
of hole-checking rules are used to eliminate loops that do not suit the drilled holes.
The remaining loops and their normal vectors on the surface are used to deter-
mine the drilling process diameter, axis orientation, and depth. Tool paths can be
generated automatically from this knowledge.
Thus, by pre-processing the STL file using the shrinkage and offset value of the
surface and then post-processing the part using adaptive raster milling, contour
grinding, and hole drilling, an exact part can be made. In many cases, however, this
type of comprehensive strategy is not essential. For example, for a complex compo-
nent where only one or two properties need to be rendered correctly, the component
may be pre-processed using the average shrinkage value as a scaling factor and a
skin can only be applied to the critical characteristics. Upon AM component devel-
opment, these essential characteristics could then be machined manually, leaving
the other features as they are. The finish machining approach adopted would thus
rely heavily on the application requirements and part-specific design specifications.

9.5 ESTHETIC IMPROVEMENTS
AM is often used to make parts that are shown for esthetic or artistic purposes or
used as marketing tools. In these and similar cases, the esthetics of the part are of
critical importance for its final application. Often the desired esthetic improvement
is solely related to the surface finish. In this case, the options for post-processing are
discussed in Section 9.2. For certain cases, a variation for surface texture may be
required between one area and another (this is always the case with jewelry). In this
case, it only involves the finishing of selected surfaces (for example, the cover art
for this book). In cases where the AM component’s color is not of good consistency,
certain methods can be utilized to improve the product’s esthetics.
By simply immersing the item in a dye of the correct color, some types of AM
parts can be effectively colored. This method is especially effective for parts made
from powder beds, because these parts’ inherent porosity results in effective absorp-
tion. The part may need to be sealed before painting, if painting is necessary. In
these cases, car paints are very successful.
Chromium plating is another esthetic enhancement (which also strengthens the
part and improves wear resistance). Figure 9.10 shows the stereolithography part
before and after chromium plating. Several materials have been electrolyzed to AM
Post-Processing 233

FIGURE 9.10  Stereolithography part (a) before and (b) after chrome plating.

parts, including Ni, Cu, and other coatings. In some cases, these coatings are thick
enough that, in addition to esthetic enhancements, the parts are strong enough to be
used as injection molding tools or as EDM electrodes.

9.6 PREPARATION FOR USE AS A PATTERN

Often AM-based parts are intended as investment casting patterns, sand casting,
room temperature vulcanization (RTV) molding, spray metal deposition, or other
pattern replication processes. Using the AM pattern in the casting process is in many
cases the cheapest way to use AM to manufacture a metal component, as many of
the metal-based AM processes are still expensive to own and run. The AM pattern’s
accuracy and surface finish will directly affect the accuracy of the end part and sur-
face finish. Therefore great care must be taken to ensure that the pattern in the final
part has the desired consistency and surface finish. The pattern must also be scaled
to account for any shrinkage that occurs in the replication stage of the pattern.

9.6.1 Investment Casting Patterns

The AM pattern will be used during manufacturing, in the case of investment cast-
ing. The residue left in the mold when the pattern is melted or burned out is in this
case undesirable. Any sealant used to flatten the surface during pattern prepara-
tion should be carefully selected so as not to unintentionally produce unnecessary
residues.
The AM parts can be printed on the casting tree or added manually to the cast-
ing tree after AM. Figure 9.11 displays rings made from a material jetting device.
234 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 9.11  Rings for investment casting, made using a ProJet® CPX 3D printer.

In the first picture, a collection of rings is shown on the construction platform; each
ring is supported by a secondary support material in white. A close-up of the ring
pattern is shown in the second picture. The third picture shows the metal rings still
attached to the cast tree. In this instance, after AM, but before casting, the rings
were added to the tree. When using Quickcast style stereolithography, hollow, truss-
filled shell patterns must be drained of liquid prior to investment. The hole(s) used
for drainage shall be covered to prevent investment from reaching the interior of the
pattern. Since thermosets are photopolymer materials, they must be burned rather
than melted out of the investment.
The resulting component is brittle and fragile when using powdered materials
as investment casting patterns such as polystyrene from a polymer laser sintering
process, or starch from a binder jetting process. To seal and reinforce the part for the
investment process, the part is pre-investment infiltrated with an investment casting
wax.

9.6.2 Sand Casting Patterns

Binder jetting and PBF processes can be used to directly create sand mold cores and
cavities using a thermoset binder to bind sand in the desired shape. One benefit of
these direct approaches is that complex geometry cores can be produced that would
be very difficult to produce by any other method, as illustrated in Figure 9.12. To pre-
pare AM sand casting patterns for casting, loose powder is removed, and the pattern
is heated to complete the thermoset binder cross-linking and eliminate by-products
of moisture and steam. For certain cases, additional binders are applied before heat
to the pattern to increase handling resistance. When the pattern is heat treated, the
corresponding core(s) and/or cavity are assembled and hot metal is poured into the
mold. Sand patterns are collected after refrigeration using tools and bead blasting.
In addition to directly creating sand casting cores and cavities, AM can be used
to create parts that are used instead of traditional wood or metal patterns from which
sand casting molds are made. In this case, the AM part is built as one or more por-
tions of the component to be cast, separated along the parting line. The part is put
in a jar, the sand mixed with the binder is poured around the part, and the sand is
Post-Processing 235

FIGURE 9.12  Sand casting pattern for a cylinder head of a V6, 24-valve car engine (left)
during loose powder removal and (right) pattern prepared for casting alongside a finished
casting.

compressed (pounded) so that the binder keeps the sand together. The box is disas-
sembled, the sand mold is removed from the box, and the pattern is removed from the
mold. The mold is then reassembled with its complementary mold half and core(s)
and the molten metal is then poured into the pipe.

9.6.3 Other Pattern Replication Methods

Since the late 1980s, there have been several pattern replication methods used to turn
the weak “rapid prototypes” of those days into pieces with useful material proper-
ties. While the number of AM technologies has increased and the quality of the
products they can manufacture has greatly improved, these processes of duplication
are seeing less use as people choose to directly produce a functional component, if
possible. Even with the multiplication of AM technologies and materials, however,
pattern replication processes are commonly used by service offices and companies
that need parts from different materials that cannot be processed directly in AM.
The most common pattern replication methods are probably RTV molding or
silicone rubber molding. In RTV molding, as shown in Figure 9.13, the AM pattern
is given visual markers (such as the use of colored tape) to show the parting line
positions for the disassembly of the mold; the runners, risers, and gates are added;
the model is placed in the mold box; and the rubber-like material is poured around
the mold to encapsulate it. After cross-linking, the solid, translucent rubber mold is
removed from the mold box, the rubber mold is cut into pieces by the parting line
236 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 9.13  RTV molding process steps.

marker, and the pattern is removed from the mold. The mold is reassembled and
held together in a box, or by placing rubber bands around the mold to complete the
replication process, and the molten material is poured into the mold and allowed to
solidify. The mold is opened after solidification, the part is removed, and the process
is repeated until there is a sufficient number of parts. This technique can be used to
produce 10s or 100s of the same pieces using a single pattern. If the part formed in
the RTV mold is a wax template then a metal part can be produced using it in an
investment or plaster casting process.
Thus a single AM design can be repeated to a large number of metal parts at
relatively modest cost by combining RTV molding and investment casting. Metal
spraying processes were also used to reproduce geometry from part AM to part
metal. In the case of a metal spray, the metal part is repeated only by one side of the
pattern. It is most commonly used for tooling or sections where one side contains
all the complexity of the geometry, and the rest of the tool or component consists
of smooth edges. The AM pattern may be repeated using spray metal or electroless
deposition processes to create an injection molding core or cavity which can then be
used to mold other parts.

9.7 PROPERTY ENHANCEMENTS USING

NON-THERMAL TECHNIQUES
Powder-based and extrusion-based processes often generate porous structures. In
certain cases, this porosity can be infiltrated by a higher strength substance such
as cyanoacrylate (Super Glue). Proprietary methods and materials have also been
developed to enhance the strength, ductility, heat deflection, flammability resistance,
EMI shielding, or other properties of AM parts using infiltrants and different types
of nano-composite reinforcements.
Curing is a common post-processing procedure for photopolymer materials.
During processing, many photopolymers fail to achieve complete polymerization.
Post-Processing 237

As a consequence, these parts are placed in a post-cure system, a tool that floods the
part with UV and visible radiation in order to completely cure the surface and sub-
surface regions of the part. In addition, the part can undergo a thermal treatment in
a low-temperature oven, which can help to fully cure the photopolymer and, in some
cases, significantly enhance the mechanical properties of the part.

9.8 PROPERTY ENHANCEMENTS USING THERMAL TECHNIQUES

After AM processing, several pieces are thermally processed to enhance their prop-
erties. In the case of DED and PBF techniques for metals, heat treatment is primar-
ily intended to form the desired microstructures and/or to relieve residual stress.
Traditional heat treatment recipes developed for the specific metal alloy used are
often used in these cases. In some cases, however, special heat treatment methodolo-
gies were implemented to maintain the fine-grained microstructure inside the AM
component while also providing relief of stress and improvement of ductility. Until
the advent of DED and PBF techniques able to directly process metals and ceram-
ics, many techniques for the production of green metal and ceramic parts using AM
were developed. These were then post-processed in furnace to achieve dense, usable
metal, and ceramic parts production. Binder jetting is the only AM process which is
widely for such purpose.
In order to prepare a green part for furnace processing, several preparatory steps
are typically done. Figure 9.14 shows the steps for preparing a metal green part made
from Laser Form ST-100 for furnace infiltration.
Figure 9.15 shows the injection molding tool made from the ExOne binder jetting
process after de-binding, sintering, and infiltration of the furnace. The use of cooling
channels following the surface contours (conformal cooling channels) in the injection
mold has been shown to greatly improve the injection molding efficiency by reducing

FIGURE 9.14  LaserForm ST-100 green parts: (a) The parts are placed next to the “boats”
where the bronze infiltrant is placed. The bronze infiltrates the part through the ships; (b)
Parts are often covered in aluminum oxide powder before being placed in a furnace to help
support fragile features during de-binding, sintering, and infiltration and to help minimize
thermal gradients.
238 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 9.15  Cross-section of a ExOne ProMetal injection molding tool showing CAD
files and finished, infiltrated component with internal conformal cooling channels.

the cooling time and the part distortion. As a result, using conformal cooling chan-
nels effectively allows many businesses to use AM-produced devices to improve their
efficiency. Control of shrinkage and dimensional accuracy during processing of the
furnace is complicated by the number of process parameters to be optimized and by
the various steps involved. Figure 9.16 shows the complicated nature of optimization
for this type of furnace processing. The y-axis (F1–F2)/F1 represents the dimensional
changes during the final furnace phase of the infiltration of stainless steel (Rapid
Steel 2.0) parts using bronze. F1 is the size of the brown part before infiltration, and
F2 is the dimension after infiltration. Data represents thousands of measurements
across both internal (channel-like) and external (rib-like) features, ranging from 0.3
to 3.0 in. Although many variables have been analyzed, only two have been found
to be statistically significant for the phase of infiltration: atmospheric pressure in the
furnace and the amount of infiltration. The atmospheric pressure ranged from 10 to
800 Torr. The amount of infiltrant used ranged from a low of 85 percent to a high of
110 percent, where the percentage was based on the estimated amount of material
needed to fully fill the porosity of the part, based on the weight and volume measure-
ments of the component just prior to infiltration. This can be seen from Figure 9.16.
The factor combinations with the lowest overall shrinkage were not factors with the
lowest shrinkage variation. The factor combination A had the lowest mean shrinkage,
while the factor combination E had the lowest shrinkage variance. Since the average
Post-Processing 239

FIGURE 9.16  Ninety-five percent confidence intervals for variation in shrinkage for stain-
less steel (RapidSteel 2.0) infiltration by bronze (factor combinations are: (a) 10 Torr, 80%;
(b) 10 Torr, 95%; (c) 10 Torr, 110%; (d) 800 Torr, 80%; (e) 800 Torr, 95%; (f) 800 Torr, 110%).

shrinkage can be easily balanced by a scaling factor, the optimal factor combination
for the highest accuracy and precision would be the factor combination E. It follows
that the skin offset doffset would be determined by identifying the shrinkage varia-
tion for the whole process (green part manufacturing using AM, plus sintering and
infiltration) using a similar approach and then setting the doffset equal to the maximum
shrinkage variation at the desired confidence interval.
In addition to the thermal processes discussed earlier, a number of other processes
have been developed over the years to combine AM with furnace processing for the
production of metal or ceramic parts. For example, laser sintering is used to produce
porous parts with gas impermeable skins. By scanning only the outer contours of the
part during the SLS manufacturing process, a metal “can” filled with loose powder is
produced. These sections are then processed to maximum density using hot isostatic
pressing (HIP). This in-situ encapsulation does not result in adverse container-pow-
der interactions (because they are made from the same powder bed), decreased pre-
processing time, and fewer post-processing steps compared to traditional HIPs for
canned products. The SLS/HIP approach was successfully used to produce complex
3D parts for aerospace applications in Inconel 625 and Ti–6Al–4 V. Laser sintering
was also used to produce complex-shaped ZrB2/Cu composite EDM electrodes.
The approach involved:

(a) The production of a green part of the polymer coated ZrB2 powder using
laser sintering
240 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

(b) The binding and sintering of the ZrB2

(c) Infiltration of ZrB2 sintered porous with liquid copper. This production
route was found to result in a more homogeneous structure compared to the
hot pressing route.

9.9 EXERCISES
1. Explain natural support post-processing in detail.
2. Explain briefly the synthetic support removal process.
3. Discuss the surface texture improvements process.
4. Describe the accuracy improvements process in detail.
5. Explain briefly the esthetic improvements process.
6. Describe investment casting patterns.
7. Discuss sand casting patterns.
8. Explain other pattern replication methods.
9. Explain other property enhancements using non-thermal techniques.
10. Discuss property enhancements using thermal techniques.

9.10 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. In polymer PBF processes, it is usually important to allow the component to
pass through a _____________ stage after the component has been constructed.
a) Heat-up
b) Cool-down
c) None of the above
d) All of the above
Ans: (b)
2. In natural support post-processing, the part will remain inside the powder to
reduce the distortion of the component due to _____________.
a) Non-uniform cooling
b) Uniform cooling
c) Non-uniform heating
d) Uniform heating
Ans: (a)
3. The cool-down time in natural support post-processing depends on the

__________ and the scale of the part(s).
a) Support material
b) Filler material
c) Building material
d) All of the above
Ans: (c)
4. When using Quickcast style stereolithography, hollow, truss-filled shell pat-
terns must be drained of liquid ____________ to investment casting.
Post-Processing 241

a) Later
b) In-between
c) Prior
d) None of the above
Ans: (c)
5. To seal and reinforce the part for the investment process, the part is pre-invest-
ment infiltrated with an investment casting _____________.
a) Powder
b) Liquid
c) Granules
d) Wax
Ans: (d)
6 . __________ is used to produce porous parts with gas impermeable skins.
a) Laser sintering
b) Binder jetting
c) Drop on demand
d) FDM
Ans: (a)
7. Reproducible shrinkage and distortion can be compensated by _________ the
CAD model.
a) Translating
b) Rotating
c) Scaling
d) None of the above
Ans: (c)
8. The AM pattern may be repeated using ____________ or electroless deposi-
tion processes to create an injection molding core or cavity which can then be
used to mold other parts.
a) Spray metal
b) Powder metal
c) Liquid metal
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)
 10 Product Quality

10.1 BUILDING THE PART

The start sequence is critical to establish and verify proper process performance
before transitioning to fully automated operation. Once it is ensured that all subsys-
tems are functioning together properly and initiated any process monitoring, then
process can be initiated. Having an AM operator on call to attend or to a stop the
operation is needed to assure proper termination, remove the part, and prepare the
system for the next build. Certain AM system designs reduce the downtime between
building one component and the next by utilizing dual or modular powder bed con-
figurations, allowing part or powder module removal of a completed build simulta-
neous with starting the next.
The successful completion of a build cycle often includes a cooling interval par-
ticularly for EB, DED, and arc-based systems. PBF-EB, PBF-L, and DED-L are
more efficient in melting and experience less heat buildup due to the high-energy
heat source. However, PBF-EB uses a powder bed preheat of up to ~700°C and is
performed in a vacuum chamber that slows heat transfer and cooling after the build
cycle due to the preheating of the powder bed, combined with the additional heat
input of the electron beam. An inert gas purge of the chamber may be required
to assist in heat transfer and cooling until the part is below a reactive temperature
and allowed to cool in air to a temperature that allows effective handling, powder
removal, and post-processing.
In the case of PBF-L systems, a shorter cooldown interval is required as powder
bed heating is less than with PBF-EB. After cooldown, removal of the powder will
include special powder handling procedures to allow removal of the build platform,
the part, and support structures.

10.1.1 Powder Reclamation
Powders optimized for AM use are often expensive; therefore, reclaiming and reus-
ing them is critical to the process. The claims that used powder can be re-sieved
and reused indefinitely are disputed. Changes to powders may include losses due to
re-melting, vaporization, oxidation, and moisture pick resulting from normal pro-
cessing, or improper handling or storage. These changes may in many cases be insig-
nificant with slight charges to particle size distribution but will also be dependent
upon the alloys used and types of powder. This is an active area of research, but
now it is best to follow the vendor’s recommended procedures. Powder vendors are
beginning to fill the need by offering powder characterization services and tracking
software to assist customers in maintaining their AM powder inventory.

243
244 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Removal of the support structures and part from the build plate may require con-
ventional machining, sawing, or EDM (electrode discharge machining) operations as
well as finishing the build plate and measurement to assume a minimum build plate
thickness and flatness specs are met. Post-build procedures may include cleaning of
the chamber or post-processing the powder by sieving to allow reuse and recycle. In
some cases, a part may be left connected to the build platform as a support fixture for
subsequent finishing operations such as machining or inspection. In other cases, the
build plate may become integral to the final part following through all post-process
heat treatment and machining operations.

10.2 POST-PROCESSING AND FINISHING

What sorts of post-processing operations (Figure 10.1) are required? Can you per-
form these operations or will you send the parts to a service provider to complete the
post-build finishing operation?
Full functionality of a deposited metal part will most often require post-process-
ing and finishing to achieve the desired dimensions and properties. Post-processing
operations for metals may require heat treatments, machining operations, and access
to resources that require specialized precision equipment, expert knowledge, and
operations beyond simple media blasting, sanding, or coating. Knowledge of these
post-processing operations, where and how to access these resources, will help you
better choose the process and materials to make the best up-front design decisions.
Knowing how and when to apply these operations is critical to efficiently achieve the
desired full performance of your metal part.

FIGURE 10.1  Post-processing and finishing operation.

Product Quality 245

One of the first operations after completion of a build cycle and cooling is to
remove the part from the powder bed, build platen, or fixtures. As introduced above,
this will include powder removal, recovery, and physically removing support struc-
tures or fixtures, emptying powder volumes internal to the part through drain holes,
and clearing internal passages. Figure 10.2a and b show a support structure and
its removal for a nozzle component. Recovering the powder and recycling it back
into the process for subsequent builds may require different procedures depending
upon the powder type and build conditions. Recommended practices for tracking
and mixing new virgin powder with sieved and reused powders will vary depending
on applications, standards, and certifications still in development.
Finishing may include media blasting, peening, sanding, abrasive slurry honing,
or grinding to smooth surface features and allow visual inspection. Washing may be
used to help remove powders from internal features. In cases such as medical appli-
cations, sterilization may be specified. Coating and painting, as used in plastic proto-
type finishing, may improve surface finish or appearance. Alternatively, smoothing
or finishing may employ slurry polishing, electro-etch, electro-polishing, or plating
operations. These operations may require specialized equipment and processes pro-
vided by a dedicated service provider.
Partially fused powder particles may become dislodged and affect in-service
part performance. Machining, grinding, polishing, or coating are all candidates to
modify as-deposited powder, but the more post-processing required by your design,
the more you diverge from having a straight-out-of-the-machine functional object
and the more you reduce the benefits of AM fabrication, when compared to conven-
tional processing. Hybrid systems combining improvements in laser optics and beam
delivery may extend capabilities to include automated finishing or inspection into the
build space. External supports or base features may need to be removed as part of the
post-build finishing operations. The design of support structures and optimization to

FIGURE 10.2  (a) As-built nozzle structure with support structure; (b) Finished nozzle with
supports removed.
246 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

allow ease of removal is incorporated into the build cycle using software, while the
removal of supports is typically performed by sawing, cutting, machining, grinding,
EDM, or other mechanical means. Knowledge of what post-processing methods are
best for a specific material and design is critical to optimizing the AM process for a
specific part.
Heat treatment is often required to achieve the engineering properties of the
AM metal. Heat treatments may require 2 –4 hours in an inert or vacuum fur-
nace at temperatures ranging from 650°C to 1150°C. These treatments may be
required to improve or meet the desired strength, hardness and ductility, fatigue,
or bulk properties. As stated earlier in the book, heat treatments, such as anneal-
ing, homogenization, solutionizing, or recrystallization, may be needed to achieve
uniform bulk properties or achieve the desired microstructure. The layer-by-layer
deposition can result in directionally dependent properties and can vary with
respect to the orientation of the part within the build chamber. HT furnaces used
to treat metal parts may need to operate at high temperatures and use inert atmo-
spheres, such as argon or vacuum, when processing certain materials. Relief of
residual stresses present in an AM part may also require HT to assure dimensional
stability. All these operations require specialized HT equipment and may take
hours to complete. Research is ongoing to understand and define heat treatment
conditions for AM deposited materials. In one example research indicated differ-
ing heat treatments of the same material were required to optimize either hardness
or wear resistance.
As mentioned earlier, hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is a process that uses high tem-
peratures and high gas over pressures to heat a part to a temperature below melting
and at pressures of 100s of MPa, and temperatures in the range of 900–1000°C for
2 to 4 hours to help close and fuse internal pores, voids, and defects. HIP can also
provide heat treatment benefits by optimizing the temperature and pressure cycles to
improve mechanical properties such as strength, elongation, ductility, and to improve
the structural integrity of the component. The equipment is large and costly and may
require a specialty service provider.
HIP pressure chambers typically are limited in size ranging from ~75 mm to 2
meters, limiting the size of an AM part to be consolidated, although custom HIP
system designs and services are available in industry.
High precision parts will often require subtractive post-processing operations,
such as machining, grinding, or drilling, to achieve the dimensional tolerances and
surface finishes of the final functional shape. Specialty operations such as plunge
EDM or polishing may be needed to achieve the final surface contours of molds,
punches, and dies. The tradeoffs between the accuracy, surface finish, or micro-
structure of the as-deposited part and the desired final finish of the part entail a
complex set of decisions. Regardless of the process used to fabricate the part, either
by PBF or DED, laser, electron beam, arc, powder, or wire, a careful evaluation of
the final requirements will contribute to the decisions made during process, mate-
rial, and procedure selection. Creating machining blanks may relax the dimensional
requirements of the deposit. In cases such as in DED, deposition rates may be more
important than accuracy.
Product Quality 247

If the as-deposited near net shape requires machining to achieve the final dimen-
sions, surface finish or distortion may be less important than optimizing the build
rate. As an example discussed earlier, DED-EB may be used to create very large
objects to be subsequently machined to final dimension. The cost savings result from
not having to machine very large billets resulting in the creation of a significant
amount of wasted material. In cases such as these, the degree of stair stepping, dis-
tortion, and relatively crude deposition to the near net shape is less important because
the final shape and tolerances will be achieved by machining. The hybrid combina-
tion of DED and CNC machining holds promise to incorporate DED using lasers
and arc-based systems into multi-axis machining centers. Again, speed may take
precedence over accuracy if all the AM deposit will be machined to final dimension.

10.3 BULK DEPOSIT DEFECTS

Figure 10.3 shows some of the common defects present in AM metal parts. Deposit
quality is judged by the properties achieved and the ability to meet the design require-
ments. If you are AM building a component for critical service, such as an aerospace
part, part failures can have grave consequences. Therefore, the appropriate level of
inspection and quality control becomes important. AM design and deposit require-
ments are set by engineers with knowledge of what size, number, and type of flaws
are allowable and the confidence the process is under control and able to meet these

FIGURE 10.3  AM metal flaw and defect types.

248 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

requirements. Qualified operators, procedures, formal inspection, and records are as

important as the parts themselves.
The functional requirements of components are not limited to structural and
esthetic needs. As an example, if high pressure, high temperature, impulse load-
ing, or highly corrosive environments will be encountered by the part, the proper-
ties should be appropriate for the service conditions. Knowledge of AM defects that
can affect the material properties or lead to failure is critical. Knowing how defects
occur and how to detect them, using destructive and nondestructive inspection meth-
ods, will help you select the most appropriate inspection methods for these specific
types of defects.
Due to the complex nature of the AM processes, the bulk material character or
morphology of the deposit can vary widely from one process to the next. It will be
different for different materials and may vary widely from one location in the part
to another. This may be due in part to changes in the many variables and conditions
during deposition. As an example, changes in energy input may change the thermal
conditions and the ability to accurately deposit certain features. Defects not within
the bulk material, but within the character of the part, such as distortion, may also
occur.
Flaws are undesirable conditions within the deposit, while defects are flaws
that exceed acceptance criteria. The detection of defects can trigger actions such
as rework, repair, or part rejection. AM metal defects may include lack of fusion,
porosity, voids, cracking, oxidation, discoloration, distortion, irregular surface pro-
file, or surface stair stepping. Later we discuss common AM inspection techniques
including visual inspection, dimensional inspection, dye penetrate, leak testing,
radiographic, computed tomography, and proof testing. Defects typical to fused or
sintered metal processing are often present to one degree or another in 3D fused
metal parts. Given the intrinsic need for accuracy in PBF parts, the molten pool size
is typically smaller and the cooling rates are typically faster than common welded
structures, resulting in defect morphology more typical to laser or EB welds rather
than large arc welds or castings. DED processes with large molten pools and high
deposition rates produce defects common to welded structures.
Lack of fusion is one of the more common defects where the bead or deposit does
not fully melt and fuse into adjacent tracks or into the substrate. Lack of penetration
is a failure to fuse deeply into the part, build support, or build platen, which may
result in de-lamination of the part from the build platen or between layers within the
deposited part. Lack of fusion may be visually detected but it can also go unnoticed
until a part fails in testing or service. Radiographic inspection may or may not detect
lack of fusion defects as poorly bonding locations may not be detected. A cold lap
is a term sometimes used to describe a lack of fusion defect in which coalescence of
material is prevented by an oxide layer or thin film. A poorly fused powder particle
boundary, as shown in Figure 10.4, may crack or fail in service.
A failure during destructive testing, functional testing, or while in service should
be inspected for lack of fusion and the AM build schedule modified accordingly. In
some cases, flaws leading to fracture initiation points may only be observed under
high magnification using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and a metallurgical
Product Quality 249

FIGURE 10.4  Lack of fusion defect showing unfused powder particle.

inspection technique known as fractography. We will discuss these later under fail-
ure analysis.
Slumping is a dimensional defect typically created in regions built with insuf-
ficient support structure. Slumping defects may be associated with small design fea-
tures, thin walls, downward facing surfaces (also referred to as down skin surfaces),
or overhangs. If the molten pool is too large for the position, gravity can sag or slump
the molten pool and create this type of defect. Rounding or loss of edge quality may
occur when surface tension draws a molten pool into a rounded shape resulting in
the loss of dimensional fidelity of sharp edges or corners. If the heat source power is
too high and deposit or traverse speed is too fast, surface tension can draw the weld
bead up into a ropey shape leaving a lack of fusion along either side of the deposit.
These sorts of instabilities may also lead to spatter and droplets of melt or partially
melted powder particles from the melt region, further disrupting the deposition qual-
ity. Proper parameter selection such as control of beam power or speed can help to
fuse and flatten the deposit bead. Undercutting is a flaw typical to fusion processing
that can occur in regions where gravity or surface tension draws molten metal away
from the edge of the pool surface leaving an underfilled region that may act as a
stress riser or crack initiation point.
Shrinkage and distortion can occur as a result of localized melting and solidifica-
tion. Shrinkage-induced stresses can build up creating warping and distortion and in
some cases reach levels where lack of fusion and de-lamination can result as shown
in Figure 10.5. Proper design, material and parameter selection, and process devel-
opment can reduce or eliminate the risk of these types of defects.
Irregular surface condition can indicate a poorly designed, supported, or oriented
part. A poorly developed or controlled process may result in stair stepping, balling,
and lack of fusion, surface breaking de-lamination, undercutting, holes, porosity,
250 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 10.5  Lack of fusion or delaminating defects.

or voids. Excessive spatter of balls fused powder particle ejected from the melt
region may be fused to either side of the deposit, indicating improper beam power,
focal conditions, contaminated powder, or filler wire. Irregular surface condition
can reduce part strength by creating stress concentration locations that may fail or
fatigue during service. Notches, voids, or undercuts can concentrate stresses and ini-
tiate cracks. Cosmetic and surface requirements not met will require post-processing
to either remove or finish the top surface.
Porosity is a common defect evolved in melted and fused material, often spherical
or oblong, resulting from gases, such as hydrogen entrapped within the molten pool
and evolved and released as bubbles upon cooling and solidification. Another source
of porosity is the melting of an un-fused region or void in which the gas within the
void forms a bubble within the liquid and entrapped within the solidified metal.
Keyhole collapse as in laser or EB melting can entrap gas within the melt pool dur-
ing solidification.
It is important to differentiate between gas porosity and other forms of voids such
as lack of fusion voids as different mechanisms lead to their formation and need to be
considered separately to assure proper control. Sources of these gases may be mois-
ture or contamination of the inert gas atmosphere, build chamber, powder, or filler
supply. Hydrogen as a gas is readily absorbed into molten metal and can be rejected
from the melt during solidification and trapped as bubbles or pores. Hydrogen con-
tamination of the feed stock or the process before or during the build cycle can result
from a number of sources such as improper quality control of the wire drawing pro-
cess or improper storage. Porosity is more of a problem for some materials than oth-
ers, such as aluminum and those more susceptible to gas absorption during powder
or melt processing. Strict handling, storage, and processing procedures are needed
to control sources of porosity. Argon may be trapped into powder as a result of the
gas atomization process and may be another source of micro-porosity. Entrapped
gases such as these may coalesce during melting and result in the growth of porosity
during solidification.
Product Quality 251

Pores can reduce the cross-sectional area of the deposit, thereby reducing strength,
although spherical porosity is not as critical to loss of strength as angular crack initi-
ating defects that have a greater tendency to propagate under loads. Surface breaking
porosity and voids can hold water or moisture and exacerbate corrosion and stain-
ing. The AM designer or fabricator needs to consider all possible defect formation
scenarios to assure that the requirements of the deposit are met and to decide what
level of porosity or flaw content is acceptable. The distribution of porosity within a
fused region may also help to identify its origin. Spherical porosity may indicate a
contamination source either within the powder, atmosphere, or resulting from con-
tamination during storage, handling, or processing.
Figure 10.6 shows two levels of porosity in an SLM deposit of AlSi10 Mg achieved
by drying the powder and modifying the process parameters.
Voids not evolved from gas rejection or gas entrapment upon solidification may
take many different forms and can be the result of many different processing condi-
tions. Lack of fusion voids common to the AM PBF processes include those associ-
ated with the powder packing density, or the spaces in-between powder particles,
when spread in layers and inadequately fused, resulting in a poorly fused deposit.
The microstructure of sintered powders, resulting in less than fully dense deposits,
will display un-fused regions or voids requiring re-melting through subsequent lay-
ers of deposit or additional HIP post-processing. These regions may contain un-
fused powder particles or inadequately fused particles due to insufficient liquid
phases while sintering, or in other cases insufficient melting or mixing within the
molten pool. As an example, a decrease in beam energy density may result from an
optical component that is misaligned or needs cleaning, resulting in a lack of fusion
defect. Conversely, increased energy density resulting in a deviation of scan speed,
e.g. during a change in scan direction, may create a localized vaporization event or
an unplanned transition to a keyhole mode of melting resulting in entrapped porosity
due to keyhole collapse.
Localized inclusion defects may result from contamination contained within the
powder or filler wire which may vaporize during processing with sufficient force
to eject molten material from the melt pool leaving a hole or void that may not fill
during the fusion of subsequent layers. As an example, erosion or damage to the

FIGURE 10.6  Hydrogen porosity within SLM deposit of AlSi10Mg.

252 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

recoating blade powder spreader or rake may leave particles of foreign material
within the build material supply. Constraint is a term often used when discussing the
formation and avoidance of cracks associated with metal fusion. As discussed earlier
in the book, metal expands or contracts when heated or cooled. As a result it may
grow, shrink, warp, or bend.
If heated or cooled and constrained from moving, such as by clamping, the use
of support structures, or because mechanical constraints within the design itself,
stresses will build up. These stresses are mechanical forces that can either be locked
up and reside in distorted crystalline structure, or be relieved by distortion, cracking,
or tearing. The degree to which movement is allowed or prevented can be referred
to as constraint. Residual stresses are difficult to measure and although not often
classified as flaws, may lead to distortion or cracking in service. They are often
controlled through the part design, processing condition selection, or post-build heat
treatments. Cracking can result from a wide range of thermal, mechanical, and met-
allurgical conditions. Figure 10.7 shows cracks in a welded reactor vessel as detected
by dye penetrant testing. AM components can be susceptible to the same types of
cracking mechanisms present in welded or weld clad structures. A few of the more
common types of cracks are crater cracks, hot cracks, hot tearing, and cold cracking.
Some materials are much more sensitive than others to the development of cracks as
a result of AM metal processing. Crater cracking refers to cracking that may occur
at the termination of an AM deposition path within the last to solidify material. Hot
tearing may occur in regions directly adjacent to the fusion boundary, at tempera-
tures below melting, in the metal softened by heating. Hot cracks may occur directly
upon cooling near the solidification boundary, while cold cracks (also known as
delayed cracking) may occur hours or days after cooling.
The metallurgical reasons for these types of defects range widely and are beyond
the scope of this book, but the reader should know these conditions exist and consult

FIGURE 10.7  Cracks in a welded reactor vessel as detected by dye penetrant.

Product Quality 253

a professional metallurgist when working with new alloys or with potentially crack
sensitive materials. AM vendors have developed strict control of materials and
parameter sets to avoid many of these types of problems, but if you are developing
your own parameters for materials that are crack sensitive, be ready to address these
problems. Cracks can occur at the termination or end point of an AM melt track or
weld. The last part of the bead to solidify results in a depression and shrinkage and
may result in cracking. A crater depression with cracking can concentrate stress
induced by in-service loads and propagate the cracks possibly leading to failure.
Properly developed procedures, such as those supplied by vendors, and proper selec-
tion, and control of materials will avoid these types of defects.
Hot cracks and tears form as the molten pool solidifies. They are often formed by
shrinkage stresses induced during cooling due to a combination of chemical, metal-
lurgical, and mechanical conditions of the solidification region, partially melted or
low ductility heat affected region. Highly constrained part locations, unable to flex
and distort due to thermal expansion and contraction, can literally pull apart or tear
when the metal is still hot and weak during cooling. Recall the discussion early in
the book regarding thermal softening of metals. As with porosity, crack location and
character can indicate the mechanism of formation and assist in detection, preven-
tion, and control. As with fusion welding, many types of cracks may be associated
with AM deposits. Figure 10.8a,b shows micro-cracking in direct metal laser sin-
tered Inconel 718 produced under experimental conditions. Micrometer scale cracks
can occur along grain boundaries and across grains and backfill with the last to
solidify material making them hard to detect. Proper parameter selection, preheating
conditions, or HIP processing can reduce or eliminate the formation of cracks and
bond defects in crack sensitive materials.
Undetected micro cracks within components under service conditions, such as
cyclical loading, may eventually lead to crack propagation and in-service failure.

FIGURE 10.8  (a) Microcracking of DMLS Inconel 718; (b) Microcrack opening in Inconel
625 shown using scanning electron microscopy.
254 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Hot cracking is commonly encountered in aluminum alloys but can often be avoided
by proper selection of part geometry, metal, and parameter selection. Stress relief
features may be designed into the part or support structure to relieve stresses near
crack susceptible regions. Cold cracking, as the name implies, refers to cracks that
can form hours, days, or much later in the service life of a component with the poten-
tial for catastrophic failure. There are many more types and reasons for cracks, but
suffice it to say that cracking in AM deposits may be one of the more serious defects,
as a small crack initiation site can result in catastrophic failure in service. Earlier we
discussed some design techniques used to avoid distortion and cracking. Later in the
book, we discuss some ways to detect cracks and avoid cracking in AM parts as the
recommended practices being developed may deviate from those of conventional
processing, such as those typically used for welded fabrication.
Oxidation and discoloration can occur when the molten pool or surrounding hot
metal is improperly shielded from air and atmospheric conditions. Chemical reac-
tions take place at different temperatures forming compounds of different colors on
the part surface. Changes in chemistry may also occur below the surface. Changes
in the build schedule, process disturbances, interruptions, or other sources of con-
tamination can affect the surface chemistry. Regular maintenance, source material
control, and proper setup may help reduce sources of contamination and discolor-
ation. Routine use of equipment checks to look for problems, such as loose fittings or
problems with the gas supply, is also warranted.

10.4 DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY, SHRINKAGE, AND DISTORTION

The accuracy of a desired part is largely determined by its design, processing condi-
tions, and material. As mentioned earlier, the designer must take into account the
thermal and mechanical characteristics of the material being processed. The build
sequence or schedule must appropriately specify deposition conditions to account for
localized thermal expansion and contraction during the build cycle. Contouring con-
ditions, or those build parameters used along the perimeter of each AM layer, must
be tailored to achieve the desired accuracy and surface smoothness. Orientation of
the part within the build chamber, to minimize stair stepping and layer effects, is
needed as well as the appropriate design of support structures used to assist in the
deposition of overhang features. Spring back of a part when removed from a base
platen or support structures may need to be accounted for in the design.
When building a near net shaped component that will require subsequent machin-
ing, a material or machining allowance is required. As an example, the material
allowance enables the machining process to remove enough of the as-deposited
surface to reach sound metal and achieve the required surface condition. For parts
requiring high-dimensional accuracy, a machined datum or inspection surface is
required to define the location of other inspection features. Another way to describe
this is “being able to find the part within the near net shape.” Heat treatments such
as stress relief, annealing, or HIP processing may induce additional dimensional
changes which may require revising the original design, as dimensional changes
resulting from heat treatments may be unpredictable during the first design iteration.
Product Quality 255

In the future, computer simulation and prediction tools, such as FEA modeling, may
be developed to assist in accurate shrinkage prediction for large complex parts. But
for now, trial, error, and experience may be the only option. When it comes to bulk
material or part defects, knowing what you are looking for and how defects are
formed is key to detection and prevention.

10.5 INSPECTION, QUALITY, AND TESTING OF AM METAL PARTS

Additive manufacturing processes used for metals present some unique issues
associated with inspection, quality assurance, and testing. As any metal fabricator
knows, detecting flaws and defects in a weld is difficult enough, but when the part
is entirely made up of welded filler material the potential for those types of defects
may be present in any location within the part. The refined nature of the buildup,
due to thin deposition layers and fast cooling rates, will lead to defect morphology
and geometric conditions that challenge even the best inspection methods currently
in use. In some cases, current inspection methods applied to AM produced parts that
are fully heat treated or HIP processed and 100% machined may be appropriate, in
other cases alternate means for acceptance may need to be developed. As a general
rule, as part complexity increases NDE inspect ability decreases. AM processes can
add significant design complexity challenging traditional NDE techniques. In this
section, we discuss available inspection methods and some of the challenges pre-
sented by AM metal fabrication.

10.5.1 Nondestructive Test Methods

Figure 10.9 identifies nondestructive test methods being applied to AM parts. Visual
inspection is often employed to identify gross defects such as distortions, surface
conditions, and gross anomalies. Camera and image inspection can accurately and
rapidly capture and classify part features and compare them with a standard defini-
tion or part model. Cameras may also utilize magnified views of regions to verify
conditions against a standard or population of parts. Bore scope inspection may be
incorporated to verify clearances or deposit conditions within enclosed volumes or
passageways. Multiple image cameras combined with software are capable of mea-
suring distances and other characteristics of AM parts.
In another example of visual inspection, titanium surface discoloration can indicate
contamination of the powder before or during processing and may be cause for part
rejection. Supporting this example, the AWS, Specification for Welding Procedure
and Performance Qualification, specifies color acceptance criteria for class A, B, C
critical welds. Challenges to visual inspection presented by AM can include complex
shapes and internal feature beyond the line of sight of inspectors or cameras. Unless
the part was specified to be built in the same orientation, using the same support
structures and build parameters, the occurrence of surface defects, such as stair step-
ping, may occur in different locations on parts built to the same 3D model.
Dimensional inspection relies on measurement tools for dimensional verifica-
tion, while gauges may offer a faster way to verify a part dimension or extent by
256 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

FIGURE 10.9  Nondestructive testing techniques for AM.

using a GO-NO-GO gauge. Various nondestructive methods may be used to assure

the clearance of internal passageways and volumes such as by using displaced liq-
uid, pressure–volume–temperature, flow rate. Coordinate measurement machines
(CMM) are precision measurement devices employing a touch probe, manipulated
using CNC or robotic motion, to measure the location of part features.
Software may take these measurements and compare them to locations on the
part definition model. On-machine gauging can incorporate an inspection gauge
directly into a CNC milling or turning environment. With the advent of hybrid AM/
SM machines, the logical next step is combining CNC with AM and in-process
measurements. Methods such as this are currently under development potentially
enabling a single machine to produce a fully certified part without the need for sub-
sequent inspection steps.
3D digital scanning refers to a number of techniques used to capture the geomet-
ric extent of an object, generate a point cloud of data approximating the surface of
an object, and fit a geometric surface or solid description to the point cloud creat-
ing a digital model. This point cloud generated solid model may then be compared
to the original part model definition. Digital scanners often are structured light or
laser-based systems that move in relation to the part surface sensing the reflected
beam to define the location of data points in 3D space. Surface finish, color, reflec-
tance, smoothness, and lighting can affect the accuracy of the scan and may limit the
effectiveness in certain AM applications. As with visual inspection, complex shapes
with no line of sight to critical features may eliminate the usefulness in certain AM
applications. Deep features, high aspect ratio holes, and internal features may not be
Product Quality 257

captured. Commercial scan systems range widely in accuracy and costs as does the
supporting software. Software is used to best-fit the point cloud to geometric features
and surfaces, but again, the accuracy of the point cloud and the fitting algorithm will
affect the final definition of the inspected part. Radiographic testing (RT) has been
used for many years to inspect welds in pipelines, pressure vessels, and a wide range
of critical use metal components.
Irregular surface conditions or multiple or complex internal features along the
X-ray path may obscure features of interest or complicate interpretation of the
images. Digital radiography offers a 2D grayscale image that may be enhanced using
color or other digital techniques. Micro-focus radiography offers greater resolution
for a given wall thickness within a narrow field of view. Computed tomography (CT)
relies on a series of images, such as those obtained by X-ray or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), taken at specific angles relative to the part and reconstructed by
computer software into a 3D data set revealing interior and exterior features. CT
inspection models may then be used to compare to the original CAD model enabling
part-to-part comparisons (Figure 10.10). The quality and resolution of the scan and
the accuracy of the algorithms used to reconstruct and render the geometry will
affect the results. The energy source, detector resolution, and setup will contribute to
the measurement accuracy. These methods have been demonstrated to characterize
features such as porosity, inclusions, minimum wall thickness, and other internal
features. One problem can be that of false positive indications of defects due to the
complex microstructure of certain as-built AM parts. While this technology has

FIGURE 10.10  CT CAD to inspection model using Geomagic Control X software.

258 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

been successfully demonstrated in the analysis and inspection of AM metal parts,

the costs, complexity, and computing requirements of the large data sets generally
restrict the use to specialty service providers and for use by customers with high
value components.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) uses ultrasonic sound waves to penetrate a metal object,
reflect off internal features, and bounce back to a detector to reveal the approximate
size and location of these features. It generally relies on a liquid coupling between
the probe and the top surface of the object. It may be limited by curved, complex
internal and external surfaces, or the rough surfaces of AM deposited parts. Post-
processing and finishing may be needed prior to the application of UT. Penetrant
testing (PT) is often used to detect cracks or small surface breaking flaws. It uses
a liquid penetrant, often a dye, sprayed on the surface to be tested, that is absorbed
into the flaw features. The excess surface dye is wiped off and a liquid developer
coating is sprayed on to dry and absorb penetrant from within the cracks, crevices,
voids, or pores revealing the defect location (refer to Figure 10.7). While the method
may be limited for use on as-deposited AM surfaces of powder-based systems, due to
surface roughness, it can offer an effective method to detect cracks, lack of fusion, or
undercuts in weld deposits of DED wire-based processes. Magnaflux testing is often
used on large cast components to detect cracks in steel and other magnetic materi-
als. It is often used to find cracks in engine components but may find application as
applied to AM repaired parts.
Eddy-current testing (ET) is used to detect surface and subsurface flaws, such
as cracks and pits, in conductive materials using electromagnetic induction. It can
be sensitive to surface and near surface conditions and material type. Vacuum leak
testing can be an effective way to assure the hermetic seal of a volume or contain-
ment vessel. Complications of applying this technique to AM fabricated products
include the need for a sealing surface or sealing compound with the rough surface of
as-deposited AM parts or the post-machining needed to obtain a flat sealing surface.
Sintered, porous product, or partially fused powder surfaces could create a virtual
leak or hidden pumping volume, reducing the utility of the process.
Flow testing may offer a means to assure clearance of complex passageways with-
out the cost and complexity of a CT system. While many of these NDT procedures
may be difficult to apply to as-deposited AM parts, standard test specimens and
standardized acceptance criteria will be developed that offer the ability to char-
acterize the bulk deposit using NDT methods combined with DT (destructive test)
methods, as described below. A good source for additional information is ASNT, the
American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

10.5.2 Destructive Test Methods

Earlier in the book, within the process development section, destructive testing was
mentioned as being used during parameter studies and during the fabrication of test
samples. The samples are sectioned and subjected to a variety of metallographic tests
to determine the micro-structural character, defect morphology, and mechanical
properties of the deposit as they relate to processing conditions. Small lot production
Product Quality 259

may rely on destructive testing of witness coupons fabricated layer by layer or within
the same build cycle of the actual part to infer proper machine function. Figure 10.11
lists categories of destructive test methods being applied to AM parts.
Micro-structural analysis will often entail preparing small samples of representa-
tive regions of interest within a part and by mounting, polishing, and in some cases
etching the samples to reveal the structure of grains, phases, inclusions, and defects
such as pores, voids, cracks, and other discontinuities. As-polished samples may rely
on camera-based microscopic inspection, coupled with image processing, to provide
deposit density estimation, (% voids), or other semi-quantitative determination.
Hardness values and phase identification can be used to verify time–temperature
transformations related to cooling rates and infer property determination confirmed
by standard mechanical test procedures. Micro-structural analysis coupled with non-
destructive testing and proof testing is often all that is needed to qualify a noncritical
component or process. A source for procedures used for micro-structural analysis
can be found in the tech sheets of the Beuhler.
For common engineering materials in commercial shapes, mechanical property
data contained within engineering data books such as those provided by the Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE), military specifications (MIL), and the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is often sufficient to provide the confi-
dence and documentation required by a quality trail. In cases where standard test
data is unavailable, a full material and process qualification may need to be per-
formed to assure the material properties and part performance. Vendors of AM

FIGURE 10.11  AM metal destructive tests.

260 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

machines often supply this information for their proprietary material, produced
using their standard parameter sets and using their stated test conditions. In some
cases, this may be sufficient to infer the integrity of a functional prototype, although
the material test conditions and properties cited may not be representative of those
of any AM produced part.
Service providers of metallurgical and micro-structural analysis are readily avail-
able via the Web and can provide rapid turnaround for a full range of services to
characterize and formally perform analysis for process development and qualifica-
tion needs. Design definition of standard test specimens may be enhanced to include
standard AM deposition and testing conditions with which to compare material lot
chemistry variations or machine-to-machine differences.
Chemical analysis can be applied to verify the integrity and purity of materials and
processing conditions used in AM. Samples may be sent to service providers to iden-
tify levels of contaminants such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, or trace elements such
as iron, vanadium, or aluminum. This analysis can be useful to determine the pickup
of contaminants or loss of alloying constituents. Results may be compared with feed
powder or wire chemistry specifications as required for process or part acceptance.
Standardized mechanical test specimens and testing procedures have been used for
technical generations to assist in alloy development and process material and process
certification. ASTM International (referred to as ASTM) leads the development and
delivery of voluntary consensus standards to improve product quality, enhance health
and safety, strengthen market access and trade, and build consumer confidence. The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) serves to administer and coordinate
the private-sector voluntary standardization system, for creation, dissemination, and
use of standards and specifications for United States’ industry.
They work closely with similar international organizations such as ISO to har-
monize and enhance the global conformity of products to these standards. Both
of these organizations are active in the identification and to speed up the develop-
ment of standards related to the growth of additive manufacturing as in the America
Makes ANSI Additive Manufacturing Standardization Collaborative and the ASTM
Committee F42 on Additive Manufacturing Technologies for the development of
AM standards.
As applied to metals, common standard test specimens include tensile bars, Charpy
V-notch tests, and creep specimens. Many material scientists and materials engineers
have spent their technical lives studying the mechanical properties of metals. These
test methods are actively being researched, modified, and applied to AM materials.
These active areas of development are leading to identifying the need for new stan-
dards to speed the characterization and certification and adoption of AM processes
and materials. An introductory description of ASTM standards can be found in stu-
dent material provided on their website. Other destructive tests that may be applied
to AM material could include something as simple as the standard guided bend tests
as applied to 3D weld deposits. Guided bend testing is used in weld processing or
metal to reveal internal flaws in weld deposits and HAZ regions. Flaws such as voids,
cold laps, lack of fusion, poor fusion, porosity, or other micro-structural defects can
be revealed in surface or near surface regions. Flat plate samples taken from bulk
Product Quality 261

AM coupons may be surface machined and bend tested representative of orientations

related to the X, Y, Z orientation of the part within the AM build chamber.
Nondestructive testing of machined test coupons such as those described above
may lend themselves more readily to inspection by UT, RT, and PT. While not test-
ing an actual part, these samples can infer a represented characterization of bulk AM
material, parameters, and procedures as qualified for an actual build procedure. As
you can see from the discussion above, the inspection of AM parts remains a chal-
lenge as the procedures and technology are still being developed.

10.5.3 Form, Fit, Function, and Proof Testing

Form and fit of prototype designs was the original function of 3D-printed parts. The
ability to visualize and handle a 3D part, rather than crowd around a set of blue-
prints or a computer-generated model, has advantages, especially for customers and
stakeholders not intimately associated with the technical design phase. The same
goes for fitting a 3D model into a prototype system. While 3D CAD models can be
assembled into virtual systems to simulate part and system function, there is great
value in someone actually bolting up a part and confirming they can swing a wrench
at it. The prototype does not need to be metal to add value to the form and fit stage
of prototype development.
Composite materials are blurring the boundaries of plastic and metal used in
prototypes for fit testing and functional testing. Advances in materials offering high
temperature and strength, such as metal filled plastic composites, have been applied
to offer an increasingly wide range of functional testing. The benefit of these hybrid
materials is primarily their lower cost. Metal prototypes go one better by potentially
offering the testing of the full functional range of part performance albeit at a greater
cost. Metal prototype parts may also be used in short run production such as in
molds, dies, tooling, and inserts used to produce other prototypical parts by conven-
tional means such as injection molding or casting without incurring the high cost of
large production run tooling.
Full functional testing of rapidly produced prototypes, saving both time and
money, has been the primary function of AM technology. Although many applica-
tions are moving into full production, prototyping will still demonstrate the technol-
ogy. Large corporations with highly skilled technical teams are routinely using this
technology for larger and larger parts in an increasingly wider range of materials.
The boundaries of what the technology can do are being pushed at a very rapid rate.
Smaller businesses are finding they need to rely on service providers to tap into this
market to stay competitive. Applications are emerging where full production of small
lot size components is possible, but for now, keeping up with the competitor’s rush to
market by using AM is sufficient motivation for small businesses to explore the use
of AM. Due to cost and limited availability of engineering skills, AM machines, and
specialized facilities, small- and medium-sized businesses are turning to established
service providers to meet their needs. In some cases, large corporations are acquir-
ing or merging with these service providers to establish in-house skills or to deny
access to these services by their competition.
262 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

Proof testing is a way to subject a prototype part, a process qualification lot, or a

random sample taken from a production lot, to a mockup testing of the part within
an in-service environment. As an example, this is the testing stage where you fire up
the rocket engine nozzle, take the car to the race track, or pressurize the storage ves-
sel to see how well it works. Often the component is subjected to an extended range
of standard operating conditions to prove functional performance beyond that typi-
cally seen in service. Elaborate machines to perform these tests have been used for
years to evaluate test parts destined for manufacture. We have all seen the so-called
shake, rattle, and roll systems where you bolt up the car and subject it to high cycle
fatigue for tens of thousands of loading cycles and we all know the fate of the crash
test dummies. It will probably not be too long before these machines and dummies
feature 3D-printed parts.

10.6 STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION

Prototype components used for in-house testing and evaluation are often built with a
lesser degree of formality and quality documentation that is needed for certification
of production parts used in critical applications. Risks associated with the use of
prototype AM hardware built for in-house use can be better managed and controlled
than those sent to a third party or customer for testing or use. Prototypes are often
fabricated without formal operator training, specifications, standards, or certified
materials. Costly inspection techniques may not be used at this stage of development.
However, production items sold to the public or introduced into the commercial
market need the additional rigor and confidence required by both the producer and
consumer. Critical components, or systems of components, such as flight critical hard-
ware used for aerospace, automotive components, energy, or medical applications all
need to adhere to common standards, and meet regulations or codes set by govern-
ing bodies. Organizations such as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
promote, facilitate, and approve the development of standards, while organizations
such as ASTM International (ASTM), International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), the American Welding Society (AWS), and the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) assemble committees of experts to lead the development of volun-
tary consensus-based standards. Governing bodies that license and certify persons,
organizations, products, and services include the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Occupational Health and
Safety Organization (OSHA) to name a few. The reader is encouraged to search the
weblinks of these organizations to learn the latest AM related activities of these orga-
nizations. Regulations, rules, standards, and recommended practices have evolved
over decades to apply controls to the production of hardware, feedstock materials, and
the qualification of practices and procedures for the benefit of industry, individuals,
and the public at large. Certification of metal components used in critical applications
and systems is a long and evolved process, with cradle to grave controls and documen-
tation, for materials, qualification of fabrication processes, procedures and operators,
and archive of inspection and quality records. As an example, the design of a new
turbine blade may cost in the order of $10M, and certification of the new blade may
Product Quality 263

cost $50M, while the certification of a new system such as an aircraft engine could
cost $1B. Figure 10.12 shows a “System V” development cycle for the verification and
validation of components and systems. This type of development cycle can be modi-
fied for a wide range of components and systems with the ultimate goal that maps the
process of how verification is used to assure parts meet the specified design require-
ments and how validation is used to assure the part functions as intended.
All of these organizations are actively involved in developing and modifying
certification procedures and processes to accommodate the use of AM fabricated
parts for a wide range of new materials and processes. Solving the AM metal part
certification challenges of today is many ways lagging behind the pace of technology
development, demonstration, and the increasing rate of market acceptance.
The economics and cost benefits of moving to the production of certified AM
parts are being pulled by demand. There remains, however, a large gap between the
production of test coupons, functional test hardware, and fully certified parts. An
increasing number of AM parts for use in the medical and aerospace fields are being
certified for use on a case-by-case basis. This one-by-one process is costly and time
consuming but provides increased justification to identify new industry standards
needed to apply AM fabrication to a wider range of components.
For those not familiar with production requirements, here are a few. Some of
the formalities of operations needed for the move from prototyping to production
include equipment calibration, operator certification and development of standards,
ISO 9000 quality control, documentation, record-keeping and formal specifications,
working to standards, and qualified materials operators and suppliers. For those not
aware of these requirements, they can easily exceed the cost of design, prototyping,

FIGURE 10.12  System V product life cycle.

264 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

and process development. The costs of launching a product into production can be
huge and if the production volumes are low the price per unit must be very high. The
certification process may also require additional component builds, and verifica-
tion that parts meet all requirements, regulations, and specifications, such as those
required for testing and process verification followed by functional validation to
assure customer requirements are met. Certification for AM may require automated
systems specifically designed and built to automatically characterize AM materials
to populate material property databases.

10.7 KEY TAKEAWAY POINTS

i. The sequence of operations associated with AM metal processing is differ-
entiated from other metal processing operations that require manual inter-
vention or constant supervision. Many AM metal processes can take hours
to build a part but require expert oversight to assure the process is properly
set up, the safety envelope is verified, and the procedure is followed.
ii. Post-processing operations, inspection, and quality assurance rely primar-
ily on the modification of existing inspection methods to assure a repeat-
able process, allowable levels of flaws, and a component that meets quality
standards. The size, distribution, nature, and origin of AM metal defects in
some cases challenge existing NDE methods.
iii. Standards are being developed to assist in the certification of critical com-
ponents and are needed to fully realize the adoption of AM metal process-
ing in wide-scale industrial production.

10.8 OVERVIEW OF 4D PRINTING
Additive manufacturing (3D printing) is itself an emerging technology and is in fact
over thirty years old already. As SPI Lasers has continuously reported, the tech-
nology is now becoming more mainstream, but is still very heavily underutilized
considering its potential. The potential to economically and time efficiently 3D print
ANYTHING is an irresistible proposition. 3D-printed materials are not the end of
the story though, as there are techniques to create materials/objects which can be
pre-programmed to operate in a certain way.

10.8.1 A Definition of 4D Printing

The term 4D printing was first coined by TED professor Skylar Tibbits in his
February 2013 speech at the MIT Conference.
A definition of 4D printing may be:

The use of a 3D printer in the creation of objects which changes or alters their shape
when they are removed from the 3D printer. The objective is that objects are made to
self-assemble when exposed to air, heat, or water; this is caused by a chemical reaction
due to the materials utilized in the manufacturing process.
Product Quality 265

10.8.1.1 The Difference between 4D and 3D Printing

Think of 4D printing as the same as 3D printing with the addition of time. By adding
time to 3D printing, the concept of 4D printing is born. This enables objects to be
pre-programmed in various ways to react to a range of different stimuli.
4D printing is futuristic but has a very exciting future. 4D printing delivers the
possibility of designing any transformable shape, which can be made from a large
selection of materials. These different materials will have many different properties
and a range of potential applications and uses. There is a real opportunity for the
creation of dynamic self-assembling objects which could transform and be used in a
wide range of industries and in a large number of applications.

10.8.2 Potential Applications for 4D Printing

Applications of 4D printing are particularly suited to changes in environmental
circumstances:

Architecture: Buildings which are delivered in a flat pack form but entirely
self-assemble when the right stimuli are added.
Clothing: Clothes and footwear which change the appearance and func-
tion (e.g. clothes which naturally adapt/change to the size/contours of the
wearer).
a) An example is shoes which become waterproof during rain or react to other
external atmospheric conditions
b) Military clothing, e.g. clothes which camouflage, cool, and/or insulate sol-
diers by reacting to different input environments
Food: The 4D printing of food using a number of techniques.
Health: Multiple applications including nanotechnology uses:
a) There is the possibility of inserting implants into the human body, which
self-deform to a plan when inserted with surgical intervention (e.g. cardiac
tubes)
b) Using 3D printers injected with stem cells to print slices of liver and other
organs
c) Using 3D printers to print skin, the shape of which changes over time
depending on conditions
Home appliances: Products in the home, such as a chair which upon purchase
self-assembles through heat stimuli applied by a home hairdryer.
Transport: Roads which self-heal potholes.

10.9 EXERCISES
1. Briefly explain post-processing and finishing.
2. Discuss nondestructive test methods.
3. Discuss destructive test methods.
4. Explain standards and certification.
266 Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing

10.10 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1 . PBF-EB uses a powder bed preheat of up to ___________.
a) 600°C
b) 700°C
c) 800°C
d) 900°C
Ans: (b)
2. HT furnaces used to treat metal parts may need to operate at ___________
and use inert atmospheres, such as argon or vacuum, when processing certain
materials.
a) High temperatures
b) Moderate temperatures
c) Low temperatures
d) None of the above
Ans: (a)
3. HIP is a process that uses high temperatures and high gas over pressures to
heat a part to a temperature below melting and at pressures of ___________.
a) 80 MPa
b) 90 MPa
c) 100 MPa
d) 110 MPa
Ans: (c)
4. ______________ inspection may or may not detect lack of fusion defects as
poorly bonding locations may not be detected.
a) Radiographic
b) Heat treatment
c) Fractography
d) All of the above
Ans: (a)
5. Ultrasonic testing (UT) uses _________ sound waves to penetrate a metal
object.
a) Subsonic
b) Sonic
c) Supersonic
d) Ultrasonic
Ans: (d)
Interview Preparedness

Question 1. What’s a 3D printing?

Response: 3D printing is the process of constructing a three-dimensional model by
adding material automatically rather than removing material as in case of drilling
or machining operatsons. This technique is also known as additive manufacturing,
which was first implemented at the end of the 1980s and its first use for commercial
operation was started as a quick prototyping tool in the automotive and aerospace
industries. 3D Systems were developed by Charles Hull, who later co-founded, and
invented a stereo lithography (SLA) method.3D Systems were launched in1988 as
the first commercial 3D printer using SLA technology.
A number of industrial 3D printing associations were founded in the early 1990s and
all of them were developed with new and innovative processes. Just three of the big
3D printing firms of the period when the main use for 3D printing was commercial
are still on the market. The use of 3D printing was not widely available to the public
until 2009. Several of the open source projects opened the door to affordable 3D
desktop printers using Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) technology. Then in the
years following 2009, new and other companies began to invent, build and develop
the 3D printer for the consumer/desktop to the point that it is still usable.
Question 2. How does 3D printing work?
Response: “Additive process” is used to create a 3D printed object. The succeeding
layers are formed by laying down of material, until the three-dimensional structure
is finished.
Question 3. What are the boundaries of 3D printing?
Response: While it is now widely applied in the enclosure of prototyping, 3D print-
ing is only a few years away from making a breakthrough in the world of production
engineering. This breakthrough would make it possible for 3D printing to expand
from prototyping, with the exception of selected parts already produced by 3D print-
ers, to be widely used in day-to-day manufacturing processes around the world.
The only factor that stops this from happening faster is the fairly long time it takes
to 3D print something that can just as easily be manufactured using conventional
methods.
Three-dimensional printing is limited to 3D printer dimensions as well. Although
there are some pretty large 3D cement printing units, for example, high-quality and
precision parts are limited to smaller machines, which can also be very expensive
depending on what they are designed to be capable of.

267
268 Interview Preparedness

Question 4. What is the difference between additive manufacturing and 3D

printing?
Response: The short answer is no. The word ‘3D printing’ is used to put either thick-
ness of UV-curable photopolymer resin or the binding material on a powder layer in
the process of a powder bed with inkjet printer heads. Nowadays, however, all addi-
tive manufacturing techniques are used universally.
“Additive manufacturing” refers to the more technical or correct way to automated
building a digital file from scratch of a 3D object.
Question 5. What’s the difference between 3D printing and 4D printing?
Response: 4D printing is a subset of 3D printing. In “normal” 3D printing, the final
product is static unless few soft materials are applied and are meant to remain in
that fashion. 4D printing is an approach to “program” the material to change form or
performance when the correct impulse is provided.
For example, running slippers can be created to change the way they feel or fit
depending on the activity of the wearer. Clothing could also change its functional-
ity, depending on the weather. Although these products and solutions are not yet
available in the market, various research institutions are working to improve these
technologies.
Question 6. Who invented 3D printing?
Response: The co-founder of 3D Systems, Charles (Chuck) Hull, invented a solid
imaging process which is today known as stereolithography (SLA). SLA was the first
profit making 3D printing method. Charles first thought about the idea in 1983 while
using UV light to amalgamate tabletop coatings. Patent was granted for this process
in 1986. Charles Hull also invented the STL file configuration, which is the most
common 3D file printing format.
Question 7. Are 3D printed goods as similar as good or manufactured
products?
Response: 3D printing has made it possible to improve certain products beyond
the capabilities of traditional manufacturing processes such as jet engine compo-
nents. However, on a general level, it would be an abstract statement to suggest that
a certain 3D printed product is better or worse than its traditional counterpart. From
an economic point of view, 3D printing is on its way to becoming a very efficient,
resourceful and cost-effective means of production and is likely to surpass conven-
tional manufacturing processes in the near future.
Question 8: What are the possible applications of 3D printing in education?
Response:

i. Yes, 3D printing has already been introduced to students at an early age.

ii. 3D printing enables the physical manifestation of the thoughts and ideas
of someone else. Hands-on experience makes a technical subject fun and
attractive, even for people who are not (yet) particularly interested in
design, architecture, computer science or engineering and many other fields
Interview Preparedness 269

of study. To some extent, dry and theoretical and boring class, can be made
interesting through an attractive and practical experience.
iii. China had introduced all its elementary schools with 3D printers in 2017.
The initial engagement of students in newer technologies will lead this a
reality.
iv. In Japan, Kabaku and Microsoft corporations also designed a 3D printing
and programming learning device. In the popular Mine craft video game,
students can develop framework in the game and output their creations to a
3D printer. This helps students realize the potential impact that their imagi-
nations and ideas can make them realize that design is a trial-and-error
process, often involving several iterations before it gets right.
v. There is no debate as to whether or not 3D printing can be applied in the
classroom.
Question 9. Is Unsupported Filaments going to ruin 3d printer?
Response: The advice is to operate a 3D printer in accordance with the manufac-
turer’s guidelines. Often, the use of the wrong filament can result in damage to the
hot end of the 3D printer. Generally, ensure that the temperature of the nozzle is not
increased to temperatures above the given specifications and that only the filaments
recommended by the manufacturer are used. For example, if the nozzle is not built
of material suitable for carbon fiber, the carbon fiber-infused filament will evaporate
the nozzle. (Since the 3D printers are modular, a worn-out nozzle can be replaced.)
Question 10. What are the types of 3D printing filaments?
Response: There are different types of 3D printing filaments. First and foremost,
they come in two conventional diameters: 1.75 mm and 3.00 mm.
PLA and ABS are the highest usual materials used in FDM 3D printing. These
materials are attractive due to their ease of application (ABS being a little more
complicated than 3D printing) and economy.
But as far as the materials considered for printing, there are almost no boundaries.
It is achievable to print in natural metal, food and all types of thermoplastics where
metal and food does not come in filament form for various reasons.
Question 11. What kind of software is needed for 3D printing?
Response: There is the need for at least a 3D slicer to prepare an existing 3D model
for 3D printing. Most 3D printers come with their own cutting software. Cura, the
most versatile Simplify3D, is the most popular 3D open source slicer.
For designing 3D models or modifying existing models 3D modelling software is
needed.
Question 12. How to create 3D Printable Models?
Response: First, 3D models can be made using 3D modelling software or real-life
objects, which are then scanned and transformed into 3D model files with special-
ized software generally provided by the scanning device manufacturer. After that,
3D models need to pass through a 3D slicing program to become a 3D printable
model.
270 Interview Preparedness

Question 13. What do you mean by 3D Printing Model?

Response: A 3D printing model is a file that can be read and interpreted by a 3D
printer. It is used to inform a 3D printer where to place the nozzle to create a physi-
cal object. The model file consists of geometric information which will have to be
understood by slicing software that turns the geometric input into the commands that
the printer can operate.
Question 14. How to start when designing a 3D print model?
Response: Download and install a 3D modeling software. There are a lot of good,
free 3D modeling programs out there that are perfect for beginners. Start with
uncomplicated models, like a cube, and then through more intricate articles.
Question 15. What are the most usual 3D file formats for printing?
Response: There are very less 3D file formats available for printing. Some of the
most common formats are:

i. STL: This is the highest versatile 3D model format, supported by all cutting
tools.
ii. OBJ: The OBJ file configuration is also important – and supported by all
major slicing tools. In contrast to STL, OBJ is able to store color and texture
profiles; it’s likely to become more popular when multicolor printing starts.
iii. PLY: PLY, the Polygon file composition, was initially applied to store 3D
scanned objects.
iv. 3MF:3MF is a latest file format developed by Microsoft, Autodesk, HP and
Shape Ways.
Question 16. How to change the current 3D printing model?
Response: Modify current 3D models by importing a file to a 3D modeling program.
Make all the desired changes and save progress and export the 3D model.
There are also extraordinary tools for editing STL files which are not full-blown
CAD programs – and are therefore easier to apply.
Question 17. What’s the minimal wall thickness in case of a 3D print model?
Response: There are some important things to have in mind when deciding on the
wall thickness of print.

i. First of all, for an extremely detailed model of a building, for example,

scaling down the model for 3D printing will scale down every aspect of the
model, including tiny details and wall thicknesses. There is a point where
the 3D printer is no longer capable of printing such fine details. This could
result in super fragile prints and missing details. Therefore, while develop-
ing a file for printing, it is significant to know which parameters to change
in order to obtain better results.
ii. The later aspect to examine is the material and machinery that areused.
iii. In FDM technology, the minimum wall thickness is typically between 0.05
mm and 0.1 mm – depending on the resolution supported of 3D printer.
Interview Preparedness 271

This does not mean, however, that the walls printed at that thickness will
be stable at all.
iv. The shape of 3D model has been a critical aspect as well. For illustration, if
3D model has an object with a more overhang, the structures shielding the
overhang are required to be thick enough not to pervert or crash. Also, it is
important to make sure that the shielding walls are capable enough to hold
the weight above them. In general, 1 mm is the lower constraint for wall
thickness, hence 2 mm is recommended.

Question 18. Why does a 3D printing model have to be watertight?

Response: “Water tightness” in case of 3D printing model refers to a 3D model
mesh. The mesh itself must have no holes in it. Otherwise, a 3D printer may not be
capable of printing a model. This kind of problem can be fixed by using a 3D model
repair tool.
Question 19. Can a 2D photo be used to get a 3D printed model?
Response:

i. Yes, but the results will be different. Also, it really depends on the scanning
method chosen. Many 3D scanning machines use a series of 2D photos to
develop or create a substantive 3D model of the object.
ii. Also, most of the 3D-printed figures are prepared from a multitude of 2D
pictures that are stitched together.
iii. “Scandi” is an app that allows users to take 360° perspective drawings.
Images can then be printed in 3D color in the mode of a sphere. This allows
for a greater mesmerizing photo viewing experience. Apps also permit the
users to take 3D photos to design 3D models of people, animals or objects
and if 3D model to be developed, Scandi will print it.

Question 20. How to reduce the cost of 3D printing?

Response: There are a number of ways to reduce 3D printing costs. Variables such
as material, size, and print filling can make a huge price difference over time if they
are optimized.
Question 21. What are the types of materials suited for 3D printing?
Response: Printing with various kinds of materials is possible. Most frequently
known, 3D desktop printers can print with any number of thermoplastics and thermo-
plastics mixed amidst other materials like wood fibre, metal powder, dark compound
glow and many more. Scientists are even experimenting with printing biomaterials
which is an effort to ultimately print 3D human organs for transplantation.
Question 22. Which kind of materials can’t be printed in 3D?
Response: It’s difficult to think of any material that can’t be printed in 3D.
Theoretically, given the correct precedence, almost any type of material can be
272 Interview Preparedness

printed in 3D format. But practically liquids cannot be printed in 3D, unless the
room in which 3D printing are used is minimum below 0° C and provided with 3D
printer along with essential modifications. Other materials, such as natural gaseous
materials, cannot also be printed in 3D under normal conditions.
Question 23. What kind of resolution can a 3D printer print?
Response: The 3D printer resolution is divided into two parts. First, the XY resolu-
tion is the minimal movement the nozzle that can be made on the X and Y axes.
Later, there is vertical resolution to which the least coat thickness of the 3D printer
can be set. This happens for 3D FDM printers.
Maximum resolution (quality) varies greatly built upon the 3D printing mechanism
used.
Question 24. What’s the successful way to print Fully Functional 3D Parts?
Response: The successful path to print fully functional 3D parts in excellent quality
is to apply professional 3D printing services. In order to safeguard, the service can
naturally produce design, and it would be a best idea to contact the customer service
provider.
Question 25. What are the advantages of 3D printing compared to injection
molding?
Response: A major advantage of 3D printing compared to injection molding is the
cost advantage. Injection molding requires the first production or formation of a
mold, which is a costly and delicate process. However, as the cost of injection mold-
ing decreases with increasing production volumes, there is usually a point where
injection molding makes more sense.
Also, some 3D printable geometric shapes simply cannot be produced by injection
molding.
Question 26. What are the differences between 3D printing and CNC milling?
Response: The prominent distinction amongst 3D printing and CNC milling is the
starting point: with 3D printing, the manufacturing process starts from nothing, the
objects are constructed by adding layers of materials. In CNC milling, the process
begins with a block of material and is finished by removing the material until the
desired shape has been formed.
Question 27. What is not suited for 3D printing?
Response:

i. As far as 3D printing is considered, much is possible – but even more is

impossible. An industrial-grade polished surface cannot be achieved by
applying an FDM 3D printer. It has to be post-processed.
ii. An industrial-grade polished surface cannot be achieved by using an FDM
3D printer. It has to be post-processed.
iii. At a hypothetical level, 3D printing of an operational, intricate electro-
mechanical machine or products like automobile vehicles is not yet pos-
sible at a single stretch, even though there is no problem with 3D printing of
Interview Preparedness 273

individual parts. Researchers across the globe are already working on the
production of 3D printers.
iv. Also, bio-printing is not developed enough for 3D printing of fully func-
tional, tailor-made human organs.
Question 28. Is 3D printed gold the same as “normal” gold?
Response: First thing is that, gold is not a printable 3D material. Still, 3D print-
ing is progressively being used to make gold objects by 3D printing a wax model,
which is then cast in solid gold. In other words, gold printed in 3D or not, will be
as valuable as the current market price of gold is considered. In few cases, some
famous jewelers’ handmade jewelry are selling considerably higher than their
weight in gold.
Question 29. Is 3D printing of food possible?
Response: Yes, it’s possible to print 3D food and it’s already done. The requirement
to do and make food is perplexing. The food paste is then brimmed into a syringe-
like container and passes over a nozzle onto a plate or platform.
There are, however, some drawbacks. Even great looking food can be created; it’s
almost impractical for some people to print a complete meal in 3D – printers are
simply slower. Still, the chefs are embracing 3D printing technology quickly.
Question 30. Can chocolate be printed in 3D?
Response: Yes, there are possibilities for chocolate to be printed in 3D format and
may even be better when compared with other foods. Since chocolate can melt, it
can be passed through a heated extruder and cooled to a solid like thermoplastics.
Unfortunately, there is no 3D chocolate printer available at present in the market, but
using all-in-one printers chocolates can be designed.
Question 31. What’s the prominent latest thing which can be done with 3D
printing?
Response:

i. 3D printing has opened up many opportunities, especially in the field of

aerospace and medicine. Certain jet engine components with complex
internal geometry can now be manufactured using 3D printing. These parts
would have been almost impossible to manufacture using conventional
methods.
ii. Many space exploration projects/concepts depend heavily on 3D printing.
For example, the Russian and European Space Agency is planning to build
3D bases on the moon using moon soil rather than sending all materials
from the earth. This is going to result in saving lots of money.
iii. On the medical front, scientists are working on bio-printing, which will
permit 3D printing of living tissues, bones and organs.
Question 32. What are the areas of 3D industrial printing?
Response: 3D printing is used in the aerospace, automotive, medical, architectural,
consumer goods/electronics, defence and education sectors.
274 Interview Preparedness

Since there are many applications in which 3D printing can be done cost-effectively,
3D printing has found its place in several industries. Time saved by 3D printing an
architectural model, rather than constructing or milling is tremendous.
Question 33. What’s the biggest thing that was printed in 3D?
Response: The current holder of the Guinness World Record title “Largest 3-D printed
object” is the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). They possess a 3D printing
tool to be applied in the production of the Boeing 777X, a latest and improved version
of the popular and successful Boeing 777 aircraft. The solid object is 17.5 ft long, 5.5
ft wide and 1.5 ft high according to the definition of the record title.
Question 34. Is 3D printing going to change the world?
Response: An industry believes that 3D printing will essentially have a major impact
on the manufacturing sector. Dispersed and regional manufacturing fused with mass
customization will certainly reform the design and manufacture of products along
with process logistics.
Question 35. How to print text or nameplates using 3D?
Response: This sounds pretty standard, but it could be quite difficult without having
any experience using 3D modelling software. Many 3D modelling platforms have a
text-based function, even in different fonts. It is essential to note that a suitable base
for 3D printing is required. This is going to keep the letters in place and keep them
from falling over.
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Index
3-Dimensional, 1 Consolidation of the part, 171
3-Dimensional printing, 2 Construction, 183
3D printing technology, 1 Continuous liquid interphase production, 16
3D systems’ ColorJet printing (CJP) Coordinate measurement machines, 256
technology, 92 Cubic technologies’ laminated object
3D systems’ MultiJet printing system (MJP), 62 manufacturing (LOM), 80
3D systems’ selective laser sintering (SLS), 89 Customization, 172
3D systems’ stereolithography apparatus
(SLA), 55 Destructive test, 248
Destructive test methods, 258
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, 59, 109 Development of additive manufacturing, 1
Adaptive raster milling, 228 Digital light processing, 6, 8
Additive manufacturing, 1 Digital micromirror device, 8
Advanced AM materials, 151 Directed energy deposition, 15, 200
Aerospace and defense, 169 Direct hard tooling, 169
Aerospace industry, 169 Direct metal deposition, 8
Arcam’s electron beam melting (EBM), 95 Direct metal laser melting, 97
Arts and architecture, 182 Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) materials, 121
Asthetics, 108 Direct printing, 176
Automotive industry, 171 Direct slicing of the CAD model, 44
Direct soft tooling, 168
Bead blasting, 164 Do-it-yourself, 146
Bending, 208 Drop on demand, 6, 12
Binder jetting, 12, 13, 200
Binder jetting methods, 115 Eddy-current testing, 258
Bio-ceramics, 138 Edison welding institute, 84
Biomaterials, 129 Electrode discharge machining, 244
Biomedical, 130 Electron beam free-form fabrication, 16
Biomimetic material, 135 Electron beam melting, 18
Biomimetics, 133 Electro optical systems, 93
Bond mechanisms, 204 Elephant’s foot, 210
Building information modeling, 181 EnvisionTEC’s Bioplotter, 66
Build material supports, 153 EnvisionTEC’s Perfactory, 63
Bulk deposit defects, 247 EOSINT M 280 system, 93
EOS’s EOSINT system, 93
CAD model verification, 167 Epoxy coating, 166
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic, 129 Epoxy infiltration, 166
Carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, 129 Esthetic improvements, 232
Ceramics, 111, 137 Extrusion-based printing methods, 116
CMET’s solid object ultraviolet-laser printer
(SOUP), 65 Fiber reinforced plastic, 128
Coin industry, 178 Finite element analysis, 47
Cold hibernated elastic memory, 143 Flow analysis, 168
ColorJet printing, 18 Food, 187
Color models, 45 Form and fit, 168
Composite materials, 127 Format specifications, 28
Compound annual growth rate, 4 Functionally graded materials, 114, 115
Computer-aided design, 25 Fused deposition modeling, 6
Computer tomography, 129 Fused deposition modeling from Stratasys, 60
Concept laser’s LaserCUSING, 97 Fused filament fabrication, 109

279
280 Index

Generic composite materials, 128 Painting, 167

Geographic information system, 180 Penetrant testing, 252
Glassfaserverstärkter Kunststoff, 128 PET/PETG, 112
Glass fiber reinforced plastic, 128 Plating, 163
Glass reinforced plastic, 128 Polyamides, 123
Governing bonding mechanism, 201 Polyaryletherketons, 90
Polycarbonate, 75
Heat treatments, 164 Polyethylene terephthalate, 112
Hewlett-Packard, 5 Polylactic acid (PLA), 59, 110
High impact polystyrene, 112 Polymer, 159
History of biomimetic materials, 135 Polyphenylsulfone, 166
Hole drilling, 232 Polystyrenes, 90
Hot isostatic pressing, 239 Polyvinylidene Fluoride, 117
Post-processing and finishing, 244
Indentation-polishing-heating, 144 Powder bed fusion, 6, 8, 199
Indirect hard tooling, 169 Powder bed fusion (metals), 10
Indirect soft tooling, 168 Powder bed fusion (polymers), 8
Inkjet printing, 118 Powder-bed systems, 120
Investment casting, 173 Powder-fed systems, 120
Powder production, 91
Jewelry industry, 172 Powder reclamation, 243
Pre-production parts, 168
Laminated object manufacturing, 138 Process design, 213
Laser engineered net shaping, 95, 121 Proof of concept, 167
Laser metal deposition, 116
Low-temperature deposition, 116 Radio frequency identification, 4
Low-volume production, 170 Radiographic testing, 257
Rapid freeze prototyping, 69
Machining strategy, 228 Rapid prototyping, 55
Magnetic resonance imaging, 129 RegenHU’s 3D bioprinting, 67
Mask projection vat photopolymerization, 63 Resin, 109
Material efficiency, 170 Room temperature vulcanization, 233
Material extrusion, 6, 200
Material jetting, 11, 12, 201 Sand binder jetting, 13
Material jetting machines, 61 Sanding, 163
Material jetting printing methods, 118 Scaling, 168
Medium-density fiberboard, 128 Selective deposition lamination, 16
Messy first layer, 209 Selective heat sintering, 16
Metal AM processes and materials, 119 Selective laser melting, 16
Metal binder jetting, 14 Selective laser sintering, 16
Metals, 114, 161 Shape memory alloys, 141
Micro-electromechanical systems, 141 Shape memory composites, 146
Multijet printing, 17 Shape memory hybrids, 146
Multiple materials, 45, 114 Shape-memory materials, 139
Musical instruments, 186 Shape memory polymers, 142, 146
Sheet lamination, 14, 200
Nano-electromechanical systems, 141 Shot peening, 164
Nondestructive test, 258 Sintering mechanisms, 91
Nondestructive test methods, 255 Snapped filament, 211
Nylon, 108 Solid freeform manufacturing, 69
Solid object ultraviolet-laser printer, 17
Occupational Health and Safety Organization, 262 Solidscape’s BenchTop system, 75
Optomec’s laser engineered net shaping Solvent dipping, 166
(LENS), 95 Stainless steel, 111
Out of filament, 205 Stereolithography, 17
Over-extrusion, 206 Stereolithography (SLA), 8
Overview of 4D printing, 264 Stereolithography (SLA) apparatus, 16
Index 281

Stereolithography (SLA) materials, 124 Titanium aluminum, 4

Stereolithography (SLA) methods, 115 Tumbling, 165
STL ASCII format, 29
STL binary format, 30 Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene, 128
STL file format, binary/ASCII, 26 Ultrasonic additive manufacturing, 201
STL file manipulation, 41 Ultrasonic consolidation, 83
Stratasys fused deposition modeling (FDM), 75 Ultrasonic testing, 258
Stratasys PolyJet, 59 Ultraviolet, 12
Support material removal, 221
Support materials, 152 Vapor smoothing, 166
Survey of software functions, 46 Vat photopolymerization, 7, 201
Synthetic support removal, 25 Vat polymerization, 6
Vibratory systems, 165
Tableware industry, 180 Visualizing objects, 167
Technology improvement, 3
Temperature memory effect, 142 Warping, 208
Thermoplastic elastomers, 90 Weapons, 186
Thermoplastics, 113 Weight reduction, 170
Thermosets (resins), 114
Titanium, 111 Zygomatic implant, 70