fer Stuy Guide Physics for CSEC® rt : ere vet | P am ; 2 § |OXFORD [UNIVERSETY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, OxCord, OX2 6DR, United Kingdom Osford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford Ic furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research. scholarship, and education by putlishing worldwide, Oxford (s a registexed twade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other counties ‘Text © Darren Forbes 2014 Original illustrations © Oncor University Press 2014 CXC® and CSEC® are registered trademarks of the Caribbean Examinations Conic (CXC). ‘The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First published by Nelson Thornes Ltd in 2013 ‘This edition published by Oxford University Press in 2084 All rights reserved. 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You must not circulate this work in any other form and yous must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Dara Data available 978: 1-4088-2248 wos7654 Printed in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Lid, Croydon CROAYY Acknowledgements Cover photograph Mark tymdereay, Lyndersay Digital, Trinidad woedynidersayigtal.com Iiustrations include artwork drawn by GreenGate Publishing Page make-up GreenGate Publishing ‘Thanks are due to Lancelot Caesar, Yvette Mayers and Fadl Skerritt for their contribuitions in the development ofthis book. ‘Although we have made every effort to trace and contact all Copyright holders before publication this has moc been possible i all ‘cates If notified, the publisher will retify any errors o omissions at the earliest opportunity. Links to thind party websites are provided by Oxford in good! Fults and for information only, Oxford disclaims any responsi bility for {he materials contained in any third party website referenced (at tis work,Contents Introduction 1 Section 3 Waves : 3.1 Wave mation 76 Section 1 Mechanics 3.2 Deseribing waves 38 1.1 Base units, derived units and measuring 3.3 Electromagnetic waves 80 density 2 3.4 light rays and shadows 82 1.2. Making measurements 4 3.5. Reflection of fight 84 1.3: Variables and graph plotting 6 3.6 Refraction of light 86 14 Graphical analysis 8 3.7 Refractive index and total internal 1.5 Vectors and scalars 10 reflection Bs 4.6 Forces 12 3.8 Converging lenses 90 1.7 Moments 14. 3.9. Diverging tenses and the eye 92 1.8 Stability 1s 3.10 Magnification 34 1.9 Investigating Hooke’s law i 3.11 Diffraction, interference and theories Section 1 Practice exam questions 1 20 about the nature of light 8 1.10 Moving objects and displacement-time 3.12 Sound waves 98 graphs 22 3.13 Experimenting with sound waves 100 1.11 Acceleration and velocity-time graphs 24 Section 3 Practice exam questions 102 4.42. Newton's lary of motion %6 1.13 Momentum and impulse 28 Section 4 Electricity and magnetism 1.14 More about momentum 30 4.1 Static electricity 106 Section 1 Practice exam questions 2, 32 4.2 Electric fields and the Van de Graaff 1.15. Energy and energy transformations 34 generator 108 1.16 Energy sources for electricity 36 4.3 Uses and dangers of static electricity 110 4.17 Potential energy and kinetic energy 38 44 Electric current 412 1.18 Conservation of energy 46 4.5 Electrical energy transformations 114 1.49 Power and efficiency a2 4.6 Simple circuits and components 116 1.20 Pressure 44 4.7 Series and parallel circuits ns 1.21 Floating, sinking and density 46 4.8 Cols and batteries 120 Section 1 Practice exam questions 3. 48 49 Resistance 122 Section 2 Thermal physics and kinetic theory 20 eon 2.1 Heat, energy and temperature 50 AAA Greut anatsis 126 2.2 Thermometers and temperature scales 52 Section 4 Practice exam questions 1. 128 2.3 The states af matter 34 4.12 Direct current and altemating current 130 2.4 Gas laws 56 4.13 Mains electricity in the Caribbean 132 2.5 Heat capacity 58 4.14 Mains safety 134 2.6 Changes of state and evaporation 60 4:15. Conversion of'a.c.tod.c. 136 2.7 Heating, cooling and latentheat 62. 4.16 Logic circuits 1 138 2.8 Specific latent heat 64 4.17 Logic circuits 2 140 2.9 Thermal conduction 66 Section 4 Practice exam questions 2. 142 2.10 Convection currents 68 AB Permanent magnets 144 2.11 Infra-red radiation 70 4.19 Magnetic fields 146 2.12. Applying thermal energy transfer 4.20 Electromagnetism 1a principles R 4.21. Forces from magnetic fields. 150 Section 2 Practice exam questions = 74 4.22. Electromagnetic induction 152 4.23 Thed.c. motor and thea.c. generator 154 4.24 Transformers 156 Section 4 Practice exam questions 3.158Contents Section 5 The physics of the atom 5.1 Madels of the atom 160 5.2 Electrons, the nucleus and the periodic table 5.3 Radioactive emissions 5.4 Nuclear decays and reactions 5.5 A motiel of radioactive decay 5.6 Nuclear decay and half-life 5.7 Applications of radioisotopes 5.B The release of nuclear energy Section 5 Practice exam questions Glossary Index Acknowledgements 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 182 187This Study Guide has been developed exclusively with the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC*) to ‘be used as an additional resource by candidates, ‘both in and aut of school, following the Caribbean ‘Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC*) programme. It has been prepared by a team with expertise in the CSEC* syllabus, teaching and examination. ‘The contents are designed to support learning by providing toals to help you achieve your best in Physics and the features included make it easier for {you to master the key concepts and requirements of the syllabus, Do rememiaer to refer to your syllabus for full quidance on the course requirements and examination format! tnside this Study Guide is an interactive CD which, includes electronic activities to assist you in developing goad examination techniques: Introduction * On Your Marks activities provide sample examination-siyie short answer and essay type questions, with example candidate answers and feedback from an examiner to show where ‘answers could be improved. These activities will build your understanding, skil level and confidence in answering examination questions. * Test Yourself activities are specifically designed to provide expetience of multiple-choice examination Questions and helpful feedback will refer you to Sections inside the study guide so that you can revise problem areas, + Answers are included on the CD far summary ‘questions and practice exam questions, so that you can check your own work as you proceed. This unique combination of focused syllabus content and interactive examination practice will provide you with invaluable support to help you reach your full potential in CSEC® Physics.1 Mechanics 1.1 ‘At the end of this topic you should be able to: * stateand use a range of 31 units and prefixes * derive units for quantities + measure the density of regularly and irregularly shaped objects Table 1.1.4 Quantity Base unit | Symbol mass, kilogram [kg length mee |m time seconds current ampere temperature [kehin [& amountel [mole | mol substance luminous candela [od intensity (eam) The $1 base units have very precise definitions or derivations. ind out what these are, Figure 1.104. J stones were aa the calculations necded indesgning the Halfway “ee Transport Centre in Kingston, Jamaica When we measure a quantity we need to include the units of the measurement. The length of a desk shauid be given as, for example, 1.2 metres or 1.2m, not just 1.2 Base units ‘Aset of seven units, based on the metre, kilogram and second, has been agreed intemationally. They are known as the S| base units and are shown in Table 1.1.1 Derived units. There are many more units in addition to the seven base units These units can all be derived directly from the seven, based on mathematical relationships and definitions For example, the speed of an object is defined from the equation: distance moved (m) time (5) This means that the unit for speeds a distance divided by a time: metres per second (ms) speed = Every other derived quantity can be worked out this way, For convenience {and to honour important scientists} some of the defived units have been given special names. For example, the unit for a potential difference derived from the base units would be kgs: A’. This unit is given the special name volt (V). Standard form To avoid using very large or very small numbers, scientists use ‘standard form, in standard form the number is always written in the format A x 10%, where 4 isa number between 0 and 10 and x is the number of places to move the decimal point. A positive value of x indicates movement to the right while a negative value indicates movement to the left #4500 is writen as.5 x 107 * 0.0006 is written as 6 x 10°“ Prefixes Scientists often need to use very large or very small numbers and 50 use a set of prefixes which may be attached to any unit. These are shown in Table 1.1.2. This set of prefizes allows a quantity ike 8.4 x 10° watts to be written as 8.4 megawatts or 8.4MW.Using units: density ‘The density of a material is the mass per unit volume. In non- Scentific language this is how much mass there is in a cubic metre or ‘cubic centimetre of the material, The equation defining density is: mass om orp =— density = ty Fomume v Find the derived Sl unit of density. Macs is measured in Kilogram (kg). Volume is measured in cubic metres (m°}. The equation defining density shows that density isa mass divided by a volume and therefore the Si unit of density is kgm-*, Measuring density ‘To measure the density of a regularly shaped object you must _measure the mass using a balance and then caiculate the volume by taking appropriate measurements for the dimensions and using a formula, ‘To measure the volume of an irregular object, place the object inside- ‘2. measuring cylinder partly full of water. The level of the water will rise by the volume of the abject. ‘A rough stone has a mass af 309. itis placed in a measuring cylinder containing 20 cm? of water and the level of the water rises to the 24cm” mark (Figure 1.1.2). “The density of the stone is found using: density = aso 30, — volume {cm') (24- 20)cm’ = 7.5gcm? 1 Use the following equations to work out the appropriate derived units for velocity, acceleration and force. ny — distance wwelocity 7 -tarstion _ changein velacity cceleration = Sande wn Woe, ax ion force = mass x acceleration 2 Write these quantities using the base unit and standard form: milliamperes, 4.9 micromoles, 2400 picaseconds, 0.2 gigavolt. ‘Table'1.1.2 — Frefites or Stunis Prefix [symbol _| Represents tera T 10” giga 6 10? mega M 10° kilo k 10 cent € 107 ‘ill m 10? micro " 10 ano n 10° pico p 10-7 Use the technique described on these pages to find the density of a range of irregularly shaped objects,Ce ees ‘At the end of this topic you should be able to: select an appropriate instrument to measure length ina range of experiments » identity systematic error and randotn error in measurements + use the appropriate number of significant figures in calculations and answers. This merometer i being used to measure ‘of a bare a factor when using @ Making measurements Common measurements Length Many lengths can be measured with a ruler ar tape measure. These instruments typically have a resolution of 1 mm. The resolution of an instrument is the smallest difference in a reading the instrument ean measure If a smaller length needs to be measured, callipers or a micrometer ‘an be used. Callipers have a resolution of 0.1mm and a high quality screw gauge micrometer will have a resolution of 0.01 mm Time Time intervals are generally measured with a digital stopwatch, Many stopwatches have a resolution of 0.01 second but, as human reaction times are more than 0.1 second, it may be unnecessary to measure to the full resolution. To measure times more precisely, we can use automatic stopwatches triggered by events such as the breaking of a light-beam, These have much batter response times Mass Mass 6 measured by a balance which compares an unknown mass to a known one of, moreaften, by a top-pan balance, A variety of top- pan balances is available, some with a resolution of 0.01 g. Uncertainty and error When we make a measurement it may not be exactly the same as the ‘true value’. Readings from instruments introduce error in measurements leading to some uncertainty in our calculations Systematic error A systematic error is usually the result of some flaw in the measuring device oF the measurement technique, For example, a metre rule could have a damaged end so that it shows all lengths as tim too short. Systematic errors will make the readings recorded shift away from the true measurement Random error Random error is an unpredictable error introduced inta a measurement when you take a reading, Sometimes this is because of the technique you use such as poor positioning of your line of sight while measuring length (Figure 1.2.3).reading ielou tate, jooctadtalehebs slisiw el tattoo oer Gaon] Use a range of instruments to take measurements of the properties of objects. Find out hhow to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. TA line of sight error Random errors will cause readings to be scattered around the true value. The effects of ranciom error can be reduced by performing repeat ‘readings and finding a mean value: Readings whieh were slightly too ‘high will tend to cancel readings which were slightly too low. Accuracy and precision If a measurement is dose to the true value of a quantity it is said to be accurate. It is not possible to know if a reading js accurate ‘without repeating the measurement several times and calculating a mean value. All possible systematic errors must be avoided. If all ‘ol the measurements taken are close to the mean then you can be confident that the results are accurate. A precise measurement is.a measurement where all of the repeated readings show very little difference. They are all very close to the mean value of the readings. It is possible to obtain results which are precise but not accurate due ‘toa systematic error (Figure 1.2.da). Results can also be accurate but not precise (Figure 1.2 4b). The very best experiments produce results which are both accurate and precise. ‘Quoting answers ‘The number of significant figures you quote in any answers is a reflection of how certain you are of the precision of your answer, You ‘should never use more significant figures than are justified by the resoluition of your instruments. in general, answers should be given to two or thiee significant figures unless more significant figures are given in questions or by measuring instruments. 1 How can you increase the accuracy of a measurement? ‘2 Table 1.2.1 shows three sets of results forthe measurement of the diameter of a metal rod of true diameter 5.0mm. Which sets Of results are accurate, which are precise and which are both? Table 1.2.1 ‘The diameter of 2 small ball bearing is measured with calipers giving a value of 6.4mm, Using the formula for volume gives an answer of 137.258mm”. Record the volume to a sensible number of significant figures. The volume is recorded as 14x 108mm? SSEXAM TIP Good experinnental design allows us to lnovestigate the ip between one lent variable and one dependent variabte white coutroling all other Variables, Find out if the colour of a container affects the rate of cooling. Yout experimental design should ensure that these factors are kept constant: * The temperature of the surroundings * The size of the containers «The volume of liquid in the containers * Air flow Scientific investigations are highly controlled in order to reveal connections between quantities and behaviour. in an ideal experiment physicist would be-able to alter one variable in an experiment and see the effect of this change in isolation. Key variables The independent variable is he variable which is manipulated by the experimenter to see what effect changing it has-on the experiment. The dependent variable is the variable which is expected to change in response to altering the independent variable Scientists explore the connectian between these two variables in an experiment by finding a relationship between them and then explaining the cause of that relationship For example, if you were investigating the hypothesis The colder a sample of water is the denser it will be’ then the independent variable ‘would be the temperature of the water 3s this is what you would be manipulating, The dependent variable would be the density of the ‘water, as this is the quantity you expect to change in response to changing the temperature, Control variables Thete ate usually a wide range of other factors that need to be taken into account during an expesiment so that they do not have an effect on the results, These are known as contral variables. Good experimental designs ensure that these factors de nat alter during the experiment. Graphs ‘One of the best ways to show the relationship between two variables is to plot a graph (Figure 1.3.1). If there is a clear pattern shown in the graph then a clear relationship has been demonstrated, Scientists would then try to explain how this relationship occurs. if an explanation can be given then the relationship is causal Perfect graph plotting takes time and practice. Use these tips to help produce yours. * Use a sharp pencil and ruler ‘© When you draw the axes make sure you leave enough space to label them clearly, * Plot the independent variable on the x-axis * Plot the dependent variable on the y-axis. ‘+ Plot the graph so that the data points accupy as much of the graph paper as possible horizontally and vertically. * Use increments of 2, 5 oF 10 (or their multiples} for your scales if possible,‘elocryins"! ‘A wellcrawm graph has:clearly labeled anes and the data points Fl Up the available see ‘A pendulum is a simple device that can be used to measure time, ‘Amasson the end of a thread or wire is allowed to swing freely, from side to side (Figure 1.3.2). One complete oscillation is a sing back and forth to the same position, The following three factors may affect the periad (time it takes for one complete oscillation) Investigate each of the three factors independently while controling the other two. Collect data and plot separate graphs comparing each of the independent variables to the period. * Length of the thread ** Mass of the pendulum bob + Initial angle of displacement You will need to use the data to produce @ graph in the next topic 11 Think about the following hypotheses and outline a basic ‘experiment to investigate them. for each one identify clearly the independent variable, dependent variable and any other variables you will have to control, a The greater the current in a light bulb the brighterit wil be. bb The further away from a sound you are the quieter it will seem. © Tease the force you put onto a spring the more it will (2 Table 1.3.1 shows the data from an investigation into. fesistance, Plat a graph using this data, Table 1.3. [0.00 | 0.60 [1.02 [1.57 [207 [2.52 [3.08 | Bab Pome a ‘ecto Sing S09 eat — + 2) » @.= sat he complete exlition =a + b-+€ gue SD] Ting » pendulum‘At the end of this topic you should be able to: * plota straight line of best fit through a set of points * determine the gradient of a straight line graph * analyse a graph to deseribe the relationship between the two variables. ES (eam) Use the data you collected when investigating the relationship between the period of a pendulum’s swing and the length of the pendulum or use the data provided in Table 1.4.1. Table 1.4.1 Length/m | Period'/s* T t aos [020 aio (040 O15 (0.60 020 (0.80 025 [1.01 030.21 035 1.41 o4o [tet * Plot a graph comparing the Jength of the pendulum with the square of the period (7). * Describe the relationship shown in the grap ‘Agraph can be analysed to find the relationship between the two variables Graphs showing linear relationships Lines of best fit are drawn onto graphs to identify the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These lines follow simple shapes (straight lines or curves) that pass through or close to. the points, Straight lines: Ifthe points on 3 graph appear to bein. straight ling you can use 2 ruler to draw a line of best fit (Figure 1.4.1), Draw the line so that it passes through the points with an equal number above and bdow the line Some data points may not fit the pattem of results, These may be due to unexpectedly large random errors or uncertainties produced during the ‘experiment, You may also have made mistakes in recording the data, Do not use these anomalous results when drawing thelline of best fit. 50 Ay =|550-205 355m 30 Displacereni 0 Ax= 80-30 = 508 Drawing 9 ine of best fitGradients The gradient of a jine canbe used to find a mathematical relationship between the two variables. To find the gradient: + Draw a large, right-angled triangle on the graph so that the triangle meets two points on the line of best fit. If possible, select points that are widely spaced and those whose values are easily read (for example, points that fie on the gridiines), * Use the triangle to find the change in the y-value (Ay) and the change in the x-value (Ax), a * The gradient (mn) is given by m = mE intercepts ‘Sometimes the line of best fit will pass directly through the origin, In ‘this case the two variables are in direct proportion to each ather: independent variable « dependent variable ifthe line does not pass through the origin the relationship is described as linear. The line will cut the y-axis at a point known as the intercept (@)and the relationship between the variables will be of the form: yore where y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable, m is the gradient and cis the intercept on the y-axis, Graphs showing other relationships The points on a graph may also follow a curve, This may also ‘represent a simple mathematical relationship between the variables, instead of plotting @ graph comparing the.x and y variables directly, functions such as plotting y? ort may show the relationship more clearly There is a mathematical relationship between the light “illuminance (brightness) of a light source and the distance from that source. Data are provided in Table 1.4.3. Use graphical techniques to find out if this relationship is either: ituminanice = —— or ituminance ~ | distance Table 1.43 Es ean sorvetines ted pattem bf plotting « asainst F Table 1.42 — tamplesof eltionshins whieh occur etween cariables in physies Relationship | Produces a straight- line graph vwhon Key x plotted against y sey x plotted against y? i i ket x plotted against — ¥ ree enety.Cees At the end of this topic you should be able: ‘© describe the difference between a scalar and a vector ‘quantity * use a vector diagram to find the resultant of two vectors. ‘Veetor calculations are used in predicting the paths of hurricanes Find the resultant of the three: forces acting on the ballin Figure 1.5.2. 61N SIN, (GRIEG) Tee pacticogremnie There are two classes of quantity in physics: sealars and vectors, = Asealar quantity has magnitude (size) but no direction, + Avector quantity has magnitude and direction ‘Comparing a scalar and a vector Distance and displacemenit are both lengths which can be measured in metres: * Distance is a scalar quantity, it is haw far an abject mowes without reference to the direction. + Displacement is a vector quantity. |t isa measure of how far an ‘object is from its origin (original position). For example, if you walk 10 metres northwards, turn around and walk 5 metres back towards your starting point you have covered a distance of 15 metres. However, your displacement is 5 metres north of your starting point. Combining quantities Scalars, such as mass and volume, simply add together of are subtracted from each other: + Adding @ mass of 40 kg toa mass of 30kg gives a mass of 70ks. * Removing 40cm! of water from 100m’ of water will always leave 60cm? of water, Vectors, such as velocity and force, cannot be simply added together. To find the resultant of vectors you must also take their direction into account, Parallel vectors. If the vectors are parallel to eaich other, then you can add or subtract to find a resultant. Always give the ditection of the resultant in your answer. Non-paralle! vectors: the parallelogram rule The parallelogram rule allows us to find the resultant of two non= parallel vectors by drawing a scale diagram (Figure 1.5.3). Two adjacent sides of the parallelogram (in red) represent the two Vectors to be added (F, and F,). The lengths of F, and F, are in proportion to their magnitude. The resultant (R) of the two vectors is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram, shown in green.What is the resultant of the two vectors shown in Figure 1.5.47 508 15H Figure 1.5.4 Check that the vectors are drawn to the same scale, Then draw the other two sides of the parallelogram and the diagonal (Figure 1.5.5). Measure the length and angie of the diagonal, and use the scale factor to find its value in nevitons. 75N Vectors at right angles ‘Where the vectors are at right angles to each other, you can use Pythagoras's theorem and trigonometry. The two vectors form two sides of a right-angied tangle with the resultant forming the hypotenuse of the triangle (Figure 1.5.6). The size of the hypotenuse ‘can be found using hypotenuse’ = adjacent? + opposite? Ravt+ty The angle of the resultant vector can be found using: tang — oposite _ y adjacent x which leads to the relationship: @ = tan! ‘A remate-controlied toy is instructed to move 80m south follawed by a movement of 60m west. What is the displacement of the toy after this movement? Magnitude of displacement ® = 80" + GO = 10000m! R = V10000 = 100m Direction of displacement: 0 = wr - ar below in a treasure hunt. Calaulate the total distance 2 Draw a scale diagram to find ‘the resultant of two velocity vectors acting on a boat crossing a river, as shown in Figure 1.5.7.Forces acting on an object gravitational potential enegy + heat eneegy, HEED] Coste ewer interne > bn energy ofthe stone CChermical potential energy —+ heat = light sound» ki gravitational potenti energy Sans 1. Scientists desenbe events Jn terms of energy ‘transformation and energy sronsfer 2 Amechanical transfer of ‘energy is called work done and this is found using the equation W = FdCena Ey ‘At the end of this topic you should be able to: «describe how alternative ‘energy resources can be used to generate electricity * state some advantages and disadvantages of using alternative eneray resources. a Research the use of fossil fuels and renewable energy in the Caribbean and write a short report about what should be done to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels. 1 Which energy sources: a require afarge ammount of land? - b damage the atmosphere? € are unreliable? canbe used on a small scale near to where the electricity is required? Cita 1 Large-scale electricity production takes place in fossil fuel burning or nuclear power plants. 2 There are a range of other renewable energy sources which can produce electricity on asmaller scale. Electricity is an important form of energy as it is simple to transfer over very large distances and to transform it into ather forms such as light, kinetic energy or heat. There is a constantly increasing demand for electricity which is met by using a wide range af energy sources Non-renewable energy sources Non-renewable energy sources are fuels that cannot be replaced and so are in limited supply or have limited lifespans. Fossil fuels Fossil fuels include cool, oil and natural gas, formed from the remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago. ‘These fuels are burnt in a furnace producing waste gases and large amounts of thermal energy. The heat is used ta produce high pressure steam to spin turbines which drive electricity generators. Burning fossil fuels can produce very large amiounts of energy but vast quantities of csrbon dioxide are released leading to global warming. Sulfur dioxide is also released, especially from buming coal, and this causes acid rain. Oils the most significant energy source used in the Caribbean, accounting for more than 90% of the total electricity praduction. Nuctear power ‘A.nuclear power station produces heat using nucear fuels such as uranium, These fuels are nat humt but release thermal energy insigé a reactor core when the nucle! split through a process called nuclear fission. Nuclear power plants are very expensive to build and dismantte but are faitty cheap to operate, They can produce very large quantities of electricity. However, they also produce radioactive waste which is very dangerous and requires safe storage far thousands of years. ‘Accidents are very rare but the escaping radioactive material can contaminate large areas of land. No nuctear power stations operate in the Caribbean and none are currently planned. Cuba started construction of a nuclear power station in the 1980s but abandoned the project before the reactor had been built. You can find additional detail about nuclear reactions in 5.4. Renewable energy sources Renewable energy sources produce electricity without being used up. The sources are either quickly replaceable or have effectively unlimited! lifespans, Several examples are shown in Table 1,16.1.Table 1.16.1 A summary of some renewable energy sources inthe Caribbean Enorgy source Example How it operates Key advantages Key disadvantages Solar power (photovoltaic calls) There are no large-scale solar power plants in the Caribbean but many new buildings have panels installed ‘Most homes in Barbados have solar water heaters on their roofs. The energy from sunlight is converted ectly to electricity using semiconductor cells, No fuel required. Plenty of sunlight in the Caribbean. Electricity can be produced on the building in which itis to be used. Can't produce electricity at night so battery storage required. Quite expensive to build. Hydroelectricity: The Dominican Republic has twenty dams providing 10% of the electricity needs, Water is trapped behind adam and used to drive turbines as it is allowed to escape. No fuel required. Gan produce large amounts of electricity very quickly. Floods large amounts of land Which isa precious resource on islands. Only smail- and medium scale systems can be used on Caribbean isiands as there are few large valleys or rivers. Tidal flows around the Caribbean could provide energy but are not used currently. Water is trapped in estuaries and drives turbines. No fuel required. Predictable energy output. There are very few suitable estuaries in the Caribbean islands. Alters habitats and wildlife. ‘Wind turbines The Wigton wind farm on Jamaica produces 20MW of electricity, The wind spins turbine blades mounted on towers. No fuel required, Plenty of wind around island systems. Large-scale wind farms. or small-scale local generation possible, Offshore turbines could affect tourism by spoiling views Some noise pollution is produced especially from large wind farms. Biofuels Beneath the volcanic islands of St Kitts and Nevis there are vast reserves of geothermal energy. Research projects are underway to develop a power station. ‘Sugar cane is grown on many islands and some could be used to produce oils or ethanol to replace crude oil. Thermal energy released by radioactive decay within the Earth is used to heat water into steam and the steam drives, turbines, Biological material, such as wood, sugar cane, or ethanol, is burnt. No pollution is caused and sources are very reliable. New supplies can be grown fairly quickly. Does not add extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Only a very few locations are suitable. The land used to grow fuel crops may be better used to grow food for increasing populations,a A fast bower can bowl a cricket ball of mass 160.9 at 4oms *. How much kinetic energy does this ball have? &= ym = 4% 0.16kg x doms!)? = 128) b Whatis the speed of a powerboat of mass 600kg if ithas 40K of kinetic eneray? The fearrangement of the Kinetic eneray equation gives: yee 2x e 2x 40% 107) le 1 goog =11.5ms" Potential energy can arise because an object is stretched or compressed. When you investigated Haake's law in 1.9 you added masses to the spritig and the force caused the spring to stretch. This force acted through a distance and therefore did work in stretching the spring, Gravitational potential energy ‘An object that can fall due to the pill of gravity has gravitational potential energy. When it changes its height then there is a change in its gravitational potential energy: change in gravitational _ gravitational change potential energy = Mass * field strength * in height or AE, = mgah ‘This equation matches the equation for mechanical work done. How much energy is required to lift S00kg of sand to a height of 20m (Figure 1.17.1)? ‘The work done lifting the sand will be equal to the gravitational Potential energy gained: = mgah 500kg x 1ONKg* x 20m Ox 105) Kinetic energy The kinetic energy of an object is the energy associated with its movement, The relationship is: kinetic energy = } x mass > speed or = Jn? ‘As yowcan see an object with a large mass and high speed will have more kinetic energy than a small, slow moving object.‘Transposition of the equation To find vif given the mass and the kinetic energy, you need to rearrange the equation. Here is the process. * Original equation: & = time * Multiply Both sides by 2: 26, = met © Divide both sides by m: ev , iE, * Take the square root of both sides: te = Transfer between E, and E, ‘Transformation of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy is common. It happens every time something falls, The equations for kinetic energy and potential energy can be used to calculate the ‘speed of the falling object, assuming there is negligible air resistance ‘Oscillations of a pendulum ‘A pendiihim serves as an example of the transfer between kinetic and ‘gravitational potential energy. As the pendulum swings from side to side there isa transfer of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy and back again, The quantities of eneray involved can be calculated Using the equations in the worked example for the falling coconut, A pendulum bob of mass 60g is displaced sideways so that it is 3cm above its equilibrium position and then allowed to swving freely, What is the maximum speed of the bob? Find the gravitational potential energy the bob loses as it swings to the equilibrium position: AE, = rgb = 0.06kg x 10NKg" x 0.03 = 1,8 x 107) When the pendulum reaches the central position all of this potential energy will be lost, matched by a gain in kinetic energy and the speed can be calculated (Figure 1.17.2). Px e v= fae ™m _ 2ETER 7 0.06kg =0.77ms" Figure 1.17.2 Enetay changes ina pendulum swing, Acoconut of mass 0.5kg falls 25m from a tree. How fast will it be travelling when it reaches the ground? Find the gravitational potential energy lost: AE, = mgah = 0.5kg x 1ONKg" x 25m = 125) Use the kinetic energy equation to find the speed: pn PZE P= m 1.5 kg = 72.4ms? 41 Calculate the speeds a 1.0kg mass and then a 2.0 kg coconut will reach when falling to the ground from 25m. What do you notice? 2 An Airbiis A380 jet aircraft hhas.a fully loaded mass of $80.000kg. It can travel ata height of 12km with a speed af 250ms-" a How much kinetic energy does it have? b How much gravitational potential energy does it have?Ga] Energy w donated into ‘the suroundings, The most important rule about energy is the law of conservation of energy which states: Energy cannot be created or destreyed. tt can only be transferred or transformed. This rule allows us to analyse and explain a wide variety of systems. Spotting energy loss to the surroundings ‘Thee is always a loss of energy to the surroundings in energy transformations, usually as heat, This means that it often looks as though energy is disappearing when in fact the energy is still present but no tonger useful for doing work. Dropping objects If you pick up a wooden block and drop it onto the ground the gravitational potential energy will transform to kinetic energy as the block falls but then the block will stop. The original energy has been transformed into thermal energy warming up the block and some sound energy (Figure 1.18.1). Even the sound energy dissipates into. the surraundings and becomes heat ‘A Similar process happens when you kick a football. With repeated kicks the ball gains and loses kinetic energy. Over time the ball will ‘warm up a5.some of the energy turns into heat within the ball, The rest is lost to the surroundings, Pendulums: When a pendulum ostillates over a period of time, the height of the swing will decrease. Some of the energy is leaving the system, There are two transformations happening leading to this loss. As the pendulum moves through the air it experiences frictional forces. This frictional force will reduce the kinetic energy of the pendulum bob, The kinetic energy is transformed into random motion of the air particles (heat energy). At the point where the pendulum wire is attached to the stand there will be a small fictional force as the wire rubs agaist the stand, This also reduces the kinetic energy of the system and (vansfers it into heat energy. Eventually the pendulum will stop swinging due to these energy losses, Because of this gradual energy loss the pend.ulums in clocks need to be provided with energy ta keep swinging for long periods of time, Masses are attached to a system which drives the pendulum. As these masses move downwards very slowly their gravitational potential energy is provided to the pendulum‘Swinging ‘When you are on a swing you can keep it moving fora long time ‘even though there is energy loss to the surroundings. @y adjusting ‘your centre of gravity you can drive the swing and so you seem to gain kinetic or gravitational potential energy, However, you are using: chemical potential energy to drive the swing when you produce forces with your muscles Investigate the eneray losses due to friction by rolling a trolley or ball down a ramp of different grailients (Figure 1.18.3) + Measure the height difference to calculate the loss of gravitational potential energy. + Measure the speed of the trolley or ball at the end of the ramp tofind the kinetic energy. Explain the losses: does a steeper ramp waste more or less energy? Figure 1.18.2 Investizsting energy losses (Wommebemme) Describe the changes when a heavy ball is dropped onta a trampoline. The bail starts with gravitational potential energy and this is transformed into kinetic eneray as it falls. When the ball hits the trampaiine the trampaline stretches, this & because the tinetic energy is being transformed into elastic potential energy. When the ball has no kinetic energy left the elastic strain energy will be transferred back into kinetic energy and the ball will move upwards gaining kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy The ball: continue upwards until all of its kinetic energy has been transferred to gravitational potential energy. ‘The cycle will continue but during each stretching of the trampaline some energy will be converted to heat until eventuallly all of the initial energy will have been tranferred to heat and the bal top movin 41 How is energy lost when you push a book across your desk? 2 When you place a mass onto a spring it stretches. if the mass isthen pulled downnvards and released the system oscilates up and down. Describe the ‘energy transfersin this process and explain why the mass ‘eventually stops,Figuie 1.19.1 Liting Some devices transfer energy at a greater rate than others. For ‘example, a large car engine will be able to transfer more energy in ‘one second than a small moped engine, as itis more powerful. Power The rate of energy transfer is called power and is defined by the equation: _work done (energy transferred) pore time taken or fat t The unit of power is the Js"’ which has the special name watt (Wy The power equation applies to any transfer of energy or any work done and so can be used for mechanical work, electrical energy transfer or heating ‘An electric motor is used to lift an elevatar and passengers with total mass of 600kg through a height of 40m (Figure 1.19.1), This process takes 30 seconds. '@ What is the werk clone by the elevator motor? Remember to use the weight af the elevator and not the mass: ‘Weight = mass x gravitational field strength = 600k9 x 1ONKg* = 6000N Now calculate the weight: W= Fal = 6000N x 40m = 2.4 x 10°) b Whats the effective power rating of the elevator motor? Fa 2A ae Y reEfficiency During ary energy transfer some energy is wasted and fost to the ‘environment. This wasted energy depends on the specific device but ‘there is always some heat produced The efficiency of a transfor isa measure of how much energy is transferred usefully: efficiency = witout value input value Here the output value represents the useful enétay or power output of a transfer and the input value represents the total energy or power input As there is always some eneray wasted the output is always smaller than the input and so no transfer can have an efficiency of greater than 100%. 100% ifthe lift motar mentioned in Worked example 1 is 70% efficient, how much energy is wasted when lifting the elevator and passengers? First find out how much energy was supplied to the motor: atfictency = QUIBUEVAlUE ogy, utput efficiency = 34x 10) The energy wasted by the motor can now be found using the law of conservation of energy: Energy wasted = energy supplied ~ useful energy output = (34-24) x 10) = 1.0% 104 input value = Use a small electri¢ motor attached to a joulemeter to lift objects (Figure 1.19.2). Calculate the gain in potential energy and the electrical energy supplied to the motor to find its efficiency. * Does the efficiency of the motor change when the load is changed? Figure 1.19.2. leasuring the eficency of an electric mator 1 What is the power rating of an engine which transfers 408) per minute? 2 How much useful energy is provided by an electrical motor with an efficiency of 75% in one hour if it has a power rating of 150W?‘At the end of this topic you should be able to: * calculate the pressure acting ‘on a surface * deseribe how pressure increases with the depth in a fluid. | have amass of 60kg and the total area of my feet is 0.04 m?. ‘Whats the pressure on the sand? F 600N = 15kPa 04m . Holes at erent ents ene the surface Was ot { | Jets af van The presure in aliquid Anereases with depth Pressure on surfaces When you walk on a sandy beach you leave a trail of footprints behind, Your weight is pushing dawn an the sand and it acts aver the area of your feet causing a pressure. force F Pressure = —— = A The unit of pressure is Nm which is alsa known as the pascal (Pa). Pressure can also be measured in Nom®, As 1m? 1 Near = 10000Pa. 10000em", Draw around your feet onto some squared paper: Use the squares to estimate the area of your feet and then measure your weight. Calculate the pressure you exert on the floor (Figure 1.20.2). Figure 1.20.2 How much pressure do you preduce on the floor? Pressure in liquids Pressure acts throughout a liquid and increases with depth, This can be demonstrated simply by allowing water to flow out of holes in a container, The further down the hole is from the surface of the liquid the further the water squirts out. This shows that itis experiencing a greater force or pressure, Drill some small holes into a tall, plastic, measuring cylinder and fill it with water. Compare the distance the water is ected to the depth of the water in the container. What happens as the water level decteases (Figure 1.20.3)? ‘Another pressure experiment uses Pascal's vases Explaining the increase in pressure When a submarine is under water the weight of the water acts downwards onto the skin of the submarine. This produces pressure acting on the surface of the submarine.+ Imagine the water above the submarine to be a rectangle with width we and length / giving an area of | x w (Figure 1.20.4). * The volume of the water directly above the submarine would be given by: volume = length x width heightor Y= x wx A + The mass of the water above the submarine would be given by: mass = volume x density of m= 1 x w x A xp + The force acting downwards on the submarine would be the weight of the water which would be given by: weight = mass > gravitational field strength or Walxwxhxp xg + The weight of the water acts over the surface of the'submmarine, J x Ww * The pressure acting on the submarine is: force Ix WXP KP XD hong pressure = = area Tx w This shows that the pressure in a liquid is constant at a particular depth (h) as lang as the density of the quid is the same throughout. At very great depths the pressure is so high that the liquid is ‘compressed and the density increases slightly. Mercury has a density of 13.5 > 10?kgm *. What is the increase in pressure ata depth of 30mm beneath the surface of a pool of mercury? p=hxp xg =0030m x 13,5 x 10*kgm= x 10Nkg* = 4.05 x 10°Nm= Pressure in gases ‘The atmosphere ‘The Earth's atmosphere is a deep layer of gases reaching beyond 100km above the Earth's surface. Pressure in the atmosphere ‘increases in depth in a similar way to the pressure in a liquid but the difference in density as you travel deeper into the atmosphere is far greater than that in liquids and so the relationship is not as simple. ‘At sea level the pressure is approximately 100kPa which is often referred to as ‘one atmosphere’ pressure. If you climbed to the top ‘of the Blue Mountain Peak in Jamaica you would reach a height of 2.2km above sea level. At this height the air pressure is only SO kPa (0.8 atmosphere) ‘AS water is much denser than air, travelling to-a depth of 10 metres in water will increase the pressure acting On you to two atmospheres. Deep-sea divers can reach a depth of nearly S00 m causing them to ‘experience a pressure of 50 atmospheres. GA] Precasre within aqua 4 Anal is knocked into a plank of wood using a force ‘of GON. The point on the nail has an area of 1.0mm? (1.0 x 10-*m’), What is the pressure acting on the wood ‘when the nai is hit? 2 Water has a density of 100g m+ What is the pressure 40m beneath the surface? Don't forget to include the pressure of the atmosphere above the water.Cees At the end of this topic you should be able to * explain why some objects float and why some sink * calculate the resultant force acting on an object as a result of its weight and buoyancy. Floating, sinking and density Archimedes was a Greek scientist who lived in the 3rd century ees. Legend has it that, when asked to investigate if a crown was made from pure gold, he discovered a key principle which explains why objects float or sink. Archimedes’ principle Any abject, wholly or partially immersed io @ fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fiuid displaced by the abject Ivis important to note that this principle applies to objects which are floating and to objects which are submerged in the fluid in addition submerged objects will displace a volume of water equal to their own volurie. This fact is often used to calculate the density of materials When you get inte a bath of water you will notice the water level rise. The weight of that displaced water wil be the same as the upthrust you feel, Investigate Archimedes’ principle Using a displacement can (also called a Eureka can) (Figure 1.21.1). Measure the weight of water displaced when an object is Submerged in the water. Compare this to the apparent reduction in the weight. Weigt ol see Block eso ste! black SN Displacement can 5 a) fied towing Le Weaptat er bakes esta tiny Archimedes” principle Figure 1.21.1Floating objects ‘An object will float as fonig as the upthiust (or buoyancy) is étuial to the weight of the object. Solid objects with a density greater than ‘that of water will always weigh more than the water they displace and so will sink. ‘Ships are built from steel which has 2 much higher density than water. ‘They float because they contain large volumes of air and this reduces their average density to much lower than the density of water. For the ship to float it must displace the same weight of water as it ‘weighs. Loading up the ship with cargo will increase the weight of the ship and therefore the weight of water displaced. This means that the ship will sink lower into the water If too much cargo is added to the ship then it will sink too lows in the sea. The Plimsoll ine indicates how heavily loaded the ship is and ‘ensures that enough extra buoyancy is kept in reserve in case waves ‘cause water to start entering the ship (Figure 1.21.2). If the ship is damaged and water enters into the hull then the ‘weight of the ship increases and it sinks lower into the water until ‘eventually, it sinks, The average density of the ship-as'a whole becomes greater than the density of the water Submerged objects ‘When an object is beneath the surface of a fluid Archimedes’ principle tells us there will be an upthvust force acting on the object equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. This upthrust force will seem to reduce the weight of the object by decreasing the resultant force. ‘Submarines ‘Submarines can alter their average density by allowing ballast tanks to fill with water. This increases the weight of the submarine which makes it sink in the water. To gain additional buoyancy the water can be pushed out of the tanks using compressed air and this decreases ‘the weight of the submarine. Balloons ‘A balloon or airship is also submerged in a fluid, the air This means that there will be a farce acting upwards on the ballaon equal to the weight of air which has been displaced, This buoyancy allows balloons and aships to float as long as the upthnust is greater than thelr weight 1 Draw a diagiam showing all ofthe forces acting on a submarine whieh is accelerating forwards while sinking in the ocean, 2 Aballoon of mass 104 is filled with helium of mass 0.4k9 so that its volume fs 5.0'm?. Will the balloon float in the air? A ferry is used to transport cars from St Lucia to Martinique. The ferry has a fully loaded mass of 59000 tonnes (5.0 = 10°kg). The density of seawater is 1.02 > 10° kgm”. What is the volume of water the ferry needs to displace to remain floating? ‘The mass of the water displaced must be the same as the mass m__5.0 x 10¢kg p 102% 10kgm> x 108m? A hydrogen balloon has a total mass of 40.0kg and 3 volume of 40m, If the surrounding air has a density of 1.225kgm, how large is the upwards force ‘acting on the balloon? First find the mass of the air displaced: m=p x V= 1.225kgm? x 40m! = 49kg ‘Thismeans the weight of the air displaced is 490N (W = mg). The ‘Weight of the balloon is 400. Finally resolve the forces: upwards force = upthrust — weight = 490N ~ 400N = SON _—_———Section 1 1 A student has been asked to investigate the motion of a ball bearing fired from a spring mounted at the edge of a table. The bail bearing is pushed into the spring so that the spring is compressed a distance x. The spring is then released and the ball bearing follows a curved trajectory as it fails to the floor. The student measures the distance travelled by the ball bearing for a range of compressions of the spring and investigates the relationship between the length of the ‘compression of the spring and distance the ball bearing travels before reaching the floor. ‘The ball bearing is fired three times for each compression of the spring. Practice exam questions 3 2 Describe the energy transters and {ransformations that take place when; a ahelicopter takes off ba bungee jumper dives off a bridge € a tree falls over in a forest. 3: A.cat of mass 600kg is pushed up a hill using a force of SOON. The siope is 50m long and the car rises by 4m, How much work is done in pushing the car? b How much gravitational potential energy does the car gai © Assuming that, potential energy, is counted a3 useful work, calculate the efficieney of the energy transfer. 4 During a competition to determine the world’s strongest human a competitor pulls a tractor along a flat road. A force of 4000N is required and the tractor is moved through a distance of 20m in 705. a Whatis the work done in moving the tractor? b Whatis the effective power of the competitor? 51.0 75.8 39.0 512 76.0 a Calculate the average travet distance for the ball bearing for each compression distance, b Hota graph comparing the compression distance (r-asis) to the travel distance (axis). Draw a straight line of best fit. 4 Calculate the gradient of this ine, © Towhat extent does the data support the hypothesis that the travel distance is propartional to the compression of the spring? 5 State the law of conservation of energy. Describe how this law is applied when finding the efficency of an electric mater. Anew business wished to generate its own electricity, They are considering the use of a wind turbine or photovoltaic cells. Write 2 paragraph for each system describing the advantages and disadvantages,7 Apulley system consisting of three pulleys is Used to lift a pallet of bricks weighing 600 N through 2 height of 40m. The force requited to lift the pallet at a steady speed is 210N and the rope is puled through a distance of 120m. a Neglecting the mass of the pulleys and rope, calculate the useful work dane in lifting the pallet. b What is the efficiency of the pulley system? In what form is energy wasted in the lifting process? ¢ | 8 A tourist submarine has a glass dome to allow clear views of aquatic life. The dome can withstand a maximum absolute external pressure of 12000kPa, The density of Seawater is 1.02 x 10°kgm=(g = 10Nkg"), What is the maximum safe diving depth af the submarine? 9 The density of water is 1000 kgm"? (1 gem) Which of the following cubes of material will float in water? Material | Length of side a 40cm 600 | 10cm 12kg 3.1m 23 x 10*kg 10 Aship is made of 4000m*steel of density 7800 kgm-* a What volume of fresh water (a. = 1000 kg m”*) would the ship need to displace in order for it to float? b Explain how the design of the ship enables it to displace this mueh water. 11. Arectangular block of polystyrene foam with dimensions 2.0m x 1.0m x 0.3m is used to make a raft. The density of the polystyrene foam is 50kgm:? and that of water is 1000kgm >. a What is the mass of the polystyrene block? 1b What volume of water will be displaced when the block floats? © How much additional weight could the raft support before beginning to sink? 12 Explain why a hellurn-filled balloon rises in the atmosphere 13 The following table shows the pawer output from hydroelectric plants on Jamaica, Upper White River Lower White River Roaring River Rio Bueno A. Maggotty Falls ‘Constant Spring Rams Horn fio Bueno River a Hind the total power output of the hydroelectric system. 'b Assuming that the turbines operate all year around (365 days), estimate the total energy production of the system over a year © The total electrical energy production in Jamaica was 2.0 x 1018), What percentage of Jamaica's electricity produced by hydroslectricity? dd. Suggest why no new hydroelectric power stations have been built since 1989,A. good understanding of thermal energy is required to explain the behaviours of different materials and the energy transfers between them. It took many years for scientists to explain why some objects, were hot and why objects cooled, The end of the caloric theory During the 18th century the most commonly held idea about heat was caloric theory. This theory used the idea that there was a fluid called caloric that was transferred between objects when heat moves. The caloric would flow from a hot object toa colder one, meaning that the hot object would lose some caloric and the cold object gain some. Objects could only have a limited supply of caloric. ‘Count Rumford noted the heating effect of mechanical work involved in boring holes into cannons: Although there was clearly 2 large amount of heat released, the filings fram the cannon had identical properties to the ‘original cannon material This meant that there was no physical substance (the caloric) being transferred. if the cannons were placed under water the mechanical work would always heat the water to boiling point, There seemed ta bean unlimited supply of heat being released. ‘Over the next few years other scientists, ineluding Jarnes Joule, developed the idea that heat was a form of internal energy that could be generated by mechanical energy. Joule measured the mechanical energy provided to water and rheasured the temperature increase (Figure 2.1.2). He found that the increase in temperature was proportional to the energy supplied. This research eventually led to The mecnanialiwork doe the ideas behind the principle of conservation of energy: in baring cut this eannon ‘was converted ta heat EXAM TIP Thermal energy alwa maoves from. ai raion at @ higher temperature to an object at a tower temperature, | Insulated container (no heat in) “ouie's apparatus for Ransfeming mechanical energy ta heatThe kinetic theory and thermal energy ‘The thermal energy (heat energy) af an object is mainly the result of the motion of the particies within the object, As the theory describes motion it is called the kinetic theory, Some potential energy is associated with the bonding between, and the arrangement of, the atoms in materials, ‘Thermal energy transfers from a hatter object to a cooler one. This means that thermal energy flows from an object at high temperature: to an object at a lower temperature. This process always occurs in this direction. ‘Temperature scales ‘A temperature seale is simply a way of expressing the relative hotness and coldness of objects. Hotter abjects havea higher temperature ‘There are several temperature scates including: ‘The Celsius scale: This isa scale based on the properties of water. ‘The freezing paint of pure water is set at 0°C and the boiling point at 100°C producing a centigrade (100 step) scale, Celsius is the most ‘commonly used temperature scale in school science and in industry. ‘The Kelvin seale: The Kelvin scale is based on the properties of ‘deal gases and the eneray of particles. The low point of the scale is absolute zero. At this temperature the particles have zero thermal ‘energy and so they cannot become any colder. An increase of one kehin is defined to be the same as an increase of one degree Celsius. This makes conversion between the scales fairly easy + Temperate in kelvin = temperature in degrees Celsius + 273 * Temperature in degrees Celsius = temperature in kelvin ~ 273 1 What would have happened in Count Rumford's experiments. if the caloric theory had been correct? 2 Copy and complete Table 2.1.1 which shaws some important: temperatures. degrees Celsius |in kelvin * Use three bowils, one af iced water, one of lukewarm water and one containing hot water (Figure 2.1.3). + Place one hand in the hot water and one in the iced water * After thirty seconds place both hands into the lukewarm water. ‘The hand which has been in the hhot water will feel cold and the hand which has been in the cold water wil feel hot. However, both hands are experiencing the same temperature eoF Figure 2.1.3 Hot of cokl?ees U] Most thermometers wed in ‘chooks te iui vgs. ‘Acniea! thermometer follows the same basic principles 3s 2 ligne glass thermometer ‘A thermometer is a device to measure the temperature of an object (substance, Thermometers rely on properties that vary with temperature. Liquid-in-glass thermometers Liquid-in-glass thermometers are based on the principle that the liquid will expand as its temperature increases and that this expansion is proportional to the increase in temperature (Figure 2.2.1). Acreservoir of liquid, mercury or coloured alcohol, is contained at the bottom of the thermometer in a ‘bulb’. This is required so that there will be enough liquid to give a measurable expansion. The reservoir is connected to a narrow capillary tube through which the liquid will expand and rise upwards, The higher the temperature of the liquid the further up the capillary tube the liquid will rise. The thermometer can be calibrated by placing the bulb of liquid in melting ice and then marking the level of the liquid in the capillary tube, This point represents 0°C, The bulb of iquid is then placed in boiling water and the level of liquid in the capillary tube is marked to give the 100°C point. The distance between these two points is then divided inte 100 equal divisions giving a centigrade scale, Clinical thermometers ‘As human body temperature is approximately 37°C and will generally vaty between 35°C and 42°C, a clinical thermometer is designed to cover only this narrow range (Figure 2,2.2). The small range allows the thermometer to be designed to be very precise, with temperature divisions of 0.1°C. The shape of the thermometer is designed to magnify the capillary tube and make it easier to read the temperature. Glinicat thermometers need to be removed from the patient before they can be read. To prevent an inaccurate reading as the liquid contracts, a small constriction is built into the thermometer thai bbreaks the liquid thread. The liquid can be returned to the bulb after the reading by flicking the thermometer. Glinical thermometers take a few minutes to reach thermal equilibrium and display an accurate temperature, Because of this, most are now being replaced by electronic thermometers. Thermocouples A thermocouple 6 an electrical thermometer which relies on the Potential difference (p.¢.) produced when two different metals are connected, The p.d. produced varies with temperature.‘Thermocouples can measure very high temperatures (beyond the melting point of glass) anid they respond very quickly to changes. The pd. they produce can also be recorded quite simply by data loggers ‘or computers, This can then be converted and a temperature shown ‘on a digital display making them very easy to read. These properties mean that thermocouples are used extensively in industry. More thermometers There are several ather types of thermometers: + Gas thermometers use the fact that a gas expands when its temperature increases, This expansion is proportional to the temperature change, * Infra-red thermometers measure the rate of emission of infra fed radiation from objects. The intensity of this radiation depends on the temperature of the abject: hotter objects emit more radiation. This measurement can be used to find the temperature of something without needing to touch it. 1 What are the ranges, precisions and temperature readings on the three liquid-in-glass thermometers shown in Figure 2.2.37 a b c. Figure 2.2.3. 2 What are the advantages of using a thermocouple compared to a liquid:in-giass thermometer? Make your own thermometer Using @ conical flask containing dyed water and capillary tube. Place the flask in iced water and mark the level of the dyed water for 0°C point. Then piace it in boiling water ta find the jevel for 100°C. Divide the range into suitable divisions.Ue ‘At the end of this topic you should be able: * describe the arrangement and behaviour of the particles in solids, liquids and gases » use the particle madel to describe the properties and behaviour of solids, liquids The mangement of particles i a a solid, ba guid and ea gas Most materials can be placed into three categories hased on their properties and behaviour: solids, liquids and gases. The particle model of matter {Ali materials are composed of tiny particles in different arrangements These particles are atoms or molecules. The behaviour and physical properties of materials can be explained by describing the behavicur of these particles and the forces between them, Properties of solids In solid materia the particles are closely packed together and are held in place with relatively strong inter-molecular forces (Figure 2.3.12). The particles are not free to move around but instead vibrate about their fixed positians. This means that solid materials maintain their own shape. It is not easy to compress solids, This is because the particles are already tightly packed together. if a compressive force is applied then the particles move slightly closer together. However, this produces. strongly repulsive force between them and so further compression becomes much more difficult, Because of this solids have a fixed volume (although this can change when the solid is heated or cooled), Properties of liquids The particles in liquids are also closely packed together but the inter molecular forces are weaker than those for solids. These weaker, short-range forces allow the particles to flow past each other (Figure 2.3.1b). When a liquid is placed into a container the particles will flow and the liquid wil fil the bottom of the container Liquids are very difficult to compress for the same reasons as solids When they are squashed strong repulsive forces occur between the particles. This means that liquids also have a fixed volume as long as their ternperature is unchanged. Properties of gases ‘The parties in gases have very weak inter-molecular forces and they move around very quickly (Figure 2.3. 1c). The gas particles do nat attract each ather and so spread aut to fil up all of the available space. The spaces between gas particles are very large when, compared to the size of the particles themselves. The space between the particles means that itis possible to compress a gas by applying a ressure to it.