PHYSICS 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

QUARTER 3

Science Pocket Lesson 1 Electrostatics 1

Science Pocket Lesson 2 Coulomb’s Law 6
Science Pocket Lesson 3 Gauss’s Law 12
Science Pocket Lesson 4 Electric Potential 16
Worksheet 1 20
Science Pocket Lesson 5 Capacitance and Capacitors 22
Science Pocket Lesson 6 Electric Current 28
Science Pocket Lesson 7 Electric Circuits 33
Worksheet 2 39

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
PHYSICS 2
Electrostatics

INSTANT TASK

I.
a) Look at the back/bottom of your appliances at home and look for this symbol
b) List all the appliances that you found with that symbol
c) Describe the plug of the appliances that are listed. Does it have 2 prongs/pins
or three prongs/pins?
d) Describe the casing/body of the appliances, is it made up of metal or plastic?

II.
a) Do you have appliance that have 3 pronged plug? If Yes, look at the third prong- usually the
round or rectangular- look for a symbol that is beside it and draw/write it.
b) Describe the casing/body of the appliances, is it made up of metal or plastic?

1
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

There are four kinds of fundamental forces of nature ― Gravitational Forces, Electromagnetic Forces,
Strong Nuclear Forces and Weak Nuclear Forces ― two of which are familiar in everyday experience while the
other two involve interactions between subatomic particles that we cannot observe with the unaided senses. In
this Quarter, we will be discussing about the force of electromagnetism which encompasses both electricity and
magnetism. In this Module we will study about Electrostatics. Electrostatics, electricity at rest involves electric
charges, the force between them, the field that surrounds them and their behavior in materials.

Electric Charge

Why do objects stick to each other? Either the objects are magnetic or there is a
glue between them. But take a look at Figure 1.1, by nature, plastic and paper are
not magnetic. Apparently, there is no glue between them. But how? That is because
of the Electric charges present in a material.

The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that after they rubbed amber
with wool, the amber could attract other objects. Today we say that the amber has
acquired a net electric charge, or has become charged. Figure 1.1 This comb has acquired a
static electric charge, either from
passing through hair, or being rubbed
There are two kinds of charges: the kind on the plastic rod rubbed with fur and the
by cloth or paper towel. Try it!
kind on the glass rod rubbed with silk. See Fig.1.3. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
suggested calling these two kinds of charge negative and positive, respectively. As
you can see from the electrostatic experiment I Fig.1.3, we can say that like
charges repel and opposite charges attract. “Like charges” does not mean that elektron, meaning amber, is the
they are exactly identical, only that both charges have the same algebraic sign Greek word for electron
(both positive or both negative). “Opposite charges” means that both have electric
charge, and those charges have different signs (one positive and the other negative)
Figure 1.2
Amber, a
fossilized tree
resin

Figure 1.3 Experiments in Electrostatics. (a) Negatively charged objects repel

each other. (b) Positively charged objects repel each other. (c) Positively
charged objects and negatively charged objects attract each other.
Electric Charge and the Structure of Matter

When you charge a rod by rubbing it with fur or silk as in Fig 1.3, there is no visible
change in the appearance of the rod. What happens to the rod when you charge it
has something to do with the structure of atom, the building blocks of ordinary matter.

The structure of atoms can be described in terms of three particles: the negatively
charged electron, the positively charged proton, and the uncharged neutron. The
protons and neutrons in an atom make up a small, very dense core called nucleus. Figure 1.4 Triboelectric Series. A list
Surrounding the nucleus are the electrons. The negatively charged electrons are that ranks materials according to their
held within the atom by the attractive forces exerted on them by the positively tendency to gain or lose electrons.
positively charged nucleus.
2

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 The masses of the individual particles, to the precision that they are presently known, are

Mass of electron = me = 9.10938215(45) x 10-31 kg

Mass of proton = mp = 1.672621637(83) x 10-27 kg
Mass of neutron = mn = 1.674927211(84) x 10-27 kg

In a neutral atom the number of electrons equals the number of

protons in the nucleus, and the net electric charge (the algebraic
sum of all the charges) is exactly zero (Fig 1.5a).

If one or more electron is moved from an atom, what remains is a

positive ion (Fig 1.5b). A negative ion is an atom that has
gained one or more electron. The gain or loss of electron is called
ionization.

Figure 1.5 (a) A neutral atom as many electrons as it

does protons. (b) A positive ion has a deficit of
electrons. (c) A negative ion has an excess of
electrons.
*ion means charged atom
Electric Charge is Conserved
If we rub together a plastic rod and a piece of fur, both initially uncharged, the rod acquires a negative charge (since it
takes electron from the fur) and the fur acquires a positive charge of the same magnitude (since it has lost as many
electrons as the rod has gained). Hence, the total electric charge on two bodies together does not change. In any
charging process, charge is not created or destroyed, it is merely transferred from one body to another. This is the
Law of Conservation of Charges.

In figure 1.4, you can see the Triboelectric series. The relative position of the two objects on the triboelectric series will
define which object gains electrons and which object loses electrons. Based on the triboelectric series, the fur tends to
lose an electron that’s why after rubbing it became positively charged. The silk, on the other hand, tends to gain electrons
making it negatively charged after rubbing.

Conductors, Insulators and Induced Charges

Ever wonder why even if you hold the power cord of appliances you don’t get electrocuted? That’s because some materials
permit electric charge to move easily from one region of the material to another, while others do not. Materials that permit
the easy movement of charge through them are called conductors, and those that do not are called insulators. Most
metals are conductors and most nonmetals are insulators. A power cord is made up of copper wires which permits
electricity to flow through it and is covered with a rubber, an insulator, which prevents you from electrocution.

We charge things by transferring electrons from one place to another. We can do this by physical contact, as occur when
substances are rubbed together or simply touched (as in Fig. 1.3), this is called conduction. We can also charge objects
even without contact, this is called induction.

If you bring a charged object near a conductive surface, you will cause electrons to move in the surface material, even
though there is no physical contact. Consider the two insulated metal spheres, A and B, in Fig.1.6. (a) They touch each
other, so in effect they form a single uncharged conductor. (b) When a negatively charged rod is brought near A, electrons
in the metal, being free to move, are repelled as far possible until their mutual repulsion is big enough to balance the
influence of the rod: the charge is redistributed. (c) If A and B are separated while the rod is still present, (d) each will be
equal and oppositely charged. This is charging by induction. The charged rod has never touched them, and the rod
retains the same charge it had initially.

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Figure 1.6 Charging by
Induction

Another way to induce a net charge on a metal object is to first connect it

with a conducting wire to the ground (or a conducting pipe leading to the
ground) as shown in Fig.1.7a. (the symbol means connected to “ground”).
The object is then said to be grounded or “earthed”. The Earth, because it is
so large and can conduct, easily accepts or gives up electrons; hence it acts
like a reservoir for charge. If a negatively charged object is brought near to the
metal object, free electrons in the metal are repelled and many of them move
down the wire into the Earth, Fig. 1.7b. This leaves the metal positively
charged. If the wire is now cut, the metal object will have a positive induced
charge on it, as in Fig 1.7c. If the wire is cut after the negative object is moved
away, the electrons would all have moved from the ground back into the metal
object and it would be neutral again.
Figure 1.7 Grounding or
Earthing

Polarization

Let’s go back to Figure 1.1. After you electrify a comb by running it through your hair, you can pick up uncharged paper
with the comb. This is possible because even in an insulator, electric charge can shift back and forth a little when there
is a charge nearby. This is shown in Fig 1.8a; the negatively charged plastic comb causes a slight shifting of charge
within the molecules of the neutral insulator, an effect called polarization. The positive and negative charges in the
material are present in equal amounts, but the positive charges are closer to the plastic comb and so feel an attraction
that is stronger than the repulsion felt by the negative charges, giving a net attractive force. Note that the neutral
insulator is also attracted to a positively charged comb (Fig 1.8b) due to the same effect of polarization.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.8 Polarization

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 FLASH CHECK
Read and Answer the following.

1. Strictly speaking, does the plastic rod in Fig1.3 weigh more, less or the same after
rubbing it with fur? Explain.

2. You have two lightweight metal spheres, each hanging from an insulating nylon
thread. One of the spheres has a net negative charge, while the other sphere has no
net charge. (a) if the spheres are close together but do not touch, will they attract ,
repel, or exert no force on each other? (b) you now allow the two spheres to touch.
Once they have touched, will they attract, repel or exert no force on each other?
Explain your answers in (a) and (b) and draw a diagram for (a) and (b).

REFERENCES
QUICK CONNECT https://www.graphicsfactory.com/Clip-Art/Planner-
Plugs are important in our everyday lives since it is the reason why we can Stickers/reminder-digital-planner-sticker-409385.html
use most of our electrically powered appliances. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEMA_connector#/media/Fil
We have different variations of power plugs all over the world and these two e:NEMA-AC-Power-Plugs.jpg
are the common here in the Philippines.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double_insulatio
2 prong plugs are usually used if the appliance is double insulated, meaning n_symbol.svg
the body of the appliance is made up of plastic or rubber. Most of the
https://www.pngwing.com/en/free-png-kzuhp
appliances that have 2 prong plug also have the symbol at
manufacturer’s data to indicate that it is double insulated. http://soft-
matter.seas.harvard.edu/index.php/Triboelectric_series
On the other hand, the 3rd prong in a 3 prong plug is for “grounding”.
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/3879-
Appliances with this plug are usually covered with a metal body. If you
triboelectric-series
compare the length of the 3rd prong to the other 2 prongs, it is longer in order
for the appliance to be connected first to the ground then to the electric https://home.howstuffworks.com/two-flat-prong-plug-
supply. Connecting the appliance to the ground first prevents you from being holes.htm
”grounded” as you touch the appliance, especially if it has a current leakage,
a short circuit for example. Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with
Applications. 7th Edition. USA. Smith.
Most of the plugs have holes in it,
one of the reasons is so that it fits Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern
the bumps found in sockets to Physics. 13th Edition. SF California: Smith
prevent the plug from slipping out
Hewitt, P.G. (2006). Conceptual Physics. 10th Edition.
of the sockets.
USA. Pearson Education Inc

5
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
PHYSICS 2
Coulomb’s Law

INSTANT TASK

Reveal Me!
Reveal the terms in grid by replacing the number with the vowel then give the definition of each terms as
defined from this module

A(1) E(2) I(3) O(4) U(5)

a) 2 L 2 C T R 3 C F 4 R C 2

b) 2 L 2 C T R 3 C F 3 2 L D

c) C H 1 R G 2 S

d) C 4 5 L 4 M B ‘ S L 1 W

e) P 4 3 N T C H 1 R G 2

f) S 5 P 2 R P 4 S 3 T 3 4 N 4 F F 4 R C 2 S

6
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

Coulomb’s Law

We have seen that an electric charge exerts a force of attraction or repulsion on other electric charges.
What factors affect the magnitude of this force? To find an answer, the French Physicist Charles Agustin de Coulomb (1736-
1806) investigated electric forces in the 1780s using a torsion balance (Fig. 2.1). Even though precise instruments for the
measurement of electric charge were not available in Coulomb’s time, he was able to argue that the electric force one tiny
charged object exerts on a second tiny charged object is directly proportional to the charge on each of them. That is, if the
charge on either one of the objects is doubled the force is doubled; and if the charge on both of the objects is doubled, the
force increases to four times the original value. This was the case when the distance between the two charges remained the
same. If the distance between them was allowed to increase, he found that the force decreased with the square of the distance
between them. That is, if the distance was doubled, the force fell to one-fourth of its original value. Thus, Coulomb concluded,
the magnitude of the Force F that one small charged object exerts on a second one is proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the charge on one, Q1, times the magnitude of the charge on the other, Q2, and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance, r, between them (Fig. 2.2). As an equation, we can write Coulomb’s Law as

𝑄1𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
Where k is a proportionality constant. fiber

As we just saw, Coulomb’s Law gives the magnitude of the electric force that either
charge exerts on the other. The direction of the electric force is always along the line
joining the two charges. If the two charges have the same sign, the force on either charge
is directed away from the other. If the two charges have opposite signs, the force on one
is directed toward the other. scale

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). in SI units, the constant k in Coulomb’s Law has Suspended bar
the value
Figure 2.1 Torsion Balance
k = 8.988 x 109 Nm2/C2 = 9.0 x 109 Nm2/C2 (Coulomb’s apparatus: when an
external charged sphere is placed
The constant k is often written in terms of another constant, ε0, called the permittivity of close to the charged one on the
free space. It is related to k by k = 1/4ε0. Coulomb’s Law can be written suspended bar, the bar rotates
slightly. The suspending fiber resists
1 𝑄1 𝑄2 the twisting motion, and the angle of
𝐹= twist is proportional to the force
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 applied. With this apparatus,
Coulomb investigated how the
Where electric force varies as a function of
the magnitude of the charges and of
1 the distance between them
ε0 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/ Nm2
0

When calculating with Coulomb’s Law, we usually use magnitudes, ignoring signs of the
charges, and determine the direct of a force separately based on whether the force is
Figure 2.2 Coulomb’s Law gives
attractive or repulsive.
the force between two point
charges Q1 and Q2, a distance r
apart

7
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Example 2.1 Force between two point charges
Point charges are charged bodies
Two point charges, Q1 = +25 nC and Q2 = -75 nC, are separated by a distance that are very small in comparison with
the distance r between them.
r = 3.0 cm. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric force (a) that Q1
exerts on Q2 and (b) that Q2 exerts on Q1.

Given: RTF:
Q1 = +25 nC Magnitude and direction of the electric force (a) that Q1 exerts on Q2 and (b) that Q2 exerts on Q1.
Q2 = -75 nC
r = 3.0 cm = 0.030 m
k = 9.0 x 109 Nm2/C2

Solution:

(b) Q1 on Q2 (a) Q2 on Q1

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑄1
𝐹1 𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝑘 𝐹2 𝑜𝑛 1 = 𝑘
𝑟2 𝑟2

N m2 (+25 x 10-9 C)(-75 x 10-9 C) N m2 (-75 x 10-9 C) (+25 x 10-9 C)

𝐹1 𝑜𝑛 2 = (9.0 x 109 ) 𝐹2 𝑜𝑛 1 = (9.0 x 109 ) 2
C2 2 C2 (0.030 m)
(0.030 m)

𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐 = 0.019 N 𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏 = 0.019 N

The charges have opposite signs, so the force is The attractive force that acts on Q1 is to the right,
attractive; that is, the force that acts on Q2 is directed toward Q2
toward Q1 along the line joining the two charges

Note: Newton’s third law applies to the electric force. Even though the charges have different magnitudes, the magnitude of
the electric force that Q1 exerts on Q2 is the same as the magnitude of the force that Q2 exerts on Q1, and these two forces
are in opposite direction

Superposition of Forces

Coulomb’s Law describes only the interaction of two point charges. Experiments show that when two charges exert forces
simultaneously on a third charge, the total force acting on that charge is the vector sum of the force that the two charges
would exert individually. This property, called the principle of superposition of charges, holds for any number of
charges. By using this principle, we can apply Coulomb’s Law to any collection of charges.

Example 2.2 Vector addition of electric forces on a line

Two point charges are located on the x-axis of a coordinate system: Q1 = 1.0 nC is at x = +2.0 cm, and Q2 = -3.0 nC is
at x = +4.0 cm. What is the total electric force exerted by Q1 and Q2 on a charge Q3 = 5.0 nC at x = 0?

Given: RTF:
Q1 = 1.0 nC at x = +2.0 cm total electric force exerted by Q1 and Q2 on Q3.
Q2 = -3.0 nC at x = +4.0 cm
Q3 = 5.0 nC at x = 0
k = 9.0 x 109 Nm2/C2

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Solution: Let us identify first the forces acting on Q3

(b) Q1 on Q3 (a) Q2 on Q3

𝑄1 𝑄3 𝑄1 𝑄3
𝐹1 𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝑘 𝐹2 𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝑘
𝑟2 𝑟2

N m2 (1.0 x 10-9 C)(5.0 x 10-9 C) N m2 (3.0 x 10-9 C)(5.0 x 10-9 C)

𝐹1 𝑜𝑛 3 = (9.0 x 109 ) 𝐹2 𝑜𝑛 3 = (9.0 x 109 ) 2
C2 (0.020 m)
2 C2 (0.040 m)

𝑭𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 1.12 x 10-4 N 𝑭𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟑 = 8.4 x 10-5 N

In order for us to get the total forces, we use

superposition of forces – getting the vector sum of F1
on 3 and F2 on 3. Figure 2.3 shows the diagram of the
situation.

The total (net) force on Q3 is

Figure 2.3 Our sketches for this problem
F3 = F1 on 3 + F2 on 3 = (-1.12 x 10-4 N) + (8.4 x 10-5 N)
Note: Negative signs are due to the attraction or repulsion of forces and not on
F3 = -2.8 x 10-5 - N the sign of the charges. To the right is positive, to the left is negative
Because F2 on 3 is the weaker force, the direction of the net force is that of F1 on 3 ―that is , in the negative x direction.
Electric Field and Electric Forces

When two electrically charged particles in empty space interact, how does each one
know the other is there? We can begin to answer this question by using the concept of
electric field. Electric Field exerts outward from every charge and permeates all space
(Figure 2.4). If a second charge (call it Q2) is placed (at point P) near the first charge, it
feels a force exerted by the electric field that is there.

We can investigate the electric field surrounding a charge or group of charges by

measuring the force on a small positive test charge which is at rest. By a test charge we Figure 2.4 An electric field
mean a charge so small that the force it exerts does not significantly affect the charges surrounds every charge. The lines
that create the field. If a tiny positive test charge q is placed at various locations in the indicate electric field extending out
vicinity of a single positive charge Q as shown in Figure 2.5 (points A, B, C), the force from charge Q, and P is an
exerted on q is as shown. The electric field, E, at any point in space is defined as the arbitrary point.
force F exerted on a tiny positive test charge placed at that point divided by the
magnitude of the test charge q:
𝑭
𝑬=
𝑞

From this definition, we see that the electric field at any point in space is a vector whose
direction is the direction of the force on a tiny positive test charge at that point, and whose
magnitude is the force per unit charge. Thus E has SI unit of newtons per coulomb (N/C).

Using the formula for Coulomb’s Law, Let’s derive the formula for electric field: Figure 2.5 Force exerted by charge
+Q on a small test charge, q, placed
at point A, B, and C
𝑭 𝑘𝑞𝑄/𝑟 2
𝑬= =
𝑞 𝑞

𝑘𝑄 Note: If q is positive, F and E point in the same direct. If q is

𝑬= negative, F and E point in opposite direction.
𝑟2
9

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Example 2.3 Electric Field of a single point charge

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point P which is 30 cm to the right of a point charge
Q = -3.0 x 10-6 C

Given: Solution:
r = 30 cm 𝑘𝑄 (9 x 10-9 C)(3.0 x 10-6 C)
Q = -3.0 x 10-6 C 𝑬= 2 = 2
𝑟 (0.30 m)
RTF: Electric field E = 3.0 x 105 N/C

Note: The electric field due to a positive charge points away from the charge, whereas the electric field due to a
negative charge points toward the charge

Electric Field Lines

To visualize the electric field, we draw series of lines to indicate the

direction of the electric field at various points in space. These electric
field lines (or lines of force) are drawn to indicate the direction of
force due to the given field on a positive test charge. The lines of force
due to a single isolated positive charge are shown in Figure 2.6a, and
for a single isolated negative charge in Figure 2.6b. In part (a) the lines
point radially outward from the charge, and in part (b) they point radially Figure 2.6 Electric field lines (a) near a single
inward toward the charge because that is the direction the force would positive point charge, (b) near a single
be on a positive test charge in each case. negative point charge.

Figure 2.7a shows the electric field lines due to two equal charges of
opposite sign, a combination known as electric dipole. Figure 2.7b
shows the electric field lines for two equal positive charges, and Figure
2.7c for unequal charges, -Q and +2Q. Note that twice as many lines
leave +2Q as enter –Q. Finally, Figure 2.7d, we see in cross section the
field lines between two flat parallel planes carrying equal but opposite
charges. The field lines between two close plates are parallel and
equally spaced in the central region but fringe outward near the edges.
Thus, in central region, the electric field has the same magnitude at all
points and is constant.
Figure 2.7 Electric field lines for four
arrangements of charges
Properties of Electric Field Lines

1. Electric field lines indicate the direction of the electric field; the field points in the direction tangent to the field line at
any point.
2. The lines are drawn so that the magnitude of the electric field is proportional to the number of lines crossing unit
are perpendicular to the lines. The closer the lines, the stronger the field.
3. Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges; and the number starting or ending is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
4. Electric filed lines never cross because it would not make sense for the electric field to have two directions at the
same time.

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 FLASH CHECK
Solve the following problems using Coulomb’s Law.

1. What is the magnitude of the electric force of attraction between an iron nucleus (q = +26e)
and its innermost electron if the distance between them is 1.5 x 10-12 m? e = - 1.6 x 10-19 C
(charge of one electron)

2. Particles of charge +65 μC, +48 μC and -95 μC are placed in a line (Figure 2.8). The center
one is 0.35 m from each other of the others. Calculate the net force on each charge due to
the other two.

Figure 2.8 Problem 2

3. Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric force on an electron in a uniform electric
field of strength 2460 N/C that points due east.

REFERENCES
QUICK CONNECT Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with
Photocopy machines and laser printers use electrostatic attraction to Applications. 7th Edition. USA. Smith.
print an image. They use different technique to project an image onto Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With
a special cylindrical drum. The drum is typically made of aluminum, a Modern Physics. 13th Edition. SF California: Smith
good conductor; its surface is coated with a thin layer of selenium,
which has the interesting property of being an electrical nonconductor Hewitt, P.G. (2006). Conceptual Physics. 10th
in the dark, but a conductor when exposed to light. This property is Edition. USA. Pearson Education Inc
called photoconductivity. So what happens inside a photocopy
machine? https://www.graphicsfactory.com/Clip-Art/Planner-
Stickers/reminder-digital-planner-sticker-
1. The selenium drum is given a positive 409385.html
charge
2. The lens focuses image on drum- https://www.dreamstime.com/photos-images/xerox-
only dark spots stay charged machine.html
3. Toner particles (negatively charged)
are attracted to positive areas on https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coulomb_to
drum rsion.svg
4. The image is transferred to paper
5. Heat binds the image to the paper.

11

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 PHYSICS 2
Gauss’s Law

INSTANT TASK

Thought experiment!

Consider the box shown in Fig.3.1, which may

or may not contain an electric charge. What
way/s will you do in order to identify if it
contains a charge or not?

Figure 3.1 A closed surface box

12

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

An important relation in electricity is Gauss’s law, developed by the great mathematician Karl Friedrich
Gauss (1777-1855). It relates electric charge and electric field, and is more general and elegant form of
Coulomb’s law.

Gauss’s Law involves the concept of electric flux, which refers to the electric field passing through a given area. For a
uniform electric field, E, passing through an area A, as shown in Fig. 3.2, the electric flux ΦE is defined as

𝚽𝑬 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃
Where 𝜃 is the angle between the electric field direction and a line drawn perpendicular to the area. The SI unit for electric
flux is Nm2/C.

Electric Flux can be interpreted in terms of field lines: the flux through an area is proportional to the number of lines passing
through the area.
Gauss’s law involves the total flux through a closed surface ― a surface of any
shape that encloses a volume of space. In order to get the total flux through a
closed surface, we use
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
𝚽𝑬 =
∈0
Where 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 is the net charge enclosed within a surface and ∈0 is the
proportionality constant (permittivity of free space)
Figure 3.2 A uniform electric field
passing through a flat square area.

Example 3.1 Electric Flux through a disk

A disk of radius 0.10 m is oriented with its normal unit vector (a vector
perpendicular to the surface with a magnitude of 1) ň at 30°to a uniform electric
field E of magnitude 2.0 x 103 N/C (Fig.3.3) (a) What is the electric flux through the
disk? (b) What is the flux through the disk if it is turned so that ň is perpendicular to
E? (c) What is the flux through the disk if ň is parallel to E?
Given: RTF: * Area of a disk:
Figure 3.3 The electric flux through a
disk depends on the angle between
r = 0.10 m (a) 𝚽𝑬 if  = 30° A = r2 normal ň and the electric field E
E = 2.0 x 103 N/C (b) 𝚽𝑬 if  = 90°
(c) 𝚽𝑬 if  = 0° (b) 𝚽𝑬 if  = 90°
 = 30°
Solution: 𝚽𝑬 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 = (2.0 x 103 N/C)(3.14)(0.10m)2 cos 90

𝚽𝑬 = 0 since cos 90 = 0
(a) 𝚽𝑬 if  = 30°
(c) 𝚽𝑬 if  = 0°
𝚽𝑬 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 = (2.0 x 103 N/C)(3.14)(0.10m)2 cos 30
𝚽𝑬 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 = (2.0 x 103 N/C)(3.14)(0.10m)2 cos 0
𝚽𝑬 = 54 Nm2/C
𝚽𝑬 = 63 Nm2/C
Check your understanding:
Can you explain why there is no electric flux when the normal unit vector is perpendicular to the electric field?

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 Example 3.1 Electric Flux through a sphere

A point charge q = + 3 μC is surrounded by an imaginary sphere of radius r = 0.20 m centered on the charge (Fig. 3.4).
Find the resulting electric flux through the space.

Given: RTF: 𝚽𝑬 Solution:

q = + 3 μC Since this is a closed surface, we can use Gauss’s Law

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 -6
r = 0.20 m + 3 x 10 C
𝚽𝑬 = = -12 2 2 Figure 3.4 Electric flux through a sphere
-12 2 2 ∈∈0 8.85 x 10 C /N m centered on a point charge.
∈0= 8.85 x 10 C /N m

𝚽𝑬 = 3.4 x 105 Nm2/C

To visualize electric flux, let’s consider Figure 3.5. Positive charge inside the box goes with an outward electric flux through
the box’s surface, and negative charge inside goes with an inward electric flux.

Figure 3.5 The electric field on the surface of boxes containing (a) a single positive point charge, (b) two positive point charges, (c) a
single negative point charge, or (d) two negative point charges

What happens if there is zero charge inside the box?

Figure 3.6 Three cases in which there is
zero net charge inside a box and no net
electric flux through the surface of the box.

In Fig.3.6a the box is empty and E = 0 everywhere, so there is no electric flux into or out of the box. In Fig. 3.6b, one positive
and one negative point charge of equal magnitude are enclosed within the box, so the net charge inside the box is zero.
There is an electric field, but it “flows into” the box on half of its surface and “flows out of” the box on the other half. Hence
there is no net electric flux into or out of the box.

The box is again empty in Fig. 3.6. However, there is charge present outside the box; the box has been placed with one end
parallel to a uniformly charged infinite sheet, which produces a uniform electric field perpendicular to the sheet. On one end
of the box, E points into the box; on the opposite end, E points out of the box; and on the sides, E is parallel to the surface
and so points neither into nor out of the box. As in Fig. 3.6b, the inward electric flux on one part of the box exactly
compensates for the outward electric flux on the other part. So in all of the cases shown in Fig. 3.6, there is no net electric
flux through the surface of the box, and no net charge is enclosed in the box.

Figures 3.5 and 3.6 demonstrate a connection between the sign (positive, negative, or zero) of the net charge enclosed by a
closed surface and the direction (outward, inward, or none) of the net electric flux through the surface. There is also a
connection between the magnitude of the net charge inside the closed surface and the strength of the net “flow” (flux) of E
over the surface.

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 FLASH CHECK
Read and Answer the following.

1. A flat sheet of paper of area 0.250 m2 is oriented so that the normal to the sheet is at an angle of 60°
to a uniform electric field of magnitude 14 N/C. (a) Find the magnitude of the electric flux through the
sheet. (b) For what angle  between the normal to the sheet and the electric field is the magnitude of
the flux through the sheet (i) largest (ii) smallest? Explain your answers.

2. A 6.20 μC point charge is at the center of a cube with sides of length 0.500 m. What is the electric
flux through one of the six faces of the cube?

3. What is the direction of the net electric flux if the net charge is (a) positive (b) negative (c) zero?

4. What is the relationship of the net charge enclosed in a box to the net electric flux through the
surface of the box?

REFERENCES
QUICK CONNECT Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with
Applications. 7th Edition. USA. Smith.
The machine that the child is holding is known as the Van de Graaff
Generator. A Van de Graaff generator pulls electrons from the Earth, moves Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern
them along a belt and stores them on the large sphere. These electrons repel Physics. 13th Edition. SF California: Smith
each other and try to get as far away from each other as possible, spreading
out on the surface of the sphere. The Earth has lots of room for electrons to Hewitt, P.G. (2006). Conceptual Physics. 10th Edition.
spread out upon, so electrons will take any available path back to the ground. USA. Pearson Education Inc

When the child puts a hand on the sphere, the electrons will spread out onto https://www.scienceworld.ca/resource/van-de-graaff-
generator-wonders/
that person as they repel from the other electrons. They are most obvious in a
person's hair because the like charges of the electrons repel each other and
cause the hairs to stand up and spread away from each other. As long as the
person is standing on an insulated platform, the electrons will not be able to
travel down to the ground and their hair will remain standing up.

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 PHYSICS 2
Electric Potential

INSTANT TASK

Crossword puzzle: Identify the terms being described.

2 3

Across
1 - ________________________ of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only
be transferred from one form to another
5 - The energy associated with forces that depend on the position of objects

Down
2 - forces for which the work done is independent on the path taken but only on the initial and final positions
3 - It is done by a force when the object moves through a distance.
4 - The energy of motion

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

The concepts of work, potential energy, and conservation of energy proved to be extremely useful in our
study of mechanics. In this section we’ll show that these concepts are just as useful for understanding and
analysing electrical interactions

Electric Potential Energy

To apply conservation of energy, we need to define electric potential energy as we did for other types of potential energy. As
we saw before, potential energy can be defined only for a conservative force. The work done by a conservative force in moving
an object between any two positions is independent of the path taken. The electrostatic force between any two charges is
conservative because the dependence on position is just like the gravitational force, which is conservative. Hence we can
define potential energy PE for the electrostatic force.

We saw in SPL 3 – Energy that the change in potential energy between any two points, a and b, equals the negative of the
work done by the conservative force on an object as it moves from point a to point b: PE = ― W

Thus we define the change in electric potential energy, PEb – PEa,when a point charge q moves from some point a to another
point b, as the negative of the work done by the electric force on the charge as it moves from point a to point b.

For example, consider the electric field between two equally but oppositely charged
parallel plates; we assume their separation is small compared to their width and height, so
the field E will be uniform over most of the region, Fig.4.1. Now consider a tiny positive
point charge q placed at the point ―a‖ very near the positive plate as shown. This charge q
is so small that it has no effect on E (Electric Field). If this charge q at point a is released,
the electric force will do work on the charge and accelerate it toward the negative plate.
The work W done by the electric field E to move the charge a distance d is

W = Fd = qEd

The change in electric potential energy equals the negative of the work done by the
electric force:
PE = PEb – PEa = ― qEd

for this case of uniform electric field energy decreases. In the case illustrated, the Figure 4.1 Work done by electric
potential energy decreases (PE is negative); and as the charged particle accelerates field E in moving the positive charge
from point a to point b in Fig. 4.1, the particle’s kinetic energy KE increases — by an equal from position a to position b
amount (Conservation of mechanical energy). In accord with the conservation of energy, electric potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy, and the total energy is conserved. Note that the positive charge q has its greatest potential
energy at point a, near the positive plate. The reverse is true for a negative charge: its potential energy is greatest near the
negative plate.

Electric Potential

In the previous modules, we found it useful to define the electric field as the force per unit charge. Similarly, it is useful to define
the electric potential (or simply the potential when ―electric‖ is understood) as the electric potential energy per unit charge.
Electric potential is given the symbol V. If a positive test charge q in an electric field has electric potential energy PEa, at some
point a (relative to some zero potential energy), the electric potential Va at this point is

PEa
Va =
q
Remember, only differences in potential energy are physically meaningful. Hence only the difference in potential, or the
potential difference, between two points a and b (such as those shown in Fig. 4.1) is measurable.

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 When the electric force does positive work on a charge, the kinetic energy increases and the potential energy
decreases. The difference in potential energy, PEb – PEa, is equal to the negative of the work, Wba, done by the electric
field to move the charge from a to b; so the potential difference Vba is

PEb − PEa Wba

Vba = Vb – Va = =―
q q

Note that a positively charged object moves naturally from a high potential to a low potential. A negative charge does the
reverse.

The unit of electric potential, and of potential difference, is joules/coulomb (J/C) and is given a special name, the volt, in
honor of Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) who is best known for inventing the electric battery. The volt is abbreviated V.
Potential difference, since it is measured in volts, is often referred to as voltage. (Be careful not to confuse V for volts, with
italic V for voltage.)

Because the electric potential difference is defined as the potential energy difference per unit charge, then the change in
potential energy of a charge q when it moves from point a to point b is

PE = PEb – PEa = q(Vb – Va) = qVba

Example 4.1 Electron in TV tube

Suppose an electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference Vb -Va = Vba = + 5000 V. (a) What is the change
in electric potential energy of the electron?
Given: Solution:
Vba = + 5000 V (a)
qe = ―1.6 x 10 -19 C PE = qVba = (―1.6 x 109 C)( + 5000 V) = ― 8.0 x 10-16 J

RTF: The minus sign indicates that the potential energy decreases. The potential difference, Vba, has a
(a) PE positive sign because the final potential Vb is higher than the initial potential Va. Negative electrons are
attracted toward a positive electrode (or plate) and repelled away from a negative electrode.

Electric Potential and Electric Field

We can relate electric field and electric potential through the formula:

Vba = ―Ed
If we solve for E, we find

Vba
E=―
d

From this equation we can see that the unit for electric field can be written as volts per meter (V/m). The minus sign tells us
that E points in the direction of decreasing potential V
Example 4.2 Electric Field obtained from voltage

Two parallel plates are charged to produce a potential difference of 50 V. If the separation between the plates is 0.050 m,
calculate the magnitude of the electric field in the space between the plates.
Given: RTF: E (magnitude) Solution:
Vba = 50 V
d = 0.050 m Vba 50 V
E= = 0.050 m = 1000 V/m
d

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 FLASH CHECK

Read and answer the following.

1. A proton (charge +e = 1.602 x 10-19 C ) moves a distance d = 0.50 m in a straight line

between points a and b in a linear accelerator. The electric field is uniform along this line, with
magnitude E = 1.5 x 107 V/m in the direction from a to b. Determine (a) the force on the
proton; (b) the work done on it by the field; (c) the potential difference

2. An electric field of 525 V/m is desired between two parallel plates 11.0 mm apart. How large
a voltage should be applied?

QUICK CONNECT REFERENCES

Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern
A large, constant potential difference is maintained Physics. 13th Edition. SF California: Smith
between the welding tool (a) and the metal pieces to be
welded (b). The electric field between two conductors Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with
separated by a distance d has magnitude E = Vba/d.
Hence d must be small in order for the field magnitude E
to be large enough to ionize the gas between the
conductors a and b and produce an arc through this gas.

―Arc‖ is the sustained

luminous discharge
of electricity across a
gap in a circuit or
between electrodes

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 WORKSHEET 1

Read and answer the following.

1. If you scuff electrons onto your feet while walking across a rug, are you negatively or positively charged?
Explain.
2. What is normally the net charge of an atom? Explain.
3. What is a positive ion? A negative ion?
4. What happens to electrons in any charging process?
5. Cite an example of something charged by friction.
6. Cite example of something charged by conduction.
7. Cite example of something charged by induction.

Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Q1 = - 0.10 μC is located at the origin. Q2 = + 0.10 C is located on the positive x-axis at x = 1.0 m. Which
of the following is true of the force on Q1 due to Q2 ?
a. It is attractive and directed in the + x direction.
b. It is attractive and directed in the - x direction.
c. It is repulsive and directed in the + x direction.
d. It is repulsive and directed in the – x direction.
2. Swap the positions of Q1 and Q2 of Question 1. Which of the following is true of the force on Q1 due to Q2
a. It does not change.
b. It changes from attractive to repulsive.
c. It changes from repulsive to attractive.
d. It changes from the + x direction to the – x direction
3. A negative point charge is in an electric field created by a positive point charge. Which of the following is
true?
a. The field points toward the positive charge, and the force on the negative charge is in the same
direction as the field.
b. The field points toward the positive charge, and the force on the negative charge is in the opposite
direction to the field.
c. The field points away from the positive charge, and the force on the negative charge is in the same
direction as the field.
d. The field points away from the positive charge, and the force on the negative charge is in the opposite
direction to the field.
4. As an object acquires a positive charge, its mass usually
a. decreases.
b. increases.
c. stays the same.
d. becomes negative.
5. A small metal ball hangs from the ceiling by an insulating thread. The ball is attracted to a positively
charged rod held near the ball. The charge of the ball must be
a. positive.
b. negative.
c. neutral.
d. negative or neutral.

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
Solve each problem correctly. Show your complete solution, express your answers in 2 decimal places, and box
your final answer.

1. An average human weighs about 650 N. If two such generic humans each carried 1.0 coulomb of excess
charge, one positive and one negative, how far apart would they have to be for the electric attraction
between them to equal their 650-N weight?

2. Two small plastic spheres are given positive electrical charges. When they are 15.0 cm apart, the repulsive
force between them has magnitude 0.220 N. What is the charge on each sphere if the two charges are
equal?

3. A proton (qp = +1.6 x 10-19C) is placed in a uniform electric field of 2.75 x 103 N/C. Calculate: (a) the
magnitude of the electric force felt by the proton; (b) the proton’s acceleration.

4. You measure an electric field of 1.25 x 106 N/C at a distance of 0.150 m from a point charge. There is no
other source of electric field in the region other than this point charge. (a) What is the electric flux through
the surface of a sphere that has this charge at its center and that has radius 0.150 m? (b) What is the
magnitude of this charge?

5. A charge of 28.0 nC is placed in a uniform electric field that is directed vertically upward and has a
magnitude of 4.00 x 104 V/m. What work is done by the electric force when the charge moves (a) 0.450 m
to the right; (b) 0.670 m upward.

REFERENCES:

Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern Physics. 13th Edition. SF California: Smith
Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with Applications. 7th Edition. USA. Smith

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 PHYSICS 2
Capacitance and Capacitors

INSTANT TASK

Word Search: Look for 5 words that use electricity.

M I C R O W A V E O V E N
Y H Y H U J I L K O R F B
Q A S W A F V D N O K F D
P G F G H Y U I J O D E S
X S W T R C Q W E A B Y K
E N O H P O R C I M J N M
I N U R F M U K B G V L P
U M Y T E P F R A F Q Q U
F G H R Y U F H Y R H K Y
A F T W R T E A S T W K H
Q R G S O E Y G F J G N T
W T F A I R N B H G F J G
E E R X D H N B N O K G R
F D S X F O I K J K M W T
X C E L L P H O N E D U R
N M N Q H F G F G H F A E
J K S P G R J I L G H H O
U R O O T E W P O L D F P
W E R I R U Q W P O L G L
S S S E D E F R G T Y H K

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

A capacitor is a device that can store electric charge, and normally consists of two conducting objects
(usually plates or sheets) placed near each other but not touching. Capacitors are widely used in electronic
circuits and sometimes are called condensers. Capacitors store charge for later use, such as in a camera flash, and as energy
backup in devices like computers if the power fails. Capacitors also block surges of charge and energy to protect circuits. Very
tiny capacitors serve as memory for the “ones” and “zeros” of the binary code in the random access memory (RAM) of
computers and other electronic devices.

A simple capacitor consists of a pair of parallel plates of area A separated by a small

distance d (Fig.5.1a). Often the two plates are rolled into the form of a cylinder with
paper or other insulator (called a dielectric) separating the plates, Fig. 5.1b; Fig. 5.1c is
a photo of some actual capacitors used for various applications.

In circuit diagrams, the symbol or represents a capacitor.

A battery, which is a source of voltage, is indicated by the symbol with an
unequal arms. The longer one is for positive and the shorter is for negative

If a voltage is applied across a capacitor by connecting the capacitor to a battery with

conducting wires as in Fig. 5.2, charge flows from the battery to each of the two plates:
one plate acquires a negative charge, the other an equal amount of positive charge.
Each battery terminal and the plate of the capacitor connected to it are at the same
potential; hence the full battery voltage appears across the capacitor. For a given
capacitor, it is found that the amount of charge Q acquired by each plate is proportional
to the magnitude of the potential difference V between the plates:

Q = CV

The constant of proportionality, C, is called the capacitance of the capacitor. It is a Figure 5.1 Capacitors
measure of the ability of a capacitor to store energy. The unit of capacitance is diagrams of (a) parallel plate, (b)
coulombs per volt, and this unit is called a farad (F). From now on, we will use simply V cylindrical (rolled up parallel plate).
(in italics) to represent a potential difference, such as that produced by a battery, rather (c) Photo of some real capacitors.
than Vba or Vb – Va, as previously. Also, be sure not to confuse italic letters V and C
which stand for voltage and capacitance, with non-italic V and C which stand for the
units volts and coulombs.

The capacitance C does not in general depend on Q or V. Its value depends only on the
size, shape, and relative position of the two conductors, and also on the material that
separates them. For a parallel-plate capacitor whose plates have area A and are
separated by a distance d of air (Fig. 5.1a), the capacitance is given by

A
C = ∈0 Figure 5.2 (a) Parallel-plate
d
capacitor connected to a battery. (b)
We see that C depends only on geometric factors, A and d, and not on Q or V. The Same circuit shown using symbols.
constant ∈0 is the permittivity of free space, which has the value 8.85 x 10–12 C2/Nm2.

Example 5.1 Size of a 1-F Capacitor

The parallel plates of a 1.0-F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart. What is their area?
Given: RTF: A Solution:
C=1F derive:
d = 1.0 mm A Cd (1F)(0.001m)
∈0 = 8.85 x 10–12 C2/Nm2 C = ∈0 A= = = 1.1 x108 m2
d ∈0 8.85 x 10–12 C2/Nm2
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 Example 5.2 Capacitor Calculations

(a) Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor whose plates are 20 cm x 3.0 cm and are separated by a 1.0-mm
air gap. (b) What is the charge on each plate if a 12-V battery is connected across the two plates?

Given: Solution:
A = 6.0 x 10-3 m2 (a)
d = 1.0 mm = 1.0 x 10-3 m A 6.0 x 10-3 m2
C = ∈0 = (8.85 x 10–12 C2/Nm2) = 53 pF
∈0 = 8.85 x 10–12 C2/Nm2 d 1.0 x 10-3 m
V = 12 V
RTF: (b)
(a) C
(b) Q Q = CV = (53 x 10-12 F) (12 V) = 1.2 x 104 V/m

Capacitors in a Series and Parallel

Capacitors are manufactured with certain standard capacitances and working voltages (Fig. 5.1c). However, these standard
values may not be the ones you actually need in a particular application. You can obtain the values you need by combining
capacitors; many combinations are possible, but the simplest combinations are a series connection and a parallel
connection.

Capacitors in Series

Figure 5.3a is a schematic diagram of a series connection. Two capacitors are

connected in series (one after the other) by conducting wires between points a and
b. Both capacitors are initially uncharged. When a constant positive potential
difference V is applied between points a and b, the capacitors become charged; the
figure shows that the charge on all conducting plates has the same magnitude:

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = … = Qn

Referring to Fig.5.3a, we can write the potential differences between points a and c,
c and b, and a and b, as

Q Q
Vac = V1 = Vcb = V2 =
C1 C2

Vab = V = V1 + V2

The equivalent capacitance Ceq of the series combination is defined as the

capacitance of a single capacitor for which the charge Q is the same as for the
combination, when the potential difference V is the same. In other words, the Figure 5.3 A series connection of two
combination can be replaced by an equivalent capacitor of capacitance Ceq . For capacitors
such a capacitor, shown in Fig. 5.3b,
Q 1 V
Ceq = or C = Q
V eq

For a number of capacitance in series, we use:

The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of a series combination
1 1 1 1 1
= +C +C +…+C equals the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. In a
Ceq C1 2 3 n series connection the equivalent capacitance is always less than any
individual capacitance.

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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Capacitors in Parallel

The arrangement shown in Fig. 5.4a is called a parallel connection. Two capacitors
are connected in parallel between points a and b. In a parallel connection the
potential difference for all individual capacitors is the same and is equal to Vab = V.

The charges Q1 and Q2 are not necessarily equal, however, since charges can reach
each capacitor independently from the source (such as a battery) of the voltage Vab.
The charges are

Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V

The total charge Q of the combination, and thus the total charge on the equivalent
capacitor, is
Q = Q1 + Q2

For a number of capacitance in parallel, we use:

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination equals the sum of the individual Figure 5.4 A parallel connection of two
capacitances. In parallel connection, the equivalent capacitance is always greater capacitors
than any individual capacitance.

Total Description Formula

Charge Same as the individual charges Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = … = Qn
The reciprocal of the equivalent
capacitance of a series 1 1 1 1 1
Series
Capacitance combination equals the sum of the = +C +C +…+C
Ceq C1 2 3 n
reciprocals of the individual
capacitances
Voltage/Potential the total voltage is the same as the
sum of the individual voltages Vab = V = V1 + V2 + V3 +… + Vn
Difference
the total charge is the same as the
Charge Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + … + Qn
sum of the individual charges
The equivalent capacitance of a
parallel combination equals the Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn
Parallel Capacitance
sum of the individual capacitances
Voltage/Potential Same as individual voltages
Vab = V = V1 = V2 = V3 =… = Vn
Difference
Table 5.1 Description and formula for the total charge, capacitance and potential difference in series and parallel connections.

Example 5.3 Capacitor in Series and Parallel Connections

In Figs. 5.3 and 5.4, let C1 = 6.0 μF, C2 = 3.0μF, and Vab = 18 V. Find the equivalent capacitance and the charge and
potential difference for each capacitor when the capacitors are connected (a) in series (see Fig. 5.3) and (b) in parallel (see
Fig. 5.4)
Given: Solution: Q 36μF
Vab = 18 V (a) Series V1 = = = 6 μV
C1 6 μF Q1 = C1V =(6.0 μF)(18 V)
C1 = 6.0 μF, Q 36μF
C2 = 3.0 μF V2 = = = 12 μV Q1 = 108 μC
1 1 1
= +
Ceq 6 μF 3 μF
= 500,000 F C 2 3 μF
RTF: Q2 = C2V =(6.0 μF)(18 V)
(b) Parallel Q2 = 54 μC
Ceq, Q, and V for Ceq = 2.0 μF
(a) Series Connection Vab = V = V1 = V2 = 18 V
(b) Parallel Connection Q = C V = (2.0 μF)( 18 V) = 36 μC C = C + C = 6.0 μF+ 3 μF
eq eq 1 2
Ceq = 9 μF
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SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Example 5.4 A Capacitor Network

Find the equivalent capacitance of the five-capacitor network shown in Fig. 5.5

Figure 5.5 A capacitor Network – combination of series and parallel connection.

Solution:

In order to get the equivalent capacitance, we need to convert the capacitor network as shown in Fig. 5.5a to a simple circuit
as shown in Fig.5.5d. To do that we need to replace first the series capacitors 12 μF and 6 μF by an equivalent capacitor;

1 1 1 1
12 μF and 6 μF in series: = + = = 4 μF. This gives us Fig.5.5b. We will then have 3 capacitors in
Ceq 12 μF 6 μF 4 μF
parallel. We need to replace it with an equivalent capacitor.

3 μF, 11 μF and 4 μF in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 = 3 μF + 11 μF + 4 μF = 18 μF. This gives us Fig.5.5c which is

connected in series. Again, we replace this with an equivalent capacitor.

1 1 1 1
18 μF and 9 μF in series: = + = = 6 μF.
Ceq 18 μF 9 μF 6 μF

Example 5.5 A Capacitor Network (2)

In Fig. 5.5, each capacitor has C = 4.0 μF and Vab = 28 V. Calculate(a) the charge on each
capacitor;(b) the potential difference across each capacitor; (c) the potential difference
between points a and d.
Solution: (a) Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4; and (b) V1, V2, V3, and V4
1 1 1 1
1. Combine C1 and C2 (series): = + = = 2 μF (C12)
Ceq 4.0 μF 4.0 μF 2.0 μF
2. Combine C12 and C3 (parallel): Ceq = C12 + C3 = 2 μF + 4 μF = 6 μF (C123)
Figure 5.6 Example 5.5
1 1 1 5
3. Combine C123 and C4 (series): = + 4.0 μF = 12.0 μF = 2.4 μF (C1234) = total Capacitance
Ceq 6 μF
4. Calculate the total Charge: QT = CTVT = (2.4 μF)(28 V) = 67.2 μC = Q4 = Q123
Q4 67.2 μC Q123 67.2 μC
5. Calculate V4 = = = 16.8 V 6. Calculate V123 = = = 11.2 V = V3 = V12
C4 4.0 μF C123 6.0 μF
7. Calculate Q3 = C3V3 = (4.0 μF)(11.2 V) = 44.8 μC 8. Calculate Q12 = C12V12 = (2.0 μF)(11.2 V) = 22.4 μC = Q1 = Q2
Q1 22.4 μC
9. Calculate V1 = = = 5.6 V = V2
C1 4.0 μF
(c) Vad = V123 = 11.2 V

Check your understanding: Draw the diagram for steps 1-3 in Example 5.5 (like in Fig. 5.5)

26

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 FLASH CHECK

Read and answer the following.

1. What happens to the capacitance if the area of the capacitor increases?

2. What happens to the capacitance if the distance between the plates increases?

3. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 2.50 mm apart, and each carries a charge of
magnitude 80.0 nC. The plates are in vacuum. The electric field between the plates has a
magnitude of 4.00 x 106 V/m (a) What is the potential difference between the plates? (b)
What is the area of each plate? (c) What is the capacitance?

4. For the capacitor connection shown in Fig. 5.7,the potential difference across ab is 220 V.
Find (a) the total charge stored in this connection and(b) the charge on each capacitor.

Figure 5.7 Problem 4

QUICK CONNECT REFERENCES

The energy stored in a large capacitance can give you a burn or a https://www.graphicsfactory.com/Clip-Art/Planner-
Stickers/reminder-digital-planner-sticker-
shock. One reason you are warned not to touch a circuit, or open
409385.html
an electronic device, is because capacitors may still be carrying
charge even if the external power is turned off. On the other hand, Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern
the basis of a heart defibrillator is a capacitor charged to a high Physics. 13th Edition. SF California: Smith
voltage. A heart attack can be characterized by fast irregular
Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with
beating of the heart, known as ventricular (or cardiac) fibrillation.
The heart then does not pump blood to the rest of the body
properly, and if the interruption lasts for long, death results. A
sudden, brief jolt of charge through the heart from a defibrillator can
cause complete heart stoppage, sometimes followed by a
resumption of normal beating. The defibrillator capacitor is charged
to a high voltage, typically a few thousand volts, and is allowed to
discharge very rapidly through the heart via a pair of wide contacts
known as “pads” or “paddles” that spread out the current over the
chest.

27

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 PHYSICS 2
Electric Current

INSTANT TASK

Electricity at Home

Below are pictures of things that can be found in a house. Analyze the pictures and based on your own knowledge
identify them and give their usage.

(2)

(3)
(1)

(4) (5)

28
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

In the past 5 modules, we studied the interactions of electric charges at rest; now we’re ready to study
charges in motion. An electric current consists of charges in motion from one region to another.

Electric Battery

A battery produces electricity by transforming chemical energy into electrical energy.

Electric Current

The purpose of a battery is to produce a potential difference, which can then make
charges move. When a continuous conducting path is connected between the terminals
of a battery, we have an electric circuit, Fig.6.1a. On any diagram of a circuit, as in
Fig.6.1b, we use the symbol
or

to represent a battery. The device connected to the battery could be a lightbulb, a

heater, a radio, or some other device. When such a circuit is formed, charge can move
(or flow) through the wires of the circuit, from one terminal of the battery to the other, as Figure 6.1 (a) A simple electric circuit.
long as the conducting path is continuous. Any flow of charge such as this is called an (b) Schematic drawing of the same
electric current. circuit, consisting of a battery,
connecting wires (thick gray lines), and
More precisely, the electric current in a wire is defined as the net amount of charge that a lightbulb or other device
passes through the wire’s full cross section at any point per unit time. Thus, the current I is defined as

∆Q
I=
∆t

Where Q is the amount of charge that passes through the conductor at any location during the time interval t.

Electric current is measured in coulombs per second; this is given a special name, the ampere (abbreviated amp or A), after
the French physicist André Ampère (1775–1836). Thus, 1 A = 1 C/s.

A current can flow in a circuit only if there is a continuous conducting path. We then have a complete circuit. If there is a
break in the circuit, say, a cut wire, we call it an open circuit and no current flows. In any single circuit, with only a single path
for current to flow such as in Fig. 6.1b, a steady current at any instant is the same at one point (say, point A) as at any other
point (such as B). This follows from the conservation of electric charge: charge doesn’t disappear. A battery does not create (or
destroy) any net charge, nor does a lightbulb absorb or destroy charge.

Example 6.1 Current is a flow of charge

A steady current of 2.5 A exists in a wire for 4.0 min. (a) How much total charge passes by a given point in the circuit during
those 4.0 min? (b) How many electrons would this be?
Given: Solution: (b)
I = 2.5 A (a) The charge on one electron is 1.6 x 10-19 C. so 600 C
t = 4.0 min Derive: would consist of
RTF: ∆Q
I=
(a) Q ∆t 600 C
(b) Number of = 3.8 x 1021 electrons
1.6 x 10-19 C
electrons present Q = It
Q = (2.5 C/s)(240 s)
Q = 600 C
29

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 In many real circuits, wires are connected to a common conductor that provides continuity. This common conductor is
called ground, usually represented as or and is really connected to the ground for a building or a house.

Conductors contain many free electrons. Thus, if a continuous conducting wire is

connected to the terminals of a battery, negatively charged electrons flow in the
wire. When the wire is first connected, the potential difference between the
terminals of the battery sets up an electric field inside the wire and parallel to it.
Free electrons at one end of the wire are attracted into the positive terminal, and at
the same time other electrons enter the other end of the wire at the negative
terminal of the battery. There is a continuous flow of electrons throughout the wire
that begins as soon as the wire is connected to both terminals.

When the conventions of positive and negative charge were invented two centuries
Figure 6.2 Conventional current from +
ago, however, it was assumed that positive charge flowed in a wire. For nearly all to – is equivalent to a negative electron
purposes, positive charge flowing in one direction is exactly equivalent to negative flow from – to +.
charge flowing in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 6.2. Today, we still use
the historical convention of positive charge flow when discussing the direction of a current. So when we speak of the current
direction in a circuit, we mean the direction positive charge would flow. This is sometimes referred to as conventional
current. When we want to speak of the direction of electron flow, we will specifically state it is the electron current. In
liquids and gases, both positive and negative charges (ions) can move.

In practical life, such as rating the total charge of a car battery, you may see the unit ampere-hour (Ah): Q = It
Ohm’s Law: Resistance and Resistors

To produce an electric current in a circuit, a difference in potential is required. One

way of producing a potential difference along a wire is to connect its ends to the
opposite terminals of a battery. It was Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854) who
established experimentally that the current in a metal wire is proportional to the
potential difference V applied to its two ends:

I V

If, for example, we connect a wire to the two terminals of a 6-V battery, the current
in the wire will be twice what it would be if the wire were connected to a 3-V battery.
It is also found that reversing the sign of the voltage does not affect the magnitude
of the current. Figure 6.3 Graphs of current vs.
voltage (a) for a metal conductor which
obeys Ohm’s law, and (b) for a
Exactly how large the current is in a wire depends not only on the voltage between
nonohmic device, in this case a
its ends, but also on the resistance the wire offers to the flow of electrons. Electron semiconductor diode.
flow is impeded because of collisions with the atoms of the wire. We define
electrical resistance R as the proportionality factor between the voltage V
(between the ends of the wire) and the current I (passing through the wire):

V = IR
Ohm found experimentally that in metal conductors R is a constant independent of V, a result known as Ohm’s law. V = IR,
is itself sometimes called Ohm’s law, but only when referring to materials or devices for which R is a constant independent
of V. But R is not a constant for many substances other than metals, nor for devices such as diodes, vacuum tubes,
transistors, and so on. Even for metals, R is not constant if the temperature changes much. Thus Ohm’s “law” is not a
fundamental law of nature, but rather a description of a certain class of materials: metal conductors, whose temperature
does not change much. Such materials are said to be “ohmic.” Materials or devices that do not follow Ohm’s law are said to
be nonohmic. See Fig. 6.3. The unit for resistance is called the ohm and is abbreviated  (Greek capital letter omega).
Because R = V/I, we see that 1.0  is equivalent to 1.0 V/A.

30

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Example 6.2 Flashlight bulb resistance

A small flashlight bulb draws 300 mA from its 1.5-V battery. What is the resistance of the bulb?

Given: Solution:
I = 300 mA R = V/I = (1.5 V)/(0.3 A) = 5.0 
V = 1.5 V
RTF: R

In many circuits, particularly in electronic devices, resistors are used to control the amount of current. When we draw a
diagram of a circuit, we use the symbol to indicate a resistance.

Resistivity

It is found experimentally that the resistance R of a uniform wire is directly

proportional to its length l and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area
A. That is,

R=
l
A Figure 6.4 Photo of resistors (striped),
plus other devices on a circuit board
where  (Greek letter “rho”), the constant of proportionality, is called the resistivity and depends on the material used. The
values of , whose units are m, depend somewhat on purity, heat treatment, temperature, and other factors.

Electric Power

Electric energy is useful to us because it can be easily transformed into other forms of energy. Motors transform electric
energy into mechanical energy. In other devices such as electric heaters, stoves, toasters, and hair dryers, electric energy is
transformed into thermal energy in a wire resistance known as a “heating element.”

To find the power transformed by an electric device, recall that the energy transformed when a charge Q moves through a
potential difference V is QV Then the power P, which is the rate energy is transformed, is

energy transformed QV
P= =
time t

The charge that flows per second, Q/t, is the electric current I. Thus we have

P = IV
This general relation gives us the power transformed by any device, where I is the current passing through it and V is the
potential difference across it. It also gives the power delivered by a source such as a battery. The SI unit of electric power is
the same as for any kind of power, the watt (1 W = 1 J/s).

Example 6.3 Headlights

Calculate the resistance of a 40-W automobile headlight designed for 12 V.

Given: Solution: P = (V2)/R
P = 40 W P = IV
V = 12 V R = (V2)/P
RTF: R From Ohm’s Law:
I = V/R R = (12 V)2/ 40 W

P = (V/R)(V)
R = 3.6
31

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 FLASH CHECK

Read and answer the following.

1. What is wrong with each of the schemes shown in Fig 6.5 for
lighting a flashlight bulb with a flashlight battery and a single
wire?

2. What is the resistance of a lightbulb if 0.50 A flows through it

when 120 V is connected across it?

3. What is the resistance of a 5.4-m length of copper wire 1.5 mm

in diameter?  = 1.68 x10-8 m

4. What is the maximum power consumption of a 3.0-V portable

CD player that draws a maximum of 240mA of current?

Figure 6.5 Problem 1

QUICK CONNECT REFERENCES

https://romanelectrichome.com/outlet-doesnt-work/

The glow of the thin wire filament of incandescent lightbulbs is https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.greentechme

caused by the electric current passing through it. Electric energy is dia.com%2Fassets%2Fcontent%2Fcache%2Fmade%2Fassets%2Fcontent%2F
cache%2Fremote%2Fhttps_assets.greentechmedia.com%2Fcontent%2Fimage
transformed to thermal energy (via collisions between moving s%2Farticles%2FCircuit_Breaker_XL_600_411_80.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2
F%2Fwww.greentechmedia.com%2Farticles%2Fread%2Fsmart-circuit-
electrons and atoms of the wire), which causes the wire’s breakers-the-next-frontier-of-the-
temperature to become so high that it glows. In halogen lamps gridedge&tbnid=bG2gaXdQjN82iM&vet=12ahUKEwjsmLiv15nvAhW4xYsBHcFl
AHcQMygCegUIARCkAQ..i&docid=SGD42jl_q1sjnM&w=600&h=411&itg=1&q=
(tungsten–halogen), shown on on the right, the tungsten filament is circuit%20breaker&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwjsmLiv15nvAhW4xYsBHcFlAHcQMyg
the right, the tungsten filament CegUIARCkAQ#imgrc=bG2gaXdQjN82iM&imgdii=AwLn5KtPSQoHoM

is surrounded by a halogen gas https://romanelectrichome.com/outlet-doesnt-work/

such as bromine or iodine in a https://newcastlebeach.org/explore/electric-switch/
clear tube. Halogens, via
https://gwtee.en.alibaba.com/product/989453634800793012/5_gang_universal_
chemical reactions, restore power_electric_extension_sockets.html
many of the tungsten atoms
https://www.pngegg.com/en/png-zbvau/download
that were evaporated from the
hot filament, allowing longer life, https://www.google.com/search?q=electric+wires&tbm=isch&chips=q:electric+wi
res,g_1:black:CRx1Ykx2NO4%3D&rlz=1C1HLDY_enPH726PH726&hl=en&sa=
higher temperature (typically X&ved=2ahUKEwjBxOWZ3JnvAhWI0IsBHc_kBD4Q4lYoA3oECAEQHw&biw=1
381&bih=616#imgrc=I8OKjq_cZrFhIM&imgdii=XdYTQv7V3yhuaM
2900 K versus 2700 K), better
efficiency, and whiter light. Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern Physics. 13th Edition.
SF California: Smith

Giancoli, D.C (2014). Physics, Principles with

32

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
PHYSICS 2
Electric Circuits

INSTANT TASK

Electricity at Home

Let’s analyze how electricity works at home.

I. List two or more devices at home that when you switched off the other,
the other is still on.

II. List two or more devices that when you switch off one device, all the
others will also be switched off.

III. Give your own explanation as to why this happens.

33
SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 DIRECT TALK

If you look inside your TV, your computer, or cellphones, you will find circuits of much greater complexity than
the simple circuits we studied in the previous modules. Whether connected by wires or integrated in a
semiconductor chip, these circuits often include several sources, resistors, and other circuit elements interconnected in a
network.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors turn up in all kinds of circuits, ranging from hair dryers and space heaters to
circuits that limit or divide current or reduce or divide a voltage. Such circuits often
contain several resistors, so it’s appropriate to consider combinations of resistors. A
simple example is a string of light bulbs used for holiday decorations; each bulb acts
as a resistor, and from a circuit-analysis perspective the string of bulbs is simply a
combination of resistors.

Suppose we have three resistors with resistances R1, R2, and R3. Figure 7.1 shows
four different ways in which they might be connected between points a and b. When
several circuit elements such as resistors, batteries, and motors are connected in
sequence as in Fig. 7.1a, with only a single current path between the points, we say
that they are connected in series. We studied capacitors in series in the previous
module; we found that, because of conservation of charge, capacitors in series all
have the same charge if they are initially uncharged. In circuits we’re often more
interested in the current, which is charge flow per unit time.

The resistors in Fig. 7.1b are said to be connected in parallel between points a and
b. Each resistor provides an alternative path between the points. For circuit elements
that are connected in parallel, the potential difference is the same across each
element. We studied capacitors in parallel in the previous module.

In Fig. 7.1c, resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel, and this combination is in series with
R1. In Fig. 7.1d R2 and R3 are in series and this combination is in parallel with R1.

For any combination of resistors we can always find a single resistor that could
replace the combination and result in the same total current and potential difference.
For example, a string of holiday light bulbs could be replaced by a single,
appropriately chosen light bulb that would draw the same current and have the same Figure 7.1 Four different ways of
potential difference between its terminals as the original string of bulbs. The connecting three resistors
resistance of this single resistor is called the equivalent resistance of the
combination.
If any one of the networks in Fig. 7.1 were replaced by its equivalent resistance Req, we could write

Vab
Vab = IReq or Req =
I

where Vab is the potential difference between terminals a and b of the network and I is the current at point a or b. To compute
an equivalent resistance, we assume a potential difference Vab across the actual network, compute the corresponding current
I, and take the ratio Vab/I.

34

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Total Description Formula
Current Same as the individual current I = I1 = I2 = I3 = … = In
The equivalent resistance of a
Resistance parallel combination equals the Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + Rn
Series
sum of the individual resistances
Voltage/Potential the total voltage is the same as the
Vab = V = V1 + V2 + V3 +… + Vn
Difference sum of the individual voltages
the total current is the same as the
Current I = I1 + I2 + I3 + … + In
sum of the individual current
The reciprocal of the equivalent
resistance of a series combination 1 1 1 1 1
Parallel Resistance
equals the sum of the reciprocals
= +R +R +…+R
𝑅eq R1 2 3 n
of the individual resistances
Voltage/Potential
Same as individual voltages Vab = V = V1 = V2 = V3 =… = Vn
Difference

Table 7.1 Description and formula for the total current, resistance and potential difference in series and parallel connections

Take note that in a series connection, the equivalent resistance (total) is greater than any individual resistance. On the
other hand, in parallel connection, the equivalent resistance is always less than any individual resistance.

Example 7.1 Equivalent Resistance

The influence that makes current flow
Find the equivalent resistance of the network in Fig. 7.2a and the from lower to higher potential is called
current in each resistor. The source of emf ε has negligible internal electromotive force (abbreviated emf and
resistance. pronounced “ee-em-eff”). This is a poor term
because emf is not a force but an energy-per-
unit-charge quantity, like potential. The SI unit
of emf is the same as that for potential, the volt.

Every complete circuit with a steady current

must include some device that provides emf.
Such a device is called a source of emf.
Batteries, electric generators, solar cells,
thermocouples, and fuel cells are all examples
of sources of emf.

Figure 7.2 Steps in reducing a combination of resistors to a single equivalent resistor and finding the current in each resistor
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1
a to b) Get the Req of 6  and 3  in parallel: = +R =6 +3 =2 =2
𝑅eq R6 3
b to c) Get the Req of 4  and 2  in series: Req = R1 + R2 = 4  + 2  = 6 
35

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 d) Get the total current using I = V/R: 18 V/6 = 3 A
e) Shows that resistor 4  and resistor 2  have the same current flowing through it since it is connected in series.
It also shows the voltage on each resistor using the formula V = IR
V4 = (3A)(4) = 12 V V2 = (3A)(2) = 6 V
f) Get the current on each resistor 6  and 3 . Since it is in parallel, the voltage on each resistor is the same as V2
I6 = V/R = (6V)/(6) = 1 A I3 = V/R = (6V)/(3) = 2 A

Kirchhoff’s Rules

Many practical resistor networks cannot be reduced to simple series-parallel

combinations. Figure 7.3a shows a dc power supply with emf ε1 charging a
battery with a smaller emf ε2 and feeding current to a light bulb with
resistance R. Figure 7.3b is a “bridge” circuit, used in many different types of
measurement and control systems. To compute the currents in these
networks, we’ll use the techniques developed by the German physicist
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).

First, here are two terms that we will use often. A junction in a circuit is a
point where three or more conductors meet. A loop is any closed conducting
path. In Fig. 7.3a points a and b are junctions, but points c and d are not; in
Fig. 7.3b the points a, b, c, and d are junctions, but points e and f are not.
The blue arrow lines in Figs. 7.3a and 7.3b show some possible loops in
these circuits.

Kirchhoff’s rules are the following two statements:

Kirchhoff’s junction rule: The algebraic sum of the currents into any
junction is zero. That is,

ΣI = 0

Kirchhoff’s loop rule: The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any
Figure 7.3 Two networks that cannot be
loop, including those associated with emfs and those of resistive elements, reduced to simple-parallel combination
must equal zero. That is, of resistors

ΣV = 0
The junction rule is based on conservation of electric charge. No charge can accumulate at a junction, so the total charge
entering the junction per unit time must equal the total charge leaving per unit time (Fig. 7.4a). Charge per unit time is
current, so if we consider the currents entering a junction to be positive and those leaving to be negative, the algebraic sum
of currents into a junction must be zero. It’s like a T branch in a water pipe (Fig. 7.4b); if you have a total of 1 liter per minute
coming in the two pipes, you can’t have 3 liters per minute going out the third pipe.

The loop rule is a statement that the electrostatic force is conservative. Suppose we go around a loop, measuring potential
differences across successive circuit elements as we go. When we return to the starting point, we must find that the
algebraic sum of these differences is zero; otherwise, we could not say that the potential at this point has a definite value.

36 Figure 7.4 Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that as much current flows into a junction as flows out of it.

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 Sign Convention for the Loop rule

In applying the loop rule, we need some sign conventions.

Figure 7.5 Use these sign conventions when you apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule. In each part of the figure “Travel” is the direction that
we imagine going around the loop, which is not necessarily the direction of the current.

Example 7.2 Using Kirchhoff’s Rules

In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.5, find (a) the current in resistor R; (b) the resistance R; (c) the
unknown emf ε.

Given: RTF:
ε1 = 28 V (a) I
I1 = 4 A (b) R
R1 = 6  (c) ε Figure 7.5 Example 7.2
I2 = 6 A
R2 = 3 
Solution: I

Indicate an assumed direction for each unknown current and emf. Kirchhoff’s
rules will yield the magnitudes and directions of unknown currents and emfs. If the 1
actual direction of a quantity is opposite to your assumption, the resulting quantity
will have a negative sign. a
2
In this example, we have 3 loops. Loop 1, 2 and the outer most loop. But we will
only consider loop 1 and loop 2. We also assigned a direction for the current.

Let’s now apply the loop rule and use the sign convention in Fig. 7.5.

For loop 1: Let’s now apply the junction rule and use the sign convention in Fig. 7.5.

ε1 + (– ε) + (I1)( R1) + (―IR) = 0 For junction a:

I2 = I + I1 original formula
For loop 2: Σin = Σout I = I2 - I1 deriving formula for I
I = 6A – 4A substitute the values
I2 = I + I1
ε + [―(I2)( R2)] + [―(I1)( R1)] = 0 I = 2A

From loop 2: From loop 1:

ε + [―(I2)( R2)] + [―(I1)( R1)] = 0 ε1 + (– ε) + (I1)( R1) + (―IR) = 0
ε + [―(6A)(3)] + [―(4A)(6)] = 0 (28 V) + (42 V) + [―(4A)(6)] + [―(2A)(R)] = 0
10V = (2A)(R)
ε + (―18 V) + (―24V) = 0 R=5
ε = 42 V 37

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 FLASH CHECK
Read and answer the following.

1. Draw a circuit diagram for your answer in Instant task I.

2. Draw a circuit diagram for your answer in Instant task II.

3. Which connection (parallel/series) is used at home? Explain why.

4. How is a circuit breaker connected with the wirings in a house? Explain why.

5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.6, find (a) the current in the resistor 3; (b) the unknown
emfs and (c) the resistance R. Note that three currents are given.

Figure 7.6 Problem 3

QUICK CONNECT REFERENCES

https://www.canstockphoto.com/overloaded-extension-cord-37999589.html

Have you ever used all the sockets of your extension to charge the https://www.graphicsfactory.com/Clip-Art/Planner-Stickers/reminder-digital-
mobile, switch on the TV and electric fans? Chances that devices got planner-sticker-409385.html

shut off simultaneously are high. It is due to electrical overloading. https://physics.info/kirchhoff/practice.shtml

Electrical overloading occurs when you draw more current than a https://www.janiqueel.com/5-tips-to-avoid-overloading-an-extension-cord-at-
circuit can handle. This can lead to fire. How? home/

Freedman, R.A. (2012). University Physics With Modern Physics. 13th Edition.
SF California: Smith
Sockets in extension cords are connected in parallel. In such
connection, the total current flowing through the extension cord
increases, and the resistance decreases. This will lead to
overheating which can eventually lead to fire.

38

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 WORKSHEET 2

Read and answer the following.

1. Household outlets are often double outlets. Are these connected in series or parallel? How do you know?
2. Why is an appliance cord with a three-prong plug safer than one with two prongs?
a. The 120 V from the outlet is split among three wires, so it isn’t as high a voltage as when it is only split
between two wires.
b. Three prongs fasten more securely to the wall outlet.
c. The third prong grounds the case, so the case cannot reach a high voltage.
d. The third prong acts as a ground wire, so the electrons have an easier time leaving the appliance. As
a result, fewer electrons build up in the appliance.
3. What happens when a lightbulb goes out?
4. Which draws more current, a 100 W lightbulb or a 75 W bulb? Which has the higher resistance? Explain.

Write the SI unit for the following quantities.

1. Capacitance
2. Charge
3. Current
4. Voltage
5. Resistance
6. Resistivity
7. Electric potential
8. Electric flux
9. Electric field
10. Electric force

Solve each problem correctly. Show your complete solution and box your final answer.

1. A hair dryer draws 13.5 A when plugged into a 120-V line. (a) What is its resistance? (b) How much
charge passes through it in 15 min?
2. What is the maximum power consumption of a 3.0-V portable CD player that draws a maximum of 240 mA
of current?
3. Two 100  resistors are connected (a) in parallel, and (b) in series, to a 24.0-V battery.
(a) Draw the circuit. (b) What is the current through each resistor and (c) what is the equivalent resistance
of each circuit?
4. Study the circuit below. (a) Write the junction rule for junction b. (b)write the loop rule for loop 1 (clockwise)
and for loop 2 (clockwise).

1 2

39

SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
 SAN PEDRO RELOCATION CENTER NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE DEPARTMENT © 2020
SPL 5 – Capacitance and Capacitors
SPL 1 – Electrostatics START UP – Answer on Quick Connect
START UP – Answer on Quick Connect INSTANT TASK
INSTANT TASK – Answers may vary 1. Microwave
FLASH CHECK: 2. Microphone
1. The plastic rod weighs more. 3. Computer
2. (a) they will attract (b) they will attract 4. Cellphone
5. sensors
FLASH CHECK
SPL 2 – Coulomb’s Law
START UP – Answer on Quick Connect
1. Directly proportional
INSTANT TASK
2. Indirectly proportional
a. Electric Force
3. (a) 1.0 x 104 V; (b) 2.26 x 10-3 m; (c) 8 x 10-12 F
b. Electric Field
4. (a) 2.42 x 10-5 C; (b) Q35nF= 7.7 x 10-6 C; Q75nF = 1.65 x 10-5C
c. Charges
d. Coulomb’s Law
SPL 6 – Electric Current
e. Point Charge
START UP – Answer is on Quick Connect
f. Superposition of Forces
INSTANT TASK
1. Circuit breaker
FLASH CHECK
2. Switch
1. F = 2.7 x 10 -3 N
3. Extension Cord
2. F left = -120 N;
4. Socket
Fcenter = +560 N;
5. Electric Wire
Fright = -450 N
3. 3. 94 x 10 -16 N, West
FLASH CHECK
1. (a) no wire is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
SPL 3 – Gauss’s Law
hence no current will flow through the bulb.
START UP – Answer on Quick Connect
(b) same with a
INSTANT TASK – answers may vary
(c) This is a good circuit. Nothing is wrong with it.
2.
240 
FLASH CHECK
3.
5.13 x 10-2 
4.
0.72 W
1.
2. SPL 7 – Electric Circuits
3. Positive net charge = outward flux START UP – Answer is on Quick Connect
Negative net charge = inward flux INSTANT TASK – answers may vary
Zero net charge = zero flux FLASH CHECK
4. Directly proportional 1. Answers may vary
2. Answers may vary
SPL 4 – Electric Potential 3. Parallel Connection
START UP – Answer on Quick Connect 4. Series Connection
INSTANT TASK 5. (a) 8 A; (b) ε1 = 36 V and ε2 = 54 V; (c) 9
1. Conservation
2. Conservative Worksheet 2
3. Work I.
4. Kinetic 1. Parallel Connection
5. Potential 2. C
3. The metal filament breaks and the current can no longer pass
FLASH CHECK through the bulb
1. (a) F = 2.40 x 10-12 N; (b) Wba = 1.20 x 10 -12J; (c) Vba = 7.5 x 106 V 4. P=IV. more power means more current. 100 W
2. V = 5.78 V P=V*V/R. Lower power has higher resistance. 75 W
II.
Worksheet 1 1. Farad (F)
I. 2. Coulomb (C)
3. Ampere (A)
1. You have more electrons after you scuff your feet, so you are 4. Volt (V)
negatively charged (and the rug is positively charged). 5. Ohm ()
2. Zero net charge 6. Ohm-meter (m)
3. A positive ion is an atom that has lose one or more electron. 7. Volt (V)
A negative ion is an atom that has gained one or more 8. Newton meter squared/coulomb (Nm2/C)
electron. 9. Newton per coulomb (N/C)
4. Electrons are being transferred from one material to 10. Newton (N)
another. III. K
5 to 7: answers may vary 1. (a) 8.89 ; (b) 12,150 C
2. 0.72 W
II. 3. Parallel: I1 = 0.24 A; I2 = 0.24 A; RT = 50 
1. A; 2. A; 3. D; 4. A; 5. D Series: I1 = I2 = 0.120 A; RT = 200 
III. 4. (a) I1 + I2 = I3
1. 3721.04 m
2. 7.42 x 10-7 C (b) loop 1: 6V- 18I1 + 6I2 = 0; loop 2: 3V – 6I2 +3I3 =0
3. (a) 4.4 x 10-16 N; (b) 2.63 x 1011 m/s2
4. (a) 3.54 x 105 Nm2/C; (b) 3.13 C
5. (a) 0; (b) 0.750 mJ
ANSWER KEY