1a) Measurement is the process of determining the value of a physical quantity or parameter.

It
involves the comparison of the quantity being measured to a standard or reference unit, and the
determination of how many units of the standard are contained in the quantity being measured.
Measurements are used in many different fields, such as science, engineering, medicine, and
commerce, to ensure accuracy and precision in quantifying physical phenomena or materials.
Common examples of measurements include length, mass, time, temperature, and electrical
quantities like voltage and current. Accurate and precise measurements are crucial for making
scientific discoveries, designing and testing new products, monitoring and controlling manufacturing
processes, and ensuring compliance with regulatory standards.

1b) Accuracy of a measurement refers to how close the measured value is to the true or accepted
value of the quantity being measured. It is a measure of how well the measurement system is able
to produce results that are consistent with the actual value of the quantity being measured. In other
words, accuracy is the degree of correctness of a measurement.

Accuracy is typically expressed as a percentage or a fraction of the true value, and can be
determined by comparing the measurement result to a known or reference value. The accuracy of a
measurement can be affected by various factors such as instrument calibration, environmental
conditions, and human error. To ensure accuracy, it is important to use calibrated instruments,
follow standardized measurement procedures, and reduce sources of measurement error.

1c) Precision of a measurement refers to the degree of consistency or reproducibility of the

measurement results when the same quantity is repeatedly measured under similar conditions. It is
a measure of how well the measurement system is able to produce consistent and reliable results.

Precision is typically expressed as the variation or standard deviation of the measured values, and
can be determined by comparing the differences between individual measurements or by analyzing
the distribution of the measured values. A measurement system with high precision produces
measurements that are closely grouped around the mean value, indicating that the random errors
are small.

Precision can be affected by various factors such as instrument sensitivity, resolution, and stability,
as well as environmental conditions and human factors. To ensure precision, it is important to use
instruments with high resolution and stability, minimize sources of variation, and employ statistical
methods to analyze and interpret the measurement data.

1d) Error in measurement refers to the difference between the true value of the quantity being
measured and the value obtained by the measuring instrument or technique used. It is an indication
of how far the measured value is from the actual or true value. Error can be caused by a variety of
factors such as limitations of the measuring instrument, variations in the conditions of the
measurement, and errors in the technique used for the measurement. Errors can be classified as
systematic or random, and can be further categorized as gross, blunder, or instrumental errors. The
reduction of error in measurement is a critical component of the scientific process and is essential
for obtaining accurate and precise data.

1e) Instrumental error is a type of systematic error that occurs due to faults or limitations in the
measuring instrument or equipment used for the measurement. This type of error can affect the
accuracy and precision of the measurement, and can be caused by various factors such as calibration
errors, sensitivity issues, and electrical or mechanical defects in the instrument. Examples of
instrumental errors include zero error, scale error, and hysteresis error. It is important to identify
and minimize instrumental errors to ensure accurate and reliable measurements.

1f) The basic components of a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) are:

1. Electron Gun: This generates a beam of electrons that are accelerated towards the screen.

2. Deflection System: This consists of two sets of plates, one for vertical deflection and one for
horizontal deflection. The plates are connected to the input circuit and can deflect the
electron beam vertically and horizontally to draw the waveform on the screen.

3. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): This is a vacuum tube that contains an electron gun and a
fluorescent screen. When the electron beam strikes the screen, it causes the screen to glow,
thus displaying the waveform.

4. Amplifier: This is used to amplify the input signal before it is applied to the deflection plates.

5. Timebase Generator: This generates a sawtooth waveform that is used to sweep the
electron beam horizontally across the screen.

6. Trigger Circuit: This is used to synchronize the timebase with the input signal so that the
waveform appears steady on the screen.

7. Power Supply: This provides the necessary voltages for the operation of the CRO.

Overall, the CRO converts an electrical signal into a visible waveform on the screen, allowing the user
to observe and analyze the signal's characteristics such as amplitude, frequency, and phase.

1g) Different probes are used in CRO for measuring different types of signals. Some of the commonly
used probes are:

1. Passive voltage probe: It is the most commonly used probe in CRO. It is used to measure
voltage signals. The function of this probe is to convert the voltage of the signal being
measured into an electrical signal that can be displayed on the CRO screen.

2. Current probe: It is used to measure current signals. This probe is used in conjunction with
an oscilloscope to measure AC or DC current in a circuit without having to break the circuit.

3. Differential probe: It is used to measure differential signals, such as signals across two points
in a circuit. This probe is used when the signal to be measured is not referenced to ground.

4. High voltage probe: It is used to measure high voltage signals. This probe is designed to
handle high voltage levels safely, typically up to several thousand volts.
 5. Logic probe: It is used to measure logic signals, such as those generated by digital circuits.
The function of this probe is to detect and display the logic state of a digital signal, either
high or low.

6. Frequency probe: It is used to measure the frequency of signals. This probe is used to
measure the frequency of AC signals, such as those generated by a signal generator.

Overall, the function of probes in CRO is to convert the signals being measured into electrical signals
that can be displayed on the CRO screen.

2a) To design a multirange ammeter using the direct method, we need to select appropriate shunt
resistors for each range. The shunt resistors will be placed in parallel with the d'Arsonval meter to
divert some of the current away from the meter and provide different current paths for different
ranges.

Let's calculate the resistance of the shunt resistors needed for each range:

For a full-scale current of 1 mA, the resistance of the d'Arsonval meter is 10 Ω. Therefore, to
measure currents up to 10 mA, we need a shunt resistor that will carry 9 mA of the current and leave
1 mA for the meter. Using Ohm's law, we can calculate the resistance of the shunt resistor as:

Rshunt = V/I = (0.001 A)/(9 mA) = 0.111 Ω

To measure currents up to 100 mA, we need a shunt resistor that will carry 99 mA of the current and
leave 1 mA for the meter. Using Ohm's law, we can calculate the resistance of the shunt resistor as:

Rshunt = V/I = (0.001 A)/(99 mA) = 0.0101 Ω

To measure currents up to 1 A, we need a shunt resistor that will carry 0.999 A of the current and
leave 1 mA for the meter. Using Ohm's law, we can calculate the resistance of the shunt resistor as:

Rshunt = V/I = (0.001 A)/(0.999 A) = 0.001 Ω

To measure currents up to 10 A, we need a shunt resistor that will carry 9 A of the current and leave
1 mA for the meter. Using Ohm's law, we can calculate the resistance of the shunt resistor as:

Rshunt = V/I = (0.001 A)/(9 A) = 0.000111 Ω

To measure currents up to 100 A, we need a shunt resistor that will carry 99 A of the current and
leave 1 mA for the meter. Using Ohm's law, we can calculate the resistance of the shunt resistor as:

Rshunt = V/I = (0.001 A)/(99 A) = 0.0000101 Ω

Therefore, we need to select shunt resistors with the following values for each range:

10 mA: 0.111 Ω 100 mA: 0.0101 Ω 1 A: 0.001 Ω 10 A: 0.000111 Ω 100 A: 0.0000101 Ω

To switch between the different ranges, we can use a rotary switch with five positions, one for each
range. The switch will connect the appropriate shunt resistor in parallel with the d'Arsonval meter
for each range. We can also include a zero adjustment screw to calibrate the meter to zero before
taking a measurement.

Note that the shunt resistors must be carefully selected to have a low temperature coefficient and
power rating to avoid heating and drift in the measurement. Also, the voltage drop across the shunt
resistor must be taken into account when measuring currents, and the voltage source being
measured must have a low internal resistance compared to the shunt resistor to avoid significant
voltage drop across it.

2b) We can use the voltage divider rule to determine the value of the series resistor needed to
obtain the desired voltage range.

For the 50V range, the meter should have full-scale deflection when the voltage across it is 50V.
Using Ohm's law, we can determine the necessary series resistance as:

R = (V_s - V_m) / I_fsd

where V_s is the voltage range (50V), V_m is the meter voltage at full scale deflection (100µA * 100Ω
= 10mV), and I_fsd is the full scale deflection current (100µA).

R = (50V - 10mV) / 100µA = 499.9kΩ

Therefore, a 499.9kΩ series resistor is needed for the 50V range.

Similarly, for the 10V range:

R = (V_s - V_m) / I_fsd = (10V - 10mV) / 100µA = 99.99kΩ

Therefore, a 99.99kΩ series resistor is needed for the 10V range.

And for the 150V range:

R = (V_s - V_m) / I_fsd = (150V - 10mV) / 100µA = 1.499MΩ

Therefore, a 1.499MΩ series resistor is needed for the 150V range.

Note: The calculated values of resistors may not be commercially available in the exact value, so we
can use the nearest available resistor with a tolerance of 1% or better.

2c) The guaranteed accuracy of the voltmeter is 1% of the full scale reading, which is 400V.

So the maximum error of the voltmeter is:

= 1% of 400V = 0.01 x 400V = 4V

The limiting error is the maximum error expressed as a percentage of the measured value:

= (Maximum Error / Measured Value) x 100% = (4V / 250V) x 100% = 1.6%

Therefore, the limiting error of the voltmeter is 1.6%.

3a) To design an Ayrton shunt for the given current ranges, we can use the indirect method. In this
method, we first determine the value of the shunt resistance required for the highest current range
and then calculate the shunt resistances for the lower ranges using the formula:

R_s2 = (I_range2 / I_range1) x R_s1

where R_s1 is the shunt resistance for the higher current range, I_range1 is the higher current range,
I_range2 is the lower current range, and R_s2 is the shunt resistance for the lower current range.

Let's design the Ayrton shunt for the 10A range first.

For the 10A range, the shunt resistance can be calculated using Ohm's law as:

R_s = V_fsd / I_fsd where V_fsd is the full-scale voltage drop across the meter (50mV for a PMMC
meter with internal resistance of 50Ω) and I_fsd is the full-scale current of the meter (1mA).

R_s = 50mV / 1mA = 50Ω

Therefore, a 50Ω shunt resistance is needed for the 10A range.

Now, we can calculate the shunt resistances for the lower ranges:

For the 5A range: R_s2 = (5A / 10A) x 50Ω R_s2 = 25Ω

Therefore, a 25Ω shunt resistance is needed for the 5A range.

For the 1A range: R_s2 = (1A / 10A) x 50Ω R_s2 = 5Ω

Therefore, a 5Ω shunt resistance is needed for the 1A range.

We can connect these shunt resistors in parallel with the PMMC meter to obtain the desired current
ranges. The shunt resistors must have a high power rating to handle the large currents. We can also
add a switch to select the desired range.

3b) To use the PMMC instrument as an ammeter with a full-scale deflection of 5A, we need to add a
shunt resistance in parallel with the instrument to divert most of the current around the meter coil.

Let R_s be the required value of the shunt resistance. The total current flowing through the circuit is
the sum of the current through the meter and the shunt resistance:

I_total = I_meter + I_shunt

Since the meter has a full-scale deflection of 500µA, the current through the meter at FSD is:

I_meter_FSD = 500µA

The total current at FSD should be 5A, so we can write:

I_total_FSD = 5A

Substituting these values into the equation above, we get:

I_total_FSD = I_meter_FSD + I_shunt_FSD

5A = 500µA + I_shunt_FSD

I_shunt_FSD = 5A - 500µA

I_shunt_FSD = 4.9995A

The current through the shunt resistance at FSD is therefore 4.9995A. The voltage drop across the
shunt resistance is given by Ohm's law as:
V_shunt_FSD = I_shunt_FSD x R_s

Substituting the values we obtained above, we get:

V_shunt_FSD = 4.9995A x R_s

Since we want the meter to have a full-scale deflection for a current of 5A, the voltage drop across
the meter at FSD should be equal to the voltage drop across the shunt resistance at FSD:

V_meter_FSD = V_shunt_FSD

The voltage drop across the meter at FSD is given by Ohm's law as:

V_meter_FSD = I_meter_FSD x R_meter

Substituting the values we obtained earlier, we get:

V_meter_FSD = 500µA x 100Ω

V_meter_FSD = 50mV

Equating this to the voltage drop across the shunt resistance at FSD, we get:

50mV = 4.9995A x R_s

Solving for R_s, we get:

R_s = 50mV / 4.9995A

R_s = 10.001Ω (approximately)

Therefore, a shunt resistance of 10.001Ω (or a close standard value) is required to use the PMMC
instrument as an ammeter with a full-scale deflection of 5A.

3c) The four-wire method is used to measure low resistance values accurately. The circuit diagram
for the four-wire resistance measurement method is shown below:

+-----+-----+---+ +----+-----+

| | | | | | |

V1 Gnd I R Rsub Gnd V2

| | | | | | |

+-----+-----+---+ +----+-----+

Where:

 V1 and V2 are the voltage source terminals

 I is the current source

 R is the standard resistance

 Rsub is the unknown resistance being measured

The principle of operation of the four-wire method is that the voltage drop across the unknown
resistance is measured directly, without considering the voltage drop across the connecting leads.
The current source I is connected to the unknown resistance through the Kelvin contacts, which are
located very close to the unknown resistance. The Kelvin contacts prevent any significant voltage
drop across the connecting leads.

The value of the unknown resistance can be calculated using the following equation:

Rsub = (V2 - V1) * R / V1

where:

 V1 is the voltage measured across the standard resistance R

 V2 is the voltage measured across the unknown resistance Rsub

Therefore, to measure the low value of resistance using the four-wire method, we need to connect
the voltage source across the standard resistance and measure the voltage drop across the standard
resistance and the unknown resistance. Then we can calculate the value of the unknown resistance
using the equation above.

4b) To convert the basic d’Arsonval movement into a multirange DC voltmeter, we need to use the
indirect method of ammeter construction. This involves placing a high-value series resistance in the
circuit to limit the current through the movement and reduce the voltage drop across the internal
resistance. The voltage across the movement is then proportional to the current passing through the
series resistance.

Let's first calculate the full-scale voltage for the basic d'Arsonval movement:

Full scale deflection current = 0.5mA Internal resistance of the movement = 100Ω

Full scale voltage = I × R = 0.5mA × 100Ω = 50mV

To design the multirange voltmeter, we need to determine the value of the series resistance for each
range. We can use the formula:

Rseries = (Range - Full scale voltage) / Full scale deflection current

For a range of 10V:

Rseries = (10V - 50mV) / 0.5mA = 19.9kΩ

For a range of 50V:

Rseries = (50V - 50mV) / 0.5mA = 99.9kΩ

For a range of 250V:

Rseries = (250V - 50mV) / 0.5mA = 499kΩ

For a range of 500V:

Rseries = (500V - 50mV) / 0.5mA = 998kΩ

Therefore, we need to connect a series resistance of 19.9kΩ, 99.9kΩ, 499kΩ, and 998kΩ for voltage
ranges of 10V, 50V, 250V, and 500V, respectively.
4c) To calculate the value of L3, we can use the formula for the impedance of a capacitor, which is
given by:

Zc = 1/(jωC)

where j is the imaginary unit, ω is the angular frequency in radians per second, and C is the
capacitance in farads.

In the balanced condition, the voltage across the bridge between points A and B is zero. This means
that the voltage across R1 is equal to the voltage across R2, and the voltage across C1 is equal to the
voltage across L3. Therefore, we can write:

VR1 = VR2

and

VC1 = VL3

Using Ohm's law, we can write:

VR1 = IR1

and

VR2 = IR2

where IR1 and IR2 are the currents flowing through R1 and R2, respectively.

Using the formula for the impedance of a resistor, we can write:

IR1 = Vin/(R1 + R3)

and

IR2 = Vin/(R2 + Zc)

where Vin is the voltage supplied by the sine-wave generator.

Substituting these expressions into the equation VR1 = VR2, we get:

Vin/(R1 + R3) = Vin/(R2 + Zc)

Simplifying and rearranging, we get:

Zc = (R2 + R3)R1/(R2 - R1)

Substituting the given values, we get:

Zc = (210 + R3)100/(210 - 100)

Zc = (210 + R3)100/110

Zc = 191.82 + 1.82R3

Now, using the formula for the impedance of a capacitor, we can write:

Zc = 1/(jωC2)
Substituting the given values, we get:

1/(j2π×2000×2.9×10^-6) = 191.82 + 1.82R3

Simplifying and rearranging, we get:

R3 = (1/(j2π×2000×2.9×10^-6) - 191.82)/1.82

R3 = -j433.62

Therefore, the value of L3 is:

L3 = |Zc|/ω

L3 = 433.62/(2π×2000)

L3 = 34.56 mH

So the value of L3 is 34.56 mH.