STORAGE DEVICE = A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data).

Three Types of Memory = Cache Memory , Primary Memory or Main Memory, Secondary Memory
CACHE MEMORY =Cache memory is a very highspeed semiconductor memory that can accelerate the
CPU. It acts as a buffer among the CPU and the main memory.
Advantages =Cache memory is faster than main memory. = It consumes less access time as compared
to main memory.
Disadvantages = Cache memory has limited capacity. = It is very expensive.
PRIMARY MEMORY (MAIN MEMORY) =Primary memory holds only those data and commands on
which the computer is presently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when the power is
switched off.
Characteristics of Main Memory =These are semiconductor memories. = It is known as the main
memory. =Usually volatile memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY = This kind of memory is likewise referred to as external memory or non-
volatile. It is slower than the primary memory (main memory). These are used for storing
data/information permanently.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory = It is magnetic and optical memory. = It is called the backup
memory. = It is a non-volatile memory. =Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) =CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. =CPU
performs all types of data processing operations.
Three Components of CPU = Memory or Storage Unit = Control Unit = ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
SYSTEM BOARD (MAIN BOARD OR MOTHERBOARD) =The system board is likewise called the
mainboard or motherboard. The system board controls communications for the whole computer system.
Features of Motherboard =Motherboard varies significantly in helping various types of components.
=Motherboard helps a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
SOFTWARE =Software is another name for programs. Programs are the commands that inform the
computer a way to process a data into the form you want.
There are two types of software = System Software = Application Software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE =The user often interacts with application software. System software allows the
application software to have interaction with the computer hardware.
OPERATING SYSTEM are programs that coordinate computer resources, offer an interface among the
users and the computer, and run applications.
Resources.= These programs coordinate all the computer’s assets which includes memory,
processing, storage, and devices like printers and monitors.
User Interface.= Users engage with application programs and computer hardware
through a user interface.
Application.= These programs load and run applications like word processors and spreadsheets.
Several operating system help multitasking, or the capacity to interchange among applications stored in
memory.
DEVICE DRIVERS are specialized programs designed to allow particular input or output devices to
communicate with the rest of the computer system.
Examples of Device Drivers =Printers =Video Adapters
UTILITIES =also called service programs carry out specific tasks associated with managing
computer resources.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE =Application software is probably defined as end user software.
Three kinds of application software are general-purpose, specialized and mobile apps.
General-Purpose Applications are broadly utilized in almost all profession areas. They are sorts of
programs you need to recognize to be considered computer competent.
Specialized Applications encompass thousands of different programs which can be more narrowly
focused on precise disciplines and occupations.
Mobile Apps or Cellular Applications =are small programs designed for cellular gadgets such
smartphones, tablet computers, and different cellular gadgets.
PEOPLEWARE =The term “peopleware” represents the personnel concerned in system analysis,
programming, computer operations, system maintenance and the like. Systems analysis and design are
the roles of the systems’ analyst.
=Data communications and networking are shifting the world scenario. Today, enterprise and day-to-day
affairs depend upon computer networks and internet mechanisms.
= A network is a set of devices frequently called nodes associated via means
of media links.
Computer communications is the technique of sharing data, programs, and information among one or
more computers.
Connectivity is an idea associated with the use of computer networks to link human beings and
resources.
A computer network is a set of devices associated through links. A node may be computer, printer,
or additional device capable of sending or receiving the data.
Network is a big term which can be very much alike to system. Network is a communication system
which facilitates many users.
Performance may be measured in lots of ways. We can measure it in relations of transit time and
response time. =A. Transit time is described as the quantity of time required for
a message to travel from one device to the other. =B. Response time elapsed among inquiry and
response
The other factors deciding the performance are as follows: = Number of users- =Type of transmission
medium =Capability of connected hardware =Efficiency of software
Reliability is vital as it makes a decision the frequency at which community failure takes place. It also
decides the time taken by the network to recover and its robustness in the catastrophe.
Security refers to safety of data from the unauthorized user/client or access.
DATA COMMUNICATION MODEL
Source - this device generates the data to be transmitted.
Transmitter - a transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a manner to produce
electromagnetic waves or signals.
Transmission System - may be a single transmission line or a compound network connecting source
and destination.
Receiver - accepts the signal from the transmission device and converts it into a form which may be
controlled through the destination device.
Destination - takes the incoming data from the receiver.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NETWORK
1. Peer-to-Peer Networks – is characterized through its simplicity in implementation and operation. All
computer systems are linked to the network have the same relationships to each other and having
access to resources are free for all.
2. Client/Server Networks – is a server-based network. Each client PCs on the network share the
processing and storage workload with the main computer known as server.
3. Server – it serves as warehouse for software program and data information which might be shared by
various users who are connected to it thru cables or antenna.
4. Workstation – usually used by the users. It is a term used for a computer connected to the main
computer called server
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) = Local Area Network, typically referred to as LANs, is privately
owned networks inside a building or campus of up to a limited KM in size.
MAN=A Metropolitan Area network, or MAN (plural: MANs, not MEN) is mainly a larger version of a
LAN and commonly makes use of comparable technology.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) = A Wide Area Network, or WAN, spans a huge geographical area,
regularly a country or continent. It carries of machines meant for running user (i.e., application/s oftware)
programs.
WIRELESS NETWORK (WLAN, WWAN, WMAN) = Mobile computers, which as notebook computers
and personal digital assistants (PDA) are the quickest developing sector of the computer industries.
ORGANIZATIONAL INTERNETS
INTRANETS are private networks within an organization that resemble the Internet.
EXTRANETS are similar to intranets, excepts that extranets connect more than one organization.
FIREWALL is a security system to protect against external threats. It consist of both hardware and
software.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA = Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted via the electromagnetic signals.
GUIDED MEDIA = It is also known as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and restricted in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features: =High Speed =Secure =Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media
1. TWISTED PAIR CABLE =It consists of two separately insulated conductor wires wound about each
other.
Two Types of Twisted Pair
A. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) - This kind of cable has the capability to block interference and does
not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. I
Advantages: =Least expensive = Easy to install =High speed capacity
B. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) - This kind of cable contains of a special jacket to block external
interference..
Advantages: = Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP = Eliminates crosstalk

2. COAXIAL CABLE = It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a
separate insulated shield cover.
Advantages: High Bandwidth = Better noise Immunity = Easy to install and expand =Inexpensive
Disadvantages: Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
3. OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE = It makes use of the idea of reflection of light through a core made up of
glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
Advantages: = Increased capacity and bandwidth =Light weight
Disadvantages: = Difficult to install and maintain= High cost= Fragile
UNGUIDED MEDIA = It is also known as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is needed for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features: = Signal is broadcast through air = Less Secure =Used for larger distances
3 major types of Unguided Media
1. RADIOWAVES = These are easy to generate and might penetrate via buildings.
The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned.
2. MICROWAVES = It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving
antennas need to be well aligned with each other.
3. INFRARED = Infrared waves are used for quick short distance
communication. They can’t penetrate via obstacles.
CHANNEL ORGANIZATION =A network is two or more devices connected to each other through
connecting links. There are two possible methods to connect the devices: = Point-to-Point Connection
= Multipoint Connection
POINT-TO-POINT CONNECTION =A point to-point connection provides a committed link between
two devices. Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission among these two devices only.
MULTIPOINT CONNECTION = A multipoint connection is also referred to a multiplier connection. In
such a connection, more than two devices share a single link.
NETWORKING COMPONENTS = Computer network components are the major components which are
required to install the software. Some significant nnetwork components are NIC, switch, cable, hub,
router, and modem.
NIC (NETWORK INTERFACE CARD) NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with
another computer onto a network. It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s
There are two types of NIC:
1. Wired NIC - The Wired NIC is current within the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data.
2. Wireless NIC - The wireless NIC covers the antenna to acquire the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
HUB = A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among many devices.
SWITCH = A switch is a hardware device that connects many devices on a computer network. A Switch
covers extra advanced features than Hub.
ROUTER =A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It
is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to other network.
Advantages of Router: Security=Reliability=Performance:
MODEM =A modem (Modulator/Demodulator) is a hardware device that permits on the computer to
connect to the internet over the current telephone line.
CABLE =Cable is a transmission media tool that is used for transmitting a signal.
There are three types of cables used in transmission:
Twisted pair cable =Coaxial cable = Fiber-optic cable
Network topology describes the format or appearance of a network that is how the computers, cables,
and other components within a data communication network are interconnected, both physically and
logically.
The network topology are:
1. Bus Topology =A bus topology is a multipoint data communication circuit that makes it quite simple
to control data flow between and among the computers because this configuration permits all stations to
acquire each transmission over the network.
Advantages of Bus Topology= Low-cost cable:=Moderate data speeds: =Familiar technology:=Limited
failure:
Disadvantages of Bus Topology=Extensive cabling: =Difficult troubleshooting:=Signal interference
=Reconfiguration difficult:. =Attenuation:
2. Ring Topology =in a ring topology, every computer is connected to the next computer, with the last
one connected to the first computer. Rings are used in high-performance networks where large

bandwidth is vital, time attractive features such as video and audio.

Advantages of Ring Topology =Network Management:= Product availability:=Cost= Reliable:
Disadvantages of Bus Topology =Difficult troubleshooting=Failure:. = Reconfiguration difficult:= Delay
3.Star Topology =In a star topology, the entire cables run from the computers to a central location
where they are all connected by a device called a hub.
Advantages of Star Topology = Efficient troubleshooting=Network control: =Limited failure:= Familiar
technology= Easily expandable:= Cost effective: =High data speeds:
Disadvantages of Star Topology = A Central point of failure:=Cable:
4.Mesh Topology=every device has a dedicated point to point link to each different device. Dedicated
means that the link conveys traffic only among two devices connects
Advantages of Mesh Topology =Reliable:= Fast Communication: = Easier Reconfiguration:
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology = Cost: =Management: =Efficiency:
5. Tree Topology =A tree topology is the variant of a star. As in a star, nodes in a tree are connected to
a central hub that holds the traffic to the network. =Easily expandable: = Easily manageable:=Error
detection= Limited failure: =Point-to-point wiring:
Disadvantages of Tree Topology =Difficult troubleshooting= High cost: = Failure:=Reconfiguration
difficult.
6. Hybrid Topology=The combination of many different topology is known as Hybrid topology. A
Hybrid topology is a connection among different links and nodes to transfer the data.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology =Reliable:=Scalable:=Flexible. =Effective:
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology =Complex design=Costly Hub: =Costly infrastructure:
STRAIGHT THROUGH VS CROSSOVER CABLE
STRAIGHT THROUGH CABLE =A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in
local area networks to connect a computer to a network hub such as a router.
CROSSOVER CABLE = A crossover Ethernet cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect
computing devices collected directly.
=Usually, straight through cables are primarily used for connecting different devices.
And crossover cables are used for connecting similar devices.
Use straight through Ethernet cable for the following cabling:
Switch to router =Switch to PC or server =Hub to PC or server
Use crossover cables for the following cabling: Switch to switch= Switch to hub = Hub to hub
=Router to router =Router Ethernet port to PC NIC = PC to PC
=The component that controls how computer systems are used nowadays is ethics.
= Ethics are principles of moral conduct. Ethical treatment is critically important to all of us, and we're all
entitled to this ethical treatment.
=Computer ethics is a part of practical philosophy that deals on how computing professionals should
make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. The term “computer ethics” was first
devised by Walter Maner in the mid-1970s
ETHICS AND SOCIETY =The core problems of computer ethics include, but are not limited to:
1. Professional responsibility - pertains to the choices the computer professional makes concerning
customer– professional and professional–professional relationships.
2. Intellectual Property (IP) rights -pertains to respecting established copyright rights as defined by
law.
3. Privacy - refers to the usage of information gathered about individuals and stored in databases.
4. Impact of technology in society - refers to the result of the introduction of technology for society as
a whole, as well as the place computers have in society.
Social responsibility is a responsibility for managers to serve and protect the investments of the other
people involved in the company, not only themselves.
PHILIPPINE E-COMMERCE LAW =In 1999, the Philippines Y2K Law was the first law constructed and
deliberated online by the private sector. Republic Act 8792, signed into law last June 14, 2000
What is Republic Act No. 8792? =An act providing for the recognition and use of electronic
commercial and non-commercial transactions and documents, penalties for unlawful use thereof and for
other purposes. This Act is also known as the “Electronic Commerce Act of 2000″
NETWORK ATTACKS =A network attack can be describe as any method, process or approach used to
maliciously attempt to compromise the security of the network.
Common types of Network Attacks
= Data modification (data manipulation). Refers to a network attack wherein private company data is
interpreted, deleted, or modified.
=Passive Attack or Eavesdropping. Happens when an attacker monitors or listens to network traffic in
transit, and then interprets all unprotected data.
=IP (Internet Protocol) address spoofing. Happens when an attacker assumes the source IP address
of IP packets to make it appear as though the packet originated from a valid IP address.
=Sniffer Attacks. Sniffing pertains to the method utilized by attackers to capture and examine network
traffic.
=Denial of Service (DoS) Attack. Designed at preventing authorized, legitimate users from accessing
services on the network.
=Man-in-the-middle (MITM) Attack. It happens when a hacker eavesdrops on a confident
communication session and monitors, captures and controls the data being sent among the two parties
communicating.
= Active Attack. The attacker attempts to bypass or break into
secured systems.
=Distributed Attack. It is Require that the adversary introduce code, such as Trojan Horse or back-
door program, to a “trusted” component or software that will later be disseminated to many other
companies and users.
= Insider Attack. Involved someone from the inside, like a disgruntled employee, attacking the network
insider attacks can be malicious or no malicious.
=Close-in Attack. It involves someone trying to get physically close to network components, data, and
systems in order to study more about a network
=Phishing Attack. The hacker makes a fake web site that looks precisely like a popular site such as the
SBI bank or PayPal.
=Hijack Attack. A hacker takes over a session between you and another individual and disconnects the
other individual from the communication.
=Spoof Attack. The hacker modifies the source address of the packets he or she is sending so that
they appear to be coming from someone else.
= Buffer Overflow Attack. When the attacker sends more data to an application than is anticipated.
=Exploit Attack. The attacker knows of a security problem within an operating system or a piece of
software and leverage that knowledge by exploiting the vulnerability
Password Attack. The attacker attempts to crack the passwords stored in a network account database
or a password-protected file.
3 Major Types of Password Attacks: = Dictionary Attack = Brute-force Attack =Hybrid Attack
SECURITY= Includes protecting individuals and organizations from theft and danger. It focuses on
protecting information, hardware, and software from unauthorized use, as well as preventing or limiting
the damage from intrusions, sabotage, and natural disasters.
CYBERCRIME = Cybercrime or Computer crime is any criminal offense that includes a computer and a
network. It was lately estimated that cybercrime affects over 400 million people and costs over $400
billion each year
MALICIOUS PROGRAMS = A cracker is a person who makes and disseminates malicious programs.
These programs are called malware, which is short for malicious software.
VIRUSES
Computer Virus has become an umbrella term for numerous types of malicious code. Technically, a
virus is a piece of programming code, usually disguised as something harmless that causes some
unexpected and usually undesirable event.
Three Types of Viruses
1. Boot Sector Virus (system virus== A System Virus performed during computer startup process.
Resides in boot sector of floppy or hard disks that can infect computer even if disk is not boot disk.
2. File virus (program virus) = A Program virus attached itself to program files. Loaded into
memory when program performed and most found in e-mail attachments and web downloads.
3. Macro virus =Macros are commands stored in an application, just like the
word processing or spreadsheet program.
Worms =are destructive computer programs that reside in the active memory of the computer. They
differ from viruses in the way that they can spread over a network without human intervention, sending
copies of themselves to other computers by e-mail or Internet Relay Chat (IRC).
TROJAN HORSES = Trojan can hides inside programs and can make itself seems like a valid program.
Most Trojan Horses are connected to emails.
Unauthorized Access =the usage of a computer or network without permission.
Unauthorized Use =the usage of a computer or its data for unapproved or illegal activities. Use
company computer for personal gains
Install firewall - a Security system which includes hardware and/or software that prevents unauthorized
network access.
Intrusion detection software - examines network traffic, assesses system vulnerabilities, and identifies
intrusions and suspicious behavior.
Access control - states who can access computer and what actions they can take.
Audit trail - records access attempts.
HARDWARE THEFT= is the way of stealing computer equipment. .
HARDWARE VANDALISM= is an act of defacing or destroying computer equipment.
SOFTWARE THEFT= act of stealing or illegally copying software or purposefully erasing programs.
=Software piracy is illegal replication of copyrighted software.
=A license agreement is a right to use software.
Safeguards Against Software Theft = Product activation permits user to input product identification
number online or by phone and receive unique installation identification number.
= Business Software Alliance (BSA) promotes
better understanding of software piracy
problems.
INFORMATION THEFT =Information theft takes place when someone steals personal or confidential
information.
Encryption is the method of changing readable data into unreadable characters to prevent
unauthorized access. Safeguards against information theft.
Encryption key - is a programmed formula that the receiver of the data uses to decrypt ciphertext
Plaintext - in the encryption process, the unencrypted, readable data.
Ciphertext - the encrypted (scrambled) data.
SYSTEM FAILURE = A system failure is the extended malfunction of a computer, also it can cause loss
of hardware, software, data, or information
Electrical power variations - can cause loss of data or loss of equipment.
Noise - an undesirable signal, usually varying rapidly, that is combined with the normal voltage entering
the computer.
Undervoltages - happens when the electrical supply drops below 120 volts, can cause data loss but
usually do not cause equipment damage.
=Brownout - is a prolonged undervoltage.
=Blackout - is a complete power failure.
Overvoltages or power surge – takes place when the incoming electrical power increases significantly
above the normal 120V, can cause instant and permanent damage to hardware.
Spike - a temporary overvoltage happens when the increase in power lasts for less than one
millisecond (one thousandth of a second), lightning bolts cause spikes.
Surge protector - to protect against overvoltages, also called a surge suppressor,
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) - a device that carries surge protection circuits and one or more
batteries that can provide power during a temporary or permanent loss of power.
Two Types of UPS =Standby UPS - occasionally called an offline UPS, changes to
battery power when a problem happens in the power line
Online UPS - always runs off the battery, which provides continuous protection.
INFORMATION PRIVACY =Information privacy pertains to the right of individuals and companies to
disclaim or limit the collection and use of information about them
ELECTRONIC PROFILES = -when you fill out a form such as a magazine subscription, product
warranty registration card, or contest entry form, the merchant that takes the form usually enters it into a
database.
Cookie - is a small text file that a Web server stores on your computer.
Spyware-is a program sited on a computer without the user’s awareness that secretly collects
information about the user.
Adware is utilized by Internet advertising firms to gather information about users’ Web browsing habits
SCAMMING =A kind of fraud which includes stealing money or gaining other benefits by pretending to
be someone else.
Types of Scam = Phishing Scams = Phoney Fraud Alerts =Bogus Job Opportunities = Credit Card
Scam
Tools for Information Security
Authentication =The most common way to recognize someone is through their physical appearance,
but how do we recognize someone sitting behind a computer screen or at the ATM?
Access Control =Once a user has been authenticated, the next step is to confirm that they can only
access the information resources that are appropriate.
Encryption= is a method of encoding data upon its transmission or storage so that only authorized
individuals can read it.
Password Security =So why is using just a simple user ID/password not considered a secure method
of authentication? It turns out that this single-factor authentication is extremely easy to compromise.
Backups =Another important device for information security is a comprehensive backup plan for the
entire organization.
Firewalls = Another approach that an organization should use to increase security on its network is a
firewall. A firewall can exist as hardware or software (or both).
Intrusion Detection Systems =Another device that can be placed on the network for security purposes
is an intrusion detection system, or IDS.
Virtual Private Networks = Utilizing firewalls and other security technologies, organizations can
efficiently protect many of their information resources by making them invisible to the outside world
Physical security is the protection of the actual hardware and networking components that store and
communicate information resources.
Mobile Security =As the usage of mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets proliferate,
organizations must be ready to address the unique security concerns that the use of these devices bring
HEALTH CONCERNS OF COMPUTER USE
1. Musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) - also called repetitive strain injury (RSI) - is an injury or disorder of
the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
2. Computer vision syndrome (CVS) - eye and vision problems.
3. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) - inflammation of nerve that connects forearm to palm.
4. Tendonitis - inflammation of tendon due to repeated motion.
5. Computer addiction - when computer consumes entire social life.
ERGONOMICS =Ergonomics is an applied science devoted to incorporating comfort, efficiency, and
safety into the design of items in the workplace
GREEN COMPUTING =Green computing includes reducing the electricity and environmental waste
while using a computer.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION =Concerned with the structure and behavior of
a computer system that is visible to the user. = It works with the components of a connection
in a system
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE =Concerned with the manner hardware components are
associated together to make a computer system. =It acts as the interface among hardware and
software.
Functional Units of Digital System =A computer organization defines the features and layout of the
different digital system.
Input unit= are utilized by the computer to examine the data
The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area wherein programs are
saved which are running, and that carries information encompasses by the
running programs.
Arithmetic & logical unit = Most of all of the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are
performed within the ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) of the processor.
The control unit is part of a computer's central processing
unit that synchronizes the operation of the processor.
Output Unit =The main function of the output unit is to deliver the processed outcomes to the user
COMPUTER AS MULTILEVEL MACHINE (COMPUTER LEVEL HIERARCHY)
= If a device (machine) is to be able to fixing an extensive variety of problems,it ought to be capable of
executing packages written in different languages, from FORTRAN and C to Lisp and Prolog The only
physical components we have to work with are wires and gates.
LEVEL 6 - THE USER LEVEL =Composed of applications and is the level in which everyone
is most familiar. At this level, we run programs which incudes
word processors, graphics packages, or games.
LEVEL 5 - THE HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE LEVEL =Composed of languages like C, C++, FORTRAN,
Lisp, Pascal, and Prolog. These languages ought to be translated (using either a compiler or and
interpreter) to a language the machine can recognize.
LEVEL 4 - THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE LEVEL Contains few kinds of assembly language. As earlier
mentioned, compiled higher-level languages are first translated to assembly, that is then directly
translated to machine language.
LEVEL 3 - THE SYSTEM SOFTWARE LEVEL Deals with operating system instructions. This level is in
charge of multiprogramming, protecting memory, synchronizing processes, and various other important
functions.
LEVEL 2 - THE INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE (ISA), OR MACHINE LEVEL =Consists of the
machine language known by the specific architecture of the computer system.
LEVEL 1 - THE CONTROL LEVEL = A control unit makes sure that instructions are decoded and
executed properly and that data is moved where and when it should be.
LEVEL 0 - THE DIGITAL LOGIC LEVEL = The physical components of the computer system: the
gates and wires.
EVOLUTION OF MULTILEVEL MACHINES (HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)
=The evolution of computing machinery has taken place over numerous centuries. The evolution of
computer systems is generally labeled into different generations according to the technology of the era.
GENERATION ZERO: MECHANICAL CALCULATING
MACHINES (1642 - 1945) =Calculating Clock - Wilhelm Schickard (1592 - 1635). = Pascaline - Blaise
Pascal (1623 - 1662). = Difference Engine - Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871), also designed but never
built the Analytical Engine. =Punched card tabulating machines - Herman Hollerith (1860 - 1929)

MOORE’S LAW (1965) =Gordon Moore, Intel founder = “The density of transistors in an integrated
circuit will double every year.”
ROCK’S LAW = Arthur Rock, Intel financier = “The cost of capital equipment to build semiconductors
will double every four years.” = In 1968, a new chip plant cost about $12,000.
JOHN VON NEUMANN – is a Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, computer scientist and
polymath. =On the ENIAC, all programming was done at the digital logic level.
THE ALU SUBSYSTEM = ALU means carrying out calculations upon the data.
The ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) performs mathematical operations (+, -, x, /, …) logic operations (=, <,
>, and, or, not, ...)
STRUCTURE OF THE ALU
Registers: = Very fast local memory cells, that holds operands of operations and intermediate results.
ALU circuitry: =Contains an array of circuits to do mathematical/logic operations.
Bus: = Data path interconnecting the registers to the ALU circuitry
THE CONTROL UNIT =Program is stored in memory as machine language
instructions, in binary =The task of the control unit is to execute programs
by repeatedly:
MACHINE LANGUAGE INSTRUCTIONS = A machine language instruction consists of:
=Operation code, tells which operation to perform
=Address field(s), tells the memory addresses of the values on which the operation
executes.
STRUCTURE OF THE CONTROL UNIT
=PC (Program Counter): stores the address of next instruction to fetch
= IR (Instruction Register): stores the instruction fetched from memory
= Instruction Decoder: Decodes instruction and activates necessary circuitry

NUMBER SYSTEM = Number systems that we now use has provided mathematicians, engineers and
scientist with a big benefit over those past civilizations.
Four Types of Number Systems:
1. Decimal Number System= It is based upon the ten fingers of man. This system is nothing more than
a code where each distinct quantity is assigned a symbol.
=The following digits are used: Arabic numerals=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Also known as the base-10
number system
2. Binary Number System =A binary method of notation can be used to describe the settings of
binary components. It has no fractional part and the place values in the binary systems are the powers
of base 2
3. Octal Number System =Octal number system was adopted because of the difficulty of dealing with
long strings of binary 0s and 1s in converting them into decimals.
4. Hexadecimal Number System=It provides another convenient and simple method for expressing
values represented by binary numerals.
= This system is a combination of the ten numbers, 0 to 9, and a choice of six letters of the alphabet (A
through F) which are also treated as numbers.
ASCIl=The most widely used alphanumeric code is American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). ASCII is a 7-bit code that has 128 (27) possible codes.
ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange. IISCII was developed to support
Indian languages on computer.
Unicode is an international coding system designed to be used with different language scripts. Each
character or symbol is assigned a unique numeric value, largely within the framework of ASCII
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM =The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal
number system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9.
DECIMAL TO BINARY = Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the
number by 2 while recording the remainder.
DECIMAL TO OCTAL =Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the
number by 8 while recording the remainder.
DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL = Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of
the number by 16 while recording the remainder.
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM = Characteristics of the binary number system are as
follows −
= Uses two digits, 0 and 1 ,,= Also called as base 2 number system