A Special Book for

Food Safety Officer

Food Microbiology Food Chemistry Food Safety

Food Preservation FSSAI FSS Rules & Regulation

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 A Special Book for
Food Safety Officer

A Special Book for Food Safety Officer Page 1

 PREFACE

I am pleased to launch 1st edition of “A Special Book for Food Safety

Officer”. This book has been developed keep in mind the Food
Safety and Standard Authority of India’s Exams.

This book serves as a best book for Central Food Safety

Officer, Technical Officer & Technical Assistant Director & it covers
subject areas such as, Food Safety Standards Act,2006, its Rules &
Regulations, Regulatory Authorities & their function, National &
International Standards, Food Microbiology, Food Chemistry and
Food Preservation.

Food Safety Officers are the frontline officers engaged in ensuring

food safety compliance to protect the health & wellbeing of
consumers.
Food safety Officers, Technical Officers and Technical Assistant
Director Exam’s aspirants are advised to study all chapters covered
in this book. For more information to visit FSSAI’s Official Website.

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 Copyright Disclaimer

Copyright © 2021 by Swa Education

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including
photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of
brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-
commercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write
to the publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions Coordinator,” at the
address below:

Publisher Detail
Swa Education
Hauz Khas, New Delhi
Delhi 110016
www.swaeducation.com
E- mail: info@swaeducation.com

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 Important Exams
This Book covers the syllabus of many exam such
as.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT EXAM

1. Central Food Safety Officer
2. Technical Officer
3. Assistant Director Technical

STATE GOVERNMENT EXAM

1. State Food Safety Officer
TN Food Safety Officer
Tripura Food Safety Officer

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 SYLLABUS
CENTRAL FOOD SAFETY OFFICER, TECHNICAL OFFICER
CBT -1 /CBT-2
PART A: General Aptitude and Computer Literacy - indicative syllabus.

Subject No. Of Question

GENERAL APTITUDE
General Intelligence: would include questions of both verbal and non-verbal type 10
for e.g. Questions on analogies, similarities and difference, space visualization,
problems solving, analysis, judgement, decision making visual memory,
discriminating relationship concepts, arithmetical reasoning, verbal and figure
classification, arithmetical number series.

General Awareness: Questions to test the ability of the candidates General 10

Awareness of the environment around him/her and its application to society. Also
testing knowledge of currents events and matters of every day observation as may
be expected of an educated person. The test will include questions relating to India
and neighboring countries specially pertaining to History, Culture, Geography,
Economic scene, General Polity including Indian Constitution, sports and
scientific research etc. These questions will be such that they do not require a
special study of any discipline.

English language Comprehension: Would test the candidates understanding of 10

the English language its vocabulary, grammar etc. would include questions on
comprehension, on word substitution, synonyms and antonyms, spelling error,
spotting errors in sentences, grammar noun, pronoun, adjectives, verbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, use of ‘a ‘an” and ‘the’, idioms And phrases etc, Parts
of speech.

COMPUTER LITERACY
Computer Literacy: Candidate is expected to be able to handle all regular office work 10
on computers. Knowledge of MS office (word, excel, power point) including basic
commands, Google Doc, emails, digital signature, Commonly use social media handles
(Whattsapp, FB, Twitter, etc.). would be tested.

Total 40x4 =160marks

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PART B: Functional Knowledge- Indicative Syllabus
Subject No. Of Question
Indian and International Food Laws (An Overview) 20
• Food Safety and Standards Act of India, 2006 Provision, definitions and
different sections of the Act and implementation.
• FSS Rules and Regulations
• Overview of other relevant national bodies (e.g. APEDA, BIS EIC,
MPEDA, Spice Board etc.)
•International Food Control Systems/Laws, Regulations and
Standards/Guidelines with regard to Food Safety–
Overview of CODEX Alimentarius. Commission (History, Members,
Standard setting and Advisory mechanisms: JECFA, JEMRA, JMPR):
WTO agreements (SPS/TBT).
• Important national and international accreditation bodies
FSSAI - Role, Functions, Initiatives (A General Understanding) 20
• Genesis and Evolution of FSSAI
• Structure and Functions of Food Authority
• Overview of systems and processes in Standards, Enforcement,
Laboratory ecosystem, Imports, Third Party Audit etc.
• Promoting safe and wholesome Food (Eat Right India, Food
Fortification, SNF, Clean Street Food Hub, RUCO and various other
social and behavioural change initiatives)
• Training and capacity building
• Role of State Food Authorities
Subject Matter Knowledge 40
Principles of Food Preservation, Processing and Packaging
• Food Processing Operations, Principles, Good Manufacturing Practices
• Overview of food preservation methods and their under lying principles
including novel and emerging methods/principles
• Overview of food packaging methods and principles including novel
packaging materials/techniques
Principles and Basics of Food Chemistry and their role in Human
Nutrition
• Structure and functions of macro-and micronutrients
• Role of macro and micronutrients in human nutrition
• Over view of food additives with respect to their technological
functions
• Over view of anti-nutritional factors and their removal from foods
• Over view of enzymes as food processing aids
• Over view of nutraceuticals and functions foods
• Overview of food contaminants and adulterants and their effects on
human health
• Food allergens and allergen city
• Importance of diet in alleviating health risks, especially
noncommunicable diseases
Food Microbiology & General principles of Food Hygiene
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 • General principles of food microbiology and over view of food borne
pathogens
• Over view of sources of microorganisms in food chain (raw materials, water,
air, equipment etc.) and microbiological quality of foods
• Microbial food spoilage and Food borne diseases General principles and
techniques in microbiological examination of foods
• Overview of beneficial microorganisms and their role in food processing and
human nutrition
• General principles of food safety management systems including traceability
and recall – sanitation, HACCP, Good production and processing practices
(GMP,GAP,GHP, GLP, BAP, etc.)

General concepts of Food Analysis and Testing

• Fundamentals of field level and laboratory sampling with reference to
importance of statistical tools.
• Over view of basic/classical methods of food analysis
• Over view of modern analytical techniques including mass spectrometry and
molecular techniques.
• Principles of Quality assurance and Quality control with reference to food
analysis and testing.

Total 80x4= 320 marks

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 CONTENTS
S. NO. CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.
1 Food Safety And Standards Act,2006 11-72

2 Food Safety And Standards Authority of India 73-84

3 Food Safety Rules & Regulation 85-152

4 Food Safety Ecosystem in India 153-159

5 Food Safety Officer 160-163

6 Social and Behavioural Changes (FSSAI Initiatives) 164-186

7 International Food Standards and Accreditation 187-220

8 Food & Food Categorization 221-242

9 Food Labelling & Packaging 243-262

10 Food Safety & Hygiene 263-285

11 Food Additives 286-297

12 Food Testing & Analysis 298-326

13 Modern Analytical Techniques 327-335

14 Food Safety Audit & Inspection 336-356

15 Food Alert & Food Recall 357-371

16 Microorganisms and their Role in Food 372-387

17 Food Contamination & Disease 388-417

18 Chemistry of Food 418-440

19 Enzymes in Food 441-454

20 Food Nutrition 455-466

21 Food Processing 467-507

22 Food Preservation 508-537

23 Proximate Analysis of Foods Products 538-555

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 SOME IMPORTANT ABBREVIATION RELATED TO FSSAI

S. No. ABBREVIATION STANDS FOR

1 AGMARK Agricultural Produce Grading and Marking
2 AO Adjudicating Officer
3 APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority
4 BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
5 CAC Central Advisory Committee
6 CEO Chief Executive Officer
7 CFL Central Food Laboratory
8 CFS Commissioner Food Safety
9 CLA Central Licensing Authority
10 DART Detect Adulteration with Rapid Test
11 DO Designated Officer
12 EOI Expression of Interest
13 FA Food Analyst
14 FBO Food Business Operator
15 FDA Food & Drug Administration
16 FFRC Food Fortification Resource Centre
17 FICS Food Import Clearance System
18 FLRS Food Licensing Registration System
19 FoSCoRIS Food Safety Compliance through Regular
Inspections and Sampling
20 FoSTaC Food Safety Training and Certification
21 FoSCoS Food Safety Compliance System
22 FSS Act Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006
23 FSSAI Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
24 FSO Food Safety Officer
25 FSKAN Food Safety Knowledge and Assimilation Network
26 FSMS Food Safety Management System
27 FSM Food Safety Mitra
28 FSS Food Safety Supervisor
29 HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point

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 30 HFSS High Fat Salt & Sugar
31 GAP Good Agricultural Practices
32 GFSP Global Food Safety Partnership
33 GHP Good Hygiene Practices
34 GM Genetically Modified-
35 GMP Good Manufacturing Practices
36 INfoLNET Indian Food Laboratory Network
37 LSG Local Self Government
38 MDM Mid-Day Meal
39 NABL National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Calibration Laboratories
40 NetProFan Network of Professionals of Food & Nutrition
41 NFL National Food Laboratory
42 NLRP National Level Resource Person
43 PA Product Approval
44 PFA Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
45 QA Quality Assurance
46 QC Quality Control
47 RBIS Risk Based Inspection System
48 RBIS Risk Based Inspection System
49 RFP Request for Proposal
50 RUCO Repurpose Used Cooking Oil
51 SAC State Advisory Committee
52 SOP Standard Operating Procedures
53 SHG Self Help Group
54 TOT Training of Trainers
55 TP Training Partners
56 WHO World Health Organization

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CHAPTER 01
FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARD ACT,2006

BACKGROUND
Prior to Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, there was multiplicity of food laws, food
related legislation was fragmented and there was lack of uniformity in approach and
effect. Moreover, there were various Ministries/ organizations/agencies for standard
setting and enforcement of different sectors of food. As a result, there were varied
quality/safety standards with rigidness. The existing laws on food failed to match the
rapid evolution of food related technologies and advancement in production, storage,
distribution, sale, etc. There were few laboratories with poor laboratory infrastructure
coupled with thin spread of manpower, and other resources non-conducive to
effective fixation of standards. There was poor information dissemination to consumer
level.

In this background that the need for a single law with single
regulatory body at national level on all food safety and related matters was felt to
ensure holistic approach, uniformity and effective implementation. The Central
Government declared its intention in this behalf in the Budget Speech in 2002. The
work pertaining to consolidation of various Acts/ Orders governing food was entrusted
to the Ministry of Food Processing Industries, who piloted the Food Safety and
Standards Bill, 2005 which was finally enacted as the Food Safety and Standards Act,
2006 by the Parliament and the same was published in the Gazette of India
(Extraordinary) Part, Section 1 on 24th August, 2006 after receiving assent of the
President on 23rd August, 2006.
The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 was enacted as a consolidated Act and the
following food acts and orders were repealed with its enactment:

1. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

2. Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. Meat Food Products Order, 1973
4. Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order 1998
6. Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992

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7. Essential commodities Act,1955
8. The solvent Extraction oil, De oiled Meal and Edible Flour (control) order,1967.

These acts or orders were repealed after commencement of FSS Act, 2006.
FSSAI was consequently established in 2008 but work within the Food Authority
effectively began in 2011 after its Rules and key Regulations were notified.

MINISTRY OF LAW AND JUSTICE (Legislative Department)

The following Act of Parliament received the assent of the President

on 23rd August, 2006.

Food Safety and Standards Act,2006

❖ SALIENT FEATURES OF THE FSS ACT, 2006

1.The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 marks a shift from a multi-level to a single
line of control with focus on self-compliance rather than a pure regulatory regime. It
envisages regulation of manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import of food to
ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption and for
consumers connected therewith. It provides for establishment of FSSAI as a single
reference point for all matters relating to food safety, standards and
wholesome/nutritious foods, regulations and enforcement.

2.The Act extends to the whole of India and provides for uniform licensing/ registration
regime across the Centre and the States. It also offers Integrated response to strategic
issues like Novel foods, genetically modified foods, international trade etc. Some of
salient features of Act may be summarized as under:
• Decentralisation of licensing for food products. It empowers States to issue
Registration and State License.

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• Effective, transparent and accountable regulatory framework. It has well defined
functions, powers and responsibilities of various food authorities, bodies and
committees.
• Emphasises on gradual shift from regulatory regime to self-compliance.
• Regulation of food imported in the country
• Provision for food recall.
• Surveillance
• Envisages large network of food laboratories.
• New justice dispensation system for fast track disposal of cases.
• Provision for graded penalties.
• Consistency between domestic and international food policy measures without
reducing safeguards to public health and consumer protection.

The act emphasizes on training and awareness program regarding food

safety for business operators, consumers and regulators.

OBJECTIVES, MANDATE AND SCOPE OF FSS ACT,2006

The objective of the FSS Act, 2006 is to make available safe and wholesome food to
the public, in keeping with changing needs and requirements. The Act also aimed to
establish Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), as the single reference
point for all matters relating to FSS Act, Regulations and enforcement, by moving from
multi- level, multi-departmental control to a single line of command.

THE MAJOR AREAS OF FSS ACT WHICH HAS COME FROM PFA (Prevention of Food
Adulteration) ACT ARE,

1. Food Safety is the primary responsibility of the Food Business Operator (FBO) as
it knows best how the food is manufactured and how safety can be
compromised.

2. Risk assessment must form the basis of standard setting. The regulator needs to
monitor the latest scientific development in the food sector, emerging safety
issues across the world and anticipated safety risk before they actually hit.

3. FBOs at various stages in the food chain need to adhere to applicable safety and
hygienic practices as contamination can occur at any point in the food chain.
Certification of the food safety processes or safety audits become important to
ensure food safety.

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 4. Transparency in setting standards wherein stakeholders are provided with
reasonable time to give suggestions on proposed regulations as well as sufficient
time to FBOs to make necessary changes in their processes to adopt the new
regulations.

5. FBOs have a clear means of contesting the findings of government food

laboratories by appealing to accredited referral laboratories.

All kinds of food, whether unprocessed/semi-

processed/processed, are covered under the scope of the FSS Act. It also includes all
kinds of substances and water that is used in the preparation of food. It is important
to mention that, the Act considers live animals or products of agriculture, horticulture
or animal husbandry as food only when it has already passed on from the hands of a
farmer.Thus all activities throughout the food value chain, after primary production
through distribution to retail and catering are under the ambit of the Act.
The Act does not discriminate between a small hawker or a huge
FBO and makes it mandatory for everyone handling food to keep it safe and fit for
human consumption. Therefore, this Act is applicable to every person that is in the food
business.

FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS ACT,2006 AT A GLANCE:

The FSS Act, 2006 is organised through a total of 12 Chapters. A brief description of
these chapters are given below:

Chapter-l: Preliminary
This section consists of the Short Title, extent and commencement, Declaration as to
expediency of control by the Union, and Definitions.

Chapter-II: Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

This Chapter, containing Sections 4to 17, provides for establishment of the Food Safety
and Standards Authority of India, terms and conditions of appointment and removal
of Chairman and the members and their terms of office and other conditions, officers
and other employees of the Food Authority, Functions of the Chief Executive Officer,
establishment of the Central Advisory Committee and its functions, establishment of
Scientific Panels and the Scientific Committee and the procedure for the Scientific
Committee and the Scientific Panels. The chapter further details the duties and
functions of the Food Authority to regulate and monitor the manufacture, processing,
distribution, sale and import of food. It also provides for the procedures for conduct of
meetings of the Food Authority, transaction of business at meetings and procedure of
voting by Members, etc.

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Chapter-III: General Principles of Food Safety
Comprising only Section 18, this chapter contains provisions on the general principles
of Food Safety, factors to be taken into account while framing regulations or specifying
the Standards under the Act, and the principles to be observed in administration of the
Act by the Central Government, the Food Authority, the State Government and other
agencies, while enforcing or implementing the provisions of the Act. The said
authorities shall be guided by the general principles of Food Safety such as risk analysis,
risk assessment, risk management, risk communication, transparent public
consultation, protection of consumer interests, etc. It empowers the Food Authority
to notify other general principles from time to time as per the requirements.
Further, it stipulates that the provisions of this Act shall not apply to any farmer, or
fisherman or farming operations or crops or livestock or aquaculture, and supplies
used or produced in farming or products of crops produced by a farmer at farm level
or a fisherman in his operations.

Chapter -IV: General provisions as to articles of food

Comprising of Sections 19 to 24, this chapter stipulates that no article of food shall
contain contaminants, naturally occurring toxic substances or toxins or hormone or
heavy metals, insecticides, pesticides, veterinary drugs residues, antibiotic residues,
solvent residues, pharmacological active substances and micro-biological counts in
excess of such quantities as may be specified by the regulations. Section 19 prohibits
use of food additives or processing aids other than those prescribed under the
Standards/ regulations. Section 22 places a restriction on various categories of food,
which are not in accordance with the standards prescribed under the regulations.
Section 23 deals with the subject of packaging and labelling requirements of food.
Section 24 places restrictions on misleading advertisements and prohibits use of unfair
trade practices. It also provides that packaged food product shall be marked and
labelled as specified. It prohibits deceptive practices to mislead the public regarding
the standards, quality, quantity, usefulness or giving of any guarantee of the efficacy
that is not based on an adequate or scientific justification thereof.

Chapter- V: Provisions relating to import

Containing only Section 25, this chapter mandates that all imports of articles of food
are subject to the provisions of the Act. It provides that no person shall import into
India any article of food in contravention of the Act or any rules and regulations made
thereunder. It also provides that the Central Government shall, while prohibiting,
restricting or otherwise regulating import of articles of food under the Foreign Trade
(Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 follows the standards laid down by the Food
Authority under the provisions of this Act.

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Chapter -VI: Special responsibilities as to food safety
This chapter, containing Sections 26 to 28, provides for the responsibilities of the food
business operator to ensure that the articles of food satisfy the requirements of the
Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder at all stages of production,
processing, import, distribution and sale within the businesses under his control.
Section 27 deals with the liabilities of the manufacturers, distributors and sellers of
articles of food if they do not conform to the food safety requirements of the Act and
the rules and regulations made thereunder Section 28 spells out the Food Recall
procedures and the responsibilities of a Food Business Operator to withdraw the Food
from market in case the same is non-compliant with the provisions of the Act and the
regulations framed thereunder.

Chapter -VII: Enforcement of the act

Sections 29 to 42 of the Act comprised in this Chapter deal with the enforcement
related provisions including the responsibilities of the Food Authority and the State
Food Authorities. Provisions for appointment of Commissioner of Food Safety of the
State, licensing and registration of food business, improvement notices, prohibition
orders, emergency prohibition notices and orders, notification of food poisoning,
appointment of the Designated Officer, Food Safety Officer and their powers,
liabilities, powers of search, seizure, prosecution and procedure thereof, and the
provision fora purchaser to have the food analysed are contained in these sections.

Chapter-VIII: Analysis of food

Sections 43 to 47 included in this chapter contain the provisions relating to recognition
and accreditation of laboratories, research institutions and referral food laboratories,
food analyst, functions of the food analyst and the provisions for
sampling and analysis of food.

Chapter - IX: Offences and penalties

This chapter, consisting of Sections 48 to 67, deals with various offences and penalties
for selling food not of the nature or substance or quality demanded, sub-standard
food, misbranded food, misleading advertisements, for food containing extraneous
matter, for unhygienic or unsanitary processing, for possessing adulterant. The chapter
contains provisions for punishment for unsafe food, for interfering with seized items,
for false information, for obstructing or impersonating
a Food Safety Officer, for carrying out a business without license and compensation in
case of injury or death of a consumer.

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Chapter -X: Adjudication and food safety appellate tribunal
Comprising of Sections 68 to 80, this chapter authorises the state governments to
notify the adjudicating officer in the district. It defines the powers to compound
offences, the powers of the designated officers, establishment of the Food Safety
Appellate Tribunals and the procedures and powers of the Tribunal. The chapter bars
the jurisdiction of courts in the matters in which the adjudicating officer or Tribunal is
empowered by the act. The act provides that the courts can try the cases summarily.
The Act also provides for the special courts and public prosecutors for the offences
related to the food.

Chapter -XI: Finance, Accounts, Audit and Reports

The Chapter contains Sections 81 to 84 requiring the Food Authority to prepare an
Annual Budget showing the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Food Authority.
The Central Government shall make grants of such some of money as it
deems fit. It provides that the Food Authority shall maintain proper accounts and an
annual statements of account. The Food Authority is required to prepare an Annual
Report, which is to be laid before each House of Parliament.

Chapter -XII: Miscellaneous

This chapter, containing Sections 85 to 101, empowers the Central Government to
issue directions to Food Authority, State Governments and obtain reports and returns.
The chapter gives over riding effect of this Act over all other food related laws. It
empowers the Central Government to make rules and the Food Authority to make
regulations. The chapter also gives State Governments powers to make rules and the
procedure for rewards and the procedure for recovery of penalties imposed.

SCHEDULES:
There are two Schedules given at the end of the Act. While the First Schedule contains
the five zones into which all the States and UTs have been grouped, the Second
Schedule contains the Act and various orders which stand repealed with
the coming into force of this Act.

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 FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS ACT,2006

CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY
SECTION 1. Short title, extent and commencement
(1) This Act may be called the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act and any
reference in any such provision to commencement of this Act shall be construed as a reference to
the coming into force of that provision.

SECTION 2. Declaration as to expediency of control by the Union.

It is hereby declared that it is expedient in the public interest that the Union should take under its
control the food industry.

SECTION 3. Definitions.
(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, -

(a) “adulterant” means any material which is or could be employed for making the food unsafe or
sub-standard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter.

(b) “advertisement” means any audio or visual publicity, representation or pronouncement made by
means of any light, sound, smoke, gas, print, electronic media, internet or website and includes
through any notice, circular, label, wrapper, invoice or other documents.

(c) “Chairperson” means the Chairperson of the Food Authority.

(d) “claim” means any representation which states, suggests, or implies that a food has particular
qualities relating to its origin, nutritional properties, nature, processing, composition or otherwise.

(e) “Commissioner of Food Safety” means the Commissioner of Food Safety appointed under section
30.

(f) “consumer” means persons and families purchasing and receiving food in order to meet their
personal needs. (g) “contaminant” means any substance, whether or not added to food, but which is
present in such food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry,
animal husbandry or veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment,
packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination
and does not include insect fragments, rodent hairs and other extraneous matter.

(h) “Designated Officer” means the officer appointed under section 36.

(i) “extraneous matter” means any matter contained in an article of food which may be carried from
the raw materials, packaging materials or process systems used for its manufacture or which is added
to it, but such matter does not render such article of food unsafe.

(j) “Food” means any substance, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, which is
intended for human consumption and includes primary food to the extent defined in clause (zk),

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genetically modified or engineered food or food containing such ingredients, infant food, packaged
drinking water, alcoholic drink, chewing gum, and any substance, including water used into the food
during its manufacture, preparation or treatment but does not include any animal feed, live animals
unless they are prepared or processed for placing on the market for human consumption, plants,
prior to harvesting, drugs and medicinal products, cosmetics, narcotic or psychotropic substances :
Provided that the Central Government may declare, by notification in the Official Gazette, any other
article as food for the purposes of this Act having regards to its use, nature, substance or quality.

(k) “food additive” means any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself or used as a typical
ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food
for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation,
treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food results, or may be reasonably
expected to result (directly or indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or
otherwise affecting the characteristics of such food but does not include “contaminants” or
substances added to food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities.

(l) “Food Analyst” means an analyst appointed under section45.

(m) “Food Authority” means the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India established under
section 4.

(n) “Food business” means any undertaking, whether for profit or not and whether public or private,
carrying out any of the activities related to any stage of manufacture, processing, packaging, storage,
transportation, distribution of food, import and includes food services, catering services, sale of food
or food ingredients.

(o) “food business operator” in relation to food business means a person by whom the business is
carried on or owned and is responsible for ensuring the compliance of this Act, rules and regulations
made thereunder.

(p) “food laboratory” means any food laboratory or institute established by the Central or a State
Government or any other agency and accredited by National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Calibration Laboratories or an equivalent accreditation agency and recognised by the Food Authority
under section 43.

(q) “food safety” means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its
intended use.

(r) “food safety audit” means a systematic and functionally independent examination of food safety
measures adopted by manufacturing units to determine whether such measures and related results
meet with objectives of food safety and the claims made in that behalf.

(s) “Food Safety Management System” means the adoption Good Manufacturing Practices, Good
Hygienic Practices, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point and such other practices as may be
specified by regulation, for the food business.

(t) “Food Safety Officer” means an officer appointed under section 37.

(u) “hazard” means a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential
to cause an adverse health effect.

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(v) “import” means bringing into India any article of food by land, sea or air.

(w) “improvement notice” means a notice issued under section 32 of this Act.

(x) “infant food” and “infant milk substitute” shall have the meanings assigned to them in clauses (f)
and (g) of subsection (l) of section 2 of the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods
(Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992(41 of 1992), respectively.

(y) “ingredient” means any substance, including a food additive used in the manufacture or
preparation of food and present in the final product, possibly in a modified form.

(z) “label” means any tag, brand, mark, pictorial or other descriptive matter, written, printed,
stencilled, marked, embossed, graphic, perforated, stamped or impressed on or attached to
container, cover, lid or crown of any food package and includes a product insert.

(za) “licence” means a licence granted under section 31.

(zb) “local area” means any area, whether urban or rural, notified by the Commissioner of Food
Safety, to be a local area for the purposes of this Act.

(zc) “manufacture” means a process or adoption or any treatment for conversion of ingredients into
an article of food, which includes any sub-process, incidental or ancillary to the manufacture of an
article of food.

(zd) “manufacturer” means a person engaged in the business of manufacturing any article of food for
sale and includes any person who obtains such article from another person and packs and labels it
for sale or only labels it for such purposes.

(ze) “Member” means Member of the Food Authority and includes the Chairperson.

(zf) “misbranded food” means an article of food –

if it is purported, or is represented to be, or is being –

(i) offered or promoted for sale with false, misleading or deceptive claims either.

(a) upon the label of the package, or

(b) through advertisement, or

(ii) sold by a name which belongs to another article of food. or

(iii) offered or promoted for sale under the name of a fictitious individual or company as the
manufacturer or producer of the article as borne on the package or containing the article or the label
on such package. or

(B) if the article is sold in packages which have been sealed or prepared by or at the instance of the
manufacturer or producer bearing his name and address but -

(i) the article is an imitation of, or is a substitute for, or resembles in a manner likely to deceive,
another article of food under the name of which it is sold, and is not plainly and conspicuously
labelled so as to indicate its true character. or
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(ii) the package containing the article or the label on the package bears any statement, design or
device regarding the ingredients or the substances contained therein, which is false or misleading in
any material particular, or if the package is otherwise deceptive with respect to its contents. or

(iii) the article is offered for sale as the product of any place or country which is false. or

(C) if the article contained in the package -

(i) contains any artificial flavouring, colouring or chemical preservative and the package is without a
declaratory label stating that fact or is not labelled in accordance with the requirements of this Act
or regulations made thereunder or is in contravention thereof. or

(ii) is offered for sale for special dietary uses, unless its label bears such information as may be
specified by regulation, concerning its vitamins, minerals or other dietary properties in order
sufficiently to inform its purchaser as to its value for such use. or

(iii) is not conspicuously or correctly stated on the outside thereof within the limits of variability laid
down under this Act.

(zg) “notification” means a notification published in the Official Gazette.

(zh) “package” means a pre-packed box, bottle, casket, tin, barrel, case, pouch, receptacle, sack, bag,
wrapper or such other things in which an article of food is packed.

(zi) “premises” include any shop, stall, hotel, restaurant, airline services and food canteens, place or
vehicle or vessel where any article of food is sold or manufactured or stored for sale.

(zj) “prescribed” means prescribed by rules made by the Central Government or the State
Government, as the case may be under this Act.

(zk) “primary food” means an article of food, being a produce of agriculture or horticulture or animal
husbandry and dairying or aquaculture in its natural form, resulting from the growing, raising,
cultivation, picking, harvesting, collection or catching in the hands of a person other than a farmer or
fisherman.

(zl) “prohibition order” means an order issued under section 33 of this Act.

(zm) “risk”, in relation to any article of food, means the probability of an adverse effect on the health
of consumers of such food and the severity of that effect, consequential to a food hazard.

(zn) “risk analysis”, in relation to any article of food, means a process consisting of three components,
i. e. risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.

(zo) “risk assessment” means a scientifically based process consisting of the following steps:

(i) hazard identification,

(ii) hazard characterisation.

(iii) exposure assessment, and

(iv) risk characterisation.

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(zp) “risk communication” means the interactive exchange of information and opinions throughout
the risk analysis process concerning risks, risk-related factors and risk perceptions, among risk
assessors, risk managers, consumers, industry, the academic community and other interested
parties, including the explanation of risk assessment findings and the basis of risk management
decisions.

(zq) “risk management” means the process, distinct from risk assessment, of evaluating policy
alternatives, in consultation with all interested parties considering risk assessment and other factors
relevant for the protection of health of consumers and for the promotion of fair trade practices, and,
if needed, selecting appropriate prevention and control options.

(zr) “sale” with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, means the sale of any article of
food, whether for cash or on credit or by way of exchange and whether by wholesale or retail, for
human consumption or use, or for analysis, and includes an agreement for sale, an offer for sale, the
exposing for sale or having in possession for sale of any such article, and includes also an attempt to
sell any such article.

(zs) “sample” means a sample of any article of food taken under the provisions of this Act or any rules
and regulations made thereunder.

(zt) “specified by regulations” means specified by regulations made by the Food Authority.

(zu) “standard”, in relation to any article of food, means the standards notified by the Food Authority.

(zv) “State Government” in relation to a Union territory means the Administrator of that Union
territory appointed by the President under article 239 of the Constitution.

(zw) “substance” includes any natural or artificial substance or other matter, whether it is in a solid
state or in liquid form or in the form of gas or vapour.

(zx) “Sub-standard” an article of food shall be deemed to be sub-standard if it does not meet the
specified standards but not so as to render the article of food unsafe.

(zy) “Tribunal” means the Food Safety Appellate Tribunal established under section 70.

(zz) “unsafe food” means an article of food whose nature, substance or quality is so affected as to
render it injurious to health:-

(i) by the article itself, or its package thereof, which is composed, whether wholly or in part, of
poisonous or deleterious substance. or

(ii) by the article consisting, wholly or in part, of any filthy, putrid, rotten, decomposed or
diseased animal substance or vegetable substance. or

(iii) by virtue of its unhygienic processing or the presence in that article of any harmful substance.
or

(iv) by the substitution of any inferior or cheaper substance whether wholly or in part. or

(v) by addition of a substance directly or as an ingredient which is not permitted. or

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 (vi) by the abstraction, wholly or in part, of any of its constituents. or

(vii) by the article being so coloured, flavoured or coated, powdered or polished, as to damage
or conceal the article or to make it appear better or of greater value than it really is. or

(viii) by the presence of any colouring matter or preservatives other than that specified in
respect thereof. or

(ix) by the article having been infected or infested with worms, weevils, or insects. or

(x) by virtue of its being prepared, packed or kept under insanitary conditions. or

(xi) by virtue of its being mis-branded or sub-standard or food containing extraneous matter. Or

(xii) by virtue of containing pesticides and other contaminants in excess of quantities specified
by regulations.

(2) Any reference in this Act to a law which is not in force in the State of Jammu and Kashmir shall, in
relation to that State, be construed as a reference to the corresponding Law, if any, in force in that
State.

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CHAPTER II FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF INDIA
SECTION 4. Establishment of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India.
(1) The Central Government shall, by notification, establish a body to be known as the Food Safety
and Standards Authority of India to exercise the powers conferred on, and to perform the functions
assigned to, it under this Act.

(2) The Food Authority shall be a body corporate by the name aforesaid, having perpetual succession
and a seal with power to acquire, hold and dispose of property, both movable and immovable, and
to contract and shall, by the said name, sue or be sued.

(3) The head office of the Food Authority shall be at Delhi.

(4) The Food Authority may establish its offices at any other place in India.

SECTION 5. Composition of Food Authority and qualifications for appointment of its

Chairperson and other Members
(1) The Food Authority shall consist of a Chairperson and the following twenty-two members out of
which one-third shall be women, namely:-

(a) seven Members, not below the rank of a Joint Secretary to the Government of India, to be
appointed by the Central Government, to respectively represent the Ministries or Departments of
the Central Government dealing with –
(i) Agriculture,
(ii) Commerce,
(iii) Consumer Affairs,
(iv) Food Processing,
(v) Health,
(vi) Legislative Affairs,
(vii) Small Scale Industries,
who shall be Members ex officio.
(b) two representatives from food industry of which one shall be from small scale industries.

(c) two representatives from consumer organisations.

(d) three eminent food technologists or scientists.

(e) five members to be appointed by rotation every three years, one each in seriatim from the Zones
as specified in the First Schedule to represent the States and the Union territories.

(f) two persons to represent farmers’ organisations.

(g) one person to represent retailers’ organisations.

(2) The Chairperson and other Members of the Food Authority shall be appointed in such a manner
so as to secure the highest standards of competence, broad range of relevant expertise, and shall
represent, the broadest possible geographic distribution within the country.

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(3) The Chairperson shall be appointed by the Central Government from amongst the persons of
eminence in the field of food science or from amongst the persons from the administration who have
been associated with the subject and is either holding or has held the position of not below the rank
of Secretary to the Government of India.

(4) The Chairperson and the Members other than ex officio Members of the Food Authority shall be
appointed by the Central Government on the recommendations of the Selection Committee.

(5) The Chairperson or Members other than ex-officio Members of the Food Authority shall not hold
any other office.

SECTION 6. Selection Committee for selection of Chairperson and Members of Food

Authority.
(1) The Central Government shall, for the purpose of selection of the Chairperson and the Members
other than ex officio Members of the Food Authority, constitute a Selection Committee consisting of-

(a) Cabinet Secretary – Chairperson,

(b) Secretary-in-charge of the Ministry or the Department responsible for administration of this Act
as the convener– Member,

(c) Secretary-in-charge of the Ministries or the Departments of the Central Government dealing with
Health, Legislative and Personnel– Members,

(d) Chairman of the Public Enterprises Selection Board –Member,

(e) An eminent food technologist to be nominated by the Central Government – Member.

Explanation– For the purposes of clause (e), the Central Government shall nominate a person from
amongst persons holding the post of Director or the Head, by whatever name called, of any national
research or technical institution.

(2) The Central Government shall, within two months from the date of occurrence of any vacancy by
reason of death, resignation, or removal of the Chairperson or a Member of the Food Authority and
three months before the superannuation or completion of the term of office of the Chairperson or
any Member of that Authority, make a reference to the Selection Committee for filling up of the
vacancy.

(3) The Selection Committee shall finalise the selection of the Chairperson and Members of the Food
Authority within two months from the date on which the reference is made to it.

(4) The Selection Committee shall recommend a panel of two names for every vacancy referred to it.

(5) Before recommending any person for appointment as a Chairperson or other Member of the Food
Authority, the Selection Committee shall satisfy itself that such person does not have any financial or
other interest, which is likely to affect prejudicially his functions as a Member.

(6) No appointment of the Chairperson or other Member of the Food Authority shall be invalid merely
by reason of any vacancy in the Selection Committee.

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SECTION 7. Term of Office, salary, allowances and other conditions of service of
Chairperson and Members of Food Authority
(1) The Chairperson and the members other than ex officio Members shall hold office for a term of
three years from the date on which they enter upon their offices, and shall be eligible for re-
appointment for a further period of three years: Provided that the Chairperson shall not hold office
as such after he has attained the age of sixty-five years.

(a) in the case of the Chairperson, the age of sixty-five years, and

(b) in the case of a Member, the age of sixty-two years.

(2) The salary and allowances payable to, and the other terms and conditions of service of the
Chairperson and Members other than ex-officio Members shall be such as may be prescribed by the
Central Government.

(3) The Chairperson and every Member shall, before entering upon his office, make and subscribe to
an oath of office and of secrecy in such form and in such manner and before such authority as may
be prescribed by the Central Government.

(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section the Chairperson or any Member may –

(a) relinquish his office by giving in writing to the Central Government a notice of not less than three
months. or

(b) be removed from his office in accordance with the provisions of section 8.

(5) The Chairperson or any Member ceasing to hold office as such shall not represent any person
before the Food Authority or any State Authority in any manner.

SECTION 8. Removal of Chairperson and Members of Food Authority.

(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) of section 7, the Central Government may,
by order, remove from office the Chairperson or any other Member, if the Chairperson or as the case
may be, such other Member,-

(a) has been adjudged an insolvent. or

(b) has been convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the Central Government, involves moral
turpitude. or

(c) has become physically or mentally incapable of acting as a Member. or

(d) has acquired such financial or other interests as is likely to affect prejudicially his functions as a
Member. or

(e) has so abused his position as to render his continuance in office prejudicial to the public interest.

(2) No Member shall be removed under clauses (d) and (e) of sub-section (1) unless he has been given
a reasonable opportunity of being heard in the matter.

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SECTION 9. Officers and other employees of Food Authority.
(1) There shall be a Chief Executive Officer of the Food Authority, not below the rank of Additional
Secretary to the Government of India, who shall be the Member-Secretary of the Authority, to be
appointed by the Central Government.

(2) The Food Authority may, with the approval of the Central Government, determine the number,
nature and categories of other officers and employees required to the Food Authority in the
discharge of its functions.

(3) The salaries and allowances payable to and other conditions of service of, the Chief Executive
Officer, officers, and other employees shall be such as may be specified by regulations by the Food
Authority with the approval of the Central Government.

SECTION 10. Functions of the Chief Executive Officer

(1) The Chief Executive Officer shall be the legal representative of the Food Authority and shall be
responsible for -

(a) the day-to-day administration of the Food Authority.

(b) drawing up of proposal for the Food Authority’s work programmes in consultation with the
Central Advisory Committee.

(c) implementing the work programmes and the decisions adopted by the Food Authority.

(d)ensuring the provision of appropriate scientific, technical and administrative support for the
Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel.

(e) ensuring that the Food Authority carries out its tasks in accordance with the requirements of its
users, in particular with regard to the adequacy of the services provided and the time taken.

(f) the preparation of the statement of revenue and expenditure and the execution of the budget of
the Food Authority. and

(g) developing and maintaining contact with the Central Government, and for ensuring a regular
dialogue with its relevant committees.

(2) Every year, the Chief Executive Officer shall submit to the Food Authority for approval -

(a) a general report covering all the activities of the Food Authority in the previous year.

(b) programmes of work.

(c) the annual accounts for the previous year. and (d) the budget for the coming year.

(3) The Chief Executive Officer shall, following adoption by the Food Authority, forward, the general
report and the programmes to the Central Government and the State Governments and shall have
them published.

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(4) The Chief Executive Officer shall approve all financial expenditure of the Food Authority and
report on the Authority’s activities to the Central Government.

(5) The Chief Executive Officer shall exercise the powers of the Commissioner of Food Safety while
dealing with matters relating to food safety of such articles.

(6) The Chief Executive Officer shall have administrative control over the officers and other
employees of the Food Authority.

SECTION 11. Central Advisory Committee.

(1) The Food Authority shall, by notification, establish a Committee to be known as the Central
Advisory Committee.

(2) The Central Advisory Committee shall consist of two members each to represent the interests of
food industry, agriculture, consumers, relevant research bodies and food laboratories and all
Commissioners of Food Safety, and the Chairperson of the Scientific Committee shall be ex officio
member.

(3) The representatives of the concerned Ministries or Departments of the Central Government in
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Bio-technology, Commerce and Industry, Consumer
Affairs, Environment and Forests, Food Processing Industries, Health, Panchayati Raj, Small Scale
Industries and Food and Public Distribution or government institutes or organisations and
government recognised farmers’ shall be invitees to the deliberations of the Central Advisory
Committee.

(4) The Chief Executive Officer shall be ex officio Chairperson of the Central Advisory Committee.

(5) The Central Advisory Committee shall follow such rules of procedure including its transaction of
business as may be specified by regulations.

SECTION 12. Functions of Central Advisory Committee.

(1) The Central Advisory Committee shall ensure close cooperation between the Food Authority and
the enforcement agencies and organisations operating in the field of food.

(2) The Central Advisory Committee shall advise the Food Authority on -

(a) the performance of its duties under this section and in particular in drawing up of a proposal for
the Food Authority’s work programme,

(b) on the prioritisation of work,

(c) identifying potential risks,

(d) pooling of knowledge, and

(e) such other functions as may be specified by regulations.

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(3) The Central Advisory Committee shall meet regularly at the invitation of the Chairperson of
Central Advisory Committee or at the request of at least one-third of its members, and not less than
three times a year.

SECTION 13. Scientific Panels.

(1) The Food Authority shall establish scientific panels, which shall consist of independent scientific
experts.

(2) The Scientific Panel shall invite the relevant industry and consumer representatives in its
deliberations.

(3) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section

(1) the Food Authority may establish as many Scientific Panels as it considers necessary in addition
to the Panels on:

(a) food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food.

(b) pesticides and antibiotics residues.

(c) genetically modified organisms and foods.

(d) functional foods, nutraceuticals, dietetic products and other similar products.

(e) biological hazards.

(f) contaminants in the food chain.

(g) labelling. and

(h) method of sampling and analysis.

(4) The Food Authority may from time to time re-constitute the Scientific Panels by adding new
members or by omitting the existing members or by changing the name of the panel as the case may
be.

SECTION 14. Scientific Committee.

(1) The Food Authority shall constitute Scientific Committee which shall consist of the Chairpersons
of the Scientific Panels and six independent scientific experts not belonging or affiliated to any of the
Scientific Panels.

(2) The Scientific Committee shall be responsible for providing the scientific opinions to the Food
Authority, and shall have the powers, where necessary, of organising public hearings.

(3) The Scientific Committee shall be responsible for the general co-ordination necessary to ensure
consistency of the scientific opinion procedure and in particular with regard to the adoption of
working procedures and harmonisation of working methods of the Scientific Panels.

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(4) The Scientific Committee shall provide opinions on multi-sectoral issues falling within the
competence of more than one Scientific Panel, and on issues which do not fall within the competence
of any of the Scientific Panels.

(5) Wherever necessary, and particularly, in the case of subjects which do not fall within the
competence of any of the Scientific Panel, the Scientific Committee shall set up working groups and
in such cases, it shall draw on the expertise of those working groups when establishing scientific
opinions.

SECTION 15. Procedure for Scientific Committee and Scientific Panel.

(1) The members of the Scientific Committee, who are not members of the Scientific Panel and the
members of the Scientific Panel shall be appointed by the Food Authority, for a period of three years,
which shall be renewable for such period, and the vacancy notice shall be published in the relevant
leading scientific publications and on the Food Authority’s website for a call for expressions of
interest.

(2) The Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel shall each choose a Chairperson from amongst
their members.

(3) The Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel shall act by a majority of their members and the
views of the members shall be recorded.

(4) The procedure for the operation and co-operation of the Scientific Committee and the Scientific
Panel shall be specified by regulations.

(5) These procedures shall relate in particular to -

(a) The number of times that a member can serve consecutively on a Scientific Committee or
Scientific Panel.

(b) the number of members in each Scientific Panel.

(c) the procedure for re-imbursing the expenses of members of the Scientific Committee and the
Scientific Panel.

(d) the manner in which tasks and requests for scientific opinions are assigned to the Scientific
Committee and the Scientific Panel.

(e) The creation and organisation of the working groups of the Scientific Committee and the Scientific
Panel, and the possibility of external experts being included in those working groups.

(f) The possibility of observers being invited to meetings of the Scientific Committee and the Scientific
Panel.

(g) The possibility of organising public hearings. and

(h) Quorum of the meeting, meeting notice, agenda of the meeting and such other matters.

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SECTION 16. Duties and functions of Food Authority.
(1) It shall be the duty of the Food Authority to regulate and monitor the manufacture, processing,
distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure safe and wholesome food.

(2) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (1), the Food Authority may by regulations
specify -

(a) the standards and guidelines in relation to articles of food and specifying an appropriate system
for enforcing various standards notified under this Act.

(b) the limits for use of food additives, crop contaminants, pesticide residues, residues of veterinary
drugs, heavy metals, processing aids, myco-toxins, antibiotics and pharmacological active substances
and irradiation of food.

(c) the mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies engaged in certification of
food safety management systems for food businesses.

(d) the procedure and the enforcement of quality control in relation to any article of food imported
into India.

(e) the procedure and guidelines for accreditation of laboratories and notification of the accredited
laboratories.

(f) the method of sampling, analysis and exchange of information among enforcement authorities.

(g) conduct survey of enforcement and administration of this Act in the country.

(h) food labelling standards including claims on health, nutrition, special dietary uses and food
category systems for foods. and

(i) the manner in which and the procedure subject to which risk analysis, risk assessment, risk
communication and risk management shall be undertaken.

(3) The Food Authority shall also -

(a) provide scientific advice and technical support to the Central Government and the State
Governments in matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which have a direct or indirect
bearing on food safety and nutrition.

(b) search, collect, collate, analyse and summarise relevant scientific and technical data particularly
relating to

(i) food consumption and the exposure of individuals to risks related to the consumption of food.

(ii) incidence and prevalence of biological risk.

(iii) contaminants in food.

(iv) residues of various contaminants.

(v) identification of emerging risks. and

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(vi) introduction of rapid alert system.

(c) promote, co-ordinate and issue guidelines for the development of risk assessment methodologies
and monitor and conduct and forward messages on the health and nutritional risks of food to the
Central Government, State Governments and Commissioners of Food Safety.

(d) provide scientific and technical advice and assistance to the Central Government and the State
Governments in implementation of crisis management procedures with regard to food safety and to
draw up a general plan for crisis management and work in close co-operation with the crisis unit set
up by the Central Government in this regard.

(e) establish a system of network of organisations with the aim to facilitate a scientific co-operation
framework by the co-ordination of activities, the exchange of information, the development and
implementation of joint projects, the exchange of expertise and best practices in the fields within the
Food Authority’s responsibility.

(f) provide scientific and technical assistance to the Central Government and the State Governments
for improving co-operation with international organisations.

(g) take all such steps to ensure that the public, consumers, interested parties and all levels of
panchayats receive rapid, reliable, objective and comprehensive information through appropriate
methods and means.

(h) provide, whether within or outside their area, training programmes in food safety and standards
for persons who are or intend to become involved in food businesses, whether as food business
operators or employees or otherwise.

(i) undertake any other task assigned to it by the Central Government to carry out the objects of this
Act.

(j) contribute to the development of international technical standards for food, sanitary and phyto-
sanitary standards.

(k) contribute, where relevant and appropriate to the development of agreement on recognition of
the equivalence of specific food related measures.

(l) promote co-ordination of work on food standards undertaken by international governmental and
nongovernmental organisations.

(m) promote consistency between international technical standards and domestic food standards
while ensuring that the level of protection adopted in the country is not reduced. and

(n) promote general awareness as to food safety and food standards.

(4) The Food Authority shall make it public without undue delay -

(a) the opinions of the Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel immediately after adoption.

(b) the annual declarations of interest made by members of the Food Authority, the Chief Executive
Officer, members of the Advisory Committee and members of the Scientific Committee and Scientific

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Panel, as well as the declarations of interest if any, made in relation to items on the agendas of
meetings.

(c) the results of its scientific studies. and

(d) the annual report of its activities.

(5) The Food Authority may from time to time give such directions, on matters relating to food safety
and standards, to the Commissioner of Food Safety, who shall be bound by such directions while
exercising his powers under this Act.

(6) The Food Authority shall not disclose or cause to be disclosed to third parties confidential
information that it receives for which confidential treatment has been requested and has been
acceded, except for information which must be made public if circumstances so require, in order to
protect public health.

SECTION 17. Proceedings of Food Authority

(1) The Food Authority shall meet at the head office or any of its offices at such time as the
Chairperson may direct, and shall observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of
business at its meetings (including the quorum at its meetings) as may be specified by regulations.

(2) If the Chairperson is unable to attend a meeting of the Food Authority, any other Member
nominated by the Chairperson in this behalf and, in the absence of such nomination or where there
is no Chairperson, any Member chosen by the Members present from amongst themselves, shall
preside at the meeting.

(3) All questions which come up before any meeting of the Food Authority shall be decided by a
majority of votes of the Members present and voting, and in the event of an equality of votes, the
Chairperson or the person presiding over the meeting shall have the right to exercise a second or
casting vote.

(4) All orders and decisions of the Food Authority shall be authenticated by the Chief Executive
Officer.

(5) The Chief Executive Officer shall take part in the meetings of the Food Authority but without a
right to vote.

(6) The Food Authority may invite the Chairperson of the Scientific Committee to attend its meetings
but without a right to vote.

(7) No act or proceedings of the Food Authority shall be questioned or invalidated merely on the
ground of existence of any vacancy or defect in the constitution of Food Authority

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CHAPTER III GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOOD SAFETY

SECTION 18. General principles to be followed in Administration of Act.

The Central Government, the State Governments, the Food Authority and other agencies, as the case
may be, while implementing the provisions of this Act shall be guided by the following principles
namely:-

(1)

(a) endeavour to achieve an appropriate level of protection of human life and health and the
protection of consumer’s interests, including fair practices in all kinds of food trade with reference
to food safety standards and practices.

(b) carry out risk management which shall include taking into account the results of risk assessment
and other factors which in the opinion of the Food Authority are relevant to the matter under
consideration and where the conditions are relevant, in order to achieve the general objectives of
regulations.

(c) where in any specific circumstances, on the basis of assessment of available information, the
possibility of harmful effects on health is identified but scientific uncertainty persists, provisional risk
management measures necessary to ensure appropriate level of health protection may be adopted,
pending further scientific information for a more comprehensive risk assessment.

(d) the measures adopted on the basis of clause (c) shall be proportionate and no more restrictive of
trade than is required to achieve appropriate level of health protection, regard being had to technical
and economic feasibility and other factors regarded as reasonable and proper in the matter under
consideration.

(e) The measures adopted shall be reviewed within a reasonable period of time, depending on the
nature of the risk to life or health being identified and the type of scientific information needed to
clarify the scientific uncertainty and to conduct a more comprehensive risk assessment.

(f) in cases where there are reasonable grounds to suspect that a food may present a risk for human
health, then, depending on the nature, seriousness and extent of that risk, the Food Authority and
the Commissioner of Food Safety shall take appropriate steps to inform the general public of the
nature of the risk to health, identifying to the fullest extent possible the food or type of food, the risk
that it may present, and the measures which are taken or about to be taken to prevent, reduce or
eliminate that risk. and

(g) where any food which fails to comply with food safety requirements is part of a batch, lot or
consignment of food of the same class or description, it shall be presumed until the contrary is
proved, that all of the food in that batch, lot or consignment fails to comply with those requirements.

(2) The Food Authority shall, while framing regulations or specifying standards under this Act–

(a) take into account –

(i) prevalent practices and conditions in the country including agricultural practices and handling,
storage and transport conditions. and

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(ii) international standards and practices, where international standards or practices exist or are in
the process of being formulated, unless it is of opinion that taking into account of such prevalent
practices and conditions or international standards or practices or any particular part thereof would
not be an effective or appropriate means for securing the objectives of such regulations or where
there is a scientific justification or where they would result in a different level of protection from the
one determined as appropriate in the country.

(b) determine food standards on the basis of risk analysis except where it is of opinion that such
analysis is not appropriate to the circumstances or the nature of the case.

(c) undertake risk assessment based on the available scientific evidence and in an independent,
objective and transparent manner.

(d) ensure that there is open and transparent public consultation, directly or through representative
bodies including all levels of panchayats, during the preparation, evaluation and revision of
regulations, except where it is of opinion that there is an urgency concerning food safety or public
health to make or amend the regulations in which case such consultation may be dispensed with:
Provided that such regulations shall be in force for not more than six months.

(e) ensure protection of the interests of consumers and shall provide a basis for consumers to make
informed choices in relation to the foods they consume.

(f) ensure prevention of -

(i) fraudulent, deceptive or unfair trade practices which may mislead or harm the consumer. and

(ii) unsafe or contaminated or sub-standard food.

(3) The provisions of this Act shall not apply to any farmer or fisherman or farming operations or
crops or livestock or aquaculture, and supplies used or produced in farming or products of crops
produced by a farmer at farm level or a fisherman in his operations.

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CHAPTER IV GENERAL POVISIONS AS TO ARTICLES OF FOOD
SECTION 19. Use of food additive or processing aid
No article of food shall contain any food additive or processing aid unless it is in accordance with the
provisions of this Act and regulations made thereunder.

Explanation. - For the purposes of this section, “processing aid” means any substance or material,
not including apparatus or utensils, and not consumed as a food ingredient by itself, used in the
processing of raw materials, foods or its ingredients to fulfil a certain technological purpose during
treatment or processing and which may result in the non-intentional but unavoidable presence of
residues or derivatives in the final product.

SECTION 20. Contaminants, naturally occurring toxic substances, heavy metals, etc.
No article of food shall contain any contaminant, naturally occurring toxic substances or toxins or
hormone or heavy metals in excess of such quantities as may be specified by regulations.

SECTION 21. Pesticides, veterinary drugs residues, antibiotic residues and

microbiological counts
(1) No article of food shall contain insecticides or pesticides residues, veterinary drugs residues,
antibiotic residues, solvent residues, pharmacological active substances and micro-biological counts
in excess of such tolerance limit as may be specified by regulations.

(2) No insecticide shall be used directly on article of food except fumigants registered and approved
under the Insecticides Act, 1968 (46 of 1968).

Explanation. -For the purposes of this section, –

(1) “pesticide residue” means any specified substance in food resulting from the use of a pesticide
and includes any derivatives of a pesticide, such as conversion products, metabolites, reaction
products and impurities considered to be of toxicological significance and also includes such residues
coming into food from environment.

(2) “residues of veterinary drugs” include the parent compounds or their metabolites or both in any
edible portion of any animal product and include residues of associated impurities of the veterinary
drugs concerned.

SECTION 22. Genetically modified foods, organic foods, functional foods, proprietary
foods, etc.
Save as otherwise provided under this Act and regulations made thereunder, no person shall
manufacture, distribute, sell or import any novel food, genetically modified articles of food, irradiated
food, organic foods, foods for special dietary uses, functional foods, neutraceuticals, health
supplements, proprietary foods and such other articles of food which the Central Government may
notify in this behalf.

Explanation. – For the purposes of this section,-

(1)“foods for special dietary uses or functional foods or nutraceuticals or health supplements” means:

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(a) foods which are specially processed or formulated to satisfy particular dietary requirements which
exist because of a particular physical or physiological condition or specific diseases and disorders and
which are presented as such, wherein the composition of these foodstuffs must differ significantly
from the composition of ordinary foods of comparable nature, if such ordinary foods exist, and may
contain one or more of the following ingredients, namely:-

(i) plants or botanicals or their parts in the form of powder, concentrate or extract in water, ethyl
alcohol or hydro alcoholic extract, single or in combination.

(ii) minerals or vitamins or proteins or metals or their compounds or amino acids (in amounts not
exceeding the Recommended Daily Allowance for Indians) or enzymes (within permissible limits).

(iii) substances from animal origin.

(iv) a dietary substance for use by human beings to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary
intake

(b)

(i) a product that is labelled as a “Food for special dietary uses or functional foods or nutraceuticals
or health supplements or similar such foods” which is not represented for use as a conventional food
and whereby such products may be formulated in the form of powders, granules, tablets, capsules,
liquids, jelly and other dosage forms but not parenterals, and are meant for oral administration.

(ii) such product does not include a drug as defined in clause (b) and ayurvedic, sidha and unani drugs
as defined in clauses (a) and (h) of section 3 of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 (23 of 1940) and
rules made thereunder.

(iii) does not claim to cure or mitigate any specific disease, disorder or condition (except for certain
health benefit or such promotion claims) as may be permitted by the regulations made under this
Act.

(iv) does not include a narcotic drug or a psychotropic substance as defined in the Schedule of the
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (61 of 1985) and rules made thereunder and
substances listed in Schedules E and EI of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945

(2) “genetically engineered or modified food” means food and food ingredients composed of or
containing genetically modified or engineered organisms obtained through modern biotechnology,
or food and food ingredients produced from but not containing genetically modified or engineered
organisms obtained through modern biotechnology.

(3) “organic food” means food products that have been produced in accordance with specified
organic production standards.

(4) “proprietary and novel food” means an article of food for which standards have not been specified
but is not unsafe: Provided that such food does not contain any of the foods and ingredients
prohibited under this Act and regulations made thereunder.

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SECTION 23. Packaging and labelling of foods.
(1) No person shall manufacture, distribute, sell or expose for sale or despatch or deliver to any agent
or broker for the purpose of sale, any packaged food products which are not marked and labelled in
the manner as may be specified by regulations: Provided that the labels shall not contain any
statement, claim, design or device which is false or misleading in any particular concerning the food
products contained in the package or concerning the quantity or the nutritive value implying
medicinal or therapeutic claims or in relation to the place of origin of the said food products.

(2) Every food business operator shall ensure that the labelling and presentation of food, including
their shape, appearance or packaging, the packaging materials used, the manner in which they are
arranged and the setting in which they are displayed, and the information which is made available
about them through whatever medium, does not mislead consumers.

SECTION 24. Restrictions of advertisement and prohibition as to unfair trade

practices.
(1) No advertisement shall be made of any food which is misleading or deceiving or contravenes the
provisions of this Act, the rules and regulations made thereunder.

(2) No person shall engage himself in any unfair trade practice for purpose of promoting the sale,
supply, use and consumption of articles of food or adopt any unfair or deceptive practice including
the practice of making any statement, whether orally or in writing or by visible representation which-
(a) falsely represents that the foods are of a particular standard, quality, quantity or grade-
composition.

(b) makes a false or misleading representation concerning the need for, or the usefulness.

(c) gives to the public any guarantee of the efficacy that is not based on an adequate or scientific
justification thereof: Provided that where a defence is raised to the effect that such guarantee is
based on adequate or scientific justification, the burden of proof of such defence shall lie on the
person raising such defence.

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CHAPTER V PROVISIONS RELATING TO IMPORT
SECTION 25. All imports of articles of food to be subject to this Act.
(1) No person shall import into India –

(i) any unsafe or misbranded or sub-standard food or food containing extraneous matter.

(ii) any article of food for the import of which a licence is required under any Act or rules or
regulations, except in accordance with the conditions of the licence. and

(iii) any article of food in contravention of any other provision of this Act or of any rule or regulation
made thereunder or any other Act.

(2) The Central Government shall, while prohibiting, restricting or otherwise regulating import of
article of food under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992), follow
the standards laid down by the Food Authority under the provisions of this Act and the Rules and
regulations made thereunder.

CHAPTER VI SPECIAL RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO FOOD SAFETY

SECTION 26. Responsibilities of the Food business operator.
(1) Every food business operator shall ensure that the articles of food satisfy the requirements of this
Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder at all stages of production, processing, import,
distribution and sale within the businesses under his control.

(2) No food business operator shall himself or by any person on his behalf manufacture, store, sell or
distribute any article of food –

(i) which is unsafe. or

(ii) which is misbranded or sub-standard or contains extraneous matter. or

(iii) for which a licence is required, except in accordance with the conditions of the licence. or

(iv) which is for the time being prohibited by the Food Authority or the Central Government or the
State Government in the interest of public health. or

(v) in contravention of any other provision of this Act or of any rule or regulation made thereunder.

(3) No food business operator shall employ any person who is suffering from infectious, contagious
or loathsome disease.

(4) No food business operator shall sell or offer for sale any article of food to any vendor unless he
also gives a guarantee in writing in the form specified by regulations about the nature and quality of
such article to the vendor: Provided that a bill, cash memo, or invoice in respect of the sale of any
article of food given by a food business operator to the vendor shall be deemed to be a guarantee
under this section, even if a guarantee in the specified form is not included in the bill, cash memo or
invoice.

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(5) Where any food which is unsafe is part of a batch, lot or consignment of food of the same class or
description, it shall be presumed that all the food in that batch, lot or consignment is also unsafe,
unless following a detailed assessment within a specified time, it is found that there is no evidence
that the rest of the batch, lot or consignment is unsafe: Provided that any conformity of a food with
specific provisions applicable to that food shall be without prejudice to the competent authorities
taking appropriate measures to impose restrictions on that food being placed on the market or to
require its withdrawal from the market for the reasons to be recorded in writing where such
authorities suspect that, despite the conformity, the food is unsafe.

SECTION 27. Liability of the manufacturers, packers, wholesalers, distributors and

sellers
(1) The manufacturer or packer of an article of food shall be liable for such article of food if it does
not meet the requirements of this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder.

(2) The wholesaler or distributor shall be liable under this Act for any article of food which is–

(a) Supplied after the date of its expiry. or

(b) Stored or supplied in violation of the safety instructions of the manufacturer. or

(c) Unsafe or misbranded. or

(d) Unidentifiable of manufacturer from whom the article of food have been received. or

(e) Stored or handled or kept in violation of the provisions of this Act, the rules and regulations made
thereunder. or

(f) received by him with knowledge of being unsafe.

(3) The seller shall be liable under this Act for any article of food which is –

(a) sold after the date of its expiry. or

(b) handled or kept in unhygienic conditions. or

(c) misbranded. or

(d) unidentifiable of the manufacturer or the distributors from whom such articles of food were
received. or

(e) received by him with knowledge of being unsafe.

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SECTION 28. Food recall procedures.
(1) If a food business operator considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he has processed,
manufactured or distributed is not in compliance with this Act, or the rules or regulations, made
thereunder, he shall immediately initiate procedures to withdraw the food in question from the
market and consumers indicating reasons for its withdrawal and inform the competent authorities
thereof.

(2) A food business operator shall immediately inform the competent authorities and co-operate with
them, if he considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he has placed on the market may
be unsafe for the consumers.

(3) The food business operator shall inform the competent authorities of the action taken to prevent
risks to the consumer and shall not prevent or discourage any person from cooperating, in
accordance with this Act, with the competent authorities, where this may prevent, reduce or
eliminate a risk arising from a food.

(4) Every food business operator shall follow such conditions and guidelines relating to food recall
procedures as the Food Authority may specify by regulations.

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CHAPTER VII ENFORCEMENT OF THE ACT
SECTION 29. Authorities responsible for enforcement of Act.
(1) The Food Authority and the State Food Safety Authorities shall be responsible for the enforcement
of this Act.

(2) The Food Authority and the State Food Safety Authorities shall monitor and verify that the
relevant requirements of law are fulfilled by food business operators at all stages of food business.

(3) The authorities shall maintain a system of control and other activities as appropriate to the
circumstances, including public communication on food safety and risk, food safety surveillance and
other monitoring activities covering all stages of food business.

(4) The Food Safety Officers shall enforce and execute within their area the provisions of this Act with
respect to which the duty is not imposed expressly or by necessary implication on some other
authority.

(5) The regulations under this Act shall specify which of the Food Safety Officers are to enforce and
execute them, either generally or in relation to cases of a particular description or a particular area,
and any such regulations or orders may provide for the giving of assistance and information by any
authority concerned in 11the administration of the regulations or orders, or of any provisions of this
Act, to any other authority so concerned, for the purposes of their respective duties under them.

(6) The Commissioner of Food Safety and Designated Officer shall exercise the same powers as are
conferred on the Food Safety Officer and follow the same procedure specified in this Act.

SECTION 30. Commissioner of Food Safety of the State.

(1) The State Government shall appoint the Commissioner of Food Safety for the State for efficient
implementation of food safety and standards and other requirements laid down under this Act and
the rules and regulations made thereunder.

(2) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall perform all or any of the following functions, namely:-

(a) prohibit in the interest of public health, the manufacture, storage, distribution or sale of any
article of food, either in the whole of the State or any area or part thereof for such period, not
exceeding one year, as may be specified in the order notified in this behalf in the Official Gazette.

(b) carry out survey of the industrial units engaged in the manufacture or processing of food in the
State to find out compliance by such units of the standards notified by the Food Authority for various
articles of food.

(c) conduct or organise training programmes for the personnel of the office of the Commissioner of
Food Safety and, on a wider scale, for different segments of food chain for generating awareness on
food safety.

(d) ensure an efficient and uniform implementation of the standards and other requirements as
specified and also ensure a high standard of objectivity, accountability, practicability, transparency
and credibility.

(e) sanction prosecution for offences punishable with imprisonment under this Act.

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(f) such other functions as the State Government may, in consultation with the Food Authority,
prescribe.

(3) The Commissioner of Food Safety may, by Order, delegate, subject to such conditions and
restrictions as may be specified in the Order, such of his powers and functions under this Act (except
the power to appoint Designated Officer, Food Safety Officer and Food Analyst) as he may deem
necessary or expedient to any officer subordinate to him.

SECTION 31. Licensing and registration of food business.

(1) No person shall commence or carry on any food business except under a licence.

(2) Nothing contained in sub-section (1) shall apply to a petty manufacturer who himself
manufactures or sells any article of food or a petty retailer, hawker, itinerant vendor or a temporary
stall holder or small scale or cottage or such other industries relating to food business or tiny food
business operator. but they shall register themselves with such authority and in such manner as may
be specified by regulations, without prejudice to the availability of safe and wholesome food for
human consumption or affecting the interests of the consumers.

(3) Any person desirous to commence or carry on any food business shall make an application for
grant of a licence to the Designated Officer in such manner containing such particulars and fees as
may be specified by regulations.

(4) The Designated Officer on receipt of an application under sub-section (3), may either grant the
licence or after giving the applicant an opportunity of being heard and for reasons to be recorded in
writing, refuse to grant a licence to any applicant, if he is satisfied that it is necessary so to do in the
interest of public health and shall make available to the applicant a copy of the order: Provided that
if a licence is not issued within two months from the date of making the application or his application
is not rejected, the applicant may start his food business after expiry of the said period and in such a
case, the Designated Officer shall not refuse to issue a licence but may, if he considers necessary,
issue an improvement notice, under section 32 and follow procedures in that regard.

(5) Every licence shall be in such form and subject to such conditions as may be specified by
regulations.

(6) A single licence may be issued by the Designated Officer for one or more articles of food and also
for different establishments or premises in the same area.

(7) If the articles of food are manufactured, stored, sold or exhibited for sale at different premises
situated in more than one area, separate applications shall be made and separate licence shall be
issued in respect of such premises not falling within the same area.

(8) An appeal against the order of rejection for the grant of licence shall lie to the Commissioner of
Food Safety.

(9) A licence unless suspended or cancelled earlier shall be in force for such period as may be specified
by regulations: Provided that if an application for a renewal of licence is made before the expiry of
the period of validity of the licence, the licence shall continue to be in force until orders are passed
on the application.

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(10) The licence shall subsist for the benefit of the deceased’s personal representative or any other
member of his family, until the expiry of –

(a) the period of three months beginning with his death. or

(b) such longer period as the Designated Officer may allow.

SECTION 32. Improvement notices.

(1) If the Designated Officer has reasonable ground for believing that any food business operator has
failed to comply with any regulations to which this section applies, he may, by a notice served on that
food business operator (in this Act referred to as an “improvement notice”) -

(a) state the grounds for believing that the food business operator has failed to comply with the
regulations.

(b) specify the matters which constitute the food business operator’s failure so to comply.

(c) specify the measures which, in the opinion of the said Authority, the food business operator must
take, in order to secure compliance. and

(d) require the food business operator to take those measures, or measures which are at least
equivalent to them, within a reasonable period (not being less than fourteen days) as may be
specified in the notice.

(2) If the food business operator fails to comply with an improvement notice, his licence may be
suspended.

(3) If the food business operator still fails to comply with the improvement notice, the Designated
Officer may, after giving the licensee an opportunity to show cause, cancel the licence granted to
him: Provided that the Designated Officer may suspend any licence forthwith in the interest of public
health for reasons to be recorded in writing.

(4) Any person who is aggrieved by –

(a) an improvement notice. or

(b) refusal to issue a certificate as to improvement. or

(c) cancellation or suspension or revocation of licence under this Act, may appeal to the
Commissioner of Food Safety whose decision thereon, shall be final.

(5) The period within which such an appeal may be brought shall be –

(a) fifteen days from the date on which notice of the decision was served on the person desiring to
appeal. or

(b) in the case of an appeal under sub-section (1), the said period or the period specified in the
improvement notice, whichever expires earlier.

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Explanation - For the purpose of this sub-section, the making of the complaint shall be deemed to be
the bringing of the appeal.

SECTION 33. Prohibition orders.

(1) If – (a) any food business operator is convicted of an offence under this Act. and (b) the court by
or before which he is so convicted is satisfied that the health risk exists with respect to that food
business, the court, after giving the food business operator an opportunity of being heard, may by
an order, impose the following prohibitions, namely:-

(i) a prohibition on the use of the process or treatment for the purposes of the food business.

(ii) a prohibition on the use of the premises or equipment for the purposes of the food business or
any other food business of the same class or description.

(iii) a prohibition on the use of the premises or equipment for the purposes of any food business.

(2) The court may, on being satisfied that it is necessary so to do, by an order, impose a prohibition
on the food business operator participating in the management of any food business, or any food
business of a class or description specified in the order.

(3) As soon as practicable after the making of an order under sub-section (1) or sub section (2) (in this
Act referred to as a “prohibition order”), the concerned Food Safety Officer shall

(a) serve a copy of the order on the food business operator. and (b) in the case of an order under
sub-section (1), affix a copy of the order at a conspicuous place on such premises used for the
purposes of the food business, and any person who knowingly contravenes such an order shall be
guilty of an offence and be punishable with a fine which may extend to three lakh rupees.

(4) The concerned Food Safety Officer shall with the approval of the Designated Officer issue a
certificate to the effect that the food business operator has taken sufficient measures justifying lifting
of the prohibition order, within seven days of his being satisfied on an application made by the food
business operator for such a certificate or the said officer shall-

(a) determine, as soon as is reasonably practicable and in any event within fourteen days, whether
or not he is so satisfied. and

(b) if he determines that he is not so satisfied, give notice to the food business operator of the reasons
for that determination.

(5) A prohibition order shall cease to have effect upon the court being satisfied, on an application
made by the food business operator not less than six months after the prohibition order has been
passed, that the food business operator has taken sufficient measures justifying the lifting of the
prohibition order.

(6) The court shall give a direction on an application by the food business operator, if the court thinks
it proper so to do having regard to all the circumstances of the case, including in particular, the
conduct of the food business operator since the making of the order. but no such application shall be
entertained if it is not made –

(a) within six months after the making of the prohibition order. or

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(b) within three months after the making by the food business operator of a previous application for
such a direction.

Explanation – For the purpose of this section,-

any reference above shall apply in relation to a manager of a food business as it applies in relation to
the food business operator. and any reference to the food business operator of the business, or to
the food business operator, shall be construed accordingly.

“manager”, in relation to a food business, means any person who is entrusted by the food business
operator with the day-to-day running of the business, or any part of the business.

SECTION 34. Emergency prohibition notices and orders.

(1) If the Designated Officer is satisfied that the health risk condition exists with respect to any food
business, he may, after a notice served on the food business operator (in this Act referred to as an
‘emergency prohibition notice”), apply to the Commissioner of Food Safety for imposing the
prohibition.

(2) If the Commissioner of Food Safety is satisfied, on the application of such an officer, that the
health risk condition exists with respect to any food business, he shall, by an order, impose the
prohibition.

(3) The Designated Officer shall not apply for an emergency prohibition order unless, at least one day
before the date of the application, he has served notice on the food business operator of the business
of his intention to apply for the order.

(4) As soon as practicable after the making of an emergency prohibition order, the Designated Officer
shall require the Food Safety Officer to -

(a) serve a copy of the order on the food business operator of the business. or

(b) affix a copy of the order at a conspicuous place on such premises used for the purposes of that
business. and any person who knowingly contravenes such an order shall be guilty of an offence and
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years and with fine which
may extend to two lakh rupees.

(5) An emergency prohibition order shall cease to have effect on the issue by the Designated Officer
of a certificate to the effect that he is satisfied that the food business operator has taken sufficient
measures for justifying the lifting of such order.

(6) The Designated Officer shall issue a certificate under subsection (5) within seven days of an
application by the food business operator for such a certificate and on his being not satisfied, the said
officer shall give notice to the food business operator within a period of ten days indicating the
reasons for such decision.

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SECTION 35. Notification of food poisoning.
The Food Authority may, by notification, require registered medical practitioners carrying on their
profession in any local area specified in the notification, to report all occurrences of food poisoning
coming to their notice to such officer as may be specified.

SECTION 36. Designated Officer.

(1) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, by order, appoint the Designated Officer, who shall not
be below the rank of a Sub-Divisional Officer, to be in-charge of food safety administration in such
area as may be specified by regulations.

(2) There shall be a Designated Officer for each district.

(3) The functions to be performed by the Designated Officer shall be as follows, namely:-

(a) to issue or cancel licence of food business operators.

b) to prohibit the sale of any article of food which is in contravention of the provisions of this Act and
rules and regulations made thereunder.

(c) to receive report and samples of article of foods from Food Safety Officer under his jurisdiction
and get them analysed.

(d) to make recommendations to the Commissioner of Food Safety for sanction to launch
prosecutions in case of contraventions punishable with imprisonment.

(e) to sanction or launch prosecutions in cases of contraventions punishable with fine.

(f) to maintain record of all inspections made by Food Safety Officers and action taken by them in the
performance of their duties.

(g) to get investigated any complaint which may be made in writing in respect of any contravention
of the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder.

(h) to investigate any complaint which may be made in writing against the Food Safety Officer. and

(i) to perform such other duties as may be entrusted by the Commissioner of Food Safety.

SECTION 37. Food Safety Officer.

(1) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, by notification, appoint such persons as he thinks fit,
having the qualifications prescribed by the Central Government, as Food Safety Officers for such local
areas as he may assign to them for the purpose of performing functions under this Act and the rules
and regulations made thereunder.

(2) The State Government may authorise any officer of the State Government having the
qualifications prescribed under sub-section (1) to perform the functions of a Food Safety Officer
within a specified jurisdiction.

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SECTION 38. Powers of Food Safety Officer.
(1) The Food Safety Officer may -

(a) take a sample –

(i) of any food, or any substance, which appears to him to be intended for sale, or to have been sold
for human consumption. or

(ii) of any article of food or substance which is found by him on or in any such premises. which he has
reason to believe that it may be required as evidence in proceedings under any of the provisions of
this Act or of the regulations or orders made thereunder. or

(b) seize any article of food which appears to the Food Safety Officer to be in contravention of this
Act or the regulations made thereunder. and

(c) keep it in the safe custody of the food business operator such article of food after taking a sample.
and in both cases send the same for analysis to a Food Analyst for the local area within which such
sample has been taken: Provided that where the Food Safety Officer keeps such article in the safe
custody of the food business operator, he may require the food business operator to execute a bond
for a sum of money equal to the value of such article with one or more sureties as the Food Safety
Officer deems fit and the food business operator shall execute the bond accordingly.

(2) The Food Safety Officer may enter and inspect any place where the article of food is
manufactured, or stored for sale, or stored for the manufacture of any other article of food, or
exposed or exhibited for sale and where any adulterant is manufactured or kept, and take samples
of such articles of food or adulterant for analysis.

(3) Where any sample is taken, its cost calculated at the rate at which the article is usually sold to the
public shall be paid to the person from whom it is taken.

(4) Where any article of food seized under clause (b) of subsection (1) is of a perishable nature and
the Food Safety Officer is satisfied that such article of food is so deteriorated that it is unfit for human
consumption, the Food Safety Officer may, after giving notice in writing to the food business
operator, cause the same to be destroyed.

(5) The Food Safety Officer shall, in exercising the powers of entry upon, and inspection of any place
under this section, follow, as far as may be, the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973
(2 of 1974) relating to the search or inspection of a place by a police officer executing a search warrant
issued under that Code.

(6) Any adulterant found in the possession of a manufacturer or distributor of, or dealer in, any article
of food or in any of the premises occupied by him as such and for the possession of which he is unable
to account to the satisfaction of the Food Safety Officer and any books of account or other documents
found in his possession or control and which would be useful for, or relevant to, any investigation or
proceeding under this Act, may be seized by the Food Safety Officer and a sample of such adulterant
submitted for analysis to a Food Analyst: Provided that no such books of account or other documents
shall be seized by the Food Safety Officer except with the previous approval of the authority to which
he is subordinate.

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(7) Where the Food Safety Officer takes any action under clause (a) of sub-section (1), or sub-section
(2), or sub-section (4) or sub-section (6), he shall, call one or more persons to be present at the time
when such action is taken and take his or their signatures.

(8) Where any books of account or other documents are seized under sub-section (6), the Food Safety
Officer shall, within a period not exceeding thirty days from the date of seizure, return the same to
the person from whom they were seized after copies thereof or extracts there from as certified by
that person in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government have been taken:
Provided that where such person refuses to so certify and a prosecution has been instituted against
him under this Act, such books of account or other documents shall be returned to him only after
copies thereof and extracts there from as certified by the court have been taken.

(9) When any adulterant is seized under sub-section (6), the burden of proving that such adulterant
is not meant for purposes of adulteration shall be on the person from whose possession such
adulterant was seized.

(10) The Commissioner of Food Safety may from time to time issue guidelines with regard to exercise
of powers of the Food Safety Officer, which shall be binding: Provided that the powers of such Food
Safety Officer may also be revoked for a specified period by the Commissioner of Food Safety.

SECTION 39. Liability of Food Safety Officer in certain cases.

Any Food Safety Officer exercising powers under this Act or the rules and regulations made
thereunder who –

(a) vexatiously and without any reasonable ground seizes any article of food or adulterant. or

(b) commits any other act to the injury of any person without having reason to believe that such act
is necessary for the execution of his duty. shall be guilty of an offence under this Act and shall be
liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees: Provided that in case any false complaint is
made against a Food Safety Officer and it is proved so, the complainant shall be guilty of an offence
under this Act and shall be punishable with fine which shall not be less than fifty thousand rupees
but may extend to one lakh rupees.

SECTION 40. Purchaser may have food analysed.

(1) Nothing contained in this Act shall be held to prevent a purchaser of any article of food other than
a Food Safety Officer from having such article analysed by the Food Analyst on payment of such fees
and receiving from the Food Analyst a report of his analysis within such period as may be specified
by regulations: Provided that such purchaser shall inform the food business operator at the time of
purchase of his intention to have such article so analysed: Provided further that if the report of the
Food Analyst shows that the article of food is not in compliance with the Act or the rules or
regulations made thereunder, the purchaser shall be entitled to get refund of the fees paid by him
under this section.

(2) In case the Food Analyst finds the sample in contravention of the provisions of this Act and rules
and regulations made thereunder, the Food Analysts shall forward the report to the Designated
Officer to follow the procedure laid down in section 42 for prosecution.

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SECTION 41. Power of search, seizure, investigation, prosecution and procedure
thereof
(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (2) of section 31, the Food Safety Officer may
search any place, seize any article of food or adulterant, if there is a reasonable doubt about them
being involved in commission of any offence relating to food, and shall thereafter inform the
Designated Officer of the actions taken by him in writing: Provided that no search shall be deemed
to be irregular by reason only of the fact that witnesses for the search are not inhabitants of the
locality in which the place searched is situated.

(2) Save as in this Act otherwise expressly provided, provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure,
1973 (2 of 1974) relating to search, seizure, summon, investigation and prosecution, shall apply, as
far as may be, to all action taken by the Food Safety Officer under this Act.

SECTION 42. Procedure for launching prosecution.

(1) The Food Safety Officer shall be responsible for inspection of food business, drawing samples and
sending them to Food Analyst for analysis.

(2) The Food Analyst after receiving the sample from the Food Safety Officer shall analyse the sample
and send the analysis report mentioning method of sampling and analysis within fourteen days to
Designated Officer with a copy to Commissioner of Food Safety.

(3) The Designated Officer after scrutiny of the report of Food Analyst shall decide as to whether the
contravention is punishable with imprisonment or fine only and in the case of contravention
punishable with imprisonment, he shall send his recommendations within fourteen days to the
Commissioner of Food Safety for sanctioning prosecution.

(4) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, if he so deems fit decide, within the period prescribed by
the Central Government, as per the gravity of offence, whether the matter be referred to, –

(a) a court of ordinary jurisdiction in case of offences punishable with imprisonment for a term up to
three years. or

(b) a Special Court in case of offences punishable with imprisonment for a term exceeding three years
where such Special Court is established and in case no Special Court is established, such cases shall
be tried by a Court of ordinary jurisdiction.

(5) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall communicate his decision to the Designated Officer and
the concerned Food Safety Officer who shall launch prosecution before courts of ordinary jurisdiction
or Special Court, as the case may be. and such communication shall also be sent to the purchaser if
the sample was taken under section 40.

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CHAPTER VIII ANALYSIS OF FOOD
SECTION 43. Recognition and accreditation of laboratories, research institutions and
referral food laboratory
(1) The Food Authority may notify food laboratories and research institutions accredited by National
Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories or any other accreditation agency for
the purposes of carrying out analysis of samples by the Food Analysts under this Act.

(2) The Food Authority shall, establish or recognise by notification, one or more referral food
laboratory or laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted to the referral food laboratory by this
Act or any rules and regulations made thereunder.

(3) The Food Authority may frame regulations specifying –

(a) The functions of food laboratory and referral food laboratory and the local area or areas within
which such functions may be carried out.

(b) The procedure for submission to the said laboratory of samples of articles of food for analysis or
tests, the forms of the laboratory’s reports thereon and the fees payable in respect of such reports.
and

(c) Such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable the said laboratory to carry out
its functions effectively.

SECTION 44. Recognition of organisation or agency for food safety audit.

The Food Authority may recognise any organisation or agency for the purposes of food safety audit
and checking compliance with food safety management systems required under this Act or the rules
and regulations made thereunder.

SECTION 45. Food Analysts.

The Commissioner of Food Safety may, by notification, appoint such persons as he thinks fit, having
the qualifications prescribed by the Central Government, to be Food Analysts for such local areas as
may be assigned to them by the Commissioner of Food Safety: Provided that no person, who has any
financial interest in the manufacture or sale of any article of food shall be appointed to be a Food
Analyst under this section: Provided further that different Food Analysts may be appointed for
different articles of food.

SECTION 46. Functions of Food Analyst.

(1) On receipt of a package containing a sample for analysis from a Food Safety Officer or any other
person, the Food Analyst shall compare the seal on the container and the outer cover with specimen
impression received separately and shall note the conditions of the seal thereon: Provided that in
case a sample container received by the Food Analyst is found to be in broken condition or unfit for
analysis, he shall within a period of seven days from the date of receipt of such sample inform the
Designated Officer about the same and send requisition to him for sending second part of the sample.

(2) The Food Analyst shall cause to be analysed such samples of article of food as may be sent to him
by Food Safety Officer or by any other person authorised under this Act.

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(3) The Food Analyst shall, within a period of fourteen days from the date of receipt of any sample
for analysis, send-

(i) where such sample is received under section 38 or section 47, to the Designated Officer, four
copies of the report indicating the method of sampling and analysis. and

(ii) where such sample is received under section 40, a copy of the report indicating the method of
sampling and analysis to the person who had purchased such article of food with a copy to the
Designated Officer: Provided that in case the sample cannot be analysed within fourteen days of its
receipt, the Food Analyst shall inform the Designated Officer and the Commissioner of Food Safety
giving reasons and specifying the time to be taken for analysis.

(4) An appeal against the report of Food Analyst shall lie before the Designated Officer who shall, if
he so decides, refer the matter to the referral food laboratory as notified by the Food Authority for
opinion.

SECTION 47. Sampling and analysis.

(1) When a Food Safety Officer takes a sample of food for analysis, he shall –

(a) give notice in writing of his intention to have it so analysed to the person from whom he has taken
the sample and to the person, if any, whose name, address and other particulars have been disclosed.

(b) except in special cases as may be provided by rules made under this Act, divide the sample into
four parts and mark and seal or fasten up each part in such a manner as its nature permits and take
the signature or thumb impression Of the person from whom the sample has been taken in such
place and in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government: Provided that where
such person refuses to sign or put his thumb impression, the Food Safety Officer shall call upon one
or more witnesses and take his signature or thumb impression, in lieu of the signature or thumb
impression of such person.

(c)

(i) send one of the parts for analysis to the Food Analyst under intimation to the Designated Officer.
(ii) send two parts to the Designated Officer for keeping these in safe custody. and

(iii) send the remaining part for analysis to an accredited laboratory, if so requested by the food
business operator, under intimation to the Designated Officer: Provided that if the test reports
received under sub clauses (i) and (iii) are found to be at variance, then the Designated Officer shall
send one part of the sample kept in his custody, to referral laboratory for analysis, whose decision
thereon shall be final.

(2) When a sample of any article of food or adulterant is taken, the Food Safety Officer shall, by the
immediate succeeding working day, send the sample to the Food Analyst for the area concerned for
analysis and report.

(3) Where the part of the sample sent to the Food Analyst is lost or damaged, the Designated Officer
shall, on a requisition made to him, by the Food Analyst or the Food Safety Officer, despatch one of
the parts of the sample sent to him, to the Food Analyst for analysis.

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(4) An article of food or adulterant seized, unless destroyed, shall be produced before the Designated
Officer as soon as possible and in any case not later than seven days after the receipt of the report
of the Food Analyst: Provided that if an application is made to the Designated Officer in this behalf
by the person from whom any article of food has been seized, the Designated Officer shall by order
in writing direct the Food Safety Officer to produce such article before him within such time as may
be specified in the order.

(5) In case of imported articles of food, the authorised officer of the Food Authority shall take its
sample and send to the Food Analyst of notified laboratory for analysis who shall send the report
within a period of five days to the authorised officer.

(6) The Designated Officer, the Food Safety Officer, the authorised officer and the Food Analyst shall
follow such procedure as may be specified by regulations.

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CHAPTER IX OFFENCES AND PENALTIES
SECTION 48. General provisions relating to offences.
(1) A person may render any article of food injurious to health by means of one or more of the
following operations, namely:-

(a) adding any article or substance to the food.

(b) using any article or substance as an ingredient in the preparation of the food.

(c) abstracting any constituents from the food. or

(d) subjecting the food to any other process or treatment, with the knowledge that it may be sold or
offered for sale or distributed for human consumption.

(2) In determining whether any food is unsafe or injurious to health, regard shall be had to –

(a)

(i) the normal conditions of use of the food by the consumer and its handling at each stage of
production, processing and distribution.

(ii) the information provided to the consumer, including information on the label, or other
information generally available to the consumer concerning the avoidance of specific adverse health
effects from a particular food or category of foods not only to the probable, immediate or short-term
or long-term effects of that food on the health of a person consuming it, but also on subsequent
generations.

(iii) to the probable cumulative toxic effects.

(iv) to the particular health sensitivities of a specific category of consumers where the food is
intended for that category of consumers. and

(v) Also to the probable cumulative effect of food of substantially the same composition on the health
of a person consuming it in ordinary quantities.

(b) the fact where the quality or purity of the article, being primary food, has fallen below the
specified standard or its constituents are present in quantities not within the specified limits of
variability, in either case, solely due to natural causes and beyond the control of human agency, then
such article shall not be deemed to be unsafe or sub-standard or food containing extraneous matter.

Explanation – For the purposes of this section, “injury”, includes any impairment, whether
permanent or temporary, and “Injurious to health” shall be construed accordingly.

SECTION 49. General provisions relating to penalty.

While adjudging the quantum of penalty under this Chapter, the Adjudicating Officer or the Tribunal,
as the case may be, shall have due regard to the following:-

(a) The amount of gain or unfair advantage, wherever quantifiable, made as a result of the
contravention,

(b) The Amount of loss caused or likely to cause to any person as a result of the contravention,
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(c) The repetitive nature of the contravention,

(d) Whether the contravention is without his knowledge, and

(e) Any other relevant factor,

SECTION 50. Penalty for selling food not of the nature or substance or quality
demanded.
Any person who sells to the purchaser’s prejudice any food which is not in compliance with the
provisions of this Act or the regulations made thereunder, or of the nature or substance or quality
demanded by the purchaser, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five lakh rupees. Provided that
the persons covered under sub-section (2) of section 31, shall for such non-compliance be liable to a
penalty not exceeding twenty five thousand rupees.

SECTION 51. Penalty for sub-standard food.

Any person who whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for sale or
stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption which is sub-
standard, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to five lakh rupees.

SECTION 52. Penalty for misbranded food.

(1) Any person who whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for sale
or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption which is
misbranded, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to three lakh rupees.

(2) The Adjudicating Officer may issue a direction to the person found guilty of an offence under this
section, for taking corrective action to rectify the mistake or such article of food shall be destroyed.

SECTION 53. Penalty for misleading advertisement.

(1) Any person who publishes, or is a party to the publication of an advertisement, which–

(a) falsely describes any food. or

(b) is likely to mislead as to the nature or substance or quality of any food or gives false guarantee,
shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to ten lakh rupees.

(2) In any proceeding the fact that a label or advertisement relating to any article of food in respect
of which the contravention is alleged to have been committed contained an accurate statement of
the composition of the food shall not preclude the court from finding that the contravention was
committed.

SECTION 54. Penalty for food containing extraneous matter.

Any person whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for sale or stores
or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption containing extraneous
matter, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees.

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SECTION 55. Penalty for failure to comply with the directions of Food Safety Officer.
If a food business operator or importer without reasonable ground, fails to comply with the
requirements of this Act or the rules or regulations or orders issued thereunder, as directed by the
Food Safety Officer, he shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to two lakh rupees.

SECTION 56. Penalty for unhygienic or unsanitary processing or manufacturing of

food.
Any person who, whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures or processes
any article of food for human consumption under unhygienic or unsanitary conditions, shall be liable
to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees.

SECTION 57. Penalty for possessing adulterant.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this chapter, if any person who whether by himself or by any other
person on his behalf, imports or manufactures for sale, or stores, sells or distribute any adulterant
shall be liable –

(i) where such adulterant is not injurious to health, to a penalty not exceeding two lakh rupees.

(ii) where such adulterant is injurious to health, to a penalty not exceeding ten lakh rupees.

(2) In a proceeding under sub-section (1), it shall not be a defence that the accused was holding such
adulterant on behalf of any other person.

SECTION 58. Penalty for contraventions for which no specific penalty is provided.
Whoever contravenes any provisions of this Act or the rules or regulations made thereunder, for the
contravention of which no penalty has been separately provided in this Chapter, shall be liable to a
penalty which may extend to two lakh rupees.

SECTION 59. Punishment for unsafe food.

Any person who, whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures for sale or
stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption which is unsafe,
shall be punishable,-

(i) where such failure or contravention does not result in injury, with imprisonment for a term which
may extend to six months and also with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees.

(ii) where such failure or contravention results in a non-grievous injury, with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to one year and also with fine which may extend to three lakh rupees.

(iii) where such failure or contravention results in a grievous injury, with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to six years and also with fine which may extend to five lakh rupees.

(iv) where such failure or contravention results in death, with imprisonment for a term which shall
not be less than seven years but which may extend to imprisonment for life and also with fine which
shall not be less than ten lakh Rupees.

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SECTION 60. Punishment for interfering with seized items.
If a person without the permission of the Food Safety Officer, retains, removes or tampers with any
food, vehicle, equipment, package or labelling or advertising material or other thing that has been
seized under this Act, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six
months and also with fine which may extend to two lakh rupees.

SECTION 61. Punishment for false information.

If a person, in connection with a requirement or direction under this Act, provides any information
or produces any document that the person knows is false or misleading, he shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months and also with fine which may extend to
two lakh rupees.

SECTION 62. Punishment for obstructing or impersonating a Food Safety Officer.

If a person without reasonable excuse, resists, obstructs, or attempts to obstruct, impersonate,
threaten, intimidate or assault a Food Safety Officer in exercising his functions under this Act, he shall
be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months and also with fine
which may extend to one lakh rupees.

SECTION 63. Punishment for carrying out a business without licence.

If any person or food business operator (except the persons exempted from licensing under sub-
section (2) of section 31 of this Act), himself or by any person on his behalf who is required to obtain
licence, manufacturers, sells, stores or distributes or imports any article of food without licence, shall
be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months and also with a fine
which may extend to five lakh rupees.

SECTION 64. Punishment for subsequent offences.

(1) If any person, after having been previously convicted of an offence punishable under this Act
subsequently commits and is convicted of the same offence, he shall be liable to—

(i) twice the punishment, which might have been imposed on a first conviction, subject to the
punishment being maximum provided for the same offence.

(ii) a further fine on daily basis which may extend up to one lakh rupees, where the offence is a
continuing one. and

(iii) his licence shall be cancelled.

(2) The Court may also cause the offender’s name and place of residence, the offence and the penalty
imposed to be published at the offender’s expense in such newspapers or in such other manner as
the court may direct and the expenses of such publication shall be deemed to be part of the cost
attending the conviction and shall be recoverable in the same manner as a fine.

SECTION 65. Compensation in case injury of death of consumer

(1) Without prejudice to the other provisions of this Chapter, if any person whether by himself or by
any other person on his behalf, manufactures or distributes or sells or imports any article of food
causing injury to the consumer or his death, it shall be lawful for the Adjudicating Officer or as the
case may be, the court to direct him to pay compensation to the victim or the legal representative of
the victim, a sum-

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(a) not less than five lakh rupees in case of death.

(b) not exceeding three lakh rupees in case of grievous injury. and

(c) not exceeding one lakh rupees, in all other cases of injury:

Provided that the compensation shall be paid at the earliest and in no case later than six months from
the date of occurrence of the incident: Provided further that in case of death, an interim relief shall
be paid to the next of the kin within thirty days of the incident.

(2) Where any person is held guilty of an offence leading to grievous injury or death, the Adjudicating
Officer or the court may cause the name and place of residence of the person held guilty, the offence
and the penalty imposed to be published at the offender’s expense in such newspapers or in such
other manner as the Adjudicating Officer or the court may direct and the expenses of such publication
shall be deemed to be part of the cost attending the conviction and shall be recoverable in the same
manner as a fine.

(3) The Adjudicating Officer or the court may also, -

(a) order for cancellation of licence, re-call of food from market, forfeiture of establishment and
property in case of grievous injury or death of consumer.

(b) issue prohibition orders in other cases

SECTION 66. Offences by companies.

(1) Where an offence under this Act which has been committed by a company, every person who at
the time the offence was committed was in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the
conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:

Provided that where a company has different establishments or branches or different units in any
establishment or branch, the concerned Head or the person in-charge of such establishment, branch,
unit nominated by the company as responsible for food safety shall be liable for contravention in
respect of such establishment, branch or unit: Provided further that nothing contained in this sub-
section shall render any such person liable to any punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that
the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent
the commission of such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has been
committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the consent or
connivance of or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or
other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed
to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.

Explanation. -For the purpose of this section,-

(a) “company” means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other association of individuals. and
(b) “director” in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

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SECTION 67. Penalty for contravention of provisions of this Act in case of import of
articles of food to be in addition to penalties provided under any other Act.
(1) Any person who imports any article of food which is in contravention of the provisions of this Act,
rules and regulations made thereunder, shall, in addition to any penalty to which he may be liable
under the provisions of the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992) and
the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962) be also liable under this Act and shall be proceeded against
accordingly.

(2) Any such article of food shall be destroyed or returned to the importer, if permitted by the
competent authority under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992)
or the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962), or any other Act, as the case may be.

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CHAPTER X ADJUDICATION AND FOOD SAFETY APPELLATE TRIBUNAL
SECTION 68. Adjudication.
(1) For the purposes of adjudication under this Chapter, an officer not below the rank of Additional
District Magistrate of the district where the alleged offence is committed, shall be notified by the
State Government as the Adjudicating Officer for adjudication in the manner as may be prescribed
by the Central Government.

(2) The Adjudicating Officer shall, after giving the person a reasonable opportunity for making
representation in the matter, and if, on such inquiry, he is satisfied that the person has committed
the contravention of provisions of this Act or the rules or the regulations made thereunder, impose
such penalty as he thinks fit in accordance with the provisions relating to that offence.

(3) The Adjudicating Officer shall have the powers of a civil court and- (a) all proceedings before him
shall be deemed to be judicial proceedings within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Indian
Penal Code (45 of 1860). (b) shall be deemed to be a court for the purposes of sections 345 and 346
of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).

(4) while adjudicating the quantum of penalty under this Chapter, the Adjudicating Officer shall have
due regard to the guidelines specified in section 49.

SECTION 69. Power to compound offences.

(1) The Commissioner of Food Safety may, by order, empower the Designated Officer, to accept from
petty manufacturers who himself manufacture and sell any article of food, retailers, hawkers,
itinerant vendors, temporary stall holders against whom a reasonable belief exists that he has
committed an offence or contravention against this Act, payment of a sum of money by way of
composition of the offence which such person is suspected to have committed.

(2) On the payment of such sum of money to such officer, the suspected person, if in custody, shall
be discharged and no further proceedings in respect of the offence shall be taken against such person

(3) The sum of money accepted or agreed to be accepted as composition under sub section (1), shall
not be more than one lakh rupees and due regard shall be made to the guidelines specified in section
49: Provided that no offence, for which punishment of imprisonment has been prescribed under this
Act, shall be compounded.

SECTION 70. Establishment of Food Safety Appellate Tribunal.

(1) The Central Government or as the case may be, the State Government may, by notification,
establish one or more tribunals to be known as the Food Safety Appellate Tribunal to hear appeals
from the decisions of the Adjudicating Officer under section 68.

(2) The Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be, shall prescribe, the matters
and areas in relation to which the Tribunal may exercise jurisdiction.

(3) The Tribunal shall consist of one person only (hereinafter referred to as the Presiding Officer of
the Tribunal) to be appointed, by notification, by the Central Government or the State Government,
as the case may be: Provided that no person shall be qualified for appointment as a Presiding Officer
to the Tribunal unless he is or has been a District Judge.

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(4) The qualifications, appointment, term of office, salary and allowances, resignation and removal
of the Presiding Officer shall be such as may be prescribed by the Central Government.

(5) The procedure of appeal and powers of the Tribunal shall be such as may be prescribed by the
Central Government.

SECTION 71. Procedure and powers of the Tribunal.

(1) The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908
(5 of 1908) but shall be guided by the principles of natural justice and, subject to the other provisions
of this Act and the rules made thereunder, the Tribunal shall have powers to regulate its own
procedure including the place at which it shall have its sittings.

(2) The Tribunal shall have, for the purposes of discharging its functions under this Act, the same
powers as are vested in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908), while trying
a suit, in respect of the following matters, namely:-

(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining him on oath.

(b) requiring the discovery and production of documents or other electronic records.

(c) receiving evidence on affidavits.

(d) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents.

(e) reviewing its decisions.

(f) dismissing an application for default or deciding it ex parte.

(g) any other matter which may be prescribed by the Central Government.

(3) Every proceeding before the Tribunal shall be deemed to be a judicial proceeding within the
meaning of sections 193 and 228, and for the purposes of section 196 of the Indian Penal Code (45
of 1860), it shall be deemed to be a civil court for all the purposes of section 195 and Chapter XXVI
of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).

(4) The appellant may either appear in person or authorise one or more legal practitioners or any of
its officers to represent his case before the Tribunal.

(5) The provisions of the Limitation Act, 1963 (36 of 1963), shall, except as otherwise provided in this
Act, apply to an appeal made to the Tribunal.

(6) Any person aggrieved by any decision or order of the Tribunal may file an appeal to the High Court
within sixty days from the date of communication of the decision or order of the Tribunal to him on
any question of fact or law arising out of such order: Provided that the High Court may, if it is satisfied
that the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from filing the appeal within the said period,
allow it to be filed within a further period not exceeding sixty days.

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SECTION 72. Civil court not to have jurisdiction.
No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any matter which
an Adjudicating Officer or the Tribunal is empowered by or under this Act to determine and no
injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any action taken or to be
taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.

SECTION 73. Power of court to try cases summarily.

Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), all offences
not triable by a Special Court, shall be tried in a summary way by a Judicial Magistrate of the first
class or by a Metropolitan Magistrate and the provisions of sections 262 to 265 (both inclusive) of
the said Code shall, as far as may be, apply to such a trial: Provided that in the case of any conviction
in a summary trial under this section, it shall be lawful for the Magistrate to pass a sentence of
imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year: Provided further that when at the commencement
of, or in the course of, a summary trial under this section, it appears to the Magistrate that the nature
of the case is such that a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding one year may have to be
passed or that it is, for any other reason, undesirable to try the case summarily, the Magistrate shall
after hearing the parties, record an order to that effect and thereafter recall any witness who may
have been examined and proceed to hear or rehear the case in the manner provided by the said
Code.

SECTION 74. Special courts and Public Prosecutor.

(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act or in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of
1974), the Central Government or the State Government in their respective jurisdictions may, if
consider expedient and necessary in the public interest, for the purposes of the trial of offences
relating to grievous injury or death of the consumer for which punishment of imprisonment for more
than three years has been prescribed under this Act, constitute, by notification in the Official Gazette,
as many Special Courts with the concurrence of the Chief Justice of the High Court as may be
necessary for such area or areas and for exercising such jurisdiction, as may be specified in the
notification.

(2) A Special Court may, on its own motion, or on an application made by the Public Prosecutor and
if it considers it expedient or desirable so to do, sit for any of its proceedings at any place other than
its ordinary place of sitting.

(3) The trial under this Act of any offence by a Special Court shall have precedence over the trial of
any other case against the accused in any other court (not being a Special Court) and shall be
concluded in preference to the trial of such other case and accordingly the trial of such other case
shall remain in abeyance.

(4) For every Special Court, the Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be,
shall appoint a person to be the Public Prosecutor and may appoint more than one person to be the
Additional Public Prosecutors: Provided that the Central Government or the State Government, as
the case may be, may also appoint for any case or class or group of cases, a Special Public Prosecutor.

(5) A person shall not be qualified to be appointed as a Public Prosecutor or an Additional Public
Prosecutor or a Special Public Prosecutor under this section unless he has been in practice as an
Advocate for not less than seven years or has held any post, for a period of not less than seven years,
under the Union or a State, requiring special knowledge of law.

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SECTION 75. Power to transfer cases to regular courts.
Where, after taking cognizance of any offence, a Special Court is of the opinion that the offence is
not triable by it, it shall, notwithstanding that it has no jurisdiction to try such offence, transfer the
case for the trial of such offence to any court having jurisdiction under the Code of Criminal
Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) and the court to which the case is transferred may proceed with the trial
of the offence as if it had taken cognizance of the offence.

SECTION 76. Appeal.

(1) Any person aggrieved by a decision or order of a Special Court may, on payment of such fee as
may be prescribed by the Central Government and after depositing the amount, if any, imposed by
way of penalty, compensation or damage under this Act, within forty-five days from the date on
which the order was served, prefer an appeal to the High Court: Provided that the High Court may
entertain any appeal after the expiry of the said period of forty-five days, if it is satisfied that the
appellant was prevented by sufficient cause for filing the appeal within the said period.

(2) An appeal preferred under this section shall be disposed of by the High Court by a bench of not
less than two judges.

SECTION 77. Time limit for prosecutions.

Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, no court shall take cognizance of an offence under
this Act after the expiry of the period of one year from the date of commission of an offence: Provided
that the Commissioner of Food Safety may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, approve
prosecution within an extended period of up to three years.

SECTION 78. Power of court to implead manufacturer etc.

Where at any time during the trial of any offence under this Act alleged to have been committed by
any person, not being the importer, manufacturer, distributor or dealer of any article of food, the
court, is satisfied, on the evidence adduced before it, that such importer, manufacturer, distributor
or dealer is also concerned with that offence, then the court may, notwithstanding anything
contained in sub-section (3) of section 319 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), or in
section 71 of this Act, proceed against him as though a prosecution has been instituted under this
Act.

SECTION 79. Magistrate’s power to impose enhanced punishment.

Notwithstanding anything contained in section 29 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of
1974), it shall be lawful for the court of ordinary jurisdiction to pass any sentence authorised by this
Act, except a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding six years in excess of his powers under
the said section.

SECTION 80. Defences which may or may not be allowed in prosecution under this
Act.
(A) Defence relating to publication of advertisements (1) In any proceeding for an offence under this
Act in relation to the publication of an advertisement, it is a defence for a person to prove that the
person carried on the business of publishing or arranging for the publication of advertisements and
that the person published or arranged for the publication of the advertisement in question in the
ordinary course of that business.

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(2) Clause (1) does not apply if the person-

(a) should reasonably have known that the publication of the advertisement was an offence. or

(b) had previously been informed in writing by the relevant authority that publication of such an
advertisement would constitute an offence. or

(c) is the food business operator or is otherwise engaged in the conduct of a food business for which
the advertisements concerned were published.

(B) Defence of due diligence-

(1) In any proceedings for an offence, it is a defence if it is proved that the person took all reasonable
precautions and exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of the offence by such person
or by another person under the person’s control.

(2) Without limiting the ways in which a person may satisfy the requirements of clause (1), a person
satisfies those requirements if it is proved-

(a) that the commission of the offence was due to-

(i) an act or default of another person. or (ii) reliance on information supplied by another person. and

(b)

(i) the person carried out all such checks of the food concerned as were reasonable in all the
circumstances. or

(ii) it was reasonable in all the circumstances to rely on checks carried out by the person who supplied
such food to the person. and

(c) that the person did not import the food into the jurisdiction from another country. and

(d) in the case of an offence involving the sale of food, that-

(i) the person sold the food in the same condition as and when the person purchased it. or

(ii) the person sold the food in a different condition to that in which the person purchased it, but that
the difference did not result in any contravention of this Act or the rules and regulations made
thereunder. and

(e) that the person did not know and had no reason to suspect at the time of commission of the
alleged offence that the person’s act or omission would constitute an offence under the relevant
section.

(3) In sub-clause (a) of clause (2), another person does not include a person who was—

(a) an employee or agent of the defendant. or

(b) in the case of a defendant which is a company, a director, employee or agent of that company.

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(4) Without limiting the ways in which a person may satisfy the requirements of clause (1) and item
(i) of sub-clause (b) of clause (2), a person may satisfy those requirements by proving that—

(a) in the case of an offence relating to a food business for which a food safety programme is required
to be prepared in accordance with the regulations, the person complied with a food safety
programme for the food business s that complies with the requirements of the regulations, or

(b) In any other case, the person complied with a scheme (for example, a quality assurance
programme or an industry code of practice) that was

(i) Designed to manage food safety hazards and based on national or international standards, codes
or guidelines designed for that purpose, and (ii) Documented in some manner.

(C) Defence of mistaken and reasonable belief not available-

In any proceedings for an offence under the provisions of this Act, it is no defence that the defendant
had a mistaken but reasonable belief as to the facts that constituted the offence.

(D) Defence in respect of handling food-

In proceedings for an offence under section 56, it is a defence if it is proved that the person caused
the food to which the offence relates to be destroyed or otherwise disposed of immediately after the
food was handled in the manner that was likely to render it unsafe.

(E) Defences of significance of the nature, substance or quality of food-

It shall be no defence in a prosecution for an offence pertaining to the sale of any unsafe or
misbranded article of food to allege merely that the food business operator was ignorant of the
nature, substance or quality of the food sold by him or that the purchaser having purchased any
article for analysis was not prejudiced by the sale.

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CHAPTER XI FINANCE, ACCOUNTS, AUDIT AND REPORTS
SECTION 81. Budget of Food Authority.
(1) The Food Authority shall prepare, in such form and at such time in each financial year as may be
prescribed by the Central Government, its budget for the next financial year, showing the estimated
receipts and expenditure of the Food Authority and forward the same to the Central Government.

(2) The Food Authority with the prior approval of the Central Government, shall adopt financial
regulation which specifies in particular, the procedure for drawing up and implementing the
Authority’s budget.

SECTION 82. Finances of the Food Authority.

(1) The Central Government may, after due appropriation, make to the Food Authority grants of such
sums of money as the Central Government may think fit.

(2) The Food Authority on the recommendation of the Central Advisory Committee shall specify a
graded fee from licensed food business operators, accredited laboratories or food safety auditors to
be charged by the commissioner of Food Safety.

SECTION 83. Accounts and audit of Food Authority.

(1) The Food Authority shall maintain proper accounts and relevant records and prepare an annual
statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the Central Government in consultation
with the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.

(2) The Comptroller and Auditor-General and any person appointed by him in connection with the
audit of the accounts of the Food Authority under this Act shall have the same rights and privileges
and authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-General generally has in
connection with the audit of Government accounts and, in particular, shall have the right to demand
the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to
inspect any of the offices of the Food Authority.

(3) The accounts of the Food Authority, as certified by the Comptroller and Auditor General or any
other person appointed by him in this behalf, together with the audit report thereon shall be
forwarded annually to the Central Government by the Food Authority and the Central Government
shall cause the audit report to be laid, as soon as may be after it is received, before each House of
Parliament.

SECTION 84. Annual report of Food Authority.

(1) The Food Authority shall prepare once every year, in such form and at such time as may be
prescribed by the Central Government, an annual report giving a summary of its activities during the
previous year and copies of the report shall be forwarded to the Central Government and State
Governments.

(2) A copy of the report received under sub-section (1) shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is
received, before each House of Parliament.

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CHAPTER XII MISCELLANEOUS
SECTION 85. Power of Central Government to issue directions to Food Authority and
obtain reports and returns.
(1) Without prejudice to the foregoing provisions of this Act, the Food Authority shall, in exercise of
its powers and in performance of its functions under this Act, be bound by such directions on
questions of policy, other than those relating to technical and administrative matters, as the Central
Government may give in writing to it from time to time: Provided that the Food Authority shall, as
far as practicable, be given an opportunity to express its views before any direction is given under
this sub-section.

(2) If any dispute arises between the Central Government and the Food Authority as to whether a
question is or is not a question of policy, the decision of the Central Government thereon shall be
final.

(3) The Food Authority shall furnish to the Central Government such returns or other information
with respect to its activities as the Central Government may, from time to time, require.

SECTION 86. Power of Central Government to give directions to State Governments.

The Central Government may give such directions, as it may deem necessary, to a State Government
for carrying out all or any of the provisions of this Act and the State Government shall comply with
such directions.

SECTION 87. Members, officers of Food Authority and Commissioner of Food Safety
to be public servants.

The Members, officers of the Food Authority and the Commissioners of Food Safety and their officers
shall be deemed, when acting or purporting to act in pursuance of any of the provisions of this Act,
to be public servants within the meaning section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).

SECTION 88. Protection of action taken in good faith.

No suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against the Central Government, the State
Government, the Food Authority and other bodies constituted under this Act or any officer of the
Central Government, the State Government or any member, officer or other employee of such
Authority and bodies or any other officer acting under this Act for anything which is in good faith
done or intended to be done under this Act or the rules or regulations made thereunder.

SECTION 89. Overriding effect of this Act over all other food related laws.
The provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith
contained in any other law for the time being in force or in any instrument having effect by virtue of
any law other than this Act.

SECTION 90. Transfer of existing employees of Central Government Agencies

governing various foods related Acts or Orders to the Food Authority.
On and from the date of establishment of the Food Authority, every employee holding office under
the Central Government Agencies administering food laws immediately before that date shall hold

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his office in the Food Authority by the same tenure and upon the same terms and conditions of
service including remuneration, leave, provident fund, retirement and other terminal benefits as he
would have held such office if the Food Authority had not been established and shall continue to do
so as an employee of the Food Authority or until the expiry of the period of six months from that date
if such employee opts not to be the employee of the Food Authority.

SECTION 91. Power of Central Government to make rules.

(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out
the provisions of this Act.

(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:-

(a) salary, terms and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members other than ex officio
Members under subsection (2) and the manner of subscribing to an oath of office and secrecy under
sub-section (3) of section 7.

(b) qualifications of Food Safety Officer under sub-section (1) of section 37.

(c) the manner of taking the extract of documents seized under sub-clause (8) of section 38.

(d) determination of cases for referring to appropriate courts and time-frame for such determination
under sub-section (4) of section 42.

(e) qualifications of Food Analysts under section 45.

(f) the manner of sending sample for analysis and details of the procedure to be followed in this
regard under subsection (1) of section 47.

(g) the procedure to be followed in adjudication of cases under sub-section (1) of section 68.

(h) qualifications, terms of office, resignation and removal of Presiding Officer under sub-section (4),
the procedure of appeal and powers of Tribunal under sub-section (5) of section 70.

(i) any other matter relating to procedure and powers of Tribunal under clause (g) of sub-section (2)
of section 71.

(j) the fee to be paid for preferring an appeal to the High Court under subsection (1) of section 76.

(k) form and time of preparing budget under sub-section (1) of section 81.

(l) form and statement of accounts under sub-section (1) of section 83.

(m) the form and time for preparing annual report by Food Authority under sub-section (1) of section
84. and

(n) any other matter which is required to be, or may be, prescribed or in respect of which provision
is to be made by rules by the Central Government.

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SECTION 92. Power of Food Authority to make regulations.
(1) The Food Authority may, with the previous approval of the Central Government and after previous
publication, by notification, make regulations consistent with this Act and the rules made thereunder
to carry out the provisions of this Act.

(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such regulations
may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:-

(a) salaries and other conditions of service of officers and other employees of the Food Authority
under sub-section (3) of section 9.

(b) rules of procedure for transaction of business under subsection (5) of section 11.

(c) other functions of the Central Advisory Committee under sub-section (2) of section 12.

(d) procedure of Scientific Committee and Panels under subsection (4) of section 15.

(e) notifying standards and guidelines in relation to articles of food meant for human consumption
under sub-section (2) of section 16.

(f) procedure to be followed by Food Authority for transaction of business at its meetings under sub-
section (1) of section 17.

(g) making or amending regulations in view of urgency concerning food safety or public health under
clause (d) of sub-section (2) of section 18.

(h) limits of additives under section 19.

(i) limits of quantities of contaminants, toxic substance and heavy metals, etc., under section 20.

(j) tolerance limit of pesticides, veterinary drugs residues, etc, under section 21.

(k) the manner of marking and labelling of foods under section 23.

(l) form in which guarantee shall be given under sub-section (4) of section 26.

(m) conditions and guidelines relating to food recall procedures under sub section (4) of section 28.
(n) regulations relating to functioning of Food Safety Officer under sub section (5) of section 29.

(o) notifying the registering authority and the manner of registration. the manner of making
application for obtaining licence, the fees payable therefore and the circumstances under which such
licence may be cancelled or forfeited under section 31.

(p) the respective areas of which the Designated Officer shall be in-charge for food safety
administration under subsection (1) of section 36.

(q) procedure in getting food analysed, details of fees etc., under sub-section (1) of section 40.

(r) functions, procedure to be followed by food laboratories under sub-section (3) of section 43.

(s) procedure to be followed by officials under sub-section (6) of section 47.

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(t) financial regulations to be adopted by the Food Authority in drawing up its budget under sub-
section (2) of section 81.

(u) issue guidelines or directions for participation in Codex Meetings and preparation of response to
Codex matters. and

(v) any other matter which is required to be, or may be, specified by regulations or in respect of which
provision is to be made by regulations.

SECTION 93. Laying of rules and regulations before Parliament.

Every rule and every regulation made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made,
before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which may be
comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the
session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in
making any modification in the rule or regulation or both Houses agree that the rule or regulation
should not be made, the rule or regulation shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or
be of no effect, as the case may be. so, however, that any such modification or annulment shall be
without prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that rule or regulation.

SECTION 94. Power of State Government to make rules.

(1) Subject to the powers of the Central Government and the Food Authority to make rules and
regulations respectively, the State Government may, after previous publication and with the previous
approval of the Food Authority, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules to carry out the
functions and duties assigned to the State Government and the State Commissioner of Food Safety
under this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:-

(a) other functions of the Commissioner of Food Safety under clause (f) of sub-section (2) of section
30.

(b) earmarking a fund and the manner in which reward shall be paid to a person rendering assistance
in detection of offence or apprehension of offender under section 95. and (c) any other matter which
is required to be, or may be prescribed or in respect of which provision is to be made by rules by the
State Government.

(3) Every rule made by the State Government under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it
is made, before each House of the State Legislature where it consists of two Houses or where such
State Legislature consists of one House, before that House.

SECTION 95. Reward by State Government.

The State Government may empower the Commissioner of Food Safety to order payment of reward
to be paid to a person who renders assistance in the detection of the offence or the apprehension of
the offender, from such fund and in such manner as may be prescribed by the State Government.

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SECTION 96. Recovery of penalty.
A penalty imposed under this Act, if it is not paid, shall be recovered as an arrear of land revenue and
the defaulters licence shall be suspended till the penalty is paid.

SECTION 97. Repeal and savings.

(1) With effect from such date as the Central Government may appoint in this behalf, the enactment
and Orders specified in the Second Schedule shall stand repealed: Provided that such repeal shall not
affect:-

(i) the previous operations of the enactment and Orders under repeal or anything duly done or
suffered there under. or

(ii) any right, privilege, obligation or liability acquired, accrued or incurred under any of the
enactment or Orders under repeal. or

(iii) any penalty, forfeiture or punishment incurred in respect of any offences committed against the
enactment and Orders under repeal. or

(iv) any investigation or remedy in respect of any such penalty, forfeiture or punishment, and any
such investigation, legal proceedings or remedy may be instituted, continued or enforced and any
such penalty, forfeiture or punishment may be imposed, as if this Act had not been passed:

(2) If there is any other law for the time being in force in any State, corresponding to this Act, the
same shall upon the commencement of this Act, stand repealed and in such case, the provisions of
section 6 of the General Clauses Act, 1897(10 of 1897) shall apply as if such provisions of the State
law had been repealed.

(3) Notwithstanding the repeal of the aforesaid enactment and Orders, the licences issued under any
such enactment or Order, which are in force on the date of commencement of this Act, shall continue
to be in force till the date of their expiry for all purposes, as if they had been issued under the
provisions of this Act or the rules or regulations made thereunder.

(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, no court shall
take cognizance of an offence under the repealed Act or Orders after the expiry of a period of three
years from the date of the commencement of this Act.

SECTION 98. Transitory provisions for food standards

Notwithstanding the repeal of the enactment and Orders specified in the Second Schedule, the
standards, safety requirements and other provisions of the Act and the rules and regulations made
thereunder and Orders listed in that Schedule shall continue to be in force and operate till new
standards are specified under this Act or rules and regulations made thereunder: Provided that
anything done or any action taken under the enactment and Orders under repeal shall be deemed to
have been done or taken under the corresponding provisions of this Act and shall continue in force
accordingly unless and until superseded by anything done or by any action taken under this Act.

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SECTION 99. Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992 shall be deemed to be regulations
made under this Act.
(1) On and from the date of commencement of this Act, the Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
issued under the Essential commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955) shall be deemed to be the Milk and
Milk Products Regulations, 1992 issued by the Food Authority under this Act.

(2) The Food Authority may, with the previous approval of the Central Government and after previous
publication, by notification, amend the regulations specified in sub-section (1) to carry out the
purposes of this Act.

SECTION 100. Amendments to the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant
Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992.
As from the notified day, the provisions of the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant
Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 (41 of 1992) (herein referred to
as the principal Act) shall apply subject to the following amendments, namely:-

(a) throughout the principal Act, any reference to “the Prevention of the Food Adulteration Act, 1954
(37 of 1954)” shall be substituted by reference to “the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006”.

(b) in section 12 of the principal Act, the reference to “any Food Inspector appointed under section
9 of the Prevention of the Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)” shall be substituted by reference
to “any Food Safety Officer appointed under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006”.

(c) throughout the principal Act, any reference to “Food Inspector” shall be substituted by the
expression “the Food Safety Officer”. and

(d) in section 21 of the principal Act, in sub-section (1), the reference to clause (a) shall be substituted
by the following, namely:-

“(a) the Designated Officer or the Food Safety Officer directed under sub-section (5) of section 42 of
the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. or”.

SECTION 101. Power to remove difficulties.

(1) If any difficulty arises in giving effect to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government may,
by order published in the Official Gazette, make such provisions not inconsistent with the provisions
of this Act, as may appear to be necessary, for removing the difficulty: Provided that no order shall
be made under this section after of the expiry of the period of three years from the date of
commencement of this Act,

(2) Every order made under this section shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each
House of Parliament.

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CHAPTER 02
FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

FSSAI
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is an autonomous statutory body
established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
Parent Agency: Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the
administrative Ministry of FSSAI.
Headquarters: New Delhi.

HISTORY
• FSSAI was established by Former Union Minister Dr. Anbumani Ramadosss,
Government of India on 5 August 2011 under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
which was operationalized in year 2006. The FSSAI consists of a chairperson & 22
members.
• The FSSAI is responsible for setting standards for food so that there is one body to
deal with food rules and regulation in India and no confusion in the minds of
consumers, traders, manufacturers and investors.
• Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative
Ministry of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India.

The following are the statutory powers that the FSS Act, 2006 gives to the
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
1. Framing of regulations to lay down food safety standards.
2. Laying down guidelines for accreditation of laboratories for food testing.
3. Providing scientific advice and technical support to the Central Government.
4. Contributing to the development of international technical standards in food.
5. Collecting and collating data regarding food consumption, contamination,
emerging risks etc.
6. Disseminating information and promoting awareness about food safety and
nutrition in India.

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 GENESIS OF FSSAI
Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006 consolidates various acts & orders that had earlier
handled food related issues in various Ministries and Departments, such as:

1. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

2. Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. Meat Food Products Order, 1973
4. Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order 1998
6. Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
7. Essential commodities Act,1955
8. The solvent Extraction oil, De oiled Meal and Edible Flour (control) order,1967

THESE WERE REPEALED AFTER COMMENCEMENT OF FSS ACT, 2006. FSSAI

WAS CONSEQUENTLY ESTABLISHED IN 2008 BUT WORK WITHIN THE FOOD AUTHORITY EFFECTIVELY
BEGAN IN 2011 AFTER ITS RULES AND KEY REGULATIONS WERE NOTIFIED.

ESTABLISHMENT OF FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF

INDIA (FSSAI)

The Executive Authority under the Act is assigned to the Ministry of Health & Family
Welfare, Government of India (MOHFW). On 5th September ,2008, Government of
India notified establishment of Food Safety & Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) under
section of the FSS Act which is central authority for enforcement & implementation of
the Act. As per Act the head quarter for FSSAI shall be in Delhi and will establish its
offices in other parts of India.

1. The head office of the Food Authority shall be at New Delhi.

2. The Food Authority may establish its offices at any other place an India.
3. Today the authority also has 6 regional offices located in Delhi, Guwahati,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Cochin and Chennai.
4. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare with the mandate for laying down Science
based standards for article of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage,
Distribution, sale and insure availability of safe and wholesome food for human
consumption.

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❖ ROLE & FUNCTION
The main role of Authority is to regulate and monitor, manufacture, processing,
distribution, sale and import of food while ensuring safe and wholesome food to the
consumers. The Act lays down the following main functions for discharge by the
Authority.
• Framing of regulations to lay down the standards and guidelines of food safety.
• Granting FSSAI food safety license and certification for food businesses.
• Laying down procedure and guidelines for laboratories in food businesses.
• To provide suggestions to the government in framing the policies.
• To collect data regarding contaminants in foods products, identification of
emerging risks and introduction of rapid alert system.
• Specifying limits for Additives, Contaminants, Pesticides & Veterinary drugs
residues, Heavy Metals, Mycotoxins, Antibiotics and Pharmacological active
substances.
• Lay down food labelling standards including claims on health nutrition, special
dietary uses and food category system for foods.
• Prescribing the procedure and the enforcement of quality control in relation to
any imported article of food into India.
• Lay down method of sampling, analyzing and exchange of information
enforcement agencies prescribing procedures and guidelines for accreditation
of certification bodies and laboratories.
• Creating an information network across the country and Providing Training
Program to person who are involved or intent to get involved in food businesses.
• Promoting general awareness about food safety and food standard and
promoting coordination of work on food standard.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF FSSAI AS FOOD SAFETY

(a) Provide scientific advice and technical support to the Central Government and
the State Governments in matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which
have a direct or indirect bearing on food safety and nutrition.

(b) Promote, co-ordinate and issue guidelines for the development of risk
assessment methodologies and monitor and conduct and forward messages on
the health and nutritional risks of food to the Central Government, State
Governments and Commissioners of Food Safety.

(c) Provide scientific and technical advice and assistance to the Central Government
and the State Governments in implementation of crisis management procedures
with regard to food safety and to draw up a general plan for crisis management

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 and work in close co-operation with the crisis unit set up by the Central
Government in this regard.

(d) Establish a system of network of organizations with the aim to facilitate a

scientific cooperation framework by the co-ordination of activities, the
exchange of information, the development and implementation of joint
projects, the exchange of expertise and best practices in the fields within the
Food Authority's responsibility.

(e) Provide scientific and technical assistance to the Central Government and the
State Governments for improving co-operation with international organizations.

(f) Provide directions from time to time, on matters relating to food safety and
standards, to the Commissioner of Food Safety, who shall be bound by such
directions while exercising his powers under Section 16(5) of this Act.

STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK OF FSSAI

Food Safety and Standards Authority

of India (FSSAI)
Chairperson

Scientific Panel (21) Food Authority

CEO Scientific Committee
Central Advisory (22 Members)
Committee

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 Governing Structure of FSSAI

Food Authority
Chairperson + 22 Member

FOOD STANDARDS COMPLIANCE AND

INSPECTION

Scientific Committee Central Advisory Committee

Chairperson of the
Scientific Panel & 6 State level Steering Committee
Independent Member
District Level Advisory
Committee

21 Scientific Panel

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 FSSAI WORKS THROUGH 11 DIVISIONS
1. Standard Division
2. Regulation & Codex Division
3. Regulatory Compliance/Surveillance Division
4. Quality Assurance
5. Human Resources, Vigilance And Training Division
6. Finance Division
7. Import Division
8. Risk Assessment and R & D Division
9. FSMS Division
10.General Administration Division
11.Legal Division

FSSAI: FOOD AUTHORITY

• It comprises of 22 members representing various ministries and Departments such
has Agriculture, Commerce, Consumer affairs Food Processing, Health, Legislative
Affairs And other stake holders representing farmers, scientists and technologist
small scale industries and retail organizations, with a minimum composition of one
third of the members being women.
• The food Authority from time to time brings out regulations to regulate food
activities.
• The food Authority may time to time give such direction on matters relating to food
safety and standard to the commissioner of Food Safety of state, who shall be bound
by such directions while exercising his power under this Act.

❖ CENTRAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

• The Food Authority is responsible for framing of policies for food and state food
regulators have active role to play in enforcement of the law and ensuring food
safety and quality.
• The CAC Comprises of representative of concerned Central Ministries/
Departments, State /union Territory Governments and other stakeholder, provides
the connecting bridge among the FSSAI, the enforcement agencies (state).
• The primary mandate of CAC is advising the Authority on work programmed
identifying potential risks and pooling of knowledge.

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 The Central Advisory Committee shall advise the Food Authority on-
a. the performance of its duties under this section
b. On the prioritization (importance) of work
c. Identifying potential risks
d. Pooling of knowledge (creation of knowledge through learning)
e. such other functions as may be specified by regulations.

❖ CHAIRPERSON
The functional head of the Food Authority is the Chairperson appointed for the
period of three years by the Government of India from amongst the persons of
eminence in the field of food science or amongst the person from the Administration
holding or has held the position of not below the rank of Secretary to the
Government of India.

❖ SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
• The food authority shall constitute Scientific Committee which shall consist of the
chairperson of the Scientific Panels and six 6 independent scientific experts.
• The SC shall be responsible for providing the scientific opinions to the Food
Authority.
• The Scientific Committee shall have the power, where necessary organizing public
hearings.
• The Scientific Committee shall provide opinions on multi-sectoral issues falling
within the competence of more than one Scientific Panel, and on issues which do
not fall within the competence of any of the Scientific Panels.

❖ SCIENTIFIC PANELS
Scientific Panels Provide their expert advice on specific fields such as biologicals
hazards, contaminants, food testing & sampling, water, meats, dairy, cereals, oil
nutraceuticals etc.
The Food Authority may establish as many Scientific Panels as it considers necessary
in addition to the Panels on:
• food additives, flavoring, processing aids and materials in contact with food.
• pesticides and antibiotics residues
• genetically modified organisms and foods
• functional foods, nutraceuticals, dietetic products and other similar products
• biological hazards
• contaminants in the food chain
• labelling
• method of sampling and analysis

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❖ CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
• The chief Executive officer of the Food Authority is an Officer not below the rank of
Additional Secretary to the Government of India appointed by the Government of
the India as the Executive Head of FSSAI.
• He is responsible for the Day to Day Administration of the Food Authority.
• The CEO has Administrative control over the officers and other employees of the
Food Authority.
• The CEO exercise the powers to the Commissioner of Food Safety while dealing with
matters relating to food safety of such article.
• The Chief Executive officer is Member Secretary of Food Authority.

FOOD SAFETY ENFORCEMENT AND STATE FOOD AUTHORITIES

• India is a vast country with over 1.35 billion population so food safety enforcement
is a challenging task.
• The Food Authority and the State Food Safety Authorities jointly share this
responsibility. While Food Authority provides policy intervention, direction and
coordination at national level, States/UTs conduct food safety enforcement at the
field level.
• The responsibility of compliance of food standards as per Food Safety and Standards
Act, 2006.
• The FSSAI provides necessary support to states and UTs. The huge differentiation
among States/UTs in terms of size, population, food culture, languages, industry
penetration, manufacturing capability and location has its own level of maturity in
terms of enforcement capability which is consistently growing and improving.

STATE

State Food Safety Commissioner

Designated Officer

State Food Safety Officer

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STATE FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITIES
The framework for food safety enforcement machinery provided under Food Safety
and Standards Act, 2006 and Rules and Regulations has the following officers.

Designated Officer Food Safety Officer

Commissioner of Food
Safety

Adjudicating Officer Food Analyst

❖ COMMISSIONER OF FOOD SAFETY OF THE STATE

As per the Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006, the State Food Safety machinery is
headed by the Commissioner of Food Safety of State.
The Commissioner of Food Safety performs any of the following functions,
namely:
• Prohibit, in the interest of public health, the manufacture, storage, distribution or sale
of any article of food, either in the whole of the State or any area or part thereof for
such period, not exceeding one year, as may be specified in the order notified in this
behalf in the Official Gazette.
• Carry out survey of the industrial units engaged in the manufacture or processing of
food In the State to find out compliance by such units of the standards notified by the
Food Authority for various articles of food.
• Conduct or organize training program for the personnel of the office of the
Commissioner of Food Safety and on a wider scale, for different segments of food
chain for generating awareness on food safety.

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• Sanction prosecution (a process of officially charging somebody with a crime in a court
of law) for offences punishable with imprisonment under this Act.
• The Commissioner of Food Safety may delegate (hand over), such of his powers and
functions under this Act (except the power to appoint Designated Officer, Food Safety
Officer and Food Analyst) to any officer subordinate to him.

❖ DESIGNATED OFFICER
• The Commissioner of Food Safety, by order, appoints the Designated Officer, who
will not below the rank of a Sub-Divisional Officer, to be in-charge of food safety
administration in such area as may be specified by regulations.
• There has to be a Designated Officer for each district of a state.
• Chief Executive Officer of the Food Authority appoints Central Designated Officers by
order in his capacity as a Commissioner of Food Safety of the country, while dealing
with matters relating to food safety.
• A Central Designated Officer is a Central Licensing Authority and a State Designated
Officer is a State Licensing Authority.

▪ Functions of the Designated Officer

• Shall be a whole time officer, not below the rank of Sub divisional Officer or
Equivalent.
• Appointment shall be done by Commissioner of Food Safety and each district will
have at least one Designated Officer who has the power to issue or cancel license.
• Prohibit sale of any article of food in contravention (violation) with the provisions of
the Act and the rules.
• Receive report and samples of articles from Food Safety Officer under his jurisdiction
and get them.
• Recommended cases to Commissioner for sanction to launch prosecution, in case the
contravention is punishable with imprisonment.
• Sanction or launch prosecution in case of contravention punishable with fine or
recommended the case to Commissioner for punishment with imprisonment.
• Maintain record of all inspections made by Food Safety Officer and the Actions taken
by them, etc.
• To issue or cancel licence of food business operators
• To investigate any complaint which may be made in writing against the Food Safety
Officer;
• To perform such other duties as may be entrusted by the Commissioner of Food
Safety.

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❖ ADJUDICATING OFFICER
• The role of adjudicating office is important for looking into offences committed/
contravention of the provisions of the Act and Rules and Regulations made there
under by the food business operators at any stage, and provide legal conclusions in
these matters.
• The Adjudicating Officer, is satisfied that the person has committed the contravention
of provisions of this Act or the Rules or the Regulations made there under, impose
such penalty as he thinks fit in accordance with the provisions relating to that offence.
• The State Government will notify adjudicating officer for adjudication of food related
cases.
• May issue direction to person found guilty of an offence, for taking corrective action
to rectify the mistake or destruction of such article of food.
• May direct offender to pay compensation to victim or representative of victim in case
of injury or death of consumer.
• May issue order for cancellation of license
• He also issues prohibition orders.

❖ FOOD SAFETY OFFICER

• Food Safety Officers are appointed by the Commissioner of Food Safety, through
notification, for such local areas as he may assign to them for the purpose of
performing functions under this Act and the rules and regulations made there under.
• The State Government may authorized any officer of the State Government having
the qualifications prescribed to perform the functions of a Food Safety Officer within
a specified jurisdiction.

▪ Function and Power of Food Safety Officer

The Food Safety Officer may:
1. Take a sample of any food, or any substance, which appears to him to be intended
for sale, or to have been sold for human consumption.
2. Seize any article of food which appears to the Food Safety Officer to be in
contravention of this Act or the regulations made thereunder.
3. Keep article of food in the safe custody of the food business operator such article of
food after taking a sample; and in both cases send the same for analysis to a Food
Analyst for the local area within which such sample has been taken.
4. The Food Safety Officer may enter and inspect any place where the article of food is
manufactured, or stored for sale, or stored for the manufacture of any other article
of food, or exposed or exhibited for sale and where any adulterant is manufactured
or kept, and take samples of such articles of food or adulterant for analysis.
5. The Food Safety Officer shall, in exercising the powers of entry upon, and

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 inspection of any place under this section (section 38).
6. The Commissioner of Food Safety may from time to time issue guidelines with
regard to exercise of powers of the Food Safety Officer, which shall be binding:
Provided that the powers of such Food Safety Officer may also be revoked for a
specified period by the Commissioner of Food Safety.

❖ FOOD ANALYSTS
• Food Analysts have a major role to play in analysis of food samples in the food
laboratories.
• The analysis reports of food articles are of immense importance to know about the
status of safety and food quality.
• The Food Analysts having the qualifications as prescribed by the Central
Government are appointed by the Commissioner of Food Safety, by notification, for
such local areas as may be assigned to them.
• Different Food Analysts may be appointed for different articles of food. Functions of
the Food Analyst (Section 45).
• He would be responsible for carrying out the required analysis of the sample as
instructed by the Food Safety Officer along with the test method.

▪ The various steps to be taken are as follows while testing:

• Compare and note down the conditions of the seal of the container and the outer
cover containing the sample.
• He may ask for the second sample if the first sample is found to be in broken
condition or unfit for analysis and inform the DO about the same within seven days-
time and also send a requisition for the second part of the sample retained by DO.
• He will then analyze, prepare report and send to DO for copies of report indicating
the method of sampling and analysis within 14 days-time.
• Where the purchaser wants the food to be analyzed, then the report shall be sent
to that purchaser with a copy to the DO.

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CHAPTER 03
FSS RULES AND REGULATIONS
Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration of Food Businesses),
Regulations 2011:
Many objections and suggestions received from the stakeholders within the specified
period on the said draft Regulations have been considered and finalized by the Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India.
Now therefore, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India hereby
makes the following Regulations, under Food Safety and Standards Regulation 2011
namely,

FSS Rules & Regulation 2011, Contains two chapter and four schedules:

CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 1: General

CHAPTER 2: Licensing and Registration of Food Business.

SCHEDULE

SCHEDULE 01: List of food business falling under the purview of Central
Licensing Authority

SCHEDULE 02: Application for Registration / Renewal of Registration

under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

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 Fee For Grant/ Renewal of License and Registration
License Fee per Annum In Rupees

SCHEDULE 04: General Hygienic and Sanitary practices to be followed

by Food Business operators.

Note: In this chapter we will discuss about only schedule no 1 & 4 because
these schedules important for exam. Schedule no 02 & 03 are important for
FBO for licensing and registration.

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL
1.1: Short title and commencement-
1.1.1: These regulations may be called the Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and
Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations, 2011.
1.1.2: These regulations shall come into force on or after 5th August, 2011.
1.2: Definitions-
1.2.1: In these regulations unless the context otherwise requires:
1.“Central Licensing Authority” means Designated Officer appointed by the Chief
Executive Officer of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India in his capacity
of Food Safety Commissioner.
2.“District” means a revenue district in state and UTs provided that the Commissioner
of Food Safety may, for the purpose of this Act declare any local area as a district on
the basis of:
• Concentration of specific category of food businesses which may need special
attention.
• Risk assessment carried out by the Authority from time to time.
• Any other specific regulatory requirements.
3.“Licensing Authority” means the Designated Officer appointed under section 36 (i)
of the Act by the Commissioner of Food Safety of the state or by the Chief Executive
Officer of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India in his capacity of Food
Safety Commissioner;

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 4.“Petty Food Manufacturer” means any food manufacturer, who
(a) manufactures or sells any article of food himself or a petty retailer, hawker,
itinerant vendor or temporary stall holder; or distributes foods including in any
religious or social gathering except a caterer; or
(b) such other food businesses including small scale or cottage or such other
industries relating to food business or tiny food businesses with an annual turnover
not exceeding Rs. 12 lakhs and/or whose
I. production capacity of food (other than milk and milk products and meat and
meat products) does not exceed 100 kg/ltr per day or
II. procurement or handling and collection of milk is up to 500 litres of milk per
day or,
III. slaughtering capacity is 2 large animals or 10 small animals or 50 poultry birds
per day or less.
5.Registering Authority” means Designated Officer/ Food Safety Officer or any official
in Panchayat, Municipal Corporation or any other local body or Panchayat in an area,
notified as such by the State Food Safety Commissioner for the purpose of
registration as specified in these Regulations.
6.“State Licensing Authority” means Designated Officers appointed under Section
36(1) of the Act by the Food Safety Commissioner of a State or UT.
The expressions used in these Regulations but have not been defined herein shall
have the meaning ascribed to them in the Act or as provided in the regulations,
chapters and Appendices.

CHAPTER-2: LICENSING AND REGISTRATION OF FOOD BUSINESS

2.1 Registration and Licensing of Food Business
All Food Business Operators in the country will be registered or licensed in
accordance with the procedures laid down hereinafter;
2.1.1 Registration of Petty Food Business
1) Every petty Food Business Operator shall register themselves with the Registering
Authority by submitting an application for registration in Form A under Schedule
2 of these Regulations along with a fee as provided in Schedule 3.
2) The petty food manufacturer shall follow the basic hygiene and safety
requirements provided in Part I of Schedule 4 of these Regulations and provide a
self-attested declaration of adherence to these requirements with the application
in the format provided in Annexure-1 under Schedule 2.
3) The Registering Authority shall consider the application and may either grant
registration or reject it with reasons to be recorded in writing or issue notice for

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 inspection, within 7 days of receipt of an application for registration.
4) In the event of an inspection being ordered, the registration shall be granted by
the Registering Authority after being satisfied with the safety, hygiene and
sanitary conditions of the premises as contained in Part II of Schedule 4 within a
period of 30 days.
If registration is not granted, or denied, or inspection not ordered
within 7 days as provided in above sub regulation (3) or no decision is communicated
within 30 days as provided in above sub regulation (4), the petty food manufacturer
may start its business, provided that it will be incumbent on the Food Business
Operator to comply with any improvement suggested by the Registering Authority
even later.
Provided that registration shall not be refused without giving the
applicant an opportunity of being heard and for reasons to be recorded in writing.
5) The Registering Authority shall issue a registration certificate and a photo identity
card, which shall be displayed at a prominent place at all times within the premises
or vehicle or cart or any other place where the person carries on sale/manufacture
of food in case of Petty Food Business.
6) The Registering Authority or any officer or agency specifically authorized for this
purpose shall carry out food safety inspection of the registered establishments at
least once in a year.
Provided that a producer of milk who is a registered member of a dairy Cooperative
Society registered under Cooperative Societies Act and supplies or sells the entire
milk to the Society shall be exempted from this provision for registration.

2.1.2 License for food business

(1) Subject to Regulation 2.1.1, no person shall commence any food business unless
he possesses a valid license. Provided that any person or Food Business Operator
carrying on food business on the date of notification of these Regulations, under a
license, registration or permission, as the case may be, under the Acts or Orders
mentioned in the Second Schedule of the Act shall get their existing license
converted into the license/registration under these regulations by making an
application to the Licensing/Registering Authority after complying with the safety
requirements mentioned in the Schedule 4 contained under different Parts
dependent on nature of business, within one year of notification of these
Regulations. In case of difficulty, the licensing authority with the approval of the
Food Safety Commissioner in the State will determine the advisability of applying
any specific condition keeping in view the need to ensure safety of food and public
interest. No license fee will have to be paid for the remaining period of the validity
of the earlier license or registration granted under any of the said Acts or Orders.
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 Non-compliance with this provision by a Food Business Operator will attract penalty
under section 55 of the Act.
Provided further that any food business operator holding
Registration/License under any other Act/Order as specified under schedule 2 of
the FSS Act, 2006 with no specific validity or expiry date, and otherwise entitled to
obtain a license under these regulations, shall have to apply and obtain a
Registration/License under these Regulations within one year from the date of
notification by paying the applicable fees.
(2) Notwithstanding the provisions contained in Regulation 2.1.2 (1) above or in any
of the registration or license certificates issued under existing Acts or Orders
mentioned in the second schedule of the Act, the Licensing Authority, if it has
reason to believe that the Food Business Operator has failed to comply with all or
any of the conditions of the existing registration or license or the safety
requirements given in Schedule 4, may give appropriate direction to the Food
Business Operator to comply with.
(3). License for commencing or carrying on food business, which falls under
Schedule 1, shall be granted by the Central Licensing Authority, provided that Food
Authority may through notification make such changes or modify the list given in
the Schedule I as considered necessary.
(4) License for commencing or carrying on food business, which are not covered
under Schedule 1, shall be granted by the concerned State/UT’s Licensing Authority.
(5) The Food Business Operator shall ensure that all conditions of license as
provided in Annexure 2 of Form B in Schedule 2 and safety, sanitary and hygienic
requirements provided in the Schedule 4 contained under different Parts
depending on nature of business are complied with at all times.
Provided that the Licensing Authority shall ensure periodical food safety audit and
inspection of the licensed establishments through its own or agencies authorized
for this purpose by the FSSAI.
Provided further that no person shall manufacture, import, sell, stock, exhibit for
distribution or sale any article of food which has been subjected to the treatment
of irradiation, except under a license obtained from Department of Atomic Energy
under the Atomic Energy (Control of Irradiation of Food) Regulations, 1996.

2.1.3 Application for license to the Licensing Authority

An application for the grant of a license shall be made in Form B of Schedule 2 to
the concerned Licensing Authority as specified in Regulation 2.1.2 (3) and 2.1.2 (4)
and it will be accompanied by a self-attested declaration in the format provided in
the Annexure-1 and copies of documents mentioned in the Annexure 2 of Schedule-

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 2 along with the applicable fees prescribed in Schedule 3.
2.1.4 Processing of Application for license
(1) A license shall, subject to the provisions of these Regulations, be issued by the
concerned Licensing Authority within a period of 60 days from the date of issue of
an application ID number as provided in subsection below.
(2) If, upon scrutiny of the application within 15 days from the date of receipt of the
application, the concerned Licensing Authority requires any additional information
with respect to an application or if the application is incomplete, the Licensing
Authority shall inform the applicant in writing, to furnish such additional
information or complete the application, as the case may be, within 30 days from
such notice. In case the applicant fails to furnish the required information within
the stipulated time of 30 days, the application for license shall stand rejected.
(3) On the receipt of a complete application including the additional information if
asked for, the Licensing Authority shall issue an Application ID number to each
applicant that will be referred to in all future correspondence between the
Licensing Authority and the applicant.
(4) After the issue of Application ID number the Licensing Authority may direct the
Food Safety Officer or any other person or agency specially designated for such
functions to inspect the premises in the manner prescribed by the Food Safety and
Standard Authority of India in accordance with these Regulations. Such Inspecting
Officer or person may issue a notice to the applicant, if it deems fit, guiding food
business operator on necessary steps to be taken or changes or alteration to be
made in the premises in order to ensure general sanitary and hygienic conditions
as specified in Schedule 4. The applicant shall carry out the required steps, changes
or alterations and intimate the Licensing Authority within 30 days or such period as
may be allowed by the Licensing Authority.
(5) Within a period of 30 days from receipt of an inspection report excluding the
time taken by the applicant in complying with the advice, if any, given in the
inspection report and verification thereof, the concerned Licensing Authority shall
consider the application and may either grant license or reject the application.
Provided that before refusing license an applicant shall be given an opportunity of
being heard and the reasons for refusal shall be recorded in writing.
(6) The Licensing Authority shall issue a License in Format C under Schedule 2 of
these Regulations, a true copy of which shall be displayed at a prominent place at
all times within the premises where the Food Business Operator carries on the food
business.

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 2.1.5 Procedure for License in certain local areas
(1) A single license may be issued by the Licensing Authority for one or more articles
of food and also for different establishments or premises in the same local area
including collection and chilling units run by milk cooperatives or its members.
(2) The Chief Executive Officer of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
in the capacity of Food Safety Commissioner may appoint a Designated Officer or
Food Safety Officer for Central Government organizations like Railways, Defense
etc., which have a large number of food establishments, to ensure food safety in
those establishments and to ensure that all other conditions laid down for running
food business under the Act and these Regulations are complied with. Provided
further that the Food Authority may carry out food safety audit of these
establishments once in a year through its own or accredited agencies.

2.1.6 Commencement of Business

An applicant may commence his food business and the concerned licensing
Authority shall not deny the applicant to commence such business if, from the date
of making the completed application, a license is not issued within 60 days or the
applicant has not received any intimation of inadequacy under Regulation 2.1.4(2)
or inspection report indicating defects from the concerned Licensing Authority
under Regulation 2.1.4(4).

2.1.7 Validity and Renewal of Registration and License

1) A Registration or license granted under these Regulations shall be valid and
subsisting, unless otherwise specified, for a period of 1 to 5 years as chosen by
the Food Business Operator, from the date of issue of registration or license
subject to remittance of fee applicable for the period and compliance with all
conditions of license.
2) Any application for the renewal of a registration or license granted under these
Regulations shall be made in Form A or B of Schedule 2, as the case may be, not
later than 30 days prior to the expiry date indicated in the license.
3) The Registration or License shall continue to be in force till such time that the
orders are passed on the renewal application which in no case shall be beyond
30 days from the date of expiry of registration or license.
4) Any renewal application filed beyond the period mentioned under Regulation
2.1.7 (2) above but before the expiry date, shall be accompanied by a late fee of
Rs 100 per day for each day of delay.
5) Any Registration or license for which renewal has not been applied for within the

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 period mentioned in Regulation 2.1.7 (2) or 2.1.7 (4) above shall expire and the
Food Business Operator shall stop all business activity at the premises. The Food
Business Operator will have to apply for fresh Registration or license as provided
in Regulation 2.1.1 and 2.1.3 as the case may be, if it wants to restart the business.
6) Food Business Operator having valid certificate of an accredited food safety
auditor or from an agency accredited by Food Authority or any other organisation
notified by food Authority for this purpose will not be normally required to be
inspected before renewal of license. Provided that Designated Officer may order
an inspection before renewal if considered necessary for reasons to be recorded
in writing.

2.1.8 Suspension or cancellation of Registration Certificate or license

1) The Registering or Licensing Authority in accordance with the provisions of
section 32 of the Act may, after giving the concerned Food Business Operator a
reasonable opportunity of being heard, suspend any registration or license in
respect of all or any of the activities for which the registration/license has been
granted under these Regulations after recording a brief statement of the
reasons for such suspension, if there is reason to believe that the Food Business
Operator has failed to comply with the conditions within the period mentioned
in any Improvement Notice served under Section 32 of the Act. A copy of such
statement shall be furnished to the concerned Food Business Operator whose
Registration or license has been suspended.
2) The registering or Licensing Authority, as the case may be, may direct an
inspection of the Food Business Operator’s premise(s) within a reasonable
period which shall not be less than 14 days from the date of order of suspension.
3) In the event that the Registering or Licensing Authority is of the opinion, on a
review of the inspection report, that the Food Business Operator has still failed
to rectify the defects or omissions or comply with the conditions of the
improvement notice causing the suspension, such authority may cancel the
license/registration of the Food Business Operator after giving him an
opportunity to show cause as provided under Section 32 (3) of the Act.
4) Notwithstanding anything contained in these Regulations, the Registering or
Licensing Authority may suspend or cancel any registration or license forthwith
in the interest of public health for reasons to be recorded in writing.
5) A suspension or cancellation of registration or license under these Regulations
shall not entitle the Food Business Operator for any compensation or refund of
fee(s) paid in respect of the registration certificate or license or renewal thereof.
6) After a period of 3 months from the date of cancellation under Regulation 2.1.8
(3) above the Food Business Operator may make fresh application for
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 Registration or license to the concerned authority if all observations made in the
improvement notice have been complied with.
2.1.9 Modifications, Expansion or Changes in premise(s) after grant of
license or registration
(1) Food Business Operators shall ensure that the Registering or Licensing Authority
always has up-to-date information on their food business establishments and shall
inform the relevant Authority of any modifications or additions or changes in product
category, layout, expansion, closure, or any other material information based on
which the license was granted and such information shall be conveyed before the
changes occur. Provided that any change that alters the information contained in the
license certificate shall require an approval or endorsement in license prior to start
of business with such changes. The Food Business Operator shall submit the original
license to the Licensing Authority along with a fee equivalent to one year license fee
for effecting necessary changes. The licensing Authority may approve and issue an
amended license incorporating such changes in activities within 30 days from the
date of receipt of such information. While approving the afore mentioned changes
the concerned registering or Licensing Authority shall take into account the feasibility
of carrying on the business and the legal and other relevant aspects of the desired
modifications or additions or changes in activities and, if required, may order an
inspection of the premises before granting the approval.

2.1.10 Mode of payment

All fees and charges payable under these regulations shall be paid vide pay order or
demand draft or any online mode of payment as may be prescribed in this regard,
by the concerned Food Safety Commissioner.

2.1.11 Transfer of registration certificate or License in case of death

(1) In the event of death of the holder of a Registration certificate or license, such
certificate or license shall subsist for the benefit of the legal representative or any
family member of the deceased or until the expiry of:
a) the period of 90 days from the date of death of the holder of a Registration
certificate or license; or
b) such longer period as the Designated Officer may allow, for reasons to be
recorded in writing.
(2) The legal representative or family member of the deceased holder of the
registration certificate or license shall apply to the concerned Authority for transfer
of such certificate or license in his favour.

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 (3) The registering or Licensing Authority, as the case may be, may, after making
such enquiry as it may deem fit, either approve the transfer of the Registration
certificate or license if satisfied that the applicant is the legal representative, or
refuse the request. Provided that the registering or licensing authority shall not
refuse the request without giving the applicant an opportunity of being heard and
for reasons to be recorded in writing.
(4) Upon filing of application for transfer and pending the decision of the authority,
the registration or license shall continue to be in force.
2.1.12 Appeal
(1) A Food Business Operator aggrieved by an order of the Registering Authority or
Licensing Authority, as the case may be, under these Regulations may prefer an
appeal to the concerned Designated Officer or the Food Safety Commissioner, as
per provisions laid down under Section 31(8) and 32 (4) - (5) of the Act.
2.1.13 Return
(1) Every licensee shall on or before 31st May of each year, submit a return
electronically or in physical form as may be prescribed by the concerned Food
Safety Commissioner, in ‘Form D-1’ provided in Schedule 2 of these Regulations to
the Licensing Authority in respect of each class of food products handled by him
during the previous financial year. Provided however that every licensee engaged
in manufacturing of milk and/or milk products shall file half yearly returns for the
periods 1st April to 30th September and 1st October to 31st March of every
financial year in the form D-2, as provided in Schedule-2 of these regulations. Such
returns will be filed within a month from the end of the period.

(2) A separate return shall be filed for every license issued under the Regulations,
irrespective of whether the same Food Business Operator holds more than one
license.
(3) Any delay in filing return beyond 31st May of each year shall attract a penalty
of R.s 100 per day of delay.

2.1.14 Food Business Operator to be bound by directions or order

(1) Every Food Business Operator to whom any direction or order is issued in
pursuance of any provisions of this regulation shall be bound to comply with such
directions or regulation and any failure on the part of the Food Business Operator
to comply with such direction or order shall be deemed to be contravention of the
provisions of these Regulations and will attract legal action under the provisions of
the Act.

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 (2) Guarantee Every manufacturer, distributor or dealer selling an article of food
to a vendor shall give either separately or in the bill, cash memo, or label a
warranty in Form E. (Refer Form A for form of Guarantee).
2.1.15 Power of State/UT governments to constitute advisory
committee
The state/UT Governments, may, if required designate an existing advisory
committee at panchayat/district/ state level or where such a committee does not
exist, constitute an advisory committee to assist, aid or advise on any matter
concerning food safety.
2.1.16 Jurisdiction of Designated officer
The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, by an order, appoint the Designated
officer, who shall not be below the rank of a Sub- Divisional Officer, to be in-charge
of food safety administration for each district as defined under regulation 1.2.1 (2)

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 ❖ SCHEDULE 1
[See Regulation 2.1.2 (3)]
List of food business falling under the purview of Central Licensing Authority

I. Dairy units including milk chilling units equipped to handle or process more than
50,000 liters of liquid milk/day or 2500 MT of milk solid per annum.
II. Vegetable oil processing units and units producing vegetable oil by the process of
solvent extraction and refineries including oil expeller unit having installed
capacity more than 2 MT per day.
III. All slaughter houses equipped to slaughter more than 50 large animals or 150 or more
small animals including sheep and goats or 1000 or more poultry birds per day.
IV. Meat processing units equipped to handle or process more than 500 kg of meat
per day or 150 MT per annum.
V. All food processing units other than mentioned under (I) to (IV) including
relabellers and repackers having installed capacity more than 2 MT/day except
grains, cereals and pulses milling units.
VI. 100 % Export Oriented Units.
VII. All Importers importing food items including food ingredients and additives for
commercial use.
VIII. All food business operators manufacturing any article of food containing
ingredients or substances or using technologies or processes or combination
thereof whose safety has not been established through these regulations or
which do not have a history of safe use or food containing ingredients which are
being introduced for the first time into the country.
IX. Food Business Operator operating in two or more states.
X. Food catering services in establishments and units under Central government
Agencies like Railways, Air and airport, Seaport, Defence etc.

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 ❖ SCHEDULE 4
(See Regulation 2.1.2)
General Hygienic and Sanitary practices to be followed by Food Business
operators
It is hereby recognized and declared as a matter of legislative determination
that in the field of human nutrition, safe, clean, wholesome food - is indispensable to
the health and welfare of the consumer of the country; that food is a perishable
commodity susceptible to contamination and adulteration; and that - basic sanitary
and hygienic conditions are deemed to be necessary for the production and
distribution of milk - Meat products, service establishments etc.
The establishment in which food is being handled, processed, manufactured,
stored, distributed by the food business operator whether holder of registration
certificate or a license as per the norms laid down in these regulations and the
persons handling them should conform to the sanitary and hygienic requirement,
food safety measures and other standards as specified below. It shall also be deemed
to be the responsibility of the food business operator to ensure adherence to
necessary requirements.
These are the basic - compulsory requirements for ensuring safety of the food
manufactured in any premise and FBOs shall continuously try to improve the sanitary
and hygienic conditions at the premises with a goal of attaining India HACCP
standards within a - previously determined period.

Part I - General Hygienic and Sanitary practices to be followed by Petty

Food Business Operators applying for Registration
(See Regulation 2.1.1(2))
In case inspection of the units is directed by the Registering or Licensing Authority,
the inspection should confirm that the following measures are adopted by the unit as
far as possible:
Sanitary and Hygienic Requirements for Food Manufacturer/ Processor/Handler
The place where food is manufactured, processed or handled shall comply with the
following requirements:
1. The premises shall be located in a sanitary place and free from filthy surroundings
and shall maintain overall hygienic environment. All new units shall set up away from
environmentally polluted areas.
2. The premises to conduct food business for manufacturing should have adequate
space for manufacturing and storage to maintain overall hygienic environment.

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 3. The premises shall be clean, adequately lighted and ventilated and sufficient free
space for movement.
4. Floors, Ceilings and walls must be maintained in a sound condition. They should be
smooth and easy to clean with no flaking paint or plaster.
5. The floor and skirted walls shall be washed as per requirement with an effective
disinfectant the premises shall be kept free from all insects. No spraying shall be
done during the conduct of business, but instead fly swats/ flaps should be used to
kill spray flies getting into the premises. Windows, doors and other openings shall
be fitted with net or screen, as appropriate to make the premise insect free The
water used in the manufacturing shall be potable and if required chemical and
bacteriological examination of the water shall be done at regular intervals at any
recognized laboratory.
6. Continuous supply of potable water shall be ensured in the premises. In case of
intermittent water supply, adequate storage arrangement for water used in food
or washing shall be made.
7. Equipment and machinery when employed shall be of such design which will permit
easy cleaning. Arrangements for cleaning of containers, tables, working parts of
machinery, etc. shall be provided.
8. No vessel, container or other equipment, the use of which is likely to cause metallic
contamination injurious to health shall be employed in the preparation, packing or
storage of food. (Copper or brass vessels shall have proper lining).
9. All equipment shall be kept clean, washed, dried and stacked at the close of business
to ensure freedom from growth of molds/ fungi and infestation.
10. All equipment shall be placed well away from the walls to allow proper inspection.

11. There should be efficient drainage system and there shall be adequate provisions
for disposal of refuse.
12. The workers working in processing and preparation shall use clean aprons, hand
gloves, and head wears.
13. Persons suffering from infectious diseases shall not be permitted to work. Any cuts
or wounds shall remain covered at all time and the person should not be allowed
to come in direct contact with food.
14. All food handlers shall keep their finger nails trimmed, clean and wash their hands
with soap, or detergent and water before commencing work and every time after
using toilet. Scratching of body parts, hair shall be avoided during food handling
processes.
15. All food handlers should avoid wearing, false nails or other items or loose jewellery
that might fall into food and also avoid touching their face or hair.

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16. Eating,
chewing, smoking, spitting and nose blowing shall be prohibited within the
premises especially while handling food.
17. All
articles that are stored or are intended for sale shall be fit for consumption and
have proper cover to avoid contamination.
18. Thevehicles used to transport foods must be maintained in good repair and kept
clean.
19. Foods while in transport in packaged form or in containers shall maintain the required
temperature.
20. Insecticides / disinfectants shall be kept and stored separately and `away from food
manufacturing / storing/ handling areas.

A. SANITARY AND HYGIENIC REQUIREMENTS FOR STREET FOOD VENDORS AND UNITS
OTHER THAN MANUFACTURING/PROCESSING
1. Potential sources of contamination like rubbish, waste water, toilet facilities,
open drains and stray animals shall be avoided.
2. The surfaces of the Vending carts which come in contact with food or food
storage utensils shall be built of solid, rust/ corrosion resistant materials and kept
in clean and good condition They shall be protected from sun, wind and dust.
When not in use, food vending vans shall be kept in clean place and properly
protected.
3. Rubbish bin with cover shall be provided by food stall or vending cart owners for
any waste generated in the process of serving and eating by consumers.
4. Working surfaces of vending carts shall be clean, hygienic, impermeable and easy
to clean (like stainless steel), and placed at least 60 to 70 cm. from above ground.
5. Sale points, tables, awnings, benches and boxes, cupboards, glass cases, etc.
shall be clean and tidy.
6. Cooking utensils and crockery shall be clean and in good condition. It should not
be broken/ chipped.
7. All containers shall be kept clean, washed and dried at the close of business to
ensure that there is no growth of molds/ fungi and infestation.
8. Water used for cleaning, washing and preparing food shall be potable in nature.
9. Transporting of drinking water (treated water like bottled water, boiled/ filtered
water through water purifier etc.) shall be in properly covered and protected
containers and it shall be stored in clean and covered containers in a protected
area away from dust and filth.
10. Cooking, storage and serving shall not be done in utensils of, cadmium, lead, non-
food grade plastic and other toxic materials.
11. Utensils shall be cleaned of debris, rinsed, scrubbed with detergent and washed
under running tap water after every operation. Wiping of utensils shall be done
with clean cloth. Separate cloths shall be used for wiping hands and for clearing
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 surfaces, cloth used for floor cleaning will not be used for cleaning surfaces of
tables and working areas and for wiping utensils Person cooking, handling or
serving food should use hand gloves and aprons, where necessary. He shall wear
head gear and cover his mouth always while at work.
12. Removing dust or crumb from plates or utensils shall be done by using cloth or
wiper into dustbin.
13. The person suffering from infectious disease shall not be permitted to work.
14. All food handlers shall remain clean, wear washed clothes and keep their finger nails
trimmed, clean and wash their hands with soap/ detergent and water before
commencing work and every time after touching food or using toilet.
15. All food handlers should avoid wearing loose items that might fall into food and
also avoid touching or scratching their face, head or hair.
16. All articles that are stored or intended for sale shall have proper cover to avoid
contamination. Food should be stored only in food grade plastic containers as
steel containers to prevent leaking.
17. Eating, chewing, smoking, , spitting and nose blowing shall be prohibited within
the premises.
18. Foods shall be prepared or cooked as per the day's requirement to avoid left over
which might be used in the next day without ascertaining its safety for
consumption or use in food. Consumables left over shall be kept in the
refrigerator immediately after their intended use.
19. Adequate number of racks shall be provided for storage of articles of food, with
clear identity of each commodity. Proper compartment for each class shall also
be provided wherever possible so that there is no cross contamination.
20. Rubbish or garbage bin shall be with a tight cover and shall be cleaned everyday
by transferring contents into designated locations.
21. Vegetarian and non-vegetarian items should be segregated.
22. Fridge should be cleaned at least once a week to remove stains, ice particles and
food particles. The temperature in the fridge should be in the range of 4°C - 6°C.
23. The location of the vending unit should be in a place approved by the local
authorities and not blocking traffic or pedestrians or near unhygienic locations.

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Part-II General Requirements on Hygienic and Sanitary Practices to be
followed by all Food Business Operators applying for License
(See Regulation 2.1.1(4))
The establishment in which food is being handled, processed, manufactured, packed,
stored, and distributed by the food business operator and the persons handling them
should conform to the sanitary and hygienic requirement, food safety measures and
other standards as specified below. It shall also be deemed to be the responsibility of
the food business operator to ensure adherence to necessary requirements.
In addition to the requirements specified below, the food business operator shall
identify steps in the activities of food business, which are critical to ensure food safety,
and ensure that safety procedures are identified, implemented, maintained and
reviewed periodically.

1.LOCATION AND SURROUNDINGS

Food Establishment shall ideally be located away from environmental pollution and
industrial activities that produce disagreeable or obnoxious odour, fumes, excessive
soot, dust, smoke, chemical or biological emissions and pollutants, and which pose a
threat of contaminating food areas that are prone to infestations of pests or where
wastes, either solid or liquid, cannot be removed effectively.
In case there are hazards of other environment polluting industry located nearby,
appropriate measures should be taken to protect the manufacturing area from any
potential contamination. The manufacturing premise should not have direct access to
any residential area.

2.LAYOUT AND DESIGN OF FOOD ESTABLISHMENT PREMISES

As far as possible, the layout of the food establishment shall be such that food
preparation/manufacturing processes are not amenable to cross-contamination from
other pre and post manufacturing operations like goods receiving, pre-processing (viz.
packaging, washing / portioning of ready-to-eat food etc.).

2.1 Floors, ceilings and walls must be maintained in a sound condition to minimize the
accumulation of dirt, condensation and growth of undesirable molds. They should be
made of impervious material and should be smooth and easy to clean with no flaking
paint or plaster.
2.2 Doors shall also be made of smooth and non-absorbent surfaces so that they are
easy to clean and wherever necessary, disinfect.
2.3 The floor of food processing / food service area shall have adequate and proper
drainage and shall be easy to clean and where necessary, disinfect. Floors shall be
sloped appropriately to facilitate drainage and the drainage shall flow in a direction
opposite to the direction of food preparation / manufacturing process flow.

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2.4 Adequate control measures should be in place to prevent insects and rodents from
entering the processing area from drains.
2.5 Windows, doors & all other openings to outside environment shall be well
screened with wire-mesh or insect- proof screen as applicable to protect the premise
from fly and other insects / pests / animals & the doors be fitted with automatic closing
springs. The mesh or the screen should be of such type which can be easily removed
for cleaning.
2.6 No person shall manufacture, store or expose for sale or permit the sale of any
article of food in any premises not effectively separated to the satisfaction of the
licensing authority from any privy, urinal, sullage, drain or place of storage of foul and
waste matter.

3. EQUIPMENT & CONTAINERS

3.1 Equipment and containers that come in contact with food and used for food
handling, storage, preparation, processing, packaging and serving shall be made of
corrosion free materials which do not impart any toxicity to the food material and
should be easy to clean and /or disinfect (other than disposable single use types).
3.2 Equipment and utensils used in the preparation of food shall be kept at all times in
good order and repair and in a clean and sanitary condition. Such utensil or container
shall not be used for any other purpose.
3.3 Every utensil or container containing any food or ingredient of food intended for
sale shall at all times be either provided with a properly fitted cover/lid or with a clean
gauze net or other material of texture sufficiently fine to protect the food completely
from dust, dirt and flies and other insects.
3.4 No utensil or container used for the manufacture or preparation of or containing
any food or ingredient of food intended for sale shall be kept in any place in which such
utensil or container is likely by reason of impure air or dust or any offensive, noxious
or deleterious gas or substance or any noxious or injurious emanations, exhalation, or
effluvium, to be contaminated and thereby render the food noxious.
3.5 Equipment shall be so located, designed and fabricated that it permits necessary
maintenance and cleaning functions as per its intended use and facilitates good
hygiene practices inside the premise including monitoring and audit.
3.6 Appropriate facilities for the cleaning and disinfecting of equipment and
instruments and wherever possible cleaning in place (CIP) system shall be adopted.
3.7 Equipment and containers for waste, by-products and inedible or dangerous
substances, shall be specifically identifiable and suitably constructed.
3.8 Containers used to hold cleaning chemicals and other dangerous substances shall
be identified and stored separately to prevent malicious or accidental contamination
of food.
3.9 If required, a waste water disposal system / effluent treatment plant shall be put
in place.
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3.10 All items, fittings and equipment that touch or come in contact with food must
be:
• kept in good condition in a way that enables them to be kept clean and wherever
necessary, to be disinfected.
• Chipped enameled containers will not be used. Stainless steel /aluminum / glass
containers, mugs, jugs, trays etc. suitable for cooking and storing shall be used.
Brass utensils shall be frequently provided with lining.

4 FACILITIES

4.1 Water supply

4.1.1 Only potable water, with appropriate facilities for its storage and distribution
shall be used as an ingredient in processing and cooking.
4.1.2 Water used for food handling, washing, should be of such quality that it does not
introduce any hazard or contamination to render the finished food article unsafe.
4.1.3 Water storage tanks shall be cleaned periodically and records of the same shall
be maintained in a register.
4.1.4 Non potable water can be used provided it is intended only for cleaning of
equipment not coming in contact with food, which does not come into contact with
food steam production, firefighting & refrigeration equipment and provided that pipes
installed for this purpose preclude the use of this water for other purposes and present
no direct or indirect risk of contamination of the raw material, dairy products or food
products so processed, packed & kept in the premise.
4.1.5 Non potable water pipes shall be clearly distinguished from those in use for
potable water.

4.2 For Cleaning Utensils / Equipment

Adequate facilities for cleaning, disinfecting of utensils and equipment shall be
provided. The facilities must have an adequate supply of hot and cold water if required.

4.3 Washing of Raw materials

Adequate facilities for washing of raw food should be provided. Every sink (or other
facilities) for washing food must have an adequate supply of hot and/or cold water.
These facilities must be kept clean and, where necessary, disinfected. Preferably, sinks
which are used for washing raw foods shall be kept separate and that should not be
used for washing utensils or any other purposes.

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4.4 Ice and Steam
Ice and steam used in direct contact with food shall be made from potable water and
shall comply with requirements specified under 4.1.1. Ice and steam shall be produced,
handled and stored in such a manner that no contamination can happen

4.5 Drainage and waste disposal

4.5.1 Food waste and other waste materials shall be removed periodically from the
place where food is being handled or cooked or manufactured to avoid building up. A
refuse bin of adequate size with a proper cover preferably one which need not be
touched for opening shall be provided in the premises for collection of waste material.
This shall be emptied and washed daily with a disinfectant and dried before next use.
4.5.2 The disposal of sewage and effluents (solid, liquid and gas) shall be in conformity
with requirements of Factory / Environment Pollution Control Board. Adequate
drainage, waste disposal systems and facilities shall be provided and they shall be
designed and constructed in such manner so that the risk of contaminating food or the
potable water supply is eliminated.
4.5.3 Waste storage shall be located in such manner that it does not contaminate the
food process, storage areas, the environment inside and outside the food
establishment and waste shall be kept in covered containers and shall be removed at
regular intervals.
4.5.4 Periodic disposal of the refuse / waste should be made compulsory. No waste
shall be kept open inside the premise and shall be disposed of in an appropriate manner
as per local rules and regulations including those for plastics and other non-
environment friendly materials.

4.6 Personnel facilities and toilets

4.6.1 Personnel facilities shall include those for proper washing and drying of hands
before touching food materials including wash basins and a supply of hot and /or cold
water as appropriate; separate lavatories, of appropriate hygienic design, for males
and females separately; and changing facilities for personnel and such facilities shall
be suitably located so that they do not open directly into food processing, handling or
storage areas.
4.6.2 Number of toilets should be adequate depending on the number of employees
(male /female) in the establishment and they should be made aware of the cleanliness
requirement while handling food.
4.6.3 Rest and refreshments rooms shall be separate from food process and service
areas and these areas shall not lead directly to food production, service and storage
areas.
4.6.4 A display board mentioning do's & don'ts for the workers shall be put up inside
at a prominent place in the premise in English or in local language for everyone's
understanding.

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4.7 Air quality and ventilation
Ventilation systems natural and /or mechanical including air filters, exhaust fans,
wherever required, shall be designed and constructed so that air does not flow from
contaminated areas to clean areas.

4.8 Lighting
Natural or artificial lighting shall be provided to the food establishment, to enable the
employees/workers to operate in a hygienic manner. Lighting fixtures must wherever
appropriate, be protected to ensure that food is not contaminated by breakages of
electrical fittings.

5 FOOD OPERATIONS AND CONTROLS

5.1 Procurement of raw materials
5.1.1 No raw material or ingredient thereof shall be accepted by an establishment if it
is known to contain parasites, undesirable micro-organisms, pesticides, veterinary
drugs or toxic items, decomposed or extraneous substances, which would not be
reduced to an acceptable level by normal sorting and/or processing.
1.1.2 All raw materials, food additives and ingredients, wherever applicable, shall
conform to all the Regulations and standards laid down under the Act.
5.1.3 Records of raw materials, food additives and ingredients as well as their source of
procurement shall be maintained in a register for inspection.
5.1.4 All raw materials should be checked & cleaned physically thoroughly.
5.1.5 Raw materials should be purchased in quantities that correspond to storage/
preservation capacity.
5.1.6 Packaged raw material must be checked for 'expiry date'/ 'best before'/ 'use by'
date, packaging integrity and storage conditions.
5.1.7 Receiving temperature of potentially high risk food should be at or below 5 0C
Receiving temperature of frozen food should be -18 0C or below.

5.2 Storage of raw materials and food

5.2.1 Food storage facilities shall be designed and constructed to enable food to be
effectively protected from contamination during storage; permit adequate
maintenance and cleaning, to avoid pest access and accumulation.
5.2.2 Cold Storage facility, wherever required, shall be provided to raw, processed /
packed food according to the type and requirement.
5.2.3 Segregation shall be provided for the storage of raw, processed, rejected, recalled
or returned materials or products which will be distinguishably marked and secured.
Raw materials and food shall be stored in separate areas from printed packaging
materials, stationary, hardware and cleaning materials / chemicals.

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5.2.4 Raw food, particularly meat, poultry and seafood products shall be cold stored
separately from the area of work-in-progress, processed, cooked and packaged
products. The conditions of storage in terms of temperature and humidity requisite for
enhancing the shelf life of the respective food materials / products shall be maintained.
5.2.5 Storage of raw materials, ingredients, work-in-progress and processed / cooked
or packaged food products shall be subject to FIFO (First in, First Out), FEFO (First
Expire First Out) stock rotation system as applicable.
5.2.6 Containers made of non-toxic materials shall be provided for storage of raw
materials, work-in-progress and finished / ready to serve products. The food materials
shall be stored on racks / pallets such that they are reasonably well above the floor
level and away from the wall so as to facilitate effective cleaning and prevent
harbouring of any pests, insects or rodents.

5.3 Food Processing / Preparation, Packaging and Distribution / Service

5.3.1 Time and temperature control
5.3.1.1 The Food Business shall develop and maintain the systems to ensure that time
and temperature are controlled effectively where it is critical to the safety and
suitability of food. Such control shall include time and temperature of receiving,
processing, cooking, cooling, storage, packaging, distribution and food service up to
the consumer, as applicable.
5.3.1.2 Whenever frozen food / raw materials are being used / handled / transported,
proper care should be taken so that defrosted / thawed material are not stored back
after opening for future use.
5.3.1.3 If thawing is required then only required portion of the food should be thawed
at a time.
5.3.1.4 Wherever cooking is done on open fire, proper outlets for smoke/steam etc.
like chimney, exhaust fan etc. shall be provided.

5.4 Food Packaging

5.4.1 Packaging materials shall provide protection for all food products to prevent
contamination, damage and shall accommodate required labelling as laid down under
the FSS Act & the Regulations there under.
5.4.2 For primary packaging (i.e. packaging in which the food or ingredient or additive
comes in direct contact with the packaging material), only Food grade packaging
materials are to be used. For packaging materials like aluminium plastic and tin, the
standards to be followed are as mentioned under the FSS Regulations and rules framed
there under.
5.4.3 Packaging materials or gases where used, shall be non-toxic and shall not pose a
threat to the safety and suitability of food under the specified conditions of storage
and use.

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5.5 Food Distribution / Service
5.5.1 All critical links in the supply chain need to be identified and provided for to
minimize food spoilage during transportation. Processed / packaged and / or ready-to-
eat food shall be protected as per the required storage conditions during
transportation and / or service.
5.5.2 Temperatures and humidity which are necessary for sustaining food safety and
quality shall be maintained. The conveyances and /or containers shall be designed,
constructed and maintained in such manner that they can effectively maintain the
requisite temperature, humidity, atmosphere and other conditions necessary to
protect food conveyances and / or containers used for transporting / serving
foodstuffs shall be non-toxic, kept clean and maintained in good condition in order to
protect foodstuffs from any contamination.
5.5.3 Receptacles in vehicles and / or containers shall not be used for transporting
anything other than foodstuffs where this may result in contamination of foodstuffs.
Where the same conveyance or container is used for transportation of different foods,
or high risk foods such as fish, meat, poultry, eggs etc., effective cleaning and
disinfections shall be carried out between loads to avoid the risk of cross-
contamination. For bulk transport of food, containers and conveyances shall be
designated and marked for food use only and be used only for that purpose.

6. MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION

6.1 A detailed Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for the processing of food as well
as its packing, dispatch and storage will be developed for proper management which in
turn would help in identifying any problem and the exact point, so that damage control
would be faster.
6.2 The Food Business shall ensure that technical managers and supervisors have
appropriate qualifications, knowledge and skills on food hygiene principles and
practices to be able to ensure food safety and quality of its products, judge food
hazards, take appropriate preventive and corrective action, and to ensure effective
monitoring and supervision.

7. FOOD TESTING FACILITIES

7.1 A well-equipped, laboratory for testing of food materials / food for physical,
microbiological and chemical analysis in accordance with the specification/standards
laid down under the rules and regulations shall be in place inside the premise for
regular / periodic testing and whenever required.
7.2 In case of any suspicion or possible contamination, food materials / food shall be
tested before dispatch from the factory.
7.3 If there is no inhouse laboratory facility, then regular testing shall be done through
an accredited lab notified by FSSAI. In case of complaints received and if so required,

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the company shall voluntarily do the testing either in the in- house laboratory or an
accredited lab or lab notified by FSSAI.

8.AUDIT, DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS

8.1 A periodic audit of the whole system according to the SOP shall be done to find out
any fault / gap in the GMP / GHP system.
8.2 Appropriate records of food processing / preparation, production / cooking,
storage, distribution, service, food quality, laboratory test results, cleaning and
sanitation, pest control and product recall shall be kept and retained for a period of
one year or the shelf-life of the product, whichever is more.

9. SANITATION AND MAINTENANCE OF ESTABLISHMENT PREMISES

9.1 Cleaning and Maintenance
9.1.1 A cleaning and sanitation programme shall be drawn up and observed and the
record thereof shall be properly maintained, which shall indicate specific areas to be
cleaned, cleaning frequency and cleaning procedure to be followed, including
equipment and materials to be used for cleaning. Equipment used in manufacturing will
be cleaned and sterilized at set frequencies.
9.1.2 Cleaning chemicals shall be handled and used carefully in accordance with the
instructions of the manufacturer and shall be stored separately away from food
materials, in clearly identified containers, to avoid any risk of contaminating food.

9.2 Pest Control Systems

9.2.1 Food establishment, including equipment and building shall be kept in good
repair to prevent pest access and to eliminate potential breeding sites. Holes, drains
and other places where pests are likely to gain access shall be kept in sealed condition
or fitted with mesh / grills / claddings or any other suitable means as required and
animals, birds and pets shall not be allowed to enter into the food establishment
areas/ premises.
9.2.2 Food materials shall be stored in pest-proof containers stacked above the ground
and away from walls.
9.2.3 Pest infestations shall be dealt with immediately and without adversely affecting
the food safety or suitability. Treatment with permissible chemical, physical or
biological agents, within the appropriate limits, shall be carried out without posing a
threat to the safety or suitability of food. Records of pesticides / insecticides used
along with dates and frequency shall be maintained.

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10 PERSONAL HYGIENE
10.1 Health Status
10.1.1 Personnel known, or believed, to be suffering from, or to be a carrier of a disease
or illness likely to be transmitted through food, shall not be allowed to enter into any
food handling area. The Food Business shall develop system, whereby any person so
affected, shall immediately report illness or symptoms of illness to the management
and medical examination of a food handler shall be carried out apart from the periodic
checkups, if clinically or epidemiologically indicated.

10.1.2 Arrangements shall be made to get the food handlers / employees of the
establishment medically examined once in a year to ensure that they are free from any
infectious, contagious and other communicable diseases. A record of these
examinations signed by a registered medical practitioner shall be maintained for
inspection purpose.

10.1.3 The factory staff shall be compulsorily inoculated against the enteric group of
diseases as per recommended schedule of the vaccine and a record shall be kept for
inspection.

10.1.4 In case of an epidemic, all workers are to be vaccinated irrespective of the

scheduled vaccination.

10.2 Personal Cleanliness

10.2.1 Food handlers shall maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness. The food
business shall provide to all food handlers adequate and suitable clean protective
clothing, head covering, face musk, gloves and footwear and the food business shall
ensure that the food handlers at work wear only clean protective clothes, head
covering and footwear every day.

10.2.2 Food handlers shall always wash their hands with soap and clean potable water,
disinfect their hands and then dry with hand drier or clean cloth towel or disposable
paper at the beginning of food handling activities immediately after handling raw food
or any contaminated material, tools, equipment or work surface, where this could
result in contamination of other food items or after using the toilet.

10.2.3 Food handlers engaged in food handling activities shall refrain from smoking,
spitting, chewing, sneezing or coughing over any food whether protected or
unprotected and eating in food preparation and food service areas.

10.2.4 The food handlers should trim their nails and hair periodically, do not encourage
or practice unhygienic habits while handling food.
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10.2.5 Persons working directly with and handling raw materials or food products shall
maintain high standards of personal cleanliness at all times. In particular:
a) they shall not smoke, spit, eat or drink in areas or rooms where raw materials
and food products are handled or stored;
b) wash their hands at least each time work is resumed and whenever
contamination of their hands has occurred; e. g. after coughing / sneezing, visiting
toilet, using telephone, smoking etc.
c) avoid certain hand habits - e. g. scratching nose, running finger through hair,
rubbing eyes, ears and mouth, scratching beard, scratching parts of bodies etc.-
that are potentially hazardous when associated with handling food products, and
might lead to food contamination through the transfer of bacteria from the
employee to product during its preparation. When unavoidable, hands should be
effectively washed before resuming work after such actions.

10.3 Visitors
10.3.1 Generally visitors should be discouraged from going inside the food handling
areas. Proper care has to be taken to ensure that food safety & hygiene is not getting
compromised due to visitors in the floor area.

10.3.2 The Food Business shall ensure that visitors to its food manufacturing, cooking,
preparation, storage or handling areas must wherever appropriate, wear protective
clothing, footwear and adhere to the other personal hygiene provisions envisaged in
this section.

11 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CONSUMER AWARNESS

All packaged food products shall carry a label and requisite information as per
provisions of Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 and Regulations made there under
so as to ensure that adequate and accessible information is available to the each
person in the food chain to enable them to handle, store, process, prepare and display
the food products safely and correctly and that the lot or batch can be easily traced
and recalled if necessary.

12 TRAINING
12.1 The Food Business shall ensure that all food handlers are aware of their role and
responsibility in protecting food from contamination or deterioration. Food handlers
shall have the necessary knowledge and skills which are relevant to food processing /
manufacturing, packing, storing and serving so as to ensure the food safety and food
quality.

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12.2 The Food Business shall ensure that all the food handlers are instructed and
trained in food hygiene and food safety aspects along with personal hygiene
requirements commensurate with their work activities, the nature of food, its handling,
processing, preparation, packaging, storage, service and distribution.

12.3 Periodic assessments of the effectiveness of training, awareness of safety

requirements and competency level shall be made, as well as routine supervision and
checks to ensure that food hygiene and food safety procedures are being carried out
effectively.

12.4 Training programmes shall be routinely reviewed and updated wherever

necessary.

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PART-III: Specific Hygienic and Sanitary Practices to be followed by Food
Business Operators engaged in manufacture, processing, storing and
selling of Milk and Milk Products
(See Regulation 2.1.2.(1)(5)
In addition to Part-II, the dairy establishment in which dairy based food is being handled,
processed, manufactured, stored, distributed and ultimately sold by the food business
operator, and the persons handling them should conform to the sanitary and hygienic
requirement, food safety measures and other standard as specified below.

I. SANITARY REQUIREMENTS
1.Dairy Establishments shall have the following:
(a) Facilities for the hygienic handling and protection of raw materials and of non-
packed or non-wrapped dairy products during loading and unloading, transport &
storing including Bulk Milk cooling facilities.
(b) Special watertight, non-corrodible containers to put raw materials or dairy
products intended for human consumption. Where such raw materials or dairy
products are removed through conduits, these shall be constructed and installed
in such a way so as to avoid any risk of contamination of other raw materials or
dairy products;
(c) a waste water disposal system which is hygienic and approved;
(d) facilities for cleaning & disinfecting of tanks used for transporting dairy
products and raw milk. These containers have to be cleaned after every use.
2. The occupier of a dairy establishment shall take appropriate measures to avoid
cross-contamination of dairy products in accordance with the cleaning program as
specified in point 9.1 of Part II.
3. Where a dairy establishment produces food stuffs containing dairy products
together with other ingredients, which have not undergone heat treatment or any
other treatment having equivalent effect, such dairy products and ingredients shall be
stored separately to prevent cross-contamination.
4. The production of heat-treated milk or the manufacture of milk-based products,
which might pose a risk of contamination to other dairy products, shall be carried out
in a clearly separated working area.
5. Equipment, containers and installations which come into contact with dairy products
or perishable raw materials used during production shall be cleaned and if necessary
disinfected according to a verified and documented cleaning programme.
6. Equipment, containers, instruments and installations which come in contact with
microbiologically stable dairy products and the rooms in which they are stored shall be
cleaned and disinfected according to a verified and documented Food Safety
management programme drawn up by the owner/occupier of the dairy establishment.

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7.Disinfectants and similar substances used shall be used in such a way that they do
not have any adverse effects on the machinery, equipment, raw materials and dairy
products kept at the dairy establishment. They shall be in clearly identifiable containers
bearing labels with instructions for their use and their use shall be followed by thorough
rinsing of such instruments and working equipment with potable water, unless
supplier's instructions indicate otherwise.

II.PERSONAL HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS

1.The Food Business Operator shall employ those persons only in such an
establishment to work directly with and handle raw materials or dairy products if those
persons have proved to the occupier's satisfaction by means of a medical certificate,
on recruitment, that there is no medical impediment to their employment in that
capacity.
2.Persons working directly with and handling raw materials or dairy products shall
maintain the highest standards of personal cleanliness at all times. In particular they
shall,
(a) wear suitable, clean working clothes and headgear which completely encloses
their hair;
(b) wash their hands at least each time work is resumed and whenever
contamination of their hands has occurred; e. g. after coughing / sneezing, visiting
toilet, using telephone, smoking etc.
(c) cover wounds to the skin with a suitable waterproof dressing. No person with
injury on hand, even with dressing, shall be placed in any product making/handling
section.
(d) avoid certain hand habits - e. g. scratching nose, running finger through hair,
rubbing eyes, ears and mouth, scratching beard, scratching parts of bodies etc. that
are potentially hazardous when associated with handling dairy products, and might
lead to food contamination through the transfer of bacteria from the employee to
product during its preparation. When unavoidable, hands should be effectively
washed before resuming work after such actions.

III.SANITARY REQUIREMENTS FOR STORAGE

1.Immediately after procuring, raw milk shall be placed in a clean place, which is suitably
equipped so as to prevent any kind of contamination.
2.The cans/ containers made up of mild steel metal and plastic material used for
storage and transportation of milk and milk products shall not be allowed.
3.If raw milk is brought to the dairy plant by a producer or farmer then it shall be ensured
that he brings it within four hours of milking and it shall be cooled as soon as practicable
to a temperature of 4ºC or lower and maintained at that temperature until processed.

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4.Where raw milk is collected daily from a producer, it shall be cooled immediately to a
temperature of 4ºC to 6ºC or lower and maintained at that temperature until
processed;
5.When the pasteurization process is completed, pasteurized milk shall be cooled
immediately to a temperature of 4ºC or lower.
6.Subject to Paragraph 7 below, any dairy product not intended to be stored at ambient
temperature shall be cooled as quickly as possible to the temperature established by
the manufacturer of that product as suitable to ensure its durability and thereafter
stored at that temperature.
7.Where dairy products other than raw milk are stored under cooled conditions, their
storage temperatures shall be registered and the cooling rate shall be such that the
products reach the required temperature as quickly as possible.
8.The maximum temperature at which pasteurized milk may be stored until it leaves the
treatment establishment shall not exceed 5° C.

IV.WRAPPING AND PACKAGING

1.The wrapping and packaging of dairy products shall take place under satisfactory
hygienic conditions and in rooms provided for that purpose.
2.The manufacture of dairy products and packaging operations may take place in the
same room if the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) The room shall be sufficiently large and equipped to ensure the hygiene of the
operations;
(b) the wrapping and packaging shall have been brought to the treatment or
processing establishment in protective cover in which they were placed immediately
after manufacture and which protects the wrapping or packaging from any damage
during transport to the dairy establishment, and they shall have been stored there
under hygienic conditions in a room intended for that purpose;
(c) the rooms for storing the packaging material shall be free from vermin and from
dust which could constitute an unacceptable risk of contamination of the product and
shall be separated from rooms containing substances which might contaminate the
products. Packaging shall not be placed directly on the floor;
(d) packaging shall be assembled under hygienic conditions before being brought into
the room, except in the case of automatic assembly or packaging, provided that there
is no risk of contamination of the products;
(e). packaging shall be done without delay. It shall be handled by separate group of
staff having experience in handling and product wrapping and
(f). immediately after packaging, the dairy products shall be placed in the designated
rooms provided for storage under required temperature.
3.Bottling or filling of containers with heat-treated milk and milk product shall be
carried out hygienically.

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4.Wrapping or packaging may not be re-used for dairy products, except where the
containers are of a type which may be re-used after thorough cleaning and
disinfecting.
5.Sealing shall be carried out in the establishment in which the last heat-treatment of
milk or liquid milk-based products have been carried out, immediately after filling, by
means of a sealing device which ensures that the milk is protected from any adverse
effects of external origin on its characteristic. The sealing device shall be so designed
that once the container has been opened, the evidence of opening remains clear and
easy to check.

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PART IV Specific Hygienic and Sanitary Practices to be followed by Food
Business Operators engaged in manufacture, processing, storing and
selling of Meat and Meat Products.
(See Regulation 2.1.2 (1)(5)
SLAUGHTER HOUSE
Food Business Operator which slaughters large animals and small animals including
sheep and goat or poultry birds within the premises of his factory for production of
meat/ meat products for supply / sale/ distribution to the public shall comply with the
following requirements:-

1.GENERAL REQUIREMENTS:
No Objection Certificate to be obtained from local Authority before grant of license.

2.LOCATION OF PREMISES:
Such establishments / Slaughter Houses should be linked to a meat market located
away from Vegetable, fish or other food markets and shall be free from undesirable
odour, smoke, dust or other contaminants. The premises shall be located at elevated
level in a sanitary place.

3.PREMISE REQUIREMENTS:
3.1 The slaughter house shall have a reception area/animal holding yard/resting yard,
lairage, slaughter hall, side halls for hide collection, paunch collection, collection, and
separation, holding room for suspected/ condemned carcass, by-product harvesting,
refrigeration room/cold room etc.
3.2 Every such establishment / Slaughter House shall make separate provision in the
slaughter hall for the slaughter of different species which are proposed to be
slaughtered (like large animal viz. Cattle and Buffalo, Pigs and small animals like Sheep
& Goat) and for different methods of slaughter (like Halal, Jewish and Jhatka). After
every type of operation the slaughter house shall be cleaned, washed wiped/dried
and sanitized thoroughly.
3.3 The slaughter house shall have separation between clean and dirty sections and
shall be so organized that from the introduction of a live animal into the slaughter
house up to the emergence of meat and offal classed as fit for human consumption
there shall be a continuous forward movement without any possibility of reversal,
intersection or overlapping between the live animal meat, and between meat and bye
products or waste.
3.4 The reception area/animal holding yard/ resting yard shall have facilities for
watering and examining animals before they are sent to holding pens/lairage. Animals
suspected of contagious or infectious diseases shall be segregated and kept in separate

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isolation pens which shall also be provided with arrangements for watering and
feeding. After confirmation for any notifiable disease, the designated Veterinary
Authority shall notify the disease as per the existing procedures. The resting yard must
have overhead protective shelter. (This is not mandatory for registration category)
3.5 The lairage shall be adequate in size for the number of animals to be laired.
3.6 Separate space shall be provided for stunning (Wherever applicable), for collection
of blood and for dressing of the carcasses. The slaughtering of an animal shall not be
done in the sight of other animals. The dressing of the carcass shall not be done on the
floor. Suitable hoists will be provided to hang the carcass before it is eviscerated.
3.7 All the floors in lairage, slaughter halls, work rooms, hanging rooms shall be of
impervious and non- slippery material.
3.8 The internal walls will be paved with impervious glazed tiles up to 1 meter height
in case of poultry and small ruminant animals and 5 meter height in case of large
ruminant animals . The walls and floors should be epoxy coated so as to avoid
accumulation/absorption of dust, blood/meat particles, microbial/fungal growth.
3.9 Ceiling or roofs shall be so constructed and finished so as to minimise condensation,
molds development, flaking and accumulation of dirt.
3.10 Suitable and sufficient accommodation shall be provided for segregation, storage
and disposal of condemned meat.
3.11 The establishments / Slaughter Houses shall be so constructed and maintained as
to permit hygienic production.
3.12 Windows, doors and other openings suited to screening shall be fly proof. All
doors shall have strong springs so that they may close automatically.
3.13 All operations in connection with the preparation or packing of meat / meat food
products shall be carried out under hygienic conditions. No portion of the
establishments / Slaughter Houses premises shall ever be used for living or sleeping
purposes unless it is separated from the factory by a wall.
3.14 There shall be efficient drainage and plumbing systems and all drains and gutters
shall be properly and permanently installed. There shall be provision for the disposal
of refuse.
3.15 The drainage system for blood shall either be underground with facility for easy
cleaning or a portable receptacle with lid. All drainages will have traps and screens so
as to prevent entry of scavengers like rats, mice, vermin etc.
3.16 The rooms and compartments where edible products are handled shall be
separate and distinct from the rooms and compartments for inedible products.
3.17 Suitable and separate space shall be provided for the storage of hides and skins.
This room shall have a separate exit.
3.18 A constant and sufficient supply of clean potable cold water with pressure hose
pipes and supply of hot water should be made available in the slaughter hall during
working hours.

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3.19 Suitable and sufficient facilities shall be provided for persons working in the
slaughter house for changing their clothes and cleaning their footwear, and cleaning
their hands before entering rooms used for the preparation and storage of meat.
3.20 Provision for latrines, toilets and change rooms will be made. Sufficient number
of latrines, urinals, washbasins and bathrooms for each sex shall be provided.
3.21 Suitable and sufficient facilities shall be provided in convenient places within the
slaughter house for the sterilization of knives and sharpner (mushtala) and other
equipment used in the slaughter house. The knives and sharpner (mushtala) shall be
of stainless steel only.
3.22 Whenever cooking is done on open fire, chimneys shall be provided for removal
of smoke and soot.
3.23 Whenever the dressed meat is not used up for the preparation of meat food
products and some portion has to be stored without further immediate processing,
such storage shall be in a room maintained at 0° C to 2°C.
3.24 All slaughter house refuse and waste materials will be suitably processed to
prepare animal bye products or dumped in pits that are suitably covered so as to
prevent its access to scavengers. For large slaughter houses, a suitable provision of
Effluent Treatment Plant will be made.
3.25 In case of small slaughter houses, waste material should be composted which can
be used for manure purpose and in case of large slaughter houses, waste material
should be rendered (cooked) in a rendering plant to produce meat, bone meal and
inedible fats.
3.26 Suitable and sufficient facilities shall be provided for the isolation of meat requiring
further examination by the authorised veterinary officer in a suitable laboratory
(within the premises of the slaughter house).
3.27 Consistent with the size of the factory and volume and variety of meat food
products manufactured, a laboratory shall be provided, equipped and staffed with
qualified (chemist/analyst and Veterinary Microbiologist) and trained personnel. The
licensing authority shall accord approval of the laboratory after inspection.
3.28 The Chemist/analyst shall have passed graduation with Chemistry as one subject
and the. Veterinary Microbiologist shall be a qualified veterinarian with two years of
experience in Meat analysis or having degree of Master in Veterinary Public Health with
specialization in Meat Hygiene.
3.29. Adequate natural or artificial lighting should be provided throughout the
abattoir/ meat processing unit. Where appropriate, the lighting should not alter
colours and the intensity should not be less than 540 Lux (50foot candles) at all
inspection points, 220 Lux (20foot candles) in work rooms and 110 Lux (10foot candles)
in other areas. Light bulbs and fixtures suspended over meat in any stage of production
should be of safety type and protected to prevent contamination of meat in case of
breakage. As far as possible meat inspection shall be carried out in day light. Every
abattoir shall be provided with well distributed artificial light.
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4.SANITARY PRACTICES
4.1 Every part of the internal surface above the floor or pavement of such slaughter
house shall be washed thoroughly with hot lime wash within the first 10 days of March,
June, September and December. Every part of the floor or pavement of the slaughter
house and every part of the internal surface of every wall on which any blood or liquid
refuse or filth may have been spilt or splashed or with which any offensive or noxious
matter have been brought into contact during the process of slaughtering, dressing
and cutting, shall be thoroughly cleaned, washed with water, wiped/dried and
disinfectant within three hours.
after the completion of slaughter.
4.2 Rooms and compartments in which animals are slaughtered or any product is
processed or prepared shall be kept sufficiently free from steam, vapours and moisture
and obnoxious odours so as to ensure clean and hygienic operations. This will also apply
to overhead structures in those rooms and compartments.
4.3 All parts of the establishments / Slaughter Houses shall always be kept clean,
adequately lighted and ventilated and shall be regularly cleaned, and disinfected. The
floorings shall be impervious and washed daily. Lime washing, colour washing or
painting as the case may be, shall be done at least once in every twelve months.
4.4 All yards, outhouses, stores and all approaches to the establishments / Slaughter
Houses shall always be kept clean and in a sanitary condition.
4.5 Suitable and sufficient receptacles furnished with closely fitted covers shall be
provided for collection and removal of all garbage, filth and refuse from the slaughter
house at a convenient time to a place away from the factory for disposal.
4.6 All blood, manure, garbage, filth or other refuse from any animal slaughtered and
the hide, fat, viscera and offal there from, shall be removed from the slaughter house
within 8 hours after the completion of the slaughtering and in such a manner and by
such means as will not cause nuisance at the premises or elsewhere. Every such vessel
or receptacle shall be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected immediately after use and
shall be kept thoroughly clean when not in actual use.
4.7 The inner side of the skin shall not be rubbed or caused to be rubbed upon the
ground within any portion of the slaughter hall. Hides and skins shall not be dragged
within the slaughter hall. No gut-scraping, tripe cleaning, manufacture or preparation
of meat food products, household washing of clothes or work of any nature other than
is involved in the slaughter and dressing of the carcass shall be permitted in any
slaughter hall except in the adjuncts to the slaughter hall intended for these products
and purposes.
4.8 The premises shall be cleaned thoroughly with disinfectants, one day in advance of
production of meat food products and the equipment shall be sterilized/sanitized
before use. The rooms and compartments in which any meat food product is prepared
or handled shall be free from dust and from odours emanating from dressing rooms,
toilet rooms, catch basins, hide cellars, casing rooms and livestock pens.
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4.9 Every practicable precaution shall be taken to exclude flies, rats, mice and vermin
from the establishments/ Slaughter Houses. The use of poisons for any purpose in
rooms or compartments where any unpacked product is stored or handled is
forbidden. The use of approved bait poisons in hide cellars, compartments where
inedible products are stored, outhouses or similar buildings containing canned
products is, however, not forbidden.
4.10 It shall be ensured that dogs, cats or birds do not have access to the slaughter
hall. Open areas in the factory shall have covered wire rope netting to prevent carrion
birds from access to the slaughter hall or the factory.
4.11 Water used in the establishments / Slaughter Houses shall be potable and suitable
arrangements shall be made for ensuring potability of water if bore well water is used for
production of meat and meat products. If required by the licensing authority, the water
shall be got examined chemically and bacteriologic ally by a recognised laboratory. The
water quality shall comply the standards prescribed by the licensing Authority.
4.12 Warm meat' meant for immediate sale need not be stored in cool conditions. It
can be transported in a hygienic and sanitary condition in clean insulated containers
with covers (lids) to the meat shops/selling units with precautions to ensure that no
contamination/cross contamination or deterioration takes place.

5.EQUIPMENT & MACHINERY

5.1 The equipment and fittings in slaughter hall except for chopping blocks, cutting
boards and brooms, shall be of such material and of such construction as to enable them
to be kept clean. The implements shall be of metal or other cleanable and durable
material resistant to corrosion.
5.2 No vessel, container or other equipment, the use of which is likely to cause metallic
contamination injurious to health shall be employed in the preparation, packing or
storage of meat food products. (Copper or brass vessels shall always be heavily lined.
No iron or galvanised iron shall come in contact with meat food products).

6.PERSONNEL HYGIENE
6.1 No person suffering from infectious or contagious diseases shall be allowed to work
in the factory. Arrangements shall be made to get the factory staff medically examined
at such intervals as the licensing authority deems fit, to ensure that they are free from
infectious, contagious and other diseases. A record of these examinations signed by a
registered medical practitioner shall be maintained for inspection.
6.2 The staff shall be inoculated against the enteric group of diseases and a certificate
thereof shall be kept for inspection.
6.3 In case of an epidemic, all workers should be inoculated or vaccinated.
6.4 The workers working in processing and preparation shall be provided with proper
aprons and head wears which shall be clean. The management shall ensure that all
workers are neat, clean and tidy.
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(a) Animal Welfare
Animal welfare is a major concern in meat production. It is essential that animals be
reared, handled, transported, and slaughtered using humane practices. A healthy and
peaceful animal is an essential requirement for hygienic slaughter and safety of the
meat product.
Careful handling of animals during loading / unloading, transportation and at
slaughtering helps in improving the quality of meat and reduction in losses in the value
of the carcass/meat.

I. Pre Slaughter Handling of Animal:

Livestock are transported from the farm to the slaughterhouse, a process called
"live export". Depending on its length and circumstances, this exerts stress and injuries
on the animals and some may die on route. Apart from being inhumane, unnecessary
stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the
muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to
attain acidic values.

Transportation of Animals
Following requirements shall be satisfied for Transportation of Animals from a farm
to the slaughter house.

1.0 General Conditions

1.1 Only healthy animals in good condition shall be transported unless they are meant
for emergency slaughter. These animals should be certified by a qualified veterinary
inspector for freedom from infectious diseases and ecto- parasitic diseases and their
fitness to undertake the journey.
1.2 When animals are to be transported from endemic areas of a disease to non-
endemic areas, the animals should be given protective vaccination and kept in
quarantine for 30 days, before transportation.
1.3 Female animals in advanced stages of pregnancy shall not be transported.
1.4 When transporting large animals particularly bears/bulls, special arrangements by
providing suitable partitions should be made to protect the animals from infighting.
Similar arrangements should also be made to protect the young ones from being
crushed when they are transported.
1.5 To avoid exhaustion, the animals shall be given humane treatment and care during
transportation. The animals shall not be bound or chained during transit and space
provided for them shall be large enough to stand or lie.
1.6 An attendant along with first aid equipment shall accompany the animals in transit.

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1.7 Before loading, the animals should not be fed heavily. Only light feed may be
allowed. For journeys less than 12 hours no feed need be carried but for longer
journeys sufficient feed shall be carried to last during the journey. Watering facilities
shall be provided at regular intervals.
1.8 Light and heavy animals shall be separated by providing partitions; animals from
different pens/sheds shall not be mixed during transportation. Male stock shall not be
transported with female stock (adults).
1.9 All vehicles should be inspected for safety, suitability and cleanliness before loading
the animals. The floor and walls should be undamaged and there should be no nails or
sharp projections which may injure the animals.
1.10 The Vehicles should be thoroughly sprayed with suitable disinfectant before
loading the animals.
1.11 A layer of clean sand to cover the floor to a thickness of not less than 6 cm shall
be provided. This layer of sand shall be moistened with water during the summer
months. During hot months arrangements shall be made to sprinkle water on the
animals at frequent intervals. In winter, a 2-cm layer of clean sand with another 6-cm
layer of whole-straw shall be provided.
1.12 Animals when driven for loading or unloading shall never be struck with stick.
Driving could best be done by soft-rubber pipe.
1.13 If animals are to be transported in extreme cold or hot climate, it is preferable to
transport them in covered Lorries on road so that they may not die or get exhausted
or suffer from acute respiratory disease. Journey under such adverse climate shall be
minimized.
1.14 Each consignment should bear a label showing the following particulars:
a) Number and kind of the animals loaded;
b) Name, address and telephone number, if any, of the consignor;
c) Name address and telephone number, if any, of the consignee;
d) Instructions regarding feeding and watering.

2.0 Loading
2.1 Loading during extremes of temperatures shall be avoided.
2.2 Suitable ramp shall be provided for loading and unloading the animals. The floor of
the ramp shall have cleats at intervals, so that animals do not slip as they climb or
descend. The ramp shall be covered with straw to avoid slipping. At any time of loading
and unloading the vehicle shall be kept clean to avoid slipping of animals.
2.3 In case of railway wagons when loading is done on the platform, the door of the
wagon may be used as ramp. In such cases, bales or bags of hay, agricultural wastes etc.
may be placed on the either side of the dropped door to prevent the animals from
getting their legs between the sides of the wagons and platform.

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3.0 Space Requirements
3.1 Overcrowding shall be avoided. Each animal shall have enough space to lie down.
3.2 Railway wagons shall not accommodate more animals than those specified in IS
specifications.
3.3 The speed of truck transporting animals shall not exceed 40 kilometres per hour,
avoiding jerks and jolts. The truck shall not load any other merchandise and shall avoid
unnecessary stops on the road.
3.4 For journeys, exceeding 12 hours, the animals shall be transported by railway.
Loading shall be done by evening.

4.0 Slaughter:
Animals are slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out).
Stunning can be affected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide,
shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current.

4.1 Stunning
Stunning before slaughter should be mandatory. By inducing unconsciousness and
insensibility, stunning can avoid and minimize reactions of fear and anxiety as well as
pain, suffering and distress among the animals concerned. Stunning methods induce
temporary loss of consciousness and rely on prompt and accurate sticking procedures
to cause death.
It is important that the equipment utilized for stunning and slaughter is maintained in
good working condition and that all operators involved are well trained and have a
positive attitude towards the welfare of animals.
Electrical stunning consists of passing electricity through the brain to produce
instantaneous insensibility. The following method of slaughter shall be considered
humane:-

(i). Mechanical stunning of cattle may be carried out by one of three methods; captive
bolt stunning, mushroom head percussive stunning and pneumatic percussive
stunning. For cattle, pneumatic stunning should be preferred and the optimum
position is that the centre of the stunner should contact the animal at a point of
intersection of lines drawn from the medial corners of the eyes and the base of the
ears. The best position for pigs is on the midline just above eye level, with the host
directed down the line of the spinal cord. The optimum position for sheep and goat is
behind the poll, aiming towards the angle of the jaw. If an animal shows signs of
regaining consciousness after the initial stun, the animal must be immediately killed by
the use of a captive bolt gun.

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(ii). Electrical stunning - Electrical Head Stunners may be preferred for sheep and goat
where both electrodes are placed on the head region. Water bath electrical stunning
may be used for poultry birds. A low and controlled voltage must be maintained so that
the stunning will not damage the heart and brain or cause physical disability and death
to the animals.
The minimum current level recommended for stunning are indicated in the table
below.

Species Minimum current levels for head only stunning

Cattle 1.5 Amps
Calves (less than 6month age) 1.0 Amps
Pigs 1.25 Amps
Sheep and goats 1.0 Amps
Lambs 0.7 Amps
Broilers 100 milli Amps
Turkeys 150 milli Amps

(iii). Gas stunning - Stunning of pigs by exposure to carbon dioxide (CO2) may be
preferred. The concentration of CO2 should be 90% by volume but shall not be less than
80% by volume. Ideally pigs should be exposed for 3 minutes. Sticking should be done
immediately after exit from the gas chamber. Over-crowding of animals should be
avoided in the gas chamber.

4.0 Precautions for animal welfare:

a). General:
1) The floor of the slaughter area should not cause slipping or falling of animals.
2) Vocalization is an indicator of animal discomfort and need to be watched for.
3) Use of electric pods for moving animal should be discouraged. Movement of
animals can be managed by grouping, use of plastic wrapped sticks etc.
4) Pen stocking density should be monitored. All animals should have room to lie down
simultaneously. The condition of animals arriving for slaughter should be closely
monitored so that injured, diseased animals are not slaughtered.
5) High pitch sounds such as whistling and yelling should be avoided to spare distress
to animals.
The following factors have been identified as critical to animal welfare:
a) supervision and training of employees.
b) Designing of animal transport cart and unloading bay.
c) Proper construction of holding/resting pen, stunning box, maintenance of
stunning equipment, restraining systems, gates and other animal handling
equipment.
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d) Avoiding distractions that make animals refuse to move.
e) Monitoring the condition of animals arriving at the plant.
f) Proper design of equipment in the slaughter house.

Keeping this in view, the following need to be observed to ensure humane treatment
of animals brought for slaughter:
• Pre-slaughter handling of animal should be carefully done to reduce stress.
Resting of the animals is essential. Only animals which are disease free and in a
condition to walk should be brought for slaughter.
• Distractions that impede animal movements such as, reflections, air blowing
towards animals and movement or high pitch noise, need to be avoided. Herding
of animals should not be done through electric prods but with the help of plastic
bags or sticks.
• A high standard of training is required for employees to ensure that the basic
hygiene and safety practices are followed while handling animals.
• Equipment which is used for slaughter such as captive bolt stunner, gates, hooks
etc. should be kept in good working condition and cleanliness of floors etc. needs
to be ensured. There should be daily check to ensure the smooth working of
equipment and cleanliness of floors.
• The condition of the animals arriving at the plant should be monitored. Animals
which are injured or not in a condition to walk should not be slaughtered.
• Inspecting personnel should pay particular attention to these points to ensure
reasonable standards of animal welfare.

6.0 Poultry welfare

Welfare Programme
The conditions under which broilers are housed and the way that they are managed
during their growing phase, transportation and slaughter are set down in several
government/industry endorsed Model Codes of Practice designed to safeguard their
welfare.
A model welfare program needs to be developed for pick-up, transport and
broiler/chicken processing sectors.
Processing unit shall incorporate elements of this welfare audit in their own quality
plans and manuals.

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A Model programme shall envisage following:
Poultry Suppliers and processors must have a documented program for poultry welfare
envisaging following;
a) Catching: Poultry intended for slaughter plant should be clean and in good health.
Every reasonable precaution should be taken to minimize injury to poultry. The
catcher needs to be trained to this effect.
b) Transport: For transport of poultry crates shall be in good repair. There shall be
no crate/cage damage that would allow injury to poultry or allow crates to
accidentally open. Transport crates should not be over-filled and enough space
should be provided to allow all poultry to lie down.
c) Holding: Poultry held in storage sheds should be provided adequate ventilation
and climate control such as fans or curtains.
d) Stunning: Stunning equipment should be properly maintained to confirm that
poultry are insensible prior to slaughter, and the time between stunning and
slaughter should be limited to minimize any likelihood that poultry may regain
consciousness prior to slaughter.

Economic performance and welfare:

High standards of poultry welfare and high levels of flock performance and
economic performance are not incompatible - quite the contrary, they go hand in hand.
It simply makes good economic sense as well as being in the poultry's best interests to
ensure that flocks are maintained in an environment, in which they are thermally
comfortable, protected from injury, fed optimally and kept healthy. Therefore, all
measures described elsewhere to ensure that chickens are kept in conditions which
optimize their comfort (in terms of temperature, humidity, air flow and air quality), in
which they are provided with water, shelter, and a high quality diet that matches their
physiological needs, and which optimize their health have just as important effect in
terms of poultry welfare as they do on the overall efficiency of the farming operation.

Poultry health and welfare:

When producing chicken meat in a welfare-friendly manner it is also important that the
poultry receive prompt and appropriate medication and treatment to prevent and
treat diseases if this should become necessary, and that they do not suffer any
unnecessary pain, distress, fear or physical injury. It is also important that sick or
injured poultry that cannot be adequately or successfully treated are culled quickly and
in a humane manner so that they do not suffer.

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Humane slaughter (poultry):
While the chickens are reared specifically for human consumption and they therefore
at some stage have to be slaughtered, they should be slaughtered in a humane
manner, and all poultry should be stunned (rendered insensible to pain) prior to
slaughter.
Slaughter equipment at all supply facilities should be properly maintained to confirm
that the poultry are slaughtered quickly.

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 7. ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION
1) All animals shall be rested before slaughter and shall be subjected to ante-mortem
examination and inspection well in advance of the time of slaughter.
2) No animal which has been received into a slaughter hall for the purpose of being
slaughtered shall be removed from the slaughter hall before being slaughtered
except with the written consent of the Qualified Veterinary Doctor. An animal which,
on inspection is found to be not fit for slaughter shall be marked as "suspect" and
kept separately. Each such animal shall be marked as "suspect" only by or under the
personal supervision of the Qualified Veterinary Doctor and the marking shall not be
removed or obliterated except by the Qualified Veterinary Doctor himself.
3) An animal showing signs of any disease at the time of ante-mortem inspection that
would cause its carcass being ultimately condemned on post-mortem shall be
marked as "condemned" and rejected.
4) An animal declared as "suspect" on ante-mortem inspection but which does not
plainly show any disease or condition that would cause its entire carcass to be
condemned shall maintain its identity as "suspect" until its carcass and all organs are
finally inspected by the Qualified Veterinary Doctor.
5) No animal in a febrile condition shall be permitted for slaughter. No suspect animal
shall be slaughtered until all other animals intended for slaughter on the same day
have been slaughtered. All animals which, on ante-mortem inspection, show
symptoms of railroad sickness, parturient paresis, rabies, tetanus or any other
communicable diseases shall be marked as "condemned" and disposed of in
accordance with the provisions contained in sub paragraph (8) below.
6) Animals presented for slaughter and found in a dying condition on the premises of
a factory due to recent disease shall be marked as "condemned" and disposed of
as provided for "condemned" animals.
7) Every animal which, upon examination, is found to show symptoms of or is
suspected of being diseased or animals declared as "suspect" shall at once be
removed for treatment to such special pen and kept there for observation for such
period as may be considered necessary to ascertain whether the animal is diseased
or not.
8) All animals declared as "condemned" on ante-mortem inspection shall be marked
as "condemned" and killed if not already dead. Such carcasses shall not be taken
into the factory to be slaughtered or dressed, nor shall they be conveyed into any
department of the factory used for edible products.

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 8.POST-MORTEM INSPECTION
1. A careful and detailed post-mortem examination and inspection of the carcasses and
parts thereof of all animals slaughtered shall be made soon after slaughter. All organs
and parts of the carcasses and blood to be used in the preparation of meat food
products shall be held in such a manner as to preserve their identity till the
completion of the post-mortem inspection so that they can be identified in the event
of the carcasses being condemned.
2. Every carcass including all detached parts and organs thereof which show evidence
of any condition which will render the meat or any part or organ unfit for human
consumption and which for that reason may require subsequent inspection, shall be
retained by the Qualified Veterinary Doctor. The identity of such carcass including the
detached parts and organs thereof shall be maintained until the final inspection is
completed. Retained carcasses, detached parts and organs thereof shall be
maintained until the final inspection is completed. Retained carcasses, detached
parts and organs thereof shall in no case be washed, trimmed or mutilated in any
manner unless otherwise authorized by the Qualified Veterinary Doctor.
3. No air shall be blown by mouth into the tissues of any carcass or part of a carcass.
4. Every carcass or part thereof which has been found to be unfit for human
consumption shall be marked by the Qualified Veterinary Doctor as "Inspected and
condemned".
5. All such condemned carcasses, parts and organs thereof shall remain in the custody
of the Qualified Veterinary Doctor pending disposal at or before the close of the day
on which they are marked "Inspected and condemned" in accordance with sub-
paragraphs (11), (12) and (13) below.
6. Carcasses, parts and the organs thereof found to be sound, wholesome, healthful and
fit for human consumption shall be marked as "Inspected and passed".
7. Carcasses found affected with anthrax before evisceration shall not be eviscerated
but condemned and disposed of immediately in accordance with sub-paragraph (12)
below. Any part of a carcass contaminated with anthrax infected material through
contact with soiled instruments or otherwise shall be immediately condemned and
disposed of as provided in sub-paragraph (12) below.
8. The portion of the slaughtering department including equipment, employees' boots and
aprons, etc., contaminated by contact with anthrax material shall be cleaned and
thoroughly disinfected immediately.
9. When on inspection only a portion of a carcass on account of slight bruises is decided
to be condemned, either the bruised portion shall be removed immediately and
disposed of in accordance with sub-paragraph (13) below or the carcass shall be
retained and kept till such time it is chilled and the bruised portion removed and
disposed of as provides above.
10.Post-mortem inspection shall be a detailed one and shall cover all parts of the carcass,
the viscera, lymph glands and all organs and glands.

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 11.The post-mortem inspection shall be in accordance with the general rules laid down
for such inspection in public slaughter houses under the control of local bodies besides
special instructions that may be issued from time to time by the licensing authority.
12.All condemned carcasses, organs or parts thereof shall be completely destroyed in
the presence of the Qualified Veterinary Doctor by incineration or denatured, after
being slashed freely with a knife, with crude carbolic acid, cresylic- disinfectant or any
other prescribed agent unless such carcasses, organs or parts thereof are sterilized
for the preparation of bone-cum-meat meal before leaving the slaughter house
premises, subject to sub-paragraph (13) below.
13.Carcasses, organs or parts thereof condemned on account of anthrax shall be disposed
of either by (i) complete incineration or (ii) thorough denaturing with prescribed
denaturant in the manner prescribed in the foregoing paragraphs and also in
accordance with the rules and regulations prescribed by the local authority.
14.Destruction of condemned carcasses, organs or parts thereof shall be carried out
under the direct supervision of the Qualified Veterinary Doctor.
15.If in the opinion of the Qualified Veterinary Doctor a carcass, organ or part thereof is
to be held back for further detailed examination, the carcass, organ or part concerned
shall not be released till the examination in detail is completed by the Qualified
Veterinary Doctor and it is declared thereafter by him as fit. When it is to be
detained for detailed examination, the carcass, organ or part thereof shall be marked
as "Held". If on subsequent inspection, the carcass, organ or part thereof is found to
be unwholesome and unfit for human food, the Qualified Veterinary Doctor shall mark
such a carcass, organ or part thereof as "condemned" and shall dispose it of as
described in the foregoing paragraphs.

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SANITARY AND HYGIENIC REQUIREMENTS FOR MEAT PROCESSING UNITS
Following Sanitary and Hygienic requirements shall be satisfied by the meat processing
unit.
1. LOCATION:
1.1 Meat processing unit should be located in areas not subjected to regular and
frequent flooding and free from objectionable odours, smoke dust and other
contaminants;
1.2 Roadways and areas serving the meat processing unit which are within its
boundaries or in its immediate vicinity should have a hard paved surface suitable for
wheeled traffic. There should be adequate drainage and provision for cleaning;
1.3 Where appropriate, meat processing unit should be so designed that access can
be controlled.

2. BUILDING AND FACILITIES

2.1 The meat processing unit should provide adequate working space for the
satisfactory performance of all operations.
2.2 The construction should be sound and ensure adequate ventilation, good natural or
artificial lighting and easy cleaning.
2.3 The meat processing unit should be laid out and equipped so as to facilitate proper
supervision of meat hygiene including performance of inspection and control;
2.4 The meat processing unit should be of such construction as to protect against the
entrance and harbouring of insects, birds, rodents or other vermin as well as the entry
of environmental contaminants such as smoke, dust etc.
2.5 Buildings and facilities should be designed to provide separation by partition,
location or other effective means, between those operations which may cause cross-
contamination;
2.6 Meat processing unit should be laid out and equipped so as to ensure, that edible
meat does not come into contact with floors, walls or other fixed structures, except
those which are specifically designed for contact with meat;
2.7 The construction and lay out of any chilling room, freezing room, freezer store or
freezer should satisfy the requirements of these rules;
2.8 In meat handling areas:
a. Floors should be of waterproof, non-absorbent, washable non-slippery and made
of nontoxic materials, without crevices and should be easy to clean and slope
sufficiently for liquids to drain to trapped outlets;
b. Walls should be of waterproof, non-absorbent, washable and nontoxic materials
and should be light coloured. Up to a height of at least 1.5 metres, they should
be smooth and without crevices, and should be easy to clean, space between
walls and ceilings should be sealed and covered to facilitate cleaning;

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 c. Ceilings should be so designed, constructed and finished as to prevent any
accumulation of dirt and minimize condensation, molds development and flaking
and should be easy to clean;
d. Windows and other openings should be so constructed as to avoid accumulation
of dirt and those which open should be fitted with insect screen. Screens should
be easily movable for cleaning and kept in good repair. Internal window sills, if
present, should be sloped to prevent use as shelves;
e. Doors should have smooth, non-absorbent surfaces and where appropriate, be
self-closing and close fitting; and
f. Stairs, lift cages and auxiliary structures such as platforms, ladders, chutes, should
be so situated and constructed as not to cause contamination of meat. They
should be capable of being effectively cleaned. Chutes should be constructed
with inspection and cleaning hatches;
2.9 The use of construction materials which cannot be adequately cleaned and
disinfected such as wood, should be avoided unless its use would clearly not be a
source of contamination, and
2.10 Office accommodation should be provided for the use of the meat inspection
agency.

3. SANITARY FACILITIES
3.1 Water Supply:
3.1.1 Supply of potable water under pressure should be available with facilities for its
storage, where necessary for distribution, and with protection against contamination;
3.1.2 An supply of hot potable water should be available at all times during working
hours;
Note - This provision is intended to cover water for both cleaning purposes and the
destruction of microorganisms (especially those pathogenic to man) on knives, utensils
etc., and coming into direct contact with meat. For cleaning purposes the temperature
of the water should be 65 degree Celsius. The hot water for disinfection purposes should
be at 82 degree Celsius and dispensed in such a way (e.g. in specially designed boxes
near the working area) that blades of knives etc., can be submerged in the water for a
contact time (no less than two minutes). Often this water supply is separate from other
hot water supplies used for cleaning, hand washing etc. But if there is only one hot
water supply the term "adequate" should mean that even at times where large
amounts of hot water is used (e.g. during cleaning operations) the water supply from any
tap in the establishment should not be decreased;
3.1.3 Ice should be made from potable water and should be manufactured, handled
and stored so as to protect it from contamination; and
3.1.4 Steam used in contact directly with meat should be produced from potable water
and contain no substances which may be hazardous to health or may contaminate the
food.

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3.2 Effluent and Waste Disposal - Meat processing unit should have an efficient effluent
and waste disposal system. All effluent lines (including sewer systems) should be large
enough to carry peak loads and should be constructed in such a manner as to avoid
contamination of potable water supplies. Biological oxygen demand level shall be less
than 1500, and for that an effluent treatment plant, if necessary may be installed.
3.3 Facilities for Storage of Waste and Inedible Material - Facilities should be provided
for the storage of waste and inedible material prior to removal from the establishment.
These facilities should be designed to prevent access to waste or inedible material by
pests and to avoid contamination of food, potable water and equipment or building.

3.4 Changing Facilities and Toilets - Suitable and conveniently located changing
facilities and toilets should be provided in all establishments. Toilets should be so
designed as to ensure hygienic removal of waste matter. These areas should be well lit
and ventilated and should not open directly on to food handling areas. Hand washing
facilities with warm or hot and cold water with suitable hygienic means of drying hands
should be provided adjacent to toilets and in such a position that the employee must
pass them when returning to the processing area. Where hot and cold water are
available, mixing taps should be provided. Where paper towels are used, a sufficient
number of dispensers and receptacles should be provided near to each washing facility.
Taps of non-hand operable type are preferable. Notices should be posted directing
personnel to wash their hands after using the toilets.

3.5 Hand Washing Facilities in Processing Areas

3.5.1 Adequate and conveniently located facilities for hand washing and drying should
be provided wherever the process demands. Where appropriate, facilities for hand
disinfection should be provided. The facilities should be furnished with properly
trapped waste pipes leading to drains.
3.5.2 All rooms used for deboning, preparing, packing or other handling of meat should
be equipped with adequate facilities for cleaning and disinfecting implements,
conveniently located for the use of personnel during operations. These facilities are for
use exclusively in the cleaning and disinfection of knives, steels, cleavers, saws and
other implements.
3.5.3 All facilities for cleaning and disinfecting implements should be of such nature
and sizes as to permit proper cleaning and disinfection of implements. These facilities
should be constructed of corrosion - resistant materials and should be capable of being
easily cleaned.
3.5.4 All facilities for cleaning and disinfecting of implements should be fitted with
suitable means of supplying hot water in sufficient quantity at all times while meat is
being handled in that part of the Meat Processing Unit.

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3.5.5 Lighting - Adequate natural or artificial lighting should be provided throughout
the meat processing unit. Where appropriate, the lighting should not alter colours and
the intensity should not be less than,
• 540 Lux (50 foot candles) at all inspection points.
• 220 Lux (20 foot candles) in work rooms.
• 110 Lux (10 foot candles) in other areas.
Light bulbs and fixtures suspended over meat in any stage of production should be of
a safety type and protected to prevent contamination of meat in case of breakage.
3.6 Ventilation - Ventilation should be provided to prevent excessive heat, steam
condensation, dust and to remove contaminated air. The direction of the air flow should
never be from a dirty area to clean area. Ventilation openings should be provided with
an insect screen or other protective enclosure of non-corrodible material. Screens
should be easily removable for cleaning.

4 EQUIPMENT AND UTENSILS

4.1 Materials - All equipment, implements and utensils used in establishments which
come into contact with exposed meat and meat products should present a smooth
impervious surface and be resistant to corrosion and should be made of material which
is non-toxic, does not transmit odour or taste, is free from pits and crevices, is non-
absorbent and capable of withstanding repeated exposure to normal cleaning and
disinfection. Such equipment should be so constructed that they may be easily cleaned.
4.2 Sanitary Design, Construction and Installation:
4.2.1 All equipments and utensils should be so designed and constructed as to prevent
hygiene hazards and permits easy and thorough cleaning and disinfection and where
practicable be visible for inspection. Stationary equipment should be installed in such
a manner as to permit easy access and thorough cleaning.
4.2.2 Containers for inedible material and waste should be leak proof, constructed of
non-corrosive metal or other suitable impervious materials which should be easy to
clean or disposable and where appropriate, able to be closed securely; and
4.2.3 All refrigerated spaces should be equipped with temperature measurement or
recording devices.
4.3 Equipment Identification – Equipment and utensils used for inedible material or
waste should be so identified and should not be used for edible products.

5. HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Maintenance. The buildings, rooms, equipment and all other physical facilities of
the meat processing unit, including drains, should be maintained in good repair and in
orderly condition. Except for rooms where meat processing or cleaning operations are
performed, they should be free from steam, vapour and surplus water.
5.2 Cleaning and Disinfection - Cleaning and disinfection should meet the following
requirements:
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 i. Amenities provided for the use of employee and the inspection service including
changing facilities, toilets and the inspection office space should be kept clean at all
times.
ii. If rooms, intended and most of the time used for the handling, preparation,
processing, packaging on storage of meat, are used for any other food preparation
purposes, then cleaning and disinfection are necessary immediately before and after
such use.
iii. The temperature in rooms for boning out and trimming should be controlled and held
suitably low, unless cleaning of equipment and utensils are carried out at least every
four hours;
iv. To prevent contamination of meat, all equipment, implements, tables, utensils including
knives, cleaves, knife pouches, saws, mechanical instruments and containers should
be cleaned at frequent intervals during the day and immediately cleaned and
disinfected whenever they come into contact with diseased material, infective
material or otherwise become contaminated. They shall also be cleaned and
disinfected at the conclusion of each working day.
v. If any skip or trolley or any container used in a department where edible material is
handled, enters an area where inedible material is handled it should be cleaned and
disinfected immediately before re-entering the edible department.

vi. Immediately after the cessation of work for the day or at such other times as may
be required, the floors and wails should be cleaned to remove contamination. Floor
drains should be kept in good condition and repair with strainers in place; and
vii. Roadways and yards in the immediate vicinity of and serving the meat processing
unit should be kept clean.

5.3 Hygiene Control Programme - It is desirable that each meat processing unit in its own
interest designates a single individual whose duties are diverted from production, to be
held responsible for the cleanliness of the meat processing unit. His staff should be a
permanent part of the organisation or employed by the organisation and should be
well trained in the use of special cleaning tools, methods of dismantling the equipment
for cleaning and in the significance of contamination and the hazards involved. A
permanent cleaning and disinfection schedule should be drawn up to ensure that all
parts of the meat processing unit are cleaned appropriately and that critical areas,
equipment and material and designed for cleaning and/or disinfection daily or more
frequently if required.
5.4 Storage and Disposal of Waste - Waste material should be handled in such a manner
so as to exclude contamination of food or potable water. Precautions should be taken
to prevent access to waste by pests. Waste should be removed from the meat handling
and other working areas at intervals and at least daily. Immediately after disposal of the
waste, receptacles used for storage and any equipment which has come into contact

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with the taste should be cleaned and disinfected. At least daily the waste storage area
should also be cleaned and disinfected.
5.5 Dogs, cats or other pet animals should be not allowed to enter meat processing
unit.

6. PEST CONTROL
6.1 There should be an effective and continuous programme for the control of insects,
birds, rodents or other vermin. Meat processing unit and surrounding areas should be
regularly examined for evidence of infestation.
6.2 Should pests gain entrance to the meat processing unit or surrounding areas,
eradication measures should be instituted. Control measures involving treatment with
physical or chemical or biological agents should only be undertaken by or under direct
supervision of personnel who have a thorough understanding of the potential hazards
to health resulting from the use of these agents, including those which may arise from
residues retained in the product. Such measures should be carried out in accordance
with the recommendation of the official agency having jurisdiction and with the full
knowledge of its inspector, and
6.3 Pesticides should only be employed if other precautionary methods cannot be used
effectively. Only pesticides approved for use in the meat processing unit by competent
authority should be used and the greatest care should be exercised to prevent any
contamination of the meat equipment or utensils. Before pesticides are applied all meat
should be removed from the room and all equipment and utensils should be
thoroughly washed prior to being used again.
6.4 Handling and Storage of Hazardous substances - Pesticides or other substance
which may represent a hazard should be labelled with a warning about their toxicity
and use. Except as required for purpose of hygiene such substance which may
contaminate meat packing material and ingredients should be handled and stored in a
part of the meat processing unit which is not used for preparation, processing,
handling, packing or storage of meat. They should be handled and dispensed only by
authorised and properly trained personnel. Extreme care should be taken to avoid
contamination of meat. However, materials employed in the construction and
maintenance of an establishment may be used at any time with the approval of Food
Safety Officer.
6.5 Personal Effects and Clothing - Personal effects and clothing should not be
deposited in meat handling areas.
6.6 Maintenance Tools - Cleaning and maintenance tools and products should not be
stored in meat handling area.

7. PERSONNEL HYGIENE AND HEALTH REQUIREMENTS

7.1 Medical examination - Persons who come into contact with meat in the course of
their work should have a medical examination prior to their employment. Medical

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examination of a meat handler shall be carried out routinely and when clinically or
epidemiologically indicated, at least once in 12 months.
7.2 Communicable Diseases - The management should take care to ensure that no person,
while known or suspected to be suffering from, or to be a carrier of a disease likely to
be transmitted through meat or while afflicted with infected wounds, skin infections,
sores or with diarrhoea, is permitted to work in any area in any capacity in which there
is any likelihood of such a person directly or indirectly contaminating meat with
pathogenic microorganisms. Any person so affected should immediately report to the
management that he is ill.
7.3 Injuries - Any person who is cut or injured should discontinue working with meat
and until he is suitably bandaged should not be engaged in any meat processing unit
in the preparation, handling, packing or transportation of meat. No person working in
any meat processing unit should wear exposed bandage unless the bandage is
completely protected by a water proof covering which is conspicuous in colour and is
of such a nature that it cannot become accidentally detached. first aid facilities should
be provided for this purpose.
7.4 Washing of Hands: Every person engaged in a meat handling area should wash his
hands frequently and thoroughly with a suitable hand cleaning preparation under running
potable water while on duty. Hands should always be washed before commencing work,
immediately after using the toilets, after handling contaminated material and whenever
else necessary. After handling diseased or suspect materials hands should be washed
and disinfected immediately. Notices requiring hand-washing should be displayed.

8. PERSONNEL CLEANLINESS
8.1 Every person engaged in an area in meat processing unit where meat is handled
should maintain a high degree of personnel cleanliness while on duty, and should at all
times while so engaged wear suitable protective clothing including head covering and
foot wear, all of which should be washed unless designed to be disposed and which
should be maintained in a clean condition consistent with the nature of the work in
which the person is engaged.
8.2 Aprons and similar items should not be washed on the floor; and
8.3 Items should not be left on equipment in the working area.
8.4 Personal behavior: Any behavior which can potentially contaminate the meat such
as eating, use of tobacco, chewing, spitting, should be prohibited in any part of meat
processing unit used for the preparation, handling, packaging or transportation of
meat.
8.5 Visitors: Every person who visits an area in any meat processing unit where meat is
handled should wear clean protective clothing and head cover.
For ensuring the hygiene and safety of meat being sold at retail meat shops,
the following requirements should be followed under the supervision of the qualified
Veterinary staff.

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1.Location of Meat Shop
I. The meat shop / sale outlet should preferably be a unit of meat market located away
from Vegetable, fish or other food markets and shall be free from undesirable odour,
smoke, dust or other contaminants. Wherever a meat market is not available, individual
meat shop can be set up considering the above factors, which have a direct bearing on
the hygiene conditions of the premises and health of consumers.
a) The minimum distance between the licensed meat shop and any place of
worship should not be less than 50 meters;
b) The condition of 100 meters distance will apply in case the premises situated
directly opposite to the entry gate of religious place of any community.
II. All the meat shops located in the vicinity of religious places shall be fitted with black
glass doors, which must be kept closed all times except in case of entry or exit. It must be
the responsibility of the meat shop owners to maintain a high standard of hygiene not
only inside the shops, but also in the way leading to the shops road pavements or other
adjoining place, particularly for insanitary materials originating from the meat business
for example, blood, part of offal, meat scraps etc.

2. Size of Meat Shops

2.1 Considering the constraints of commercial space in residential areas in concerned
Panchayats / Municipalities the size of meat shops may vary according to the size of
business and activities being carried out there in the meat shops.
2.2 The height of shop in all above categories of meat shops should be not less than 3
meters, while in case of air- conditioned meat shops, it should not be less than 2.5
meters.

3.Premises
3.1 The premises shall be structurally sound. The walls up to the height of minimum 5
feet from the floor level shall be made of impervious concrete material (e.g. glazed tiles
or hygienic panels, etc.) for easy washing and cleaning purposes.
3.2 The floor should be made of impervious and non-slippery materials with a slope for
easy cleaning and removal of filth, waste and dirty water. The slope of the floor shall
not be less than 5 cm. for a floor of 3 meters.
3.3 All the fittings in the stall should be of non-corroding and non-rusting type.
3.4.All processing tables, racks, shelves, boards, etc. shall have
zinc/aluminium/stainless steel/marble-granite top to facilitate proper cleaning.
3.5 A sign board indicating the type of meat sold shall be displayed prominently.
Nothing else but meat should be sold at the premises.
3.6 The premises should have provision of sewer connection for drainage of
wastewater.
3.7 There should be provision of continuous supply of potable water inside the
premises. In case the water supply is from bore well the arrangement for softening of

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water for making the same potable shall be made in the premises and intermittent
store arrangement should be made.
3.8 The door of the shop should be of self-closing type. The door of the shop should be
of dark glass top and be kept closed. No carcasses should be kept in a manner so as to
be seen by the public from outside.

4.Ventilation
4.1 The meat shop should be ventilated with facility of cross ventilation and may be
provided with at-least one electric fan and one exhaust fan.
4.2 The rails and hanging hooks, if provided for hanging carcasses, should be of non-
corrosive metal. The non- corrosive hanging hooks for carcasses shall be 30 cm. apart
and the distance between rails shall be 60 to 70 cm. depending upon the size of animals
slaughtered and carcasses hanged.

5.Equipment and Accessories

5.1 The meat shop should have suitable arrangement for fly proofing in the form of air-
curtains, flytraps, etc.
5.2 It should have display cabinet type refrigerator of size for maintaining a
temperature of 4 to 8 degrees C. or freezing cabinet if the meat is to be stored for more
than 48 hours.
5.3 The weighing scales used shall be of a type which obviates unnecessary handling
and contamination and the plate sketch of the scale shall be made of stainless steel or
nickel coated
5.4 The knives, tools and hooks used shall be made of stainless steel. Sufficient
cupboards or racks should be for storing knives, hooks, clothes and other equipment.
5.5 There should be a provision of geysers in all the meat shops to have hot water at a
temperature not less than 82 degree C to clean the premises and equipment used in
meat shop.
5.6 Washbasin made of stainless steel / porcelain shall be provided with liquid soap
dispenser or other soap and nail brush for thorough cleaning of hands.
5.7 The chopping block should be of food-grade synthetic material, which does not
contaminate the meat. If the block is of wooden it should be of hardwood trunk, which
is solid enough and should not contaminate the meat.
5.8 A waste bin with a pedal operated cover shall be provided in the premises for
collection of waste material.

6 Transportation
6.1 The transportation of carcasses from the slaughter house to the premises shall be
done under hygienic conditions in boxes of adequate size linked with
zinc/aluminium/stainless steel or wire gauze meat safes, which must be washed daily.

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6.2 The transportation of carcasses from the slaughter house to the meat shops should
be done in insulated refrigerated vans. Under no circumstances, carcasses will be
transported in vehicles used for commuting of human beings, or in an exposed
condition.

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7 Pest Control
7.1 The meat shop should have an effective and continuous programme for control of
insects, rodents or other vermin within the premises. The surrounding area of the shop
should also be free from insects, birds, rodents and other vermin.
7.2 The pest control measures adopted by the owner of shop should be kept as a
record in the premises to be shown to any officer of the concerned Panchayats /
Municipalities responsible for local administration/Corporation at the time of
inspection.
7.3 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, organo-phosphorus compounds and synthetic
perithroids, rodenticides etc. should neither be used as pesticide nor shall be stored
at the meat shop.
7.4 No live animals or birds should be allowed inside or adjacent to the meat shops.

8 Personnel Hygiene
8.1 Every person employed for meat handling at the meat shop shall be medically
examined annually by a authorized registered medical practitioner and examination
shall include examination of sputum and x-ray of the chest for tuberculosis. The medical
examination shall also include examination of stool for protozoal and helminthic
infestations for those parasites, which are transmitted by ingestion, and also for the
presence of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella spieces and Vibrio
cholera.
8.2 A certificate / records of medical fitness of all workers handling meat should be kept
as a record in the premises to be shown to any officer of the concerned Panchayats /
Municipalities responsible for local administration / Corporation at the time of
inspection.
8.3 No worker suspected to be suffering from fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, typhoid,
dysentery or boils, cuts and sores and ulcers (however small) shall be permitted to
work in the meat shops.
8.4 All the workers of the meat shop shall keep their finger nails short and clean and
wash their hands with soap or detergent and hot water before commencement of work
and after each absence, especially after using sanitary conveniences.
8.5. Eating, spitting, nose cleaning or the use of tobacco in any form or chewing betel
leaves shall be prohibited within the premises of meat shop processing, packing and
storage area of the unit. "No smoking "and "No Spitting "boards shall be prominently
displayed in the shop.

9. Sanitary Practices
9.1 The chopping block should be sanitized daily by covering its top with sea-salt, after
cleaning it with hot water at close of business activity.
9.2 The floor should be washed with appropriate disinfectant / detergent / sanitizer at
the start and close of the business each working day.

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9.3 There should be high standard of cleanliness and tidiness in the working area of
shop with no organic or other material lying on the floor.
9.4 The refrigerated / freezing cabinet should be regularly cleaned and well maintained.
9.5 Slaughtering of animal / birds inside the shop premises should be strictly
prohibited.
9.6 The carcasses shall not be allowed to be covered with wet-clothes.
9.7 Wholesome meat obtained from the authorized slaughter house shall only be sold
at the meat shops and a record thereof shall be kept in the premises to be shown to any
officer of the concerned Panchayats / Municipalities responsible for local
administration Corporation at the time of inspection.
9.8 Waste bins should be emptied, transported for disposal as per the arrangements
made by the concerned Panchayats / Municipalities and waste bin / dhalau (burial pits)
shall be treated daily with a disinfectant.
9.9 The premises shall not be used for residential purposes nor it shall communicate
with any residential quarter. No personal belonging like clothing, bedding, shoes etc.
shall be kept in the premises. Only dressed carcasses of clean meat shall be stored at
the premises.
9.10 Hides, skins, hoofs, heads and unclean gut will not be allowed to be stored in the
premises at any time.
9.11 The chopping instruments should be cleaned with hot water at a temperature of
82 degree C.
9.12 The preparation of food of any type inside the meat sale outlet should be strictly
prohibited.
9.13 The meat obtained from unauthorized sources or unstamped meat is liable to be
confiscated and destroyed.
9.14 Waste of the meat shop to be disposed of packed in heavy polythene bags in
dhalaos (burial pits).

10. Other Requirements

10.1 The prepared meat shall be packed in waxed paper and then placed in
polyethylene bags or packed directly in bags made of food grade plastics.
10.2 Failure to comply with any of these instructions may entail legal action against the
defaulters, and even result in cancellation of license by the appropriate authority of
the concerned Panchayats/Municipalities/Corporation.
10.3 No Objection Certificate from law and order point of view to be obtained from
police department or the concerned Panchayats/Municipalities/Corporation before
grant of license for buffalo meat and pork shop.
10.4 The concerned Panchayats/Municipalities responsible for local administration in
the country shall appoint qualified Veterinary staff for the meat inspection (Ante
mortem and Post mortem inspection) or if regular staff cannot be made available or
deployed for the purpose shall make contractual arrangements for availing the services

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of qualified Veterinary staff for meat inspection available with the Animal Husbandry
Depts. of the concerned state/UT in the country.
10.5 Retail meat shop license shall be granted subject to fulfillment of all the above
technical and administrative instructions in relation to the trade.

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Part - V
Specific Hygienic and Sanitary Practices to be followed by Practices to be
followed by Food Business Operators engaged in catering / food service
establishments
In addition to Part-II the Catering/ food Service establishment in which food is being
handled, processed, manufactured, stored, distributed and ultimately sold to the
customers and the persons handling them should conform to the sanitary and hygienic
requirement, food safety measures and other standard as specified below.
It includes premises where public is admitted for repose or for consumption of any food
or drink or any place where cooked food is sold or prepared for sale. It includes:
a) Eating Houses
b) Restaurants & Hotels
c) Snack Bars,
d) Canteens (Schools, Colleges, Office, Institutions)
e) Food Service at religious places
f) Neighbourhood Tiffin Services / dabba walas
g) Rail and airline catering
h) Hospital catering

I. GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR WHOLE PREMISE

1. Food Preparation Areas

The following rules apply to rooms where food is prepared. There will be no smoke
nuisance in the food preparation area. Wherever cooking or frying of any kind is being
done, a chimney having appropriate suction capacity as per the size of the kitchen has
to be installed prior to start of business.

2. Hand washing facilities and toilets

i. Adequate number of wash-hand basins made of porcelain/stainless steel shall
be provided along with soap to wash hands, with hot and cold running water, and
materials for cleaning hands and drying them hygienically. Clean and dry towels
shall be kept for the use of customers.
ii. Separate sinks must be provided, where necessary, for washing raw food and
cleaning equipment.
iii. Sinks with a draining board, detergent and hot water shall be provided to ensure
proper cleaning of utensils, crockery and cutlery there will be a separate place
for washing pots and pains.

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3. Changing facilities
Facilities for staff to change their clothes, where necessary must be provided.

II.GOOD FOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES

1.Cleaning
• Food areas and equipment between different tasks, especially after handling
raw food shall be cleaned.
• The surface shall be thoroughly cleaned in case if somebody spills food / water
/ drink.
• A systematic cleaning schedule and instructions has to be developed by the
FBO.
• Food handlers should strictly follow the systematic cleaning schedule to make
sure that surfaces and equipment are cleaned when they need to be.

The schedule should include,

• what needs to be cleaned
• how often it needs to be cleaned
• how the cleaning should be done

Cleaning instructions should indicate

• what cleaning products should be used
• how the products should be stored (away from raw, cooked, packed food) and
used
• how much they should be used or diluted
• how long that should be left in contact with the surface (following the
manufacturer's instructions).

2.Raw materials
i. Raw materials shall be purchased from reliable and known dealers and checked
for visible deterioration & off odour.

ii. There should be no physical hazards and foreign body contamination.

a) Raw paste, sauces etc. should be stored in properly covered containers
made of food grade material and checked regularly for fungal growth,
deterioration etc.

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Preparation of fruits/ vegetables:

i. Fruits and vegetables that have been protected from cross-contamination and
properly conserved should be used.
ii. Whole fruits and vegetables should be washed in potable water before being
cut, mixed with other ingredients. Uncooked, ready-to-eat fruits & vegetables
should be with 50 ppm chlorinated water before cutting, peeling or serving.
iii. Fruits and vegetables should be peeled, squeezed and/or cut, as appropriate,
with clean equipment/ utensils made of non-absorbent food grade materials.
iv. Previously prepared fruits/vegetables should be kept in clean and properly
covered food grade containers under refrigeration or at a maximum temperature
suitable for the product in question.

Preparation of Non-veg. Products:

i. Raw meat and processed meat should be separated from other foods; items and
surfaces.
ii. Separate items (e.g. cutting boards, dishes, knives) and preparation area for raw
meats and poultry and marine products should be used to avoid cross
contamination of food.
iii. Hands should be thoroughly washed before switching from preparing raw meat
or poultry or marine products to any other activity.
iv. Ensure proper cooking of all non-vegetarian products.
v. Used surfaces should be washed with antibacterial cleaning agent, rinsed properly
with water and sanitized after preparing raw meat/poultry.
vi. Ensure that frozen products are thawed as per point no. 9 under special
requirements for high risk foods.

3.Cooking
a) The preparation/ processing/ cooking should be adequate to eliminate and reduce
hazards to an acceptable level which might have been introduced at the raw food
level.
b) The preparation/ processing/ cooking methods should ensure that the foods are
not re- contaminated.
c) The preparation/ processing/ cooking of veg. & non-veg. products should be
segregated.
d) Whenever cooking or reheating of food is done, it should be hot all the way
through, It is especially important to make sure that food is cooked thoroughly.
e) Re-use of cooking oil should be avoided.
f) Food hot held at 60°c and cooled at 21°c within 2 hrs or cooled to 5°c in 4 hours
and thereafter refrigerated might be reheated.

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g) Reheated food must reach a minimum internal temperature of 74°C.When using
microwave to reheat, food must reach a minimum temperature of 74°C and stayed
covered for 5 mins to allow the temperature to equilibrate.
h) Reheat food quickly in ovens, steamer, microwave oven and/or on top of range in
a steam kettle.
i) Never reheat food on a steam table, in a bain marie, in a bun drawer and/or under
a heat lamp.
j) In case of reheating of oil use maximum three times to avoid the formation of trans
fat. It is ideal to use once if possible.

4.Chilling
• Semi cooked or cooked dishes and other ready-to-eat foods such as prepared
salads and desserts having short shelf life should not be left standing at room
temperature.
• Chilled food intended for consumption should be cold enough.
• Food items that need to be chilled should be put straight away into the fridge.
• Cooked food should be cooled as quickly as possible and then put it in the fridge.
• Chilled food should be processed in the shortest time possible.
• Fridge and display units should be cold enough and as per requirement.
• In practice, fridge should be set at 5?C to make sure that food is kept in chilled
condition. Also, fridge and display units should be maintained in good working
condition to avoid food spoilage and contamination.

5. Cross-contamination
• Following should be done to avoid cross - contamination.
• Raw food/ meat/poultry and ready-to-eat foods should be kept separate at all
times.
• Hands should be thoroughly washed after touching raw meat/poultry.
• Work surfaces, chopping boards and equipment should be thoroughly cleaned
before the preparing of food starts and after it has been used.
• Separate chopping boards and knives for raw fruit/ vegetables/ meat/poultry
and ready-to-eat food should be used.
• Raw meat/poultry below ready-to-eat food should be kept in the fridge.
• Separate fridge for raw meat/poultry should be kept.
• Staff should be made aware how to avoid cross-contamination.

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III.PERSONAL HYGIENE
i. High standards of personal hygiene should be maintained.
ii. All employees handling food should wash their hands properly:
• before preparing food
• after touching raw food or materials, specially meat/poultry or eggs
• after breaks
• after using the toilet
• after cleaning the raw materials or utensils / equipment

iii. Street shoes inside the food preparation area should not be worn while
handling & preparing food.
iv. Food handlers should ensure careful food handling & protect food from
environmental exposure.
v. Food handlers should not handle soiled currency notes to avoid cross
contamination.

IV.TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF FOOD

• The vehicle/transportation being used to carry cooked/prepared/processed food
should be clean and, dedicated for this purpose and should not carry anything else.
• Time required for transportation should be minimum, to avoid microbial
proliferation.
• Cooked food served hot should be kept at a temperature of at least 600 C to prevent
microbial growth.
• Cooked food to be served cold should be kept below 50 C to prevent growth of
pathogens.
• All foods during transportation must be kept covered and in such a way as to limit
pathogen growth or toxin formation by controlling time of transportation,
exposure, temperature control and using safe water for cleaning etc.
• Handling of food should be minimal. It should be ensured that utensils, crockery,
cutlery and specially hands of the food handlers/seller are clean and sanitized.
• All surplus food and unused thawed food should be discarded.
• Food to be kept for cold storage should be distributed in small volumes to ensure
uniform cooling.
• Dry, fermented and acidified foods should be stored in cool and dry place.
• All packaged food viz. sterilized milk, bottled beverages, canned foods etc. should
be stored properly during transportation to ensure that seals remain intact and
undamaged.

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V.STORAGE
1.It is very important to store food properly for the purpose of food safety. Following
things must be ensured:
• Foods should be cooked, stored and kept at right temperature
• Raw meat/poultry should be stored separately from other foods
• Veg. foods should always be stored above non-veg. foods and cooked foods above
uncooked foods on separate racks in the refrigerator.
• Storage temperature of frozen food should be -18oC or below.
• Cooked food to be eaten later should be cooled quickly, and kept it in the
refrigerator - It is advisable to put date on food packages or containers, using
stickers or any other way of identification, before keeping inside the refrigerator
to keep track of food prepared date wise and use accordingly to minimize
wastage.
• Storage instructions over food packaging should be followed.
• Dried foods (such as grains and pulses) should be stored off the floor, ideally in
sealable containers, to allow proper cleaning and protection from pests.

Stock rotation
The rule for stock rotation is FIFO (first in, first out) to make sure that older food is used
first. This will help to prevent wastage.

VI.SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH RISK FOODS

This section deals selectively with varieties of food which are high risk as per HACCP
and may need special attention. The type of foods covered here are as follows:

i. Cut fruits/salads, fresh juices and beverages

• Fresh fruits /vegetables cut or juiced should be used immediately; however, short
storage should be only under refrigeration in sanitized and properly covered
vessels.
• Water used in beverages should be potable.
• Ice used should be made of potable water only.
• Food or beverages should not be stored in the same container used to store the ice
intended for consumption.
• Juice concentrates must be checked regularly for any fungal growth / change of
colour, odour or gas formation in the bottle.
• Juice dispensing machine should be cleaned and rinsed with water regularly.

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ii. Confectionery products
• Prepared confectionery products should be kept in airtight containers and
displayed hygienically.
• Cream to be used should be stored covered under refrigeration.
• Finished products should be refrigerated with proper labels indicating date of
expiry.
• Products should be properly wrapped/ packaged after proper cooling.

iii. Meat, poultry & fish products

• Non veg. products/raw materials should be purchased (chilled products
temperature should be at 50C or below and frozen products at -18° C or below)
from authorized/ licensed slaughter houses/vendors.
• Processing area should be cleaned and disinfected promptly.
• Preparation and processing of meat, poultry and marine products should be
separate.
• Non-veg. products are washed with potable water before use.
• Non-veg. products are cooked thoroughly (core temperature 750 C) for at least 15
seconds or an effective time/temperature control e.g. 65 0C for 10 minutes, 70 0C
for 2 minutes.
• Non-veg. products should be stored covered in refrigerator below the veg.
products.
• Raw and cooked products should be stored physically separated with cooked
products at the top.
• All refuse/waste should be promptly removed from preparation area.

iv. Water based chutneys, sauces etc.

• All fruits/vegetables should be washed properly before processing.
• Clean and disinfected chopping boards/grinding stone/machine should be used.
• Personal hygiene of food handlers needs to be ensured.
• Water used in the chutneys should be safe and potable.
• Only permitted food additives should be used, if required, and be added in
recommended quantities only.
• Spoiled products should be discarded immediately after confirmation of
spoilage (change in color/ texture/ odor).
• Sauces and chutneys should be stored in glass/food grade plastic containers with
proper lids.
• Clean and intact containers should be used for storing sauces and chutneys.
• Sauces and chutneys should be stored in refrigerator when not in use.
• Perishable/uncooked chutneys should be consumed immediately.

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 v. Foods transported to point of sale from the point of cooking
• Food should be reheated more than 740 C before consumption.
• Food should be consumed or served for consumption within 4 hours of
reheating.

vi. Foods with Gravy

• Food products should not be stored at room temperature for more than 2 hours
during display or sale.
• For prolonged storage, foods should be stored in refrigerators or kept for hot
holding at or above 60°C.
• No water should be added after cooking/reheating/boiling.

vii. Fried Foods

• Good quality / branded oils/fats should be used for food preparation, frying etc.
• Use packaged oil only.
• Use of oils with high trans fats (like vanaspati) should be avoided as far as
possible.
• Re-heating and reuse of oil should be avoided as far as possible. Avoid using
leftover oil wherever possible.

viii. Adding ingredients after cooking

• Ingredients added to the cooked food should be thoroughly washed/ cleaned.
• After cooking or post cooked mixing, the food should be used immediately.
• Garnishes etc., if added, should be prepared using fresh, thoroughly washed
and freshly cut vegetables and used immediately.

Reuse of cooked food is not recommended.

• Potentially hazardous foods and high risk foods such as hollandaise sauce,
refried beans, scrambled eggs and cut fruits are to be discarded.
• All food at banquet setting that has been on display are to be discarded.
• Food kept at more than 60°C during service may be reused, only by following
the procedure indicated below:
• never mix leftover with fresh product. If in doubt, throw out the product.
• Reheat leftover food temperature to more than74°C

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ix. Thawing of Frozen Products
Thawing-In Refrigerator
• Items being thawed should be labelled with defrost date to indicate the
beginning of 2nd shelf life.
• Thaw food at 5°C or less.
• Temperature controlled thawing is recommended for meat, poultry and
• fish.
• Any other means of thawing apart from running water and microwave is not
allowed.

Thawing In Running Water

Items being thawed should be labelled with date and time.
• Thawing in running water advisable shellfish and seafood.
• Thawing in running water should not exceed 90 minutes.
• Ensure air break between tap and water.
• Use sanitized food grade container.
• Sink must not be used for other purposes during thawing
• After thawing, product must be used within 12 hours.
• Cold running water (from mains) should be at 15°C or less.

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CHAPTER 04
FOOD SAFETY ECOSYSTEM IN INDIA

FOOD SAFETY ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem includes all the living and non-living things in a given area, interacting and
influencing each other and determining the health of the entire earth system. It also
combines biosecurity meaning the protection from the environmental, economic and
human health risks of potentially harmful plant and animal pests and diseases, alien
invasive species and genetically modified organisms.
In many most of the countries, governments have created regulatory authorities to
ensure food safety, animal health and plant health. These Authorities carry out
inspections of the food chain “from farm to fork” with the aim to protect animal, plant
and human life and health.

FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN

FSSAI monitors all foods, including new technology based foods and other substances that
form the food chain. They do this through a safety assessment process and by establishing
risk assessed standards and guidelines through the supply chain, namely, production,
manufacturing, import, distribution and sale.
The term 'Food chain' was first introduced by African–Arab scientists
and philosopher Al Jahiz in the 9th Century and later popularized in a book published in
1927 by Charles Elton, which also introduced the food web concept. Natural
interconnections between food chains is called a food web starting from producer
organisms and ending at apex predator species.
In the context of food safety, the term “food supply chain” becomes relevant. A food
supply chain refers to the processes that describe how food from a farm ends up on our
tables. The processes include production, processing, distribution, consumption and
disposal. The food supply chain is a complex network consisting of small and medium
sized enterprises that can interact with larger companies and retailers as well. The food
we eat reaches us via food supply chain through which food moves systematically in
domino-like motion from producers to consumers.

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 FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN

❖ STAKEHOLDERS IN FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN

In terms of food and food safety, consumers represent a major group of stakeholders with
other important stakeholder groups including non-governmental organizations such as
consumer associations, environmental groups, industry groups, food manufacturers,
policy makers, risk managers, public and private research.

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 STAKEHOLDERS IN FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN

Farmer/Producer

Processor/
Importer Manufacturer Exporter

Wholesaler/ Distributor Transporter

Retailer Food Services/Restaurants

Consumer

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❖ FARM TO FORK OR FARM TO TABLE
Farm-to-table (or farm-to-fork, and in some cases farm-to-school) is a social movement
which promotes serving local food at restaurants and school cafeterias, preferably
through direct acquisition from the producer (which might be a winery, brewery, ranch,
fishery, or other type of food producer which is not strictly a "farm"). This might be
accomplished by a direct sales relationship, a community-supported agriculture
arrangement, a farmer's market, a local distributor or by the restaurant or school raising
its own food. Farm-to-table often incorporates a form of food traceability (celebrated as
"knowing where your food comes from") where the origin of the food is identified to
consumers. Often restaurants cannot source all the food they need for dishes locally, so
only some dishes or only some ingredients are labelled as local.
In modern context, the concept of food safety is described by the 'Farm to Fork'
model.This concept captures the essence of food safety and forms the backbone of food
safety. The path from food source to the point of final service is called the farm to fork
continuum From “Farm to Fork" traces the different stages of the food chain system and
examines the practices and procedures that ensure the safety of our food.

Farm to Work

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The factors that led to this Farm to Fork model of food safety are:

1.CHANGING FOOD PATTERNS

The industrial revolution, and more recently, modern food technology has changed the
food patterns of all. The majority of people today is far removed from the sources of food
they eat on daily basis. If we are living longer in a period of abundant, diverse and reliable
food supply, it is in part due to the variety and safety of the food we eat.

2.THE FARM : BEGINNING THE FOOD CHAIN

The origins of most food products such as bread, milk, meat, fruit, vegetables, sugar,
etc. are in agriculture. They are either produced directly on farms or based on food
coming from farms. Farmers grow food, which they harvest, store and transport to
markets or to processing plants for preservation and transformation into a variety of food
products. To ensure that the produce whether vegetable or animal in origin coming out
from farms is produced in a safe manner, the farmers should make the correct use of
fertilisers, pesticides, antibiotics and other products in crop and animal husbandry.

3.FOOD PROCESSING
Almost all food must be processed in some way before it can be eaten. There are various
levels of food processing and the food processors rely on food safety management
systems (FSMS) to ensure the quality and safety of the products they produce.

4.TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

Transport and storage form vital links in the food chain between the farmer's field and
the consumer's table. While the role of the farmer, the food processor and the retailer in
the food chain is easily understood, the importance and role of well managed transport
and storage should not be forgotten. Maintaining high standards while transporting food
products transporters must implement quality standards in transport and storage as
specified in FSMS to safeguard food.

5.FOOD AND THE CONSUMER

Throughout the food chain, farmers, food processors, retailers and others utilise
numerous practices based on long experience to ensure the quality and safety of food.
Collectively, these procedures are known as “good agricultural practices”, “good
manufacturing practices” and “good hygienic practices”. It is very important for the
consumer to understand and follow basic instructions and precautions set by
professionals (as indicated on food labels) when purchasing, transporting, storing,
preparing and consuming food. Good hygienic practices both in the home and outside can
protect consumers against microbial contamination and the food borne diseases caused
by it.

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6.EATING OUTSIDE THE HOME
One link in the food chain from farm to fork which deserves special attention is the
preparation of meals outside the home, restaurants, hospitals, nursing homes, child care
establishments, schools, canteens, wedding parties, business conventions etc.
Considering the vast number of meals consumed in such public settings FBOs, chefs and
caterers do and should ensure protecting the public against food borne disease. The
consumer should look for recognised certificates of good hygiene (such as hygiene
ratings) in public places.

CENTRE VS STATE FOOD SAFETY FRAMEWORK & RELATION

• India is a vast country with over 1.3 billion populations and the sheer magnitude of
Food safety enforcement is a challenging task.

• The Food Authority and the State Food Authorities jointly share this responsibility.
While Food Authority provides policy intervention through notification of various
food safety regulations, provides direction and coordination at National level,
States/UTs conduct enforcement at the field level to verify compliance by FBOs to
food standards.

• FSSAI provides support in the form of imparting training and capacity building of
the enforcement staff of States/UTs. The Food Safety Authority in States/UTs is
headed by the Commissioners of Food Safety for efficient implementation of FSS
Act, Rules and Regulations made thereunder.

• All Commissioners of Food Safety are members of CAC and the CAC ensures close
cooperation between Food Authority and state enforcement agencies. The CAC
advises the Food Authority on its work programme, prioritization of work,
identifying potential risks and pooling of knowledge.

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 ENFORCEMENT STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL FRAMEWORK

CENTRAL STATE

Chief Executive Officer, State Food Safety

FSSAI Commissioner

Central Licensing
Authority/Central Designated Officer
Designated Officer

Central Food Safety

Food Safety Officer
Officer

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CHAPTER 05
FOOD SAFETY OFFICER

Food Safety Officer is the field officer and the backbone of entire food
safety compliance structure. Food Safety Officers are appointed by the Commissioner of
Food Safety, through notification, for such local areas as he may assign to them for the
purpose of performing functions under this Act and the rules and regulations made there
under. The State Government may authorise any officer of the State Government having
the qualifications prescribed to perform the functions of a Food Safety Officer within a
specified jurisdiction.

For effective discharge of its functions, the Food Safety Officer is required to
have adequate knowledge of the FSS Act, Rule and Regulations and their application in
discharge of their duties, proper procedure for inspection and sampling and various
other aspects of food safety.

POWER & FUNCTION OF FOOD SAFETY OFFICER

A Food Safety Officer has a very important role to play as an enforcement officer and in
ensuring food safety and quality. The powers and duties of a Food Safety Officer include
the following:

1. To issue registration for small and petty food business operators in their capacity as
a Registering Authority within the area assigned to him.
2. To inspect the premises of small and petty food business operators and ensure
compliance as per Schedule 4 (Part I) of Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and
Registration of Food Businesses), Regulations, 2011, within the area assigned to him.
3. To inspect, as frequently as may be prescribed by the Designated Officer, all food
establishments licensed for manufacturing, handling, packing or selling of an article
of food within the area assigned to him.
4. To satisfy himself that the conditions of licenses are being complied with by each of
the Food Business Operators carrying on business within the area assigned to him
and report to the Designated Officer.
5. To recommend Designated Officer to issue of improvement notices to the Food
Business Operator whenever necessary giving the food business operators an

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 opportunity in order to comply with the conditions of license within a prescribed
time limit.
6. To make such inquiries and inspections as may be necessary to detect the
manufacture, storage or sale of articles of food in contravention of the Act or rules
framed there under.
7. To investigate any complaint which may be made to him in writing in respect of any
contravention of the provisions of the Act, or rules framed there under.
8. To stop and inspect any vehicle suspected to contain any unsafe food or food which
does not comply with the provisions of this Act and rules, intended for sale or
delivery for human consumption.
9. To recommend to the Designated officer giving specific grounds, suitable action in
regard to licenses issued to any Food Business Operator, if on inspection the Food
Safety Officer finds that the Food Business Operator had violated the conditions for
grant of license.
10. Take a sample of any food, or any substance, which appears to him to be intended
for sale, or to have been sold for human consumption.
11. Take a sample of any article of food or substance which is found by him on or in any
such premises; which he has reason to believe that it may be required as evidence
in proceedings under any of the provisions of this Act or of the Regulations or orders
made there under.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF FOOD SAFETY OFFICER

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12. Take a sample and keep it in the safe custody of the food business operator such
article of food after taking a sample; and in both cases send the same for analysis to
a Food Analyst for the local area within which such sample has been taken. Where
the Food Safety Officer keeps such article in the safe custody of the food business
operator, he may require the food business operator to execute a bond for a sum of
money equal to the value of such article with one or more sureties as the Food Safety
Officer deems fit and the food business operator shall execute the bond accordingly.
13. To procure and send for analysis if necessary, samples of any article of food which he
has reason to believe or on the basis of information received including from a
purchaser are being manufactured, stocked or sold or exhibited for sale in
contravention of the provisions of the Act, or rules and regulations framed there
under.
14. To draw samples for purposes of surveillance, survey and research, which shall not
be used for prosecution.
15. Where any sample is taken, its cost calculated at the rate at which the article is
usually sold to the public shall be paid to the person from whom it is taken.
16. To carry out food safety surveillance to identify and address the safety hazards.
17. To seize any article of food which appears to the Food Safety Officer to be in
contravention of this Act or the regulations made there under.
18. Where any article of food seized is of a perishable nature and the Food Safety Officer
is satisfied that such article of food is so deteriorated that it is unfit for human
consumption, the Food Safety Officer may, after giving notice in writing to the food
business operator, cause the same to be destroyed.
19. Any adulterant found in the possession of a manufacturer or distributor of, or dealer
in, any article of food or in any of the premises occupied by him as such and for the
possession of which he is unable to account to the satisfaction of the Food Safety
Officer and any books of account or other documents found in his possession or
control and which would be useful for, or relevant to, any investigation or proceeding
under this Act, may be seized by the Food Safety Officer and a sample of such
adulterant submitted for analysis to a Food Analyst. No such books of account or
other documents shall be seized by the Food Safety Officer except with the previous
approval of the authority to which he is subordinate.
20. Where any books of account or other documents are seized, the Food Safety Officer
shall, within a period not exceeding thirty days from the date of seizure, return the
same to the person from whom they were seized after copies thereof or extracts
there from as certified by that person. Where such person refuses to so certify and a
prosecution has been instituted against him under this Act, such books of account or
other documents shall be returned to him only after copies thereof and extracts
there from as certified by the court have been taken.
21. Where the Food Safety Officer is of the opinion or he has reason(s) to be recorded in
writing that in the given situation it is not possible to comply with the provision of
Section 38 (1) (¢) or the proviso to section 38(1) for reasons like non availability of

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 the Food Business Operator, the Food Safety Officer may seize the adulterant or food
which is unsafe or sub-standard or misbranded or containing extraneous matter, may
seal the premises for investigation after taking a sample of such adulterant or food
for analysis.
22. Where the Food Safety Officer is of the opinion or he has reason(s) to believe that
any person engaged in selling, handling or manufacturing any article of food is
suffering from or harbouring the germs of any infectious disease/ contagious disease,
he may cause such person to be examined by a qualified medical professional duly
authorized by the Designated Officer. Provided that where such person is a female,
she shall be examined by a qualified lady medical professional duly authorized by the
Designated Officer. If on such examination the qualified medical professional
certifies that such person is suffering from any such disease, the Food Safety Officer
may by order in writing under intimation to the Designated Officer direct such person
not to take part in selling or manufacturing any article of food.
23. If on such examination when any adulterant is seized under, the burden of proving
that such adulterant is not meant for purposes of adulteration shall be on the person
from whose possession such adulterant was seized.
24. To facilitate preparation of Food safety plans for Panchayat and Municipalities in
accordance with the parameter sand guidelines given in schedule IV of Chapter 3 of
Regulations.
25. To detain imported packages which are suspected to contain articles of food, the
import or sale of which is prohibited.
26. To coordinate with the Food Business Operators within his area of operation and
facilitate the introduction of food safety systems by the Food Business Operator.
27. To perform such other duties, as may be entrusted to him by the Designated Officer
or Food Safety Commissioner having jurisdiction in the local area concerned.
28. Food Safety Officer shall launch prosecution before courts of ordinary jurisdiction or
Special Court, as the case may be; and such communication shall also be sent to the
purchaser if the sample was taken under section 40, i.e. legal sample.

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CHAPTER 06
SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES (INITIATIVES OF FSSAI)
In the preamble to the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is expected to ensure availability of safe and
wholesome food for the people in India.Therefore FSSAI has embarked on a large-scale
effort to transform the country.

The “Safe and Nutritious Food” is a nation-wide campaign to help people eat safe, eat
healthy and eat right at their workplaces.

FSSAI started various type of initiative in India for Safe and Nutritious Food. These
initiatives promote safe and healthy diets through its resources Books, training and online
sources. Such as the pink book for home kitchen, DART book for simple test for adulterant,
yellow book for school Children, the orange book for workplace etc.an online SNF portal
and simple training modules to educate citizens have been created.
The responsibility for safe and nutritious food is shared by all players in the food system
and the challenge is to build comprehensive food systems that ensure the long term
involvement and commitment of all concerned parties.

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SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES

Safe and Nutritious Food (SNF) Initiative

Setting of standards, enforcement and compliance are the traditional regulatory tools
which have hitherto been the focus of FSSAI' s activities. However, if safe and wholesome
food to every Indian citizen is to be ensured on a sustainable basis, reliance on these
traditional regulatory tools alone would not suffice- it is imperative to actively work
towards social and behavioural change. Project SNF (Safe and Nutritious Food) is based
on this philosophy. It adopts a 360- degree approach for citizen guidance and behavioural
change in every sphere-at home, school, workplace or eating out.
Awareness and capacity building are key to usher in a culture of safe and wholesome food.
Through focused interventions, FSSAI would share and reiterate the message that safe
and nutritious food has to be a way of life.
The Food Authority's bouquet of SNE (Safe and Nutritious Food) initiatives that focus on
bringing about social and behavioral change around food safety, hygiene and healthy
diets are a powerful tool available to every citizen. The philosophy is to create informative
content and engagement material, along with simple messaging asking citizens to be
aware, be cognizant and be receptive to SNF (safe and nutritious food), whether at Home',
School", Workplace' or while 'Eating Out.'

FSSAI has developed training and capacity building modules, guidance books and standard
operating procedures for this to happen effectively across the nation covering all citizens.
Awareness material such as the Pink Book for home kitchens, DART Book for simple tests
for adulterants, yellow book for school children, the Orange Book for workplaces etc., an
online SNF portal and simple training modules to educate citizens have been created.
A cascading model has been adopted to operationalize SNE, with National Level Resource
Persons (NLRPS) being empanelled and trained by F55A, who would in turn train other
trainers and Health and Wellness Coordinators across the length and breadth of the
country. Health and Wellness Coordinators (HWC) for relevant domains (e. g. in school,
at the workplace, in Resident Welfare Associations and Health Clubs etc.) can also take
certification programs online and after being certified, they act as the nodal points for
taking the initiative forward. To reiterate messaging on safe and nutritious food, Food
Safety Display Boards, Rating Systems and Mascots in the form of Master and Miss Sehat
have been created.

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SNF@Home
To ensure safe and nutritious food and home.
1. Pink Book and DART book
2. Large-scale dissemination of Pink Book and DART book and other SNF material
3. SNF portal of FSSAI
4. RWAs for health and wellness coordinators and domestic workers' training

SNF@School

1. Build awareness about SNF@School

2. Mobilise schools for implementation of SNF@School initiative
3. Translate the training material in local language
4. Dissemination of Yellow book into schools across the state.

SNF@Workplace
1. Dissemination of Guidance Document when it is ready
2. Awareness about SNF portal
3. Outreach to workplaces in the Government and other sectors.

SNF@EatOut
Serve Safe
Serve Safe is an initiative targeting on ensuring safe and nutritious food to consumers. The
major components of this initiative are:

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 1. Food Safety Supervisor- Have a trained food safety supervisor in each food premise.
FSS will ensure safe food
2. Display Food Safety Display Boards (FSDBs) at prominent places in food premises
3. Get a 'Hygiene + 'certification for your food premise to promote safe and nutritious
food to the consumers.

In spite of these scientific and technological advances, and the worldwide

overall improvement of food control systems, food-borne diseases persist as a cause of
serious concern for the consumer. Food is the likely vector of multiple biological, chemical
or physical hazards and certainly of several nutritional problems. Consumer perception is
also evolving, with a perceived increase in the social unacceptability of food risks, at least
in developed countries. Consumer perception also relates to access and availability to a
healthy and nutritious diet.

In this context, FAO is calling for a food safety and nutritious diet strategy using the food-
system approach that includes:

❖ At the international level:

• Identification, assessment and management of food safety risks;
• Advice and information on nutritional requirements and healthy diets
• Periodic global and regional fora of food safety regulators
• Comprehensive approach to food safety, animal and plant health
• Interactive communication systems
• Good practices throughout the food chain
• International rapid alert on food safety hazards
• International technical and financial assistance for capacity building

❖ At the national level:

• Capacity building through formulation of food quality, safety and nutrition
programmes.
• Institutional set up of comprehensive and effective food safety control systems.
• Evaluation of food consumption patterns and promotion of consumer awareness.
• Development of appropriate technologies throughout the food chain.

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❖ FSSAI’S INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE SAFE AND HEALTHY DIETS

Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 mandates FSSAI to ensure

availability of safe and wholesome (nutritious) food and promote its consumption by all
our citizens to prevent foodborne illnesses and promote healthy living.

• Section 16(3)(a) of the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 specifically mandates that
FSSAI to provide technical support to Central and State Governments on matters which
have direct or indirect bearing on food safety and nutrition.

• Section 16(3)(n) of the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 mandates FSSAI to promote
general awareness as to food safety and food standards.

FSSAI has hence taken up a series of initiatives in this sphere to transform India’s food
safety and nutrition landscape by ensuring availability and consumption of safe food and
healthy diets by its citizens.

❖ Major initiatives of FSSAI for Safe and Nutritious Food

1. Eat Right India

2. Eat Right Campus
3. Diet 4 Life
4. Indian Food Sharing Alliance, (IFSA)
5. Myth buster
6. FoSTaC
7. Food Fortification
8. DART
9. Clean street Food
10. BHOG
11. Food Safety on Wheel
12. Food Smart Consumer
13. RUCO

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1. EAT RIGHT INDIA

• To improve public health in India and combat negative nutritional trends to fight
lifestyle diseases, FSSAI launched 'The Eat Right Movement’ on 10th July, 2018.
• FSSAI has embarked on a large-scale effort to transform the country’s food system in
order to ensure safe, healthy and sustainable food for all Indians through the ‘Eat Right
India’ movement. The tagline ‘Sahi Bhojan Behtar Jeevan’, thus, forms the foundation
of this movement.

• The Eat Right India Is Based on Three Key Themes-Eat Safe, Eat Healthy, and Eat
Sustainable.

A) Eat Safe
Ensuring personal and surrounding hygiene, hygienic and sanitary practices through the
food supply chain, combating adulteration, reducing toxins and contaminants in food and
controlling food hazard in processing and manufacturing processes.

B). Eat Healthy

Promoting diet diversity and balance diets, eliminating toxic industrial trans-fats from
food, reducing consumption of salt, sugar and saturated fats and promoting large-scale
fortification of staples to address micronutrient deficiencies.

C).Eat Sustainable
Promote local and seasonal foods, prevent food loss and food waste, conserve water in
food value chains, reduce use of chemical in food production and presentation and use of
safe and sustainable packaging.

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2. EAT RIGHT CAMPUS
The Eat Right Campus is an initiative by the FSSAI to ensure the citizens eat Safe and
Nutritious Food. The Safe and Nutritious Food (SNF) initiative has been launched to bring
about social and behavioral change among citizens around food safety, hygiene and
healthy diets in all spheres of life- at ‘Home’, ‘School’, ‘Workplace’ or while ‘Eating Out’.

The philosophy is to create informative content and engagement material, along with
simple messaging asking citizens to be aware, be cognizant and be receptive to SNF (safe
and nutritious food). FSSAI is taking multiple initiatives to make the information available
to the customers by asking businesses to get themselves rates through audits, put up
signage which inform the customers that they care for the hygiene. There is also a training
available for the FBOs to learn about it.

3.DIET 4 LIFE
FSSAI has initiated “Diet4Life” to help people understand about metabolic disorders. It
will provide a comprehensive platform to parents, Health care professionals and parent
support groups to adopt the right approach towards Inborn Errors of metabolism (IEM)
management.

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In India many babies suffer from life threatening conditions of IEM, and treatment of
these metabolic disorders require early nutritional and dietary intervention. In view of
the seriousness of the issue, FSSAI initiated a unique platform for parents to find timely
medical support and treatment.

What is IEM?
Inborne error of Metabolism (IEM) is single gene defects resulting in abnormalities in the
synthesis of protein, carbohydrate, fats or complex molecules. More than 350 IEM
disorders are known and may manifest at any stage of life, from infancy to adulthood.
Awareness of these disorder is imperative for early diagnosis and treatment .This
initiative aims to increase awareness about inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) and reduce
the impact these disorders have on a child’s life through timely diagnosis and treatment.

4.INDIAN FOOD SHARING ALLIANCE, (IFSA)

The Indian Food Sharing Alliance, (IFSA) is a social initiative by the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to help solve India’s food waste and hunger crisis by
integrating various partner organizations, Food Recovery Agencies and NGO’s.

IFSA - Save Food, Share Food, Share Joy (IFSA) is an initiative

of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India and Food Sharing Networks across
India who come together to reduce food waste and hunger and to feed the needy and
hungry with surplus food through structured systems.

Aims and Objectives

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) plays a key role not only in food
safety and hygiene but also in ensuring availability of wholesome food and encouraging
citizens to eat the right foods. Therefore, the aim of FSSAI via IFSA is primarily to:

Care: Help minimize food wastage across the supply chain by means of redistribution to
poor and needy.

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Aware: Mobilize people to minimize their food wastage through widespread awareness
program across the country by Food Recovery Agencies.
Share: Facilitate safe distribution of surplus food by connecting trained food recovery
agencies with food chains.
Prepare: Educate food business on best practices and encourage them to adopt the same
in order to prevent food loss along the supply chain.
Declare: Provide strategic policy, regulatory, and programme support to food loss and
waste reduction initiatives.

5.MYTH BUSTER

It has been observed time and again that various

fake news are circulated through social media
channels such as youtube, whatsapp, facebook etc
which has a wide reach among masses. These fake
news are baseless and doesn't have any scientific
facts related to them and due to its presentation,
they create a situation of panic among citizens.
With all the false and misleading information
propagated through these mediums, FSSAI in
consultation with the subject experts shares
clarification on these fake news. FSSAI also urge
citizens to neither believe nor circulate these fake
news through their social media channels.

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6.FOOD SAFETY TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION (FOSTAC)
• Food Safety Training & Certification is a large scale training programme for the food
business operators.
• All food businesses having Central Licenses or State Licenses should have at least one
trained and certified food safety supervisor for every 25 food-handlers or part thereof
on all their premises.
• The food safety supervisors will be certified & trained under FoSTaC. Now there are 19
courses (after COVID added some new programme in FoSTaC) in three levels, Basic,
Advanced & Special.
• FSSAI brings an easy solution of Training & Certification through its new initiative, that
is FoSTaC.
• FSSAI guides every food business operator to have at least one trained and certified
person in their business premises to ensure food safety.

❖ Why FoSTaC?

FSSAI recommends that all licensed food businesses must have at least one trained and
certified Food Safety Supervisor under FoSTaC for every 25 food handlers in each
premise.

About FostaC Courses

• 19 types of competence based (Food Safety Supervisor) certification programmes and
one Awareness course on Covid19 Guidelines for Food Industry are available under
FoSTaC.

• Duration of FSS courses is of 4 to 12 hours spreading over 1 to 2 days and awareness

course is of 2 hours. Courses have been developed by domain experts and vetted by
expert committee of FSSAI.

• The training materials under each course are based on General Hygiene & Sanitary
requirements and Good Manufacturing Practices as detailed under schedule 4 of FSS
(Licensing and Registration of Food Business) Regulation, 2011. The courses have
been divided into following 3 levels.

1.BASIC
Basic level certification are meant for petty food business. Duration of each basic course
is of 4 hours. Course are: - Street Food Vending, Catering, Manufacturing, Storage &
Transport and Retail & Distribution.

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2.ADVANCE
Advanced courses and certification are for State & Central Licensed food business.
Duration of each course is of 8 hours. Course are: - Catering, Manufacturing / Processing,
Storage & Transport and Retail & Distribution.

3.SPECIAL
Special course has been developed for high risk food business or The food business which
require special attention. Duration of special course is of 8-12 hours. Spread over 1-2 days.
Course are: - Milk & Milk Products, Animal Meat & Meat Products, Poultry Meat & Meat
Products, Fish & Fish Products, Packaged Water & Water Based Beverages, Bakery (Level
1), Bakery (Level 2), Edible Oil and Fat, Health Supplements & Nutraceuticals.

Framework of FoSTaC

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7.FOOD FORTIFICATION
Fortification is the addition of key vitamins and minerals such as Iron, Iodine, Zinc,
Vitamins A & D to staple foods such as rice, wheat, oil, milk and salt to improve their
nutritional content. These nutrients may or may not have been originally present in the
food before processing or may have been lost during processing.
According to, World Health Organization (WHO) and the
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to
"the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e.
vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food, so as to improve the
nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal
risk to health", whereas enrichment is defined as "synonymous with fortification and
refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing.

Some Important terms related to Fortification,

FORTIFICANT
means a substance added to food to provide micronutrients but does not include
nutraceuticals or foods for Special Dietary Uses.

FORTIFIED FOOD
means a food, as specified under the Food Safety and Standards (Food Products
Standards and Food Additives) Regulations, 2011, that has undergone the process of
fortification as per the provisions of these regulations.

FORTIFIED PROCESSED FOODS

means processed foods (i.e., foods that have been altered from its natural state by
industrial processing methods) that have undergone the process of fortification as per the
provisions of these regulations. The same may have fortified staples as raw materials
and/or fortified with permitted micronutrients and additives as specified under the Food
Safety and Standards (Food Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulation, 2011.]

STAPLE FOODS
means articles of food intended for mass consumption on a daily basis and include rice,
wheat, wheat flour, atta, maida, oil, salt, milk, and such other articles of food as may be
designated staple foods under these regulations.

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 5 Major Fortified Staple Food BY FFRC

Why do we Need Fortification of Food?

Deficiency of micronutrients or micronutrient malnutrition, also known as hidden hunger,

is a serious health risk. Access to safe and nutritious food is a must and sometimes due to
lack of consumption of a balanced diet, lack variety in the diet or unavailability of food
one does not get adequate micronutrients. Often, there is considerable loss of nutrients
during the processing of food as well. One of the strategies to address this problem is
fortification of food. This method complements other ways to improve nutrition such as
such as diversification of diet and supplementation of food.

BENEFITS OF FORTIFICATION
Food fortification or enrichment is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace
elements and vitamins) to food. It can be carried out by food manufacturers, or by
governments as a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with
dietary deficiencies within a population. The predominant diet within a region can lack
particular nutrients due to the local soil or from inherent deficiencies within the staple
foods; the addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale
deficiency diseases in these cases.
According to, World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to "the
practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e. vitamins
and minerals (including trace elements) in a food, so as to improve the nutritional quality

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of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health",
whereas enrichment is defined as synonymous with fortification and refers to the
addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing.
Following are the various benefits of fortification of foods:

1. Nutrients are added to staple foods since they are widely consumed. Thus, this is
an excellent method to improve the health of a large section of the population, all
at once.
2. It is a safe method of improving nutrition among people. The addition of
micronutrients to food does not pose a health risk to people. The quantity added is
small and well under the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) and are well
regulated as per prescribed standards for safe consumption.
3. It is a cost-effective intervention and does not require any changes in eating
patterns or food habits of people. It is a socio-culturally acceptable way to deliver
nutrients to people.
4. It does not alter the characteristics of the food like the taste, aroma or the texture
of the food.

FOOD FORTIFICATION IN INDIA

Food Fortification is a scientifically proven, cost-effective, scalable and sustainable global
intervention that addresses the issue of micronutrient deficiencies. In October 2016,
FSSAI operationalized the Food Safety and Standards (Fortification of Foods) Regulations,
2016 for fortifying staples namely Wheat Flour and Rice (with Iron, Vitamin B12 and Folic
Acid), Milk and Edible Oil (with Vitamins A and D) and Double Fortified Salt (with Iodine
and Iron) to reduce the high burden of micronutrient malnutrition in India. The ‘+F’ logo
has been notified to identify fortified foods. Food Safety and Standards (Fortification of
Foods) Regulations, 2018 were notified in the Gazette of India on 09.08.2018.

LOGO
Of Fortified Food

Food fortification is required due to insufficient intake of vitamins and minerals, due to
the consumption of predominantly processed foods. Commercial food fortification adds

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trace amounts of micronutrients to foods during processing, which helps consumers
achieve the required levels of micronutrients in their diet.

FOOD FORTIFICATION RESOURCE CENTRE

The Food Fortification Resource Centre (FFRC) is established under India’s government
department that regulates food, known as The Food Safety and Standards Authority of
India (FSSAI) in collaboration with TATA Trusts. The FFRC works dedicatedly to provide
essential support to stakeholders like relevant government ministries, food businesses,
development partners etc., promoting and supporting food fortification efforts across
India. The team is comprised of approximately 10 to 12 members.
In 2016, FSSAI issued operational standards for fortification of food across India. As of
now, the standards have been issued for milk, edible oil, wheat flour, rice, and double
fortified salt. The standards for processed foods are underway.

According to FFRC, fortification of milk and oil are the low hanging fruit in fortification
(with vitamins A and D). This is largely because there is no technological challenge in the
fortification process and the production industries are less fragmented than in, say,
wheat flour production.

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8.DETECT ADULTERATION WITH RAPID TEST (DART)
Detect Adulteration with Rapid Test (DART), a manual containing quick tests for the
detection of food adulterants at the household level, was recently released by the Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
Detect Adulteration with Rapid Test (DART) booklet is a compilation of
common quick tests for detection of food adulterants at household by the citizens
themselves so as to induce awareness among the consumers about food safety.
Detect Adulteration with Rapid Test (DART) booklet is a compilation of common quick
tests for detection of food adulterants at household by the citizens themselves so as to
induce awareness among the consumers about food safety.

DART Booklet

9.CLEAN STREET FOOD

Project Clean Street Food is one of the initiatives taken up by FSSAI under a
360degree approach to Food Safety and Healthy Nutrition.
This would involve training and capacity building of the street food vendors and ensure
proper regulatory oversight over them under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.

Broad objectives:
• To ensure health, hygiene and safety standard of street food for all consumers.
• To ensure social and economic upliftment of street vendor community by helping
them in improving quality of offerings thereby attracting more customers.
• To enhance the popularity of Street food by transforming it into a global brand by
itself.

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 CLEAN STREET FOOD

10.BHOG (BLISSFUL HYGIENIC OFFERING TO GOD)

It was launched in 2018 by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
Places of Worship (PoW) are a very important part of Indian society and food served in
these places is regarded as pure and sacred. BHOG is a part of the SNF bouquet of
initiatives to encourage PoW to adopt and maintain food safety and hygiene while
preparing prasad/food and includes training the food handlers and vendors in and
around the premises of the Places of Worship.

BHOG

Aim:
• To encourage all places of worship to adopt and maintain food safety and hygiene in
preparation, serving and sale of food along with training of food handlers for basic food
safety and hygiene.
• Under the initiative, places of worship where food is cooked/handled are identified,
audit is conducted and basic training of food handlers is done.
• After the successful audit of the place of worship it becomes recognized and certified.

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 11.FOOD SAFETY ON WHEELS
• FSSAI intends to give a big push to the country's food testing services and to this end
they have launched Food Safety on Wheels.
• Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is working towards having more
food testing labs both in the public as well as private sector, it has also initiated a scheme
to provide mobile units for food testing to reach out to consumers through as many
touch points as possible.

Food Safety on Wheels

12.FOOD SMART CONSUMER

Food Smart Consumer portal is an online platform developed to provide credible
information to consumers about food safety, hygiene & nutrition.
Major highlights of the website include claim/myth busters, smart buying guides,
consumer rights, guidance notes of consumer interest & an access to resource gallery
comprising of popular publications of FSSAI.
Consumers can also raise their grievance through this platform related to food safety for
effective & timely redressal by state authorities & food businesses. Food businesses
appoint one nodal officer & are also trained at back hand to effectively redress the
consumer grievances publications of FSSAI.

Food Smart Consumer

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13.RUCO (Repurpose Used Cooking Oil)
According to FSSAI, India has potential to recover 220 crore litres of used cooking oil for
production of biodiesel by 2022 through co- ordinated action. Currently, biodiesel
produced from used cooking oil is very small, but robust ecosystem for conversion and
collection is rapidly growing in India and soon it will reach sizable scale. FSSAI is also
looking at introducing regulations to ensure that companies using large quantities of
cooking oil hand it over to registered collecting agencies to convert it into biofuel.

Edible vegetable oils are used in frying of foods. During frying, the quality
of oil deteriorates. The practice of reheating cooking oil or using the same cooking oil for
frying is common. Cooking oil is often repeatedly used by topping it up with fresh oil.
Using the same oil repeatedly for frying leads to changes in the physico-chemical,
nutritional and sensory properties of the oil. It also leads to the formation of Total Polar
Compounds (TPC), which makes the oil, unit for human consumption beyond certain
limits.
Reports have related these compounds to several diseases such as hypertension,
atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, liver disease etc. The purpose of this guidance note
is to outline proper means for handling and disposing of used oil in order to safeguard the
environment and consumer health.
Generally, big food businesses involved in the manufacturing of fried foods dispose of
their used cooking oil (UCO) for industrial purposes (soap manufacture, etc.) but
sometimes it finds way to small food vendors at cheap prices. At household level or by
road-side vendors, the UCO is discarded in an environmentally hazardous manner
blocking the sewerage and drainage systems.
Therefore, in order to safeguard public health, FSSAI has notified the limit of Total Polar
Compounds (TPC) to be not more than 25% beyond which the oil is unsafe for human
consumption. From 1st July, 2018 onwards, all Food Business Operators (FBOs) are
required to monitor the quality of oil during frying by complying with the said regulations.

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TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING
Training of Central and State Licensed FBOs under Food Safety
Act,2006
In terms of Section 16(3]h of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, the Food Safety
and Standards Authority of India has to ensure training of persons who are, or intend to
become involved in Food Businesses, whether as Food Business Operators or employees
or otherwise. It has accordingly been decided that it would be mandatory for all food
businesses having Central License or State License to have at least one trained and
certified Food Safety Supervisor for every 25 food handlers or part thereof on all their
premises.

To implement this policy, FSSAI has designed a large scale Food Safety Training &
Certification Program (FoSTaC) for food businesses across the value chain. The curriculum
and content for the training have been created centrally. The training is to be delivered
through Training Partners including large Food Business Operators; Academic and
Vocational Institutions; Training Partners approved under Skill Development Councils and
Missions; Industry, Scientific and Technology Associations and Civil Society Organizations.
FoSTac is to be steered and managed by each State/UT who would create an action plan
and mobilise Food businesses and other Training Partners to undertake the training. FSSAI
has set up a website for managing the training program, assessment and certification.

All States/UTs are required to initiate a special drive to take up and facilitate FoSTaC for
the licensed FBOS under their respective jurisdiction immediately. The above training is
to be made mandatory in phases over the next two years.

FRAMEWORK FOR FOOD SAFETY TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION FOR FOOD SAFETY
SUPERVISORS/FOOD HANDLERS IN INDIA

LEGAL CONTEXT
In terms of section 16(3) h of the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006, the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)has to ensure training (whether within or outside their
area) of persons who are or intend to become involved in food businesses, whether as
food business operators or employees or otherwise. It is accordingly desired that-

a. All food businesses having central licences or state licenses should have at least one
trained and certified food safety supervisor for every 25 food-handlers or part
thereof on all their premises.
b. These supervisors should in turn carry out periodic onsite training of all food
handlers, at least on quarterly basis and maintain record thereof or food safety audit
and inspections.

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 c. Food handlers in all petty food businesses that are registered should be trained and
certified.

TRAINING COURSES
Following training courses have been designed for the purpose

Level 1: Basie (5 Courses of 4 to 6 hours duration over 1 or 2 days)

(1) Street Food Vending.
(2) Catering.
(3) Manufacturing/ Processing,
(4) Storage 8& Transport, and
(5) Retail & Distribution

Level 2: Advanced (Courses of 8 hours duration over 1 or 2 days)

(1) Catering
(2) Manufacturing / Processing.
(3) Storage & Transport, and
(5) Retail & Distribution

Level 3: Special (Courses of 4 hours duration on 1 day) –

(1) Milk & Milk Products,
(2) Meat & Poultry.
(3) Fish & Sea Food,
(4) Packaged Water,
(5) Bakery, and
(6) Edible oil

Additional training courses including customised courses could

be introduced in due course as the need arises. Currently, courses are being offered on
face to face mode, while this would be continued, but subject to availability of credible
training partners, some of the courses could be allowed through online mode as well.
FSSAI has created training content for the above courses. The same is currently available
in English and is being translated in Hindi and 10 regional languages.

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TRAINING PARTNERS
Training partners would include-

1. Big food businesses (central licensees and big state licensees)

2. Academic and vocational Institutions
3. Training partners approved National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), Sector
Skill Councils (SSCs) and State Skill Development Missions.
4. Training agencies approved under other government schemes
5. Industry Associations, Scientific and Technology Associations
6. Civil Society organisations.

Big food businesses, particularly all with central licenses and bigger ones with state
licenses should take responsibility of training and certification of food safety supervisors
and food handlers in their own premises and also of the suppliers, distributors, retailers
and transporters in their entire food value chain.

Resource Persons, Master Trainers and Trainers

Each State/UT would identify resource persons, master trainers and trainers from food
businesses, food technology. home science and nutrition colleges / universities, industry
associations, consumer organisation and individual experts and professionals.

Mobilization and Monitoring

FSSAI has established FosTac platform to manage the entire food safety training and
certification system. While, FSSAI and the State Food Safety Commissioners would reach
out to food businesses that are licensed/ registered through online Food safety licensing
and registration system (FLRS), States/UTs would be required to conduct workshops
involving industry associations to mobilise them for training. Progress of training and
certification would be monitored through the planned National Food Safety Compliance
System.

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ROLE OF STATE FOOD AUTHORITY
States/UTS are advised to take up the following tasks

1. To designate a senior officer as Nodal Officer (FoSTaC)

2. To develop an action plan for training of food safety supervisors and food-handlers
as per given format to be provided by FSSAI.
3. To identify and facilitate empanelment of Training Partners.
4. To develop a pool of State Level Resource Persons as per prescribed eligibility criteria.
5. To help in translation and validation of training content as required.
6. To coordinate with department of higher / technical education and training and skill
development for including of training modules in related training/education
programmes.
7. To coordinate with department of higher / technical education and training and skill
development for including of training modules in related training/education
programmes.

FSOs being field level officer in direct line of contact with FBOs should play active role in
making FBOs aware of provision for mandatory training.

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CHAPTER 07
INTERNATIONAL FOOD STANDARD & ACCREDITATION

FOOD STANDARDS
Effective food standards and control systems are required to integrate quality into every
aspect of food production and service, to ensure the supply of hygienic, wholesome food
as well as to facilitate trade within and between nations. There are four levels of
standards which are well coordinated.

1. Company Standards: These are prepared by a Company for its own use. Normally, they
are copies of National Standards.
2. National Standards: These are issued by the national standards body.
3. Regional Standards: Regional groups with similar geographical, climate, etc. have
legislation standardisation bodies.
4. International Standards: The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) publish international standards.

FOOD STANDARDIZATION
The basic purpose of establishing food standards is protection of public health and risk,
promoting fair trade in food also to prevent misleading or deceptive product and to
enable consumers to make informed choice by providing adequate information. It is
important that such standards should be uniform nationally so that FBOs in all parts of
the country have only one set of requirements to be complied with and hence a level
playing field.

The entire process of standard setting is carried out in a

transparent manner involving all stakeholders. FSSAI has constituted scientific bodies,
namely the Scientific Committee and 21 subject specific Scientific Panels comprising of
eminent independent subject experts/scientists. The Scientific Committee comprises of
Chairpersons of all Scientific Panels and six independent experts, responsible for
providing consistent opinion to Food Authority while harmonizing working methods of
Scientific Panels. The Committee provides opinions on cross industry and sectoral issues
and covers areas that are unique and not covered under the competence of the Scientific
Panels.

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The scientific risk assessment and setting of standards is carried out on the basis of
latest developments in food science along with various factors like emergence of new
additives, changes in processing technology, identification of new risks associated with
metallic contaminants, residues of veterinary drugs, microbiological contaminants,
nutritional aspects, advances in analytical methods etc.

FOOD STANDARDS REGULATIONS IN INDIA

The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954 (PFA, 1954) was enacted by the
Government of India to prevent adulteration of food. The Act has been amended as per
need, numerous times (over 200 amendments). All food products manufactured in India,
or imported and sold in India have to meet the requirements prescribed under this Act.
In addition to PFA, there are other Orders or Acts that help to ensure quality of specific
foods such as:

• Fruit and Vegetable Product Order: Specifications for fruit and vegetable products are
laid down.
• Meat Food Products Order: Processing of meat products is licensed under this order.
• Vegetable Oil Products Order: Specifications for vanaspati, margarine and shortenings
are laid down.
• Voluntary product certification: There are voluntary grading and marking schemes such
as ISI mark of BIS and Agmark. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) deals with
standardisation of various consumer goods including food products and runs a voluntary
certification scheme known as ‘ISI’ mark for processed foods.
AGMARK is a voluntary scheme of certification of agricultural products (raw and
processed) for safeguarding the health of consumers. Since the government had several
regulations and laws, food industry found it cumbersome. A need was therefore felt to
integrate all such laws for regulating the quality of food. With this in view, Indian
Government has passed Food Safety and Standards Act (FSSA), 2006, to bring the
different pieces of legislation pertaining to food safety under one umbrella.
Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006, the objects of the Act are to
consolidate the laws relating to food. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
was established for laying down science-based standards for food and to regulate their
manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and
wholesome food for human consumption. The Act has provisions for maintenance of
hygienic conditions in and around manufacturing premises, assessment and management
of risk factors to human health.
In a scientific manner, which were not specified in the PFA. The FSSA reflects the
international shift in food laws, from compositional standards or vertical standards to
safety or horizontal standards.

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 RELEVANT NATIONAL DEVELOPMEMENTAL BODIES/AGENCIES

National Developmental Agencies in Ensuring Food Quality and Safety

1.APEDA: Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development

Authority
APEDA Act passed by the Parliaments in December,1985 and effected from
13th Feb 1986.
Head Office: New Delhi
Chairman: Dr. M. Angamuthu

Major Roles:
• Promote export of Agriculture and processed Food
• Overcome various constraints inhibiting export growth
• Undertake special export promotion efforts
• Safeguard intellectual Property Rights
• Financial assistance for good safety Rights
• Financial Assistance for food safety measures
• Issue or release certificate for export as per schedule.

2.MPEDA: Marine Products Export Development Authority

MPEDA was set up by an act of Parliament during 1972 and effective from 24th
August 1972.
Head Office: Kochi, Kerala
Chairman: Mr. K.S. Srinivas

Major Roles;
• Promote export of Marine Products.
• Provide Training in safe handling of Marine Products.
• Overcome various constraints inhibiting export growth including quality issues
• Undertake special export promotion efforts of marine products.
• Financial assistance for food safety measures
• Identification and mapping of marine products
• Quality products promotion growth through international fair and online trading.

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3.BIS: Bureau of Indian Standards
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standards Body of India under
Department of Consumer affairs, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public
Distribution, Government of India. As a National Standards Body, present time it has 27
members drawn from Central or State Governments, industry, scientific and research
institutions, and consumer organisations. BIS is the National Standard Body of India
established under the BIS Act 2016 for the harmonious development of the activities of
standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto. BIS has been providing traceability and tangibility
benefits to the national economy in a number of ways – providing safe reliable quality
goods; minimizing health hazards to consumers; promoting exports and imports
substitute; control over proliferation of varieties etc. through standardization,
certification and testing.

BIS has its Headquarters at New Delhi and its 05

Regional Offices (ROs) are at Kolkata (Eastern), Chennai (Southern), Mumbai (Western),
Chandigarh (Northern) and Delhi (Central). Under the Regional Offices are the Branch
Offices (BOs) located at Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar, BhopaSl, Coimbatore,
Dehradun, Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kochi, Lucknow, Nagpur,
Parwanoo, Patna, Pune, Rajkot, Raipur, Durgapur, Jamshedpur and Vishakhapatnam,
which offer certification services to the industry and serve as effective link between State
Governments, industries, technical institutions, consumer organization etc. of the
respective region.

BIS established by 23rd December 1986.

Head Office: Manak Bhawan, Delhi
Chairman (ex-officio) & Director: Shri Pramod Kumar Tiwari
President: Sh. PIYUSH GOYAL

Major Roles;
• Formulating standard and guidelines
• Ensuring the quality and safety of products
• Ensuring the quality and safety of food products under compulsory certification.
• Product certification
• Quality system certification
• Contact point for WTO matters.

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Items which require compulsory BIS certification.
1.Food colors and food color preparation
2. Natural food additives
3. Infant milk food
4. Milk cereal based weaning food
5. Milk powder
6. Condensed milk
7. Mineral Water

4.EICI: Export Inspection Council of India

The EICI was set up by the Government of India under section 3 of the Export Act,1963.
Head Office: New Delhi
Chairman: Shri Madhusudan Prasad
Major Roles;
• India’s official export certification body.
• Notify commodities for pre shipment quality control and inspection
• Establish quality standard for above
• Certification of quality of export items via inspection, quality control and self-
certification.
• Issue certification for origin and health
• Mutual agreements for equivalence.

5.AGMARK: Agricultural Marketing

The AGMARK is legally enforced in India by the Agricultural Produce Act,1937 (and
amended in 1986)
Head Office: Faridabad, Haryana
Director of Central AGMARK Laboratories: Dr. Ashish Mukherjee
Certifying agency: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Government of India

Major Roles:
• System of post harvesting grading of agriculture produce
• Product quality certificate
• Ensuring safety of products
• Network of quality control laboratories
• Ensuring quality of imported products
• Assist in marketing and fair trade practices.

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AGMARK Laboratories
AGMARK is a certification mark employed on agricultural products in India, assuring that
they conform to a set of standards approved by the Directorate of Marketing and
Inspection, an agency of the Government of India.
The AGMARK certification is employed through fully state-owned
AGMARK laboratories located across the nation which act as testing and certifying
centers. In addition to the Central AGMARK Laboratory (CAL) in Nagpur, there
are Regional AGMARK Laboratories (RALs) in 11 nodal cities (Mumbai, New
Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Kochi, Guntur, Amritsar, Jaipur, Rajkot, Bhopal). Each of
the regional laboratories is equipped with and specializes in the testing of products of
regional significance. Hence the product range that could be tested varies across the
centers.

AGMARK Registration is available for following products

Hides, skins, Goat Hair, Animal Casings, Bristles, Wool, Raw meat (chilled and frozen),
Handpicked selected groundnuts, Cashew Kernels, Ambadi seeds, Rape and mustard
seeds, Taramira seeds, Groundnuts, Walnuts, Vegetable oil cakes, Ghee, Vanaspati
Creamery butter, Essential oils, Vegetable oils, Tobacco, Bura, Sugarcane, Gur (Jaggery),
Lac, Arecanuts, Myrobalans, Tendu (Bidiwrapper Leaves), Senna Leaves and pods. Tapioca
products (Animals feed) Table Eggs, Honey, Seed less Tamarind, Dried Edible Mushrooms,
Saffron, Sheekakai powder, Kangra Tea, Agar Agar, Papain, Rice, Wheat Atta, Pulses,
Cereals, Besan (Gramflour), Basmati Rice (Export), Suji and Maida, Grapes, Apples,
Alphonso Mangoes-Export, Plants, Alphonso Mangoes Home consumption, Canned,
Bottled fruits and fruit products citrus, Table potatoes, William Pears, Kanchan (Bathua),
Mangoes, Home consumption, Seed potatoes, Table potatoes Table potatoes (Export),
Water chestnuts. Coconuts, Curry Powder, Chillies, Cardamom, Coriander, Garlic, Ginger,
Onions, Chillies powder, Poppy seeds, Turmeric, Fennel, Fenugreek and Celery seeds
Cumin seeds, Pepper, Ajowan Seeds, (Whole), Sun hemp, Palmyra Fibres, Cotton, Aloe
Fibres, Jute.and other products.

Basic Requirement of Agmark Application Proceedings

• Copy of test report(s), duly authenticated, from independent Agmark recognized

laboratory.
• Document authenticating establishment of the firm, such as Registration by
Company Registrar
• State Authority or Memorandum of Article in case Applicant Firm is a Limited
Company
• Partnership Deed in case the applicant firm is under Partnership.
• Name of the products .
• Name of the applicant
• Name of the Firm/ Company

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 • Address of the Firm/ Company
• Sample of the product(in pouch of 500gm.1kg.
• Statrted Time period of product(specify exact Date/Month/year)
• Total gross product in K.g.(for last year)
• Turnover of last year

6.NHB: National Horticulture Board

NHB was set up by Government of India in April 1984 on the basis of recommendation of
the “Group on Perishable Agricultural Commodities”.
Head Office: Gurugram, Haryana
Director: Sh. Rajbir Singh
Major Roles:
• Promote productivity of horticulture produces
• Ensure measure to reduce post-harvest losses
• Production of process able varieties
• Overcome various constraints inhibiting production and marketing of horticulture
produces
• Undertake special export promotion efforts
• Financial assistance for quality and safety measures
• Rewards for achievements.

7.Spices Board
Spices Board is a statutory body constituted with effect from 26th Feb 1987 under the
spices Board Act,1986.
Head Office: Kochi, Kerala
Chairman : Shri A.G.Thankappan
Major Roles;
• Establish quality and safety standards for spices.
• Promote productivity of spices.
• New product developments.
• Ensure measures to reduce post-harvest losses
• Production of process able varieties
• Overcome various constraints inhibiting production and marketing of spices
• Undertake special export promotion efforts.

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8.Coffee Board
The Government of India established the “Coffee Board” through a constitutional Act
“Coffee Act VII of 1942” under the administrative control of Ministry of commerce and
industry.
Members of Coffee Board
The Board comprises of 33 members representing all sectors of the coffee industry who
are nominated by the central government and hold office for a period of three years.

Head Office: Bengaluru, Karnataka

Chairman: Shri. M.S Boje Gowda
Major Roles:
• Establish quality and safety standards for coffee.
• Promote productivity of coffee
• New product developments
• Ensure measure to reduce post-harvest losses.
• Production of process able varieties
• Overcome various constraints inhibiting production and marketing of coffee.
• Undertake special export promotion efforts.

9.Coconut Development Board

Coconut Development Board is statutory body established under the Ministry of
Agriculture for the integrated development of coconut and coconut related products. This
Board came into existence on 12th Jan 1981.
Head Office: Kochi, Kerala
Chairman : Shri Rajbir Singh Panwar
Major Roles;
• Establish quality and safety standards for coconut
• Promote productivity of coconut
• New product developments
• Ensure measure to reduce post-harvest losses
• Production of process able varieties
• Overcome various constraints inhibiting production and marketing of coconut.
• Undertake special export promotion efforts.

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10.NBB: National Bee Board
Head Office: New Delhi.

Major Roles;
• Establish good bee keeping practices
• Registration of beekeepers and exporters
• Necessary training
• Monitoring the quality and safety of honey.
• Promote productivity of honey
• New product developments
• Ensure measure to reduce post-harvest contamination
• Undertake special export promotion efforts.

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 INTERNATIONAL FOOD STANDARDS
Since ancient times, governing authorities the world over, have made attempts to develop
and implement food standards in order to protect health of consumers and prevent
dishonest practices in sale of food. There have been several international organisations
and agreements which have played a role in enhancing food safety, quality and security,
facilitating research and trade. The major organisations which are playing a key role are:

1. Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)

2. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
3. World Trade Organisation (WTO)
4. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

1.CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION (CAC)

Introduction
The Codex Alimentarius Commission(CAC) is an international food standards body
established jointly by the Food and Agriculture organization (FAO) and the World Health
Organization (WHO)in May 1963 with the objective of protecting consumer’s health and
ensuring fair practices in food trade.

The Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)of the World
Trade Organization (WTO) recognizes Codex standards, guidelines and recommendations
as reference standards for international trade and trade dispute settlement.
Currently the Codex Alimentarius Commission has 189 Codex Members made up of 188
Member Countries and 1 Member Organization (The European Union). India became the
member of Codex Alimentarius in 1964.

Parent organizations: WHO and FAO

Members: 189 members (Present time)
Started in: May 1963
Headquarter - Rome
Chairperson - Guilherme Da Costa, Brazil

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Food Standards
A set of criteria that a food must meet if it is to be suitable for human consumption, such
as source, composition, appearance, freshness, permissible additives, and maximum
bacterial content.
Or
“The law sets out rules that cover the preparation, composition and labelling of food
supplied for human consumption”.

In broad terms:
• the quality must meet the expectations of the consumer
• it must be as described and not presented in a way that misleads the consumer
• nothing may be added or removed that would make it harmful to health

CODEX STANDARDS
“Voluntary in nature, Codex standards can be general or specific and are recognised by
WTO Agreements as reference standards”

GENERAL STANDARDS, GUIDELINES AND CODES OF PRACTICE

These core Codex texts, typically deal with hygienic practice, labelling, contaminants,
additives, inspection & certification, nutrition and residues of veterinary drugs and
pesticides and apply horizontally to products and product categories.
Commodity standards
Codex commodity standards refer to a specific product although increasingly Codex now
develops standards for food groups.
Regional standards
Standards developed by the respective Regional Coordinating Committees, applicable to
the respective regions.

CODEX ALIMENTARIUS
The collection of food standards and guidelines related texts adopted by Alimentarious
Commission.
The term "Codex Alimentarius" is Latin and means "food code”.
Codex standards are international food texts, includes food standards, codes of practice,
codes of hygienic practice, guidelines and other recommendations, established to protect
the health of the consumers.

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 STRUCTURE OF CODEX ALIMENTARIUS

Codex Alimentarius

Guidelines and other

Standards Code of Practices
recommendation

Codex code of hygienic

practice that introduce the
concept of HACCP

Guidelines
Specific for
Standards Codex
General interpreta
e.g. Principle
Commodity Standards tion of
for setting
Standards Codex
the Policy
Principle
e.g.

Labelling of
Food Method of
Pre-
Additives & Analysis and
Packaged
Toxins Sampling
Food

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 ESTABLISHMENT OF (CAC)
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) was created in 1963 by Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Aim,
To develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under
the Joint (FAO/WHO) Food Standards Programme.
The main purpose of this Programme is to protect the health of consumers, ensure fair
practices in the food trade, and promote coordination of all food standards work
undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations.
The CAC is an intergovernmental body, with 189 Codex Members made up of 188
Member Countries and 1 Member Organization (The European Union).

India became the member of Codex Alimentarius in 1964.

CAC has become the single most important international reference point for
developments associated with food standards.
The document published by the CAC is Codex Alimentarius which means ‘Food Code’ and
is a collection of internationally adopted Food Standards.
Different countries use Codex Standards to develop national standards.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission consists of the following main organizational

elements:

• Commission;
• Executive Committee;
• Codex Secretariat;
• Codex subsidiary bodies.

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 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF CODEX

Executive Codex
Commission Codex
Committee Subsidiary
Secretariat
Body

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
The Executive Committee of the Commission (CCEXEC) acts as the executive organ of the
Commission. It is the body responsible for managing the standards development process,
developing the draft strategic plan, reviewing applications for observer status and making
other recommendations about the general direction of the Commission’s work. The
Executive Committee meets between Commission sessions. The Executive Committee is
chaired by the Chairperson of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

COMPOSITION OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

The total membership of the Codex Executive Committee is 17. It is comprised of:
Chairperson, three Vice Chairpersons, one members country elected from each of the
following seven geographic regions:
➢ Africa
➢ Asia
➢ Europe
➢ Latin America and the Caribbean
➢ Near East
➢ North America
➢ The Southwest Pacific
• The Regional Coordinators for the six regions

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All Codex committees consist of the following members:
• a chairperson;
• a body of members;
• observers who have speaking privileges but not voting right; and
• a secretariat and a host government (including Secretariat) that facilitates the work
of the committee.

CODEX SECRETARIAT
The Codex Secretariat is run by staff designated by FAO and WHO, located at FAO
headquarters in Rome. It assists the Codex Alimentarius Commission in the
implementation of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, reporting to the
Director-Generals of FAO and WHO.
CODEX SUBSIDIARY BODIES
There are four kinds of Codex subsidiary bodies:

1. General Subject Committees (sometimes referred to as horizontal), which

establish standards and guidelines applicable to all foods;

2. Commodity Committees (sometimes known as vertical), which prepare

standards for specific commodities;

3. FAO/WHO Coordinating Committees, through which regions or groups of

countries coordinate food standards activities in the region, including the
development of regional standards;

4. Ad hoc Intergovernmental Task Forces, which are time-limited and prepare

standards and guidelines on specific issues.

[“India is the host secretariat for the Codex Committee on Spices and Culinary Herbs”]

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various Codex General Subject Committees are as below:
• CCCF: Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods
• CCFA: Codex Committee on Food Additives
• CCFH: Codex Committee on Food Hygiene
• CCFICS: Codex Committee on Food Import and Export Inspection and Certification
Systems
• CCFL: Codex Committee on Food Labelling
• CCGP: Codex Committee on General Principles
• CCMAS: Codex Committee on Methods of Analysis and Sampling
• CCNFSDU: Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses
• CCPR: Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues
• CCRVDF: Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods

There are six coordinating committees, i. e. one each for the following regions:
• Africa (CCAFRICA)
• Asia (CCASIA)*
• Europe (CCEURO)
• Latin America and the Caribbean (CCLAC)
• Near East (CCNEA)
• North America and the Southwest Pacific (CCNASWP)

* India is the current Regional Coordinator for CCASIA

Provision of scientific advice in Codex-
The scientific basis for Codex work is provided by FAO and WHO. Scientific advice is
provided by FAO/WHO expert committees and ad hoc expert consultations.
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
• Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR)
• Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meetings on Microbiological Risk Assessment (JEMRA)

1. JECFA
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) is an international
expert scientific committee administered jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). It has been
meeting since 1956, initially to evaluate the safety of food additives.

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Role of JECFA
JECFA serves as an independent scientific committee which performs risk assessments
and provides advice to FAO, WHO and the member countries of both organizations. The
requests for scientific advice are for the main part channel through the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC) in their work to develop international food standards and
guidelines under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.

2. JMPR
The "Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues" (JMPR) is an expert ad hoc body administered
jointly by FAO and WHO in the purpose of harmonizing the requirement and the risk
assessment on the pesticide residues.

Role of JMPR
The current JMPR comprises the WHO Core Assessment Group and the FAO Panel of
Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and the Environment. The WHO Core Assessment
Group is responsible for reviewing pesticide toxicological data and estimating Acceptable
Daily Intakes (ADI), acute reference doses (ARfDs) and characterizes other toxicological
criteria.
The FAO Panel is responsible for reviewing pesticide data residue and for estimating
maximum residue levels, supervised trials median residue values (STMRs) and highest
residues (HRs) in food and feed. The maximum residue levels are recommended to the
Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR) for consideration to be adopted by the
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) as CXLs.
3. JEMRA
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meetings on Microbiological Risk Assessment (JEMRA) began
in 2000 in response to requests from the Codex Alimentarius Commission and FAO and
WHO Member Countries and the increasing need for risk based scientific advice on
microbiological food safety issues.

Role of JEMRA
JEMRA aims to develop and optimize the utility of Microbiological Risk Assessment (MRA)
as a tool to inform actions and decisions aimed at improving food safety and to make it
equally available to both developing and developed countries.
Principles of developing scientific advice at Codex
Main principles are:
• Excellence
• Independence
• Transparency
• Universality

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CODEX IN INDIA

Codex India" the National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) for India, is located at Food Safety
and Standards Authority of India (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare), FDA Bhawan,
Kotla Road, New Delhi India.

It coordinates and promotes Codex activities in India in association with the National
Codex Committee.

“The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) under the administration of
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has been designated as the nodal point for liaison
with the Codex, known as “National Codex Contact Point of India (NCCP)”

NATIONAL CODEX COMMITTEE

The National Codex Committee has been constituted by the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India for keeping liaison with the CAC.

NATIONAL CODEX CONTACT POINT (NCCP)

"Codex India" the National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) India, was established in the year
1971. Earlier, the NCCP was located in the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
However, with the formation of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) in
2008, FSSAI is now the National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) for maintaining contact with
the CAC, exchange of information, responding to queries, participation in meetings etc.

The NCCP shall perform the following core functions:

1) Act as a link between the Codex Secretariat, National Codex Committee and
Shadow Committee;
2) Coordinate all relevant Codex activities within India;
3) Receive all Codex final texts (standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other
advisory texts) and working documents of Codex Sessions and ensure that these
are circulated to those concerned;
4) Send comments on Codex documents or proposals to the CAC or its subsidiary
bodies and /or the Codex Secretariat within the time frame;
5) Work in close cooperation with the National Codex Committee and its Shadow
Committees;
6) Act as a channel for the exchange of information and coordination of activities with
other Codex Members;
7) Receive invitations to Codex Sessions and inform the relevant Chairpersons and the
Codex Secretariat of the names of participants representing India;

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 8) Maintain a library of Codex standards, Code of Practice, Guidelines and any other
documents and publications on or related to Codex; and
9) Promote Codex Activities throughout India.
10) Build capacity in country to effectively take up Codex work

The objectives of NCCP India are as follows:

1) To lay down the guidelines for preparation of national response or national
viewpoint to Codex matters and participation in Codex Meetings.
2) To establish the procedure for formulation of national viewpoint/response
3) To make the stakeholders understand Codex working procedures so that they are
capable and competent to contribute collectively in a competent manner to the
work of Codex at the national level.
4) To propose new work on standards or code of practice or guidelines at the
Committee Meetings.
5) To coordinate and promote Codex activities in India in association with the National
Codex Committee.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF NCCP –INDIA

In order to be able to discharge its core functions, the NCCP shall have the following
responsibilities:

1) Undertake secretariat responsibilities to the National Codex Committee.

2) Act as the contact point for the country for maintaining liaison with the Codex
Secretariat in elaborating international food standards.
3) Collect, procure and analyze data for elaborating international food standards.
4) Keep track of international food standards work and give comments and data to
ensure that international food standards elaborated are practicable for local
manufactures and do not hinder exports of food.
5) Undertake study and research work to solve any problem resulting from the
elaboration of international food standards.
6) Encourage food manufacturers to improve quality and hygiene management to
meet requirements of international food standards.
7) Disseminate information of food standards and food laws to relevant government
agencies, primary producers, manufacturers, exporters, consumers and concerned
organizations.

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The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare)
has been designated as the nodal point for liaison with the Codex Alimentarius
Commission.

The National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) has been constituted by the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India for keeping liaison with the CAC and to coordinate Codex
activities in India.

THE NATIONAL CODEX CONTACT POINT

Core Functions of NCCP-INDIA

The NCCP shall perform the following core functions:

1) Act as a link between the Codex Secretariat, National Codex Committee and
Shadow Committee;
2) Coordinate all relevant Codex activities within India;
3) Receive all Codex final texts (standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other
advisory texts) and working documents of Codex Sessions and ensure that these
are circulated to those concerned;
4) Send comments on Codex documents or proposals to the CAC or its subsidiary
bodies and /or the Codex Secretariat within the time frame;
5) Work in close cooperation with the National Codex Committee and its Shadow
Committees;
6) Act as a channel for the exchange of information and coordination of activities with
other Codex Members;
7) Receive invitations to Codex Sessions and inform the relevant Chairpersons and the
Codex Secretariat of the names of participants representing India;
8) Maintain a library of Codex standards, Code of Practice, Guidelines and any other
documents and publications on or related to Codex; and
9) Promote Codex Activities throughout India.
10) Build capacity in country to effectively take up Codex work.

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Responsibilities of NCCP -INDIA
In order to be able to discharge its core functions, the NCCP shall have the following
responsibilities:

1) Undertake secretariat responsibilities to the National Codex Committee;

2) Act as the contact point for the country for maintaining liaison with the Codex
Secretariat in elaborating international food standards;
3) Collect, procure and analyze data for elaborating international food standards;
4) Keep track of international food standards work and give comments and data to
ensure that international food standards elaborated are practicable for local
manufactures and do not hinder exports of food;
5) Undertake study and research work to solve any problem resulting from the
elaboration of international food standards;
6) Encourage food manufacturers to improve quality and hygiene management to
meet requirements of international food standards; and
7) Disseminate information of food standards and food laws to relevant government
agencies, primary producers, manufacturers, exporters, consumers and concerned
organizations.

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National Codex Committee
The National Codex Committee has been constituted by the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India for keeping liaison with the CAC.

Core Functions of NCC-INDIA

1) To advise government on the implications of various food standardization, food
quality and safety issues which have arisen and related to the work undertaken by
the CAC so that national economic interest is taken into account, or considered,
when international standards are discussed;
2) To provide important inputs to the government so as to assist in ensuring quality
and safety of food to the consumers, while at the same time maximizing the
opportunities for development of industry and expansion of international trade;
3) To appoint Shadow Committees on subject matters related to the corresponding
Codex Committees to assist in the study or consideration of technical matters; and
4) To meet as and when necessary to formulate national position.

Responsibilities of NCC- INDIA

1) To cooperate with the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme and to
nominate delegates to attend Codex meetings;
2) To formulate national position in consultation with the members of NCC in the
matters of Codex and recommend action to government;
3) To study Codex documents, collect and review all relevant information relating to
technology, economics, health and control systems, so as to give supporting
reasons to the government for the acceptance of Codex Standards or otherwise;
4) To identify organizations to take action and where necessary commission studies
for generation of data base or preparation of base papers projecting the country's
interest and for interacting with the CAC; and
5) To cooperate with other local/regional or foreign organizations dealing with
activities relating to food standardization.

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The Food Authority has appointed the Shadow Committees of the NCC on subject matters
corresponding to the Codex Committees to assist the NCC in the study or consideration
of technical matters. Officers in the rank of Joint Secretary or above in the concerned
Department/Ministry / Food Authority who handle the subject at the policy level and also
serve as the members of the NCC may be nominated as the Chairpersons of these Shadow
Committees. Specialized experts in the relevant field may be nominated as members of
these Shadow Committees. These lists of experts may be reviewed from time to time to
ensure that they meet the ongoing requirements of the NCC.

Currently, the Shadow Committees assist the National Codex Committee in the following
areas:

• Codex Alimentarius Commission

• Executive Committee of the Codex Alimentarius Commission
• Regional Coordinating Committee (including Coordinating Committee for Asia)
• General Principles
• Food labelling
• Methods of Analysis and Sampling
• Pesticides Residues
• Veterinary drugs
• Food Hygiene
• Food Additives
• Contaminants in Foods
• Food Export and Import and Certification Systems
• Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses
• Fish and Fishery Products
• Fats and Oils
• Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
• Processed Fruits and Vegetables
• Milk and Milk Products
• Spices & Culinary Herbs

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Functions of Shadow Committees
1) To advise the NCCP / NCC on the implications of various food standardization, food
quality and safety issues which have arisen and related to the work undertaken by
the relevant Subsidiary Body/Task Force so that national economic interest is taken
into account or considered when international standards are deliberated by the
relevant committee; and
2) To follow the Codex agenda of the relevant Subsidiary Body and provide inputs to
the government so as to assist in ensuring quality and safety of food to the
consumers while at the same time safeguard national interests and maximize the
opportunities for development of industry and expansion of international trade.

Responsibilities of Shadow Committees

1) To study Codex documents, collect and revise all relevant information relating to
technology, economics, health and control systems so as to give supporting reasons
to the government in the acceptance of Codex Standards or otherwise;
2) To formulate national position in consultation with the members of the Shadow
Committee with respect to the agenda for the forthcoming session / meeting of the
Subsidiary Body of the CAC and forward the same to NCCP for sending it to Codex
Secretariat after approval by government.
3) To finalize the delegation for the meeting of the Codex in consultation with the NCC
/ NCCP and transmit the names to the host secretariat through the NCCP; and
4) To recommend to the NCCP the position to be taken during the Sessions of the
Commission with respect to agenda items relevant to the terms of reference of the
Shadow Committees.

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2.INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION (ISO)
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is a worldwide, non-
governmental federation of national standards bodies (ISO member bodies). The mission
of ISO is to promote the development of standardisation and related activities in the
world with a view to facilitate the international exchange of goods and services, and to
develop cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic
activity.
ISO is an independent, non-governmental international organization
with a membership of 164 national standards bodies. Through its members, it brings
together experts to share knowledge and develop voluntary, consensus-based, market
relevant International Standards that support innovation and provide solutions to global
challenges.
International Standards give world-class specifications for products, Services and systems,
to ensure quality, safety and efficiency. They are instrumental in facilitating international
trade.
ISO International Standards ensure that products and services are
safe, reliable and of good quality. For business, they are strategic tools that reduce costs
by minimizing waste and errors and increasing productivity.
They help companies to access new markets, level the playing field for developing
countries and facilitate free and fair global trade. ISO has published 22598 International
Standards and related documents, covering almost every industry from technology, to
food safety, to agriculture and healthcare.
ISO International Standards impact everyone, everywhere. The ISO
story began in 1946 when delegates from 25 countries met at the Institute of Civil
Engineers in London and decided to create a new international organization 'to facilitate
the international coordination and unification of industrial standards'. On 23 February
1947 the new organization, ISO, officially began operations.
The work done by ISO results in international agreements which are published as
International Standards. ISO 9000 is an international reference for quality requirements.
It is concerned with “Quality Management” of an organisation. Adoption of these
standards is voluntary.

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The difference between Codex and ISO are given in the box given below:

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CODEX AND ISO

CODEX ISO
1. Used to develop national 1. Voluntary
regulations
2. Slow to change 2. Standards are reviewed every five
3. Describe the minimal acceptable years.
practices 3. Describe current standard industrial
practices

3.WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)

(Headquarter: Geneva, Switzerland) Established. on 1 Jan, 1995
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing
with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated
and signed by the bulk of the world's trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The
goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their
business.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization
dealing with the rules of trade between nations.
The main objective of WTO is to help trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly and predictably,
by administering trade agreements, settling trade disputes, assisting countries in trade
policy issues. The WTO Agreement covers goods, services and intellectual property. In
order to enforce adoption and implementation of standards, there is a need for a strong
Food Control System. An effective food control system must consist of –

(i) Food Inspection

(ii) Analytical capability

(i). Food Inspection: Conformity of products to standards is verified through inspection.

This will ensure that all foods are produced, handled, processed, stored and distributed
in compliance with regulations and legislation. Government / Municipal authorities
appoint food inspectors to investigate the status of quality conformity to standards in
their laboratories.

(ii). Analytical capability: There is need for well-equipped, state-of-the-art accredited

laboratories to carry out analysis of food. Further, well- trained personnel having
knowledge of principles of laboratory management and physical, chemical and

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microbiological analysis of food, test foods and food products are also required. A broad
range of analytical capabilities is required for detecting food contaminants,
environmental chemicals, bio-toxins, pathogenic bacteria, food-borne viruses and
parasites.

WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO) AGREEMENTS

(i) THE SPS AGREEMENT

The SPS Agreement encourages governments to establish national SPS measures
consistent with international standards, guidelines and recommendations. This process is
often referred to as harmonization.
The WTO itself does not and will not develop such standards. However, most of the WTO's
member, governments (132 at the date of drafting) participate in the development of
these standards in other international bodies.
The standards are developed by leading scientists in the field and governmental experts
on health protection and are subject to international scrutiny and review.

• The SPS Agreement sets out rules for food safety and requirements for Human, animal
and plant health.
• It recognizes the right of governments to adopt and enforce measures necessary to
protect human, animal or plant life or health.
• The SPS Agreement covers all types of measures to achieve these purposes, whether
these are requirements for final products, processing requirements, or inspection,
certification, treatment or packaging and labelling requirements directly related to food
safety.

(ii) TBT Agreement

The TBT Agreement covers a wider variety of product standards and regulations adopted
by governments to achieve a range of public policy objectives, such as protecting human
health and safety or protecting the environment, providing consumer information and
ensuring product quality.
Under the TBT Agreement, members are free to choose how to regulate products to
achieve those objectives but must do so in a way that does not discriminate between
trading partners or that does not unnecessarily restrict trade in these products.
The TBT Agreement covers trade in all goods-agricultural and industrial and applies to
three categories of measures:
• Technical regulations,
• Standards
• Conformity assessment procedure.

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 TBT Agreement
SPS Agreement
• Agreement on Technical
• Agreement on Sanitary and
Barriers to trade (TBT)
Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)
• It Guarantees quality
• It covers Food safety Animal
• It Protects –
health & Plant health
1. Health and life of human,
• It Protects–
animal and plant
1. Human or animal health
2. Protects the environment
against food safety risks,
3. Fight against human epidemics
2. Human health against animal
Nutritional issues Packaging
diseases
Food quality Correct use.
3. Plants or animals against
4. E.g., human drugs Food
parasites, diseases, pests
labelling, Quality or
4. E.g., bacteria, drug or
manipulation of insecticides
pesticides residue.

4.FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency
of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve
nutrition and food security.
It was founded in October 1945. FAO is composed of 194 member states. It is
headquartered in Rome, Italy and maintains regional and field offices around the world,
operating in over 130 countries.

It helps governments and development agencies coordinate their activities to improve

and develop agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and land and water resources
It also conducts research, provides technical assistance to projects, operates educational
and training programs, and collects data on agricultural output, production, and
development.

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❖ FAO’S WORKs ON FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY
• With an estimated 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses annually, unsafe food is a
threat to human health and economies globally. Therefore, ensuring food safety is a
public health priority and an essential step to achieving food security.
• The Food Safety and Quality Unit supports the strengthening of systems of food safety
and quality control at national, regional and international levels.

ACCREDITATION
Accreditation is the independent, third-party evaluation of a conformity assessment body
(such as certification body, inspection body or laboratory) against recognised standards,
conveying formal demonstration of its impartiality and competence to carry out specific
conformity assessment tasks (such as certification, inspection and testing).
An authoritative body that performs accreditation is called an
'accreditation body'. The International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and International
Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) provide international recognitions to
accreditation bodies. There are many internationally-recognized accreditation bodies
approved by the IAF and ILAC.

A. INTERNATIONAL ACCREDITATION BODIES

1.INTERNATIONAL ACCREDITATION FORUM

The International Accreditation Forum, Inc. (IAF) is the world association of Conformity
Assessment Accreditation bodies and other bodies interested in conformity assessment
in the fields of management systems, products, services, personnel and other similar
programs of conformity assessment. Its primary function is to develop a single worldwide
program of conformity assessment which reduces risk for business and its customers by
assuring them that accredited certificates may be relied upon.

IAF members accredit certification or registration bodies that issue certificates attesting
that an organization's management, products or personnel comply with a specified
standard.

❖ Role of the IAF

The primary purpose of IAF is two-fold.
• Firstly, to ensure that its accreditation body members only accredit bodies that are
competent to do the work they undertake and are not subject to conflicts of interest.
• The second purpose of the IAF is to establish mutual recognition arrangements (MRAs),
known as Multilateral Recognition Arrangements (MLAs), between its accreditation body
members which reduces risk to business and its customers by ensuring that an accredited
certificate may be relied upon anywhere in the world.

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❖ Structure of the IAF
The highest level of authority in IAF is the Members in a General Meeting. General
Meetings make decisions and lay down policy in the name of the members. The Board is
responsible for legal actions to be carried out on behalf of the members, for developing
broad policy directions for IAF and for ensuring that the day-to-day work of the IAF is
carried out in accordance with policies approved by members. The terms of reference,
tasks and duties as defined by the Bylaws and the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
remain unchanged for the members at a General Meeting, the Board of Directors and the
Secretary. The Executive Committee is responsible to the Board of Directors for the day-
to-day work of IAF on the basis of decisions made by the Members and directions by the
Board of Directors. The operations of all IAF Committees and Subordinate Groups,
including the Executive Committee, are subject to the IAF General Procedures.

❖ Membership of IAF
The International Accreditation Forum is a global association of Accreditation Bodies,
Conformity Assessment Body associations, Regional Accreditation Groups, and Industry
associations, including scheme owners.

Accreditation Body Membership: Open to Bodies developing, or conducting and

administering, accreditation of entities that perform conformity assessment such as
management system certification, product certification, certification of persons,
verification/validation, or similar conformity assessment.

Association Membership: Open to groups of entities that engage in, are subject to,
make use of, accept or rely on, conformity assessment results from bodies accredited by
Accreditation Body Members of IAF.

Regional Accreditation Group Membership: Open to regional groups of

Accreditation Bodies whose aims include the maintenance of Regional Multilateral
Recognition Arrangements recognising the equal reliability and/or equivalence of their
members’ accreditations.

2.INTERNATIONAL LABORATORY ACCREDITATION COOPERATION (ILAC)

The International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation or ILAC started as a conference
in 1977 with the aim of developing international cooperation for facilitating trade by
promotion of the acceptance of accredited test and calibration results. In 1996, ILAC
became a formal cooperation with a charter to establish a network of mutual recognition
agreements among accreditation bodies that would fulfil this aim.

The ultimate aim of the ILAC is increased use and acceptance by industry as well as
government of the results from accredited laboratories, including results from

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laboratories in other countries. In this way, the free-trade goal of a 'product tested once
and accepted everywhere' can be realised.

B. NATIONAL ACCREDITATION BODIES

❖ QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIA

The Quality Council of India (QCI) was set up in 1997 by Government of India jointly with
the Indian Industry represented by the three premier industry associations i.e.
1. Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM),
2. Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)
3. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), to establish and
operate national accreditation structure and promote quality through National Quality
Campaign.

Formation- 1997, 24 years ago

Headquarters- New Delhi
Department- Department of Industrial Policy &
Promotion (DIPP)
Ministry - Ministry of Commerce & Industry

QCI consists 38 members including chairman, chairman of QCI is nominated by prime

minister of India.
Quality Council of India (QCI) is registered as a non-profit society with its own
Memorandum of Association and is governed by a Council with equal representations of
government, industry and consumers.
The Council plays a pivotal role at the national level in propagating, adoption and
adherence to quality standards in all important spheres of activities including education,
healthcare, environment protection, governance, social sectors, infrastructure sector and
such other areas of organized activities that have significant bearing in improving the
quality of life and wellbeing of the citizens of India.

▪ GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE OF QCI

The various bodies of QCI which makes Governance Structure are:

1. The Governing Council (GC)

2. The Governing Body (GB)
3. Finance Committee (FC)
4. Accreditation Boards (ABs) and Quality Promotion Board

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1. The Governing Council
• The Governing Council of QCI was initially constituted by the government as a part
of the Cabinet decision in 1996. There were initially 31 constituent members, with
equal representation from the Government, Industry and other stakeholders.
Presently, the Governing Council comprises 38 members. Every member has one
vote in the Governing Council.

• The Governing Council is the apex level body responsible for formulating the
strategy, general policy, constitution and monitoring of various components
of QCI, including the Accreditation Boards with the objective of ensuring
transparent and credible accreditation system.

• The Governing Council is headed by the Chairperson, QCI.

• The Governing Council, through a Governing Body monitors the progress of

activities of the respective boards.

Representation of Governing Council

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2.The Governing Body
• The affairs of QCI are administered, directed and controlled (as stated in the “Rules
and Regulations”) by the Governing Body.
• The Governing Body has 21 members from various stakeholders. It has representations
from organizations working in quality domain, industry and the government.
• The Governing Body manages all the affairs and funds of QCI and has the authority to
exercise all the powers, nevertheless, in respect of expenditure, to such limitation as the
Government of India may from time to time impose.
• The Governing Body has the power to frame, amend or repeal bye-laws not inconsistent
with the rules of the administration and management of the affairs of QCI as per the
provisions contained in Rules & Regulations.

3.Finance Committee
The Finance Committee is a separate entity and is responsible for Governance of Finance
& Accounts functions and reports them to the Governing Body.

4.Accreditation Boards (ABs) and Quality Promotion Board

An accreditation body is an organization that provides accreditation services, which is a
formal, third party recognition of competence to perform specific tasks.

As depicted in the Governance structure above, QCI coordinates its activities through
five constituent Boards briefed below:

i).NABCB: National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies

The National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies provides accreditation to
Certification and Inspection Bodies based on assessment of their competence as per the
Board's criteria and in accordance with International Standards and Guidelines. NABCB is
internationally recognized and represents the interests of the Indian industry at
international forums through membership and active participation.

NABCB is a member of IAF (International accreditation forum), ILAC (International Lab

accreditation cooperation) and APAC (Asia Pacific accreditation cooperation).

ii).NABET: National Accreditation Board for Education and Training

At its inception, NABET began life as the National Accreditation Board for Auditors and
Training (NABAT), which was set up in response to the emerging challenges in the
conformity assessment arena with the mandate to establish and monitor the training and
auditor’s registration process.
National Accreditation Board for Auditors and Training (NABAT) started
working as registrar for auditors and training courses operating in arena of conformity
assessment area such as QMS and EMS.

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iii).NABL: National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration of
Laboratories
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration of Laboratories (NABL) grants
Accreditation (Recognition) of Technical competence of a Testing, Calibration, Medical
Laboratory; Proficiency Testing Provider (PTP) and Reference Material Producer (RMP) for
a specific scope following the international standards.

iv). NABH: National Accreditation Board for Hospitals & Healthcare

National Accreditation Board for Hospitals & Healthcare Providers (NABH) operates
accreditation programme for healthcare organisations. The board is structured to cater
to much desired needs of the consumers and to set benchmarks for progress of healthcare
organizations.
v).NBQP: National Board for Quality Promotion
National Board for Quality Promotion (NBQP) works on the mission of promoting quality
of life of the Citizens of India. The Board organizes events i.e., Quality Conclaves
(National/Regional/Virtual) and Quality Month Competitions.

❖ WORLD ACCREDITATION DAY

Accreditation, however, is not as widely known and understood, or used, as it should be.
As a result, the IAF and the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC), the
global associations for accreditation with members from 103 economies, established
World Accreditation Day to take place each year on June 9 to act as a springboard for
awareness-raising actions and to promote accreditation to governments, the public and
private sectors, and, more generally, citizens. It also provides national organisations the
opportunity to organize activities related to the theme of the day. World accreditation
days since 2009.

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CHAPTER 08
FOOD & FOOD CATEGORIZATION
Definition of Food under FSS Act,2006
Food means any substances ,whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed
,which is intended for human consumption and includes primary food to the extent
defined in clause (zx),genetically modified or engineered food or food containing such
ingredients ,infant food ,packaged drinking water ,alcoholic drink, chewing gum and any
substance, including water used into the food during its manufacture, preparation or
treatment are considered as a food, but does not include any animal feed ,live animal
unless they are prepared or processed for placing on the market for human consumption,
plants prior to harvesting ,drugs and medicinal products , cosmetics, narcotic or
psychrotropic substances.

FOOD CATEGORIZATION CODE OR SYSTEM

On May 11, 2012, The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) introduced a
Food Categorization System (FCS) for all food products covered by the Food Safety and
Standards Regulations, 2011.

Under the proposed FCS, the FSSAI has classified food

products into categories and sub categories, with distinct codes. Some proprietary
products are also included. The coding system is based on the Codex structure to promote
consistency between domestic and international food standards.

The food category descriptors are not to be legal products

designation nor are they intended for labelling purposes. The food categorization only
done for the regulation, for the licensing and registration.

❖ Advantages of Food Categorization System:

1. It is based on codex structure which is internationally recognized. CODEX standards

are accepted by a large number of countries.
2. FCS will provide a scientific basis to the Indian food laws, improving product quality for
Indian consumers and International consumers of Indian food.
3. The harmonization with other global regulations will promote and facilitate
international trade.
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4. CODEX standards are basis for resolution of WTO trade disputes.

FOOD CATEGORIZATION CLASSIFICATION

18 Main Food Categories

Category
Category
Category 99
17
1 to 16 Substances added to
Included product
E.g. food which are ‘not
which not covered
Fats & Oil, for direct
into category 1-16
Cereals & Pulses consumption as food’
Etc. E. g.
Vitamins, minerals,
additives Etc.

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 18 CATEGORIES OF FOOD

Category No. 01 Dairy products and analogues

Category No. 02 Fats and oils, and fat emulsions
Category No. 03 Edible ices, including sherbet and sorbet
Category No. 04 Fruits and vegetables
Category No. 05 Confectionery
Category No. 06 Cereals and cereal products
Category No. 07 Bakery products
Category No. 08 Meat and meat products including poultry
Category No. 09 Fish and fish products
Category No. 10 Eggs and egg products
Category No. 11 Sweeteners, including honey
Category No. 12 Salts, spices, soups, sauces, salads and protein products
Category No. 13 Foodstuffs intended for particular nutritional uses
Category No. 14 Beverages, excluding dairy products
Category No. 15 Ready-to-eat savories
Category No. 16 Prepared Foods
Category No. 17 Others (which are not included in 1-16)
Category No. 99 Substances added to food

FOOD STANDARDIZATION
The basic purpose of establishing food standards is protection of public health and risk,
promoting fair trade in food also to prevent misleading or deceptive product and to
enable consumers to make informed choice by providing adequate information. It is
important that such standards should be uniform nationally so that FBOs in all parts of
the country have only one set of requirements to be complied with and hence a level
playing field.
The entire process of standard setting is carried out in a transparent manner involving all
stakeholders. FSSAI has constituted scientific bodies, namely the Scientific Committee and
21 subject specific Scientific Panels comprising of eminent independent subject
experts/scientists. The Scientific Committee comprises of Chairpersons of all Scientific
Panels and six independent experts, responsible for providing consistent opinion to Food
Authority while harmonizing working methods of Scientific Panels. The Committee
provides opinions on cross industry and sectoral issues and covers areas that are unique
and not covered under the competence of the Scientific Panels. The scientific risk
assessment and setting of standards is carried out on the basis of latest developments in

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food science along with various factors like emergence of new additives, changes in
processing technology, identification of new risks associated with metallic contaminants,
residues of veterinary drugs, microbiological contaminants, nutritional aspects, advances
in analytical methods etc.

❖ STANDARDIZATION (VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL)

FSSAI notified standards are mandatory standards and compulsorily to be followed by the
food businesses, there are other organizations and agencies that frame food standards
which are voluntary standards. However, some of these are considered as a basic
requirement for the FBO to obtain FSSAI licenses which include the BIS certification for
manufacturing of packaged drinking water and” AGMARK” label for sale of some
agricultural products.
The Scientific Panels and Scientific Committee provide the scientific opinion and assist
Food Authority in development of standards through a well-defined process. The
Scientific Panels are constituted under Section 13 of the Food Safety & Standards Act,
2006. Formulation of standards of any article of food involves several stages. After
recommendation by the Scientific Panel and validation by the Scientific Committee, a
standard is approved by the Food Authority and by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Thereafter, a draft notification is issued for inviting public comments for a period of 60
days. The comments received are then considered by the relevant Scientific Panel and
after approvals of the Scientific Committee, Food Authority and the Ministry, the standard
is finally notified as either an amendment to an existing regulation or a new/revised
regulation.
FSS Act 2006 defines “standard”, in relation to any article of food, means the standards
notified by the Food Authority. FSSAI is also responsible for framing and notifying food
product standards which include both vertical and horizontal standards and specify an
appropriate system for enforcing various standards.

Horizontal Standards cut across various food categories and primarily relate to food
safety covering limits for various contaminants (chemical and biological), toxins in food
and also requirements for packaging, labelling and claims. These are covered under FSS
(Contaminants, Toxins and Residues) Regulations, 2011, under Appendix B of FSS (Food
Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulations, 2011 and FSS (Packaging and
Labelling) Regulations, 2011.

Vertical Standards mainly include identity and compositional standards of specific food
products and are covered under FSS (Food Product Standards and Food Additives)
Regulations, 2011 and under FSS (Health supplements, Nutraceuticals, Foods for special
dietary use, Foods for special medical purpose, Functional food and Novel food)
Regulations, 2016.

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 CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES OF FOOD

(i) NEUTRACEUTICALS
Nutraceuticals is a broad umbrella term that is used to describe any product derived from
food sources with extra health benefits in addition to the basic nutritional value found in
foods.
The term “nutraceutical” combines the two words of “nutrient,” which is a
nourishing food component, and “pharmaceutical,” which is a medical drug. The name
was coined in 1989 by Stephen De Felice, founder and chairman of the Foundation for
Innovation in Medicine, which is an American organization located in Cranford, New
Jersey.

NEUTRACEUTICALS

The philosophy behind nutraceuticals is to focus on prevention, according to the saying

by a Greek physician Hippocrates (known as the father of medicine) who said “let food be
your medicine”. Their role in human nutrition is one of the most important areas of
investigation, with wide-raging implications for consumers, healthcare providers,
regulators, food producers, and distributors.

Standards for Health supplements and Nutraceuticals are

specified under Food Safety and Regulations, 2016. These regulations cover eight
categories of Functional foods, namely, Health Supplements, Nutraceuticals, Food for
Special Dietary Use, Food for Special Medical Purpose, Specialty food containing plant or
botanicals, Foods containing Probiotics, Foods containing Prebiotics and Novel Foods.
NUTRACEUTICAL MARKET IN INDIA
India is one among the few countries with no fixed parameters for classifying dietary
supplement either as diet or medicine. Nutraceuticals involve health- enhancing or
disease-preventing products that are not as strictly regulated as the bulk pharmaceutical

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industry. The Indian pharmaceutical firms are utilizing the facility and market a variety
nutraceuticals aimed at various sections of the society. The amount of products ‘enriched’
with vitamins and other health related items entering the market are increasing day-by-
day. The preference for the discovery and production of nutraceuticals over
pharmaceuticals is well seen in pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.
Nutraceuticals are gaining acceptance for their ability to address several diseases.
Vitamins, Minerals and Nutrients constitute about 80% of the market while antioxidants
and anti-aging products account for 10%. The other segments are occupied by herbal
extracts.

FSSAI GUIDANCE AND NOTIFICATION ON NUTRACEUTICALS

The pharmaceutical companies and FMCG (fast moving consumer goods) suppliers placed
a key role in the success of Indian nutraceuticals market. The Indian nutraceuticals market
is divided into functional foods and beverages and dietary supplements. Over 64% of
nutraceuticals market in India is occupied with vitamin and mineral supplements. The
Indian nutraceuticals market which has grown from $1 billion in 2008 to $1.8 billion in
2013, has crossed $2 billion in 2014 and is expected to top $4 billion by 2018.
Nutraceuticals are considered as foods by the FSS Act, 2006, Rules and Regulations, 2011.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has issued regulations with
respect to licensing and registration of food business, manufacturing, packing and
labelling, food product standard and so on.

In FSSA in India (FSSAI) has defined regulatory guidelines for approval of nutraceuticals in
the Indian market. This Act consists of 21 chapters and in that the 4th Article that means
22 of the Act says about nutraceuticals, dietary supplements and various functional foods,
and these products can be produced/manufactured, marketed that means sold or
distributed that means import can be done by any of the company. In the Nutraceuticals
Regulations, 2016, under the ‘General Requirements,’ the FSSAI has stated that (21) mere
combination of vitamins and minerals formulated in tablets, capsules, syrup formats shall
not be covered in any of the categories of these regulations except when vitamins and
minerals are added.
FSS Regulations, 2011, issued guidance for licensing and registration of food businesses;
packaging and labelling; food product standards and food additives; prohibition and
restriction on sales; contaminants, toxins and residues; laboratory and sampling analysis.
FSS issued regulations for food or health supplements, nutraceuticals, foods for special
dietary uses, foods for special medical purpose, functional foods, and novel food in 2015.

The following information shall be included in any claimed novel foods –

(a) chemical composition of the engineered food; (b) surface modification/ surface
chemistry; (c) primary particle size; (d) solubility; (e) digestibility; (f) amount of
nanomaterial if any in the food product; (g) specific claim, if applicable.

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Nutraceuticals shall contain any of the ingredients specified in Food Act Schedule
Schedule I Vitamins and minerals
Schedule II Essential amino acids and other nutrients
Schedule IV List of plants and botanical ingredients
Schedule VI List of ingredients as nutraceuticals
Schedule VII List of strains as probiotics
Schedule VIII List of prebiotic compounds

No ingredient other than those specified in Schedule VI shall be used as nutraceuticals

with standardisation to marker compounds specified and at daily usage levels specified
therein. Only nutraceuticals or extracts of ingredients specified in Schedule IV can be used
in nutraceuticals. Ingredients of plant or botanical origin specified in Schedule IV and
Schedule VI may be used either in the given form or their extract, subject to the extractive
ratios in relation to the daily usage value. Only additives specified in Schedule VA or
Schedule VE or Schedule VF should be used for nutraceuticals formulation.

The FSSAI issued notice on Dec 31, 2018, that disallowed the use of several ingredients in
nutraceutical foods. The third notification on the subject of Nutraceutical Foods
Regulation noted the following: (i) Allowing the use of the ingredient ‘Vitamin D3’ from
lichen (Cladonia rangiferina) as a vegetable source in the products listed under
Nutraceutical Regulations, until the time the proposed amendments on Nutraceutical
Regulations are finalised and notified. (ii) Subject to compliance, mustard powder will
continue to be used as an ingredient in products covered under the Nutraceutical
Regulations. (iii) Discontinue certain ingredients mentioned in the notice. (iv) Allow food
business operators (FBOs) to sell existing formulations with simple combinations of
vitamins and minerals, only up to one recommended dietary allowance, in dosage forms
such as tablets, capsules, and syrups. This is effective for a period of three months from
the date of the current notification, or until further orders are announced, whichever is
earlier.
FSSAI has directed Nutraceutical Regulations to stop using 14
ingredients lacking scientific data for safe usage. The country’s apex food regulator
ordered FBOs to discontinue the use of raspberry ketone, silica, angelica sinensis, paullinia
cupana, saw palmetto, notoginsing, chlorella growth factor, pine bark extracted to pinus
radiate, pine bark extracted from pinus pinaster, Vitamin D3-veg, chaga extract,
oxalobacter formigenes, phytavail iron and tea tree oil.
FBOs were also asked to discontinue antichoke, kale powder, salvia hispanica,
cashewfruit, passion fruit, kiwi fruit extracts, broccoli and enzymes, including pectinase
and xylanase, as health supplements. However, their use in products was not prohibited,
but FBOs cannot claim that the products are supplement or nutraceuticals. No further
manufacturing of products using these ingredients will be allowed until these ingredients
are assessed and approved by the authority. Further, FBOs are directed to furnish
information and data in respect of these ingredients within one month.
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The label of nutraceuticals products should mention “Nutraceuticals” Recommended
Usage Warning for the risk of excess consumption. Prohibitions on labelling claims must
mention for Nutraceuticals Products Cure of disease claims, e.g. “Prevents bone fragility
in post menopausal women,” implied cures for disease claims through pictures, vignettes
or symbols.
Increased demand of nutraceuticals products in India evidenced their possible success
rate in prevention and treatment of diseases. Hence, it needs regulatory authorities on
product quality and safety in order to minimise the adverse events, toxicity, adulteration,
misuse, overdose during human consumption. As food products are reaching from one
country to another, maintaining safety and quality standards as per various regulatory
guidelines set by the respective governments becomes important. To maintain quality
and safety concerns of nutraceuticals all the new companies and existing companies
should follow the regulatory guidance of FSSAI for better use.
(II). ADULTERATED FOOD
Adulteration is a legal term meaning that a food product fails to meet the legal standards.
One form of adulteration is an addition of another substance to a food item in order to
increase the quantity of the food item in raw form or prepared form, which may result in
the loss of actual quality of food item. These substances may be either available food
items or non-food items. Among meat and meat products some of the items used to
adulterate are water or ice, carcasses, or carcasses of animals other than the animal
meant to be consumed.

(III). CAMPING FOOD

Camping food includes ingredients used to prepare food suitable for backcountry camping
and backpacking. The foods differ substantially from the ingredients found in a typical
home kitchen. The primary differences relate to campers' and backpackers' special needs
for foods that have appropriate cooking time, perishability, weight, and nutritional
content.

To address these needs, camping food is often made up of either freeze-dried,

precooked or dehydrated ingredients. Many campers use a combination of these foods.
Freeze-drying requires the use of heavy machinery and is not something that most
campers are able to do on their own. Freeze-dried ingredients are often considered
superior to dehydrated ingredients however because they rehydrate at camp faster and
retain more flavor than their dehydrated counterparts. Freeze-dried ingredients take so
little time to rehydrate that they can often be eaten without cooking them first and have
a texture similar to a crunchy chip.

Dehydration can reduce the weight of the food by sixty to ninety

percent by removing water through evaporation. Some foods dehydrate well, such as

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onions, peppers, and tomatoes. Dehydration often produces a more compact, albeit
slightly heavier, end result than freeze-drying.

Surplus precooked military Meals, Meals, Ready-to-Eat (MREs) are sometimes used by
campers. These meals contain pre-cooked foods in retort pouches. A retort pouch is a
plastic and metal foil laminate pouch that is used as an alternative to traditional industrial
canning methods.

(IV). DIET FOOD

Diet food or dietetic food refers to any food or beverage whose recipe is altered to reduce
fat, carbohydrates, abhor/adhore sugar in order to make it part of a weight loss program
or diet. Such foods are usually intended to assist in weight loss or a change in body type,
although bodybuilding supplements are designed to aid in gaining weight or muscle.

The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-
food-energy substitute for some high-food-energy ingredient. This can be as simple as
replacing some or all of the food's sugar with a sugar substitute as is common with diet
soft drinks such as Coca-Cola (for example Diet Coke). In some snacks, the food may be
baked instead of fried thus reducing the food energy. In other cases, low-fat ingredients
may be used as replacements.

In whole grain foods, the higher fiber content effectively displaces some of the starch
components of the flour. Since certain fibers have no food energy, this results in a modest
energy reduction. Another technique relies on the intentional addition of other reduced-
food-energy ingredients, such as resistant starch or dietary fiber, to replace part of the
flour and achieve a more significant energy reduction.

(V). FINGER FOOD

Finger food is food meant to be eaten directly using the hands, in contrast to food eaten
with a knife and fork, spoon, chopsticks, or other utensils. In some cultures, food is almost
always eaten with the hands; for example, Ethiopian cuisine is eaten by rolling various
dishes up in injera bread. Foods considered street foods are frequently, though not
exclusively, finger foods.

In the western world, finger foods are often either appetizers or

entree/main course items. Examples of these are miniature meat pies, sausage rolls,
sausages on sticks, cheese and olives on sticks, chicken drumsticks or wings, spring rolls,
miniature quiches, samosas, sandwiches, Merenda or other such based foods, such as
pitas or items in buns, bhajjis, potato wedges, vol-au-vent, several other such small items
and risotto balls (arancini). Other well-known foods that are generally eaten with the
hands include hamburgers, pizza, Chips, hot dogs, fruit and bread. In East Asia, foods like
pancakes or flatbreads (bing) and street foods such as chuan ( also pronounced chuan)
are often eaten with the hands.

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(VI). FRESH FOOD
Fresh food is food which has not been preserved and has not spoiled yet. For vegetables
and fruits, this means that they have been recently harvested and treated properly
postharvest; for meat, it has recently been slaughtered and butchered; for fish, it has been
recently caught or harvested and kept cold.

Dairy products are fresh and will spoil quickly. Thus, fresh cheese is cheese which has not
been dried or salted for aging. Soured cream may be considered "fresh" (crème fraiche).

Fresh food has not been dried, smoked, salted, frozen, canned, pickled, or otherwise
preserved.

(VII). FROZEN FOOD

Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early
times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated
buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning
residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food
commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash
freezing). The kinetics of the freezing is important to preserve food quality and texture.
Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic
freezing is the quickest freezing technology available utilizing the extremely low
temperature of liquid nitrogen −196 °C (-320 °F).

Preserving food in domestic kitchens during modern times is achieved using household
freezers. Accepted advice to householders was to freeze food on the day of purchase. An
initiative by a supermarket group in 2012 (backed by the UK's Waste & Resources Action
Programme) promotes the freezing of food "as soon as possible up to the product's 'use
by' date". The Food Standards Agency was reported as supporting the change, providing
the food had been stored correctly up to that time.

(VIII). FUNCTIONAL FOOD

A functional food is a food given an additional function (often one related to health-
promotion or disease prevention) by adding new ingredients or more of existing
ingredients. The term may also apply to traits purposely bred into existing edible plants,
such as purple or gold potatoes having enriched anthocyanin or carotenoid contents,
respectively. Functional foods may be "designed to have physiological benefits and/or
reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions, and may be similar
in appearance to conventional food and consumed as part of a regular diet".

The term was first used in Japan in the 1980s where there is a government approval
process for functional foods called Foods for Specified Health Use (FOSHU).

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(IX). HEALTH FOOD
Health food is food marketed to provide human health effects beyond a normal healthy
diet required for human nutrition. Foods marketed as health foods may be part of one or
more categories, such as natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, vegetarian foods or
dietary supplements. These products may be sold in health food stores or in the health
food or organic sections of grocery stores.

(X).HEALTHY FOOD
A healthy diet is a diet that helps to maintain or improve overall health. A healthy diet
provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients, micronutrients, and
adequate calories.

For people who are healthy, a healthy diet is not complicated and
contains mostly fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and includes little to no processed
food and sweetened beverages. The requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a
variety of plant-based and animal-based foods, although a non-animal source of vitamin
B12 is needed for those following a vegan diet. Various nutrition guides are published by
medical and governmental institutions to educate individuals on what they should be
eating to be healthy. Nutrition facts labels are also mandatory in some countries to allow
consumers to choose between foods based on the components relevant to health.

A healthy lifestyle includes getting exercise every day along with eating a healthy diet. A
healthy lifestyle may lower disease risks, such as obesity, heart disease, type 2 diabetes,
hypertension and cancer.

There are specialized healthy diets, called medical nutrition therapy, for people with
various diseases or conditions. There are also prescientific ideas about such specialized
diets, as in dietary therapy in traditional Chinese medicine.

(XI).LIVE FOOD
Live food is living food for carnivorous or omnivorous animals kept in captivity; in other
words, small animals such as insects or mice fed to larger carnivorous or omnivorous
species kept either in a zoo or as a pet.

Live food is commonly used as feed for a variety of species of

exotic pets and zoo animals, ranging from alligators to various snakes, frogs and lizards,
but also including other, non-reptile, non-amphibian carnivores and omnivores (for
instance, skunks, which are omnivorous mammals, can technically be fed a limited
amount of live food, though this is not a common practice). Common live food ranges
from crickets (used as an inexpensive form of feed for carnivorous and omnivorous
reptiles such as bearded dragons and commonly available in pet stores for this reason),
waxworms, mealworms and to a lesser extent cockroaches and locusts, to small birds and
mammals such as mice or chickens.
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(XII).MEDICAL FOOD
Medical foods are foods that are specially formulated and intended for the dietary
management of a disease that has distinctive nutritional needs that cannot be met by
normal diet alone. In the United States they were defined in the Food and Drug
Administration's 1988 Orphan Drug Act Amendments and are subject to the general food
and safety labeling requirements of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. In Europe
the European Food Safety Authority established definitions for "foods for special medical
purposes" (FSMPs) in 2015.

Medical foods called "food for special medical purposes" in Europe, are distinct from the
broader category of foods for special dietary use, from traditional foods that bear a health
claim, and from dietary supplements. In order to be considered a medical food the
product must, at a minimum:

• be a food for oral ingestion or tube feeding (nasogastric tube)

• be labeled for the dietary management of a specific medical disorder, disease or
condition for which there are distinctive nutritional requirements, and
• be intended to be used under medical supervision.

Medical foods can be classified into the following categories:

• Nutritionally complete formulas

• Nutritionally incomplete formulas
• Formulas for metabolic disorders
• Oral rehydration products

(XIII).NATURAL FOODS
Natural foods and "all-natural foods" are widely used terms in food labeling and
marketing with a variety of definitions, most of which are vague. The term is often
assumed to imply foods that are not processed and whose ingredients are all natural
products (in the chemist's sense of that term), thus conveying an appeal to nature. But
the lack of standards in most jurisdictions means that the term assures nothing. In some
countries, the term "natural" is defined and enforced. In others, such as the United States,
it is not enforced.

“Natural foods” are often assumed to be foods that are not

processed, or do not contain any food additives, or do not contain particular additives
such as hormones, antibiotics, sweeteners, food colors, or flavorings that were not
originally in the food. In fact, many people (63%) when surveyed showed a preference for
products labeled "natural" compared to the unmarked counterparts, based on the
common belief (86% of polled consumers) that the term "natural" indicated that the food
does not contain any artificial ingredients. The terms are variously used and misused on
labels and in advertisements.
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The international Food and Agriculture Organization’s Codex Alimentarius does not
recognize the term “natural” but does have a standard for organic foods.

(XIV).NEGATIVE-CALORIE FOOD
A negative-calorie food is food that supposedly requires more food energy to be digested
than the food provides. Its thermic effect or specific dynamic action – the caloric "cost"
of digesting the food- would be greater than its food energy content. Despite its recurring
popularity in dieting guides, there is no scientific evidence supporting the idea that any
food is calorically negative. While some chilled beverages are calorically negative, the
effect is minimal and drinking large amounts of water can be dangerous.

(XV).ORGANIC FOOD
Organic food is food produced by methods that comply with the standards of organic
farming. Standards vary worldwide, but organic farming in general features practices that
strive to cycle resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.
Organizations regulating organic products may restrict the use of certain pesticides and
fertilizers in farming. In general, organic foods are also usually not processed using
irradiation, industrial solvents or synthetic food additives.

Currently, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Mexico,

Japan, and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order
to market food as organic within their borders. In the context of these regulations, organic
food is produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by regional
organizations, national governments, and international organizations. Although the
produce of kitchen gardens may be organic, selling food with an organic label is regulated
by governmental food safety authorities, such as the US Department of Agriculture
(USDA) or European Commission (EC).

Fertilizing and the use of pesticides in conventional farming has caused,

and is causing, enormous damage worldwide to local ecosystems, biodiversity,
groundwater and drinking water supplies, and sometimes farmer health and fertility.
These environmental, economic and health issues are intended to be minimized or
avoided in organic farming. From a consumers perspective, there is not sufficient
evidence in scientific and medical literature to support claims that organic food is safer or
healthier to eat than conventionally grown food. While there may be some differences in
the nutrient and antinutrient contents of organically- and conventionally-produced food,
the variable nature of food production and handling makes it difficult to generalize
results. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by tests.

(XVI).PEASANT FOODS
Peasant foods are dishes specific to a particular culture, made from accessible and
inexpensive ingredients, and usually prepared and seasoned to make them more

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palatable. They often form a significant part of the diets of people who live in poverty, or
have a lower income compared to the average for their society or country.

Peasant foods have been described as being the diet of peasants, that is,
tenant or poorer farmers and their farm workers, and by extension, of other cash-poor
people. They may use ingredients, such as offal and less-tender cuts of meat, which are
not as marketable as a cash crop. Characteristic recipes often consist of hearty one-dish
meals, in which chunks of meat and various vegetables are eaten in a savory broth, with
bread or other staple food. Sausages are also amenable to varied readily available
ingredients, and they themselves tend to contain offal and grains.

Peasant foods often involve skilled preparation by knowledgeable cooks using

inventiveness and skills passed down from earlier generations. Such dishes are often
prized as ethnic foods by other cultures and by descendants of the native culture who still
desire these traditional dishes.

(XVII).PRISON FOOD
Prison food is the term for meals served to prisoners while incarcerated in correctional
institutions. While some prisons prepare their own food, many use staff from on-site
catering companies. Many prisons today support the requirements of specific religions,
as well as vegetarianism. It is said that prison food of many developed countries is
adequate to maintain health and dieting.

(XVIII).SEASONAL FOOD
"Seasonal" here refers to the times of the year when the harvest or the flavor of a given
type of food is at its peak. This is usually the time when the item is harvested, with some
exceptions; an example being sweet potatoes which are best eaten quite a while after
harvest. It also appeals to people who prefer a low carbon diet that reduces the
greenhouse gas emissions resulting from food consumption (Food miles).

(XIX).SHELF-STABLE FOOD
Shelf-stable food (sometimes ambient food) is food of a type that can be safely stored at
room temperature in a sealed container. This includes foods that would normally be
stored refrigerated but which have been processed so that they can be safely stored at
room or ambient temperature for a usefully long shelf life.

Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life.
Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating
or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways
of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can
all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.

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 For some foods, alternative ingredients can be used. Common oils and
fats become rancid relatively quickly if not refrigerated; replacing them with
hydrogenated oils delays the onset of rancidity, increasing shelf life. This is a common
approach in industrial food production, but recent concerns about health hazards
associated with trans fats have led to their strict control in several jurisdictions. Even
where trans fats are not prohibited, in many places there are new labeling laws (or rules),
which require information to be printed on packages, or to be published elsewhere, about
the amount of trans fat contained in certain products.

(XX).SPACE FOOD
Space food is a type of food product created and processed for consumption by
astronauts in outer space. The food has specific requirements of providing balanced
nutrition for individuals working in space while being easy and safe to store, prepare and
consume in the machinery-filled weightless environments of crewed spacecraft.

In recent years, space food has been used by various nations engaging in
space programs as a way to share and show off their cultural identity and facilitate
intercultural communication. Although astronauts consume a wide variety of foods and
beverages in space, the initial idea from The Man in Space Committee of the Space
Science Board in 1963 was to supply astronauts with a formula diet that would supply all
the needed vitamins and nutrients.

(XXI).TRADITIONAL FOOD
Traditional foods are foods and dishes that are passed through generations or which have
been consumed many generations. Traditional foods and dishes are traditional in nature,
and may have a historic precedent in a national dish, regional cuisine or local cuisine.
Traditional foods and beverages may be produced as homemade, by restaurants and
small manufacturers, and by large food processing plant facilities.

Some traditional foods have geographical indications and traditional specialty in the
European Union designations per European Union schemes of geographical indications
and traditional specialties: Protected designation of origin (PDO), Protected geographical
indication (PGI) and Traditional specialty guaranteed (TSG). These standards serve to
promote and protect names of quality agricultural products and foodstuffs.

(XXII).WHOLE FOOD
Whole foods are plant foods that are unprocessed and unrefined, or processed and
refined as little as possible, before being consumed. Examples of whole foods include
whole grains, tubers, legumes, fruits, vegetables.

There is some confusion over the usage of the term surrounding the inclusion of certain
foods, in particular animal foods. The modern usage of the term whole foods diet is now

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widely synonymous with "whole foods plant-based diet" with animal products, oil and
salt no longer constituting whole foods.

The earliest use of the term in the post-industrial age appears to be in 1946 in The Farmer,
a quarterly magazine published and edited from his farm by F. Newman Turner, a writer
and pioneering organic farmer. The magazine sponsored the establishment of the
Producer-Consumer Whole Food Society Ltd, with Newman Turner as president and
Derek Randal as vice-president. Whole food was defined as "mature produce of field,
orchard, or garden without subtraction, addition, or alteration grown from seed without
chemical dressing, in fertile soil manured solely with animal and vegetable wastes, and
composts therefrom, and ground, raw rock and without chemical manures, sprays, or
insecticides," having intent to connect suppliers and the growing public demand for such
food. Such diets are rich in whole and unrefined foods, like whole grains, dark green and
yellow/orange-fleshed vegetables and fruits, legumes, nuts and seeds.

(XXIII). GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

Genetically Modified (Gm) Organisms and GM Foods

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms (i.e. plants, animals
or microorganisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that
does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The technology is often
called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”, sometimes also “recombinant DNA
technology” or “genetic engineering”. It allows selected individual genes to be transferred
from one organism into another, also between non- related species. Foods produced from
or using GM organisms are often referred to as GM foods.

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 History : TimeLine of GMOs

Circa 8000 BCE Humans use traditional modification methods like selective breeding and
cross-breeding to breed plants and animals with more desirable traits.

1866 Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, breeds two different types of peas and identifies
the basic process of genetics.

1922 The first hybrid corn is produced and sold commercially.

1940 Plant breeders learn to use radiation or chemicals to randomly change an

organism’s DNA.

1953 Building on the discoveries of chemist Rosalind Franklin, scientists James Watson
and Francis Crick identify the structure of DNA.

1973 Biochemists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen develop genetic engineering by
inserting DNA from one bacteria into another.

1982 FDA approves the first consumer GMO product developed through genetic
engineering: human insulin to treat diabetes.

1986 The federal government establishes the Coordinated Framework for the Regulation
of Biotechnology. This policy describes how the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
work together to regulate the safety of GMOs.

1992 FDA policy states that foods from GMO plants must meet the same requirements,
including the same safety standards, as foods derived from traditionally bred plants.

1994 The first GMO produce created through genetic engineering—a GMO tomato—
becomes available for sale after studies evaluated by federal agencies proved it to be as
safe as traditionally bred tomatoes.

1990s The first wave of GMO produce created through genetic engineering becomes
available to consumers: summer squash, soybeans, cotton, corn, papayas, tomatoes,
potatoes, and canola. Not all are still available for sale.

2003 The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations develop international guidelines and standards to determine
the safety of GMO foods.

2005 GMO alfalfa and sugar beets are available for sale in the United States.

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2015 FDA approves an application for the first genetic modification in an animal for use
as food, a genetically engineered salmon.

2016 Congress passes a law requiring labelling for some foods produced through genetic
engineering and uses the term “bioengineered,” which will start to appear on some foods.

2017 GMO apples are available for sale in the U.S.

2019 FDA completes consultation on first food from a genome edited plant.

HOW TO MAKE GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD

“GMO” (genetically modified organism) has become the common term consumers and
popular media use to describe foods that have been created through genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering is a process that involves:

• Identifying the genetic information—or “gene”—that gives an organism (plant,

animal, or microorganism) a desired trait.
• Copying that information from the organism that has the trait
• Inserting that information into the DNA of another organism
• Then growing the new organism

1. IDENTIFY
To produce a GMO plant, scientists first identify what trait they want that plant to have,
such as resistance to drought, herbicides, or insects. Then, they find an organism (plant,
animal, or microorganism) that already has that trait within its genes.

Identify

In this example, scientists wanted to create insect-resistant corn to reduce the need to
spray pesticides. They identified a gene in a soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt), which produces a natural insecticide that has been in use for many years in
traditional and organic agriculture.

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2.COPY
After scientists find the gene with the desired trait, they copy that gene. For Bt corn, they
copied the gene in Bt that would provide the insect-resistance trait.

Copy

3.INSERT
Next, scientists use tools to insert the gene into the DNA of the plant. By inserting the Bt
gene into the DNA of the corn plant, scientists gave it the insect resistance trait. This new
trait does not change the other existing traits.

Insert

4.GROW

4.GROW
In the laboratory, scientists grow the new corn plant to ensure it has adopted the desired
trait (insect resistance). If successful, scientists first grow and monitor the new corn plant
(now called Bt corn because it contains a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis) in greenhouses
and then in small field tests before moving it into larger field tests. GMO plants go through
in-depth review and tests before they are ready to be sold to farmers. The entire process
of bringing a GMO plant to the marketplace takes several years.

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 Grow

SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES IN PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING

Scientists are developing new ways to create new varieties of crops and animals using a
process called genome editing. These techniques can make it easier and quicker to make
changes that were previously done through traditional breeding.
There are several genome editing tools, such as CRISPR. Scientists can use these newer
genome editing tools to make crops more nutritious, drought tolerant, and resistant to
insect pests and diseases.

ARE GM FOODS SAFE?

Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means
that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and
that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN GM FOODS ARE TRADED INTERNATIONALLY?

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) is the joint FAO/WHO intergovernmental
body responsible for developing the standards, codes of practice, guidelines and
recommendations that constitute the Codex Alimentarius, meaning the international

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food code. Codex developed principles for the human health risk analysis of GM foods in
2003.

The premise of these principles sets out a premarket assessment, performed on a case-
by-case basis and including an evaluation of both direct effects (from the inserted gene)
and unintended effects (that may arise as a consequence of insertion of the new gene)
Codex also developed three Guidelines for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods
derived from recombinant-DNA plants produced using recombinant-DNA microorganisms
and derived from recombinant-DNA animals.

Codex principles do not have a binding effect on national legislation, but are referred to
specifically in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
of the World Trade Organization (SPS Agreement), and WTO Members are encouraged to
harmonize national standards with Codex standards. If trading partners have the same or
similar mechanisms for the safety assessment of GM foods, the possibility that one
product is approved in one country but rejected in another becomes smaller.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an environmental treaty legally binding for its
Parties which took effect in 2003, regulates transboundary movements of Living Modified
Organisms (LMOs). GM foods are within the scope of the Protocol only if they contain
LMOs that are capable of transferring or replicating genetic material. The cornerstone of
the Protocol is a requirement that exporters seek consent from importers before the first
shipment of LMOs intended for release into the environment.
WHY ARE GM FOODS PRODUCED?
GM foods are developed – and marketed – because there is some perceived advantage
either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to translate into a
product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of durability or nutritional value) or
both. Initially GM seed developers wanted their products to be accepted by
producers and have concentrated on innovations that bring direct benefit to farmers (and
the food industry generally).
One of the objectives for developing plants based on GM organisms is to improve crop
protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly aimed at an increased level
of crop protection through the introduction of resistance against plant diseases caused
by insects or viruses or through increased tolerance towards
herbicides.
Resistance against insects is achieved by incorporating into the food plant the gene for
toxin production from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This toxin is currently used
as a conventional insecticide in agriculture and is safe for human consumption. GM crops
that inherently produce this toxin have been shown to require lower quantities of
insecticides in specific situations, e. g. where pest pressure is high. Virus resistance is
achieved through the introduction of a gene from certain viruses which cause disease in
plants. Virus resistance makes plants less susceptible to diseases caused by such viruses,
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resulting in higher crop yields. Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the introduction
of a gene from a bacterium conveying resistance to some herbicides. In situations where
weed pressure is high, the use of such crops has resulted in a reduction in the quantity of
the herbicides used.

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 CHAPTER 09
FOOD LABELLING & PACKAGING
ACCORDING TO SECTION 23 OF FSS ACT,2006

SECTION 23: PACKAGING AND LABELLING OF FOODS.

(1) No person shall manufacture, distribute, sell or expose for sale or despatch or
deliver to any agent or broker for the purpose of sale, any packaged food products which
are not marked and labelled in the manner as may be specified by regulations: Provided
that the labels shall not contain any statement, claim, design or device which is false or
misleading in any particular concerning the food products contained in the package or
concerning the quantity or the nutritive value implying medicinal or therapeutic claims or
in relation to the place of origin of the said food products.

(2) Every food business operator shall ensure that the labelling and presentation of
food, including their shape, appearance or packaging, the packaging materials used, the
manner in which they are arranged and the setting in which they are displayed, and the
information which is made available about them through whatever medium, does not
mislead consumers.

FOOD LABELLING
As everybody is aware that “Food Labeling” serves as a primary link of communication
between the manufacturer and consumer and covers both food safety and information
of consumer interest.
In this article, we shall discuss on "FSSAI Guidelines on Labelling of Food Products". Hence,
the various characteristics which should be mentioned are:

1. Name of the food:

Name of the food/product is one of the first FSSAI Guidelines on Labelling of Food
Products. The name of the food product should be in clear format on the packaged
product in clear font.

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2. List of Ingredients:
List of Ingredients means the elements which have been utilized for making the final
product.

3. Nutritional Information:
Nutritional Information means the calories which gets from fats, saturated fat, trans
fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A,
vitamin C, calcium, and iron present in the product. The calories are mentioned on all
the products labels.

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4. Declaration regarding Vegetarian or Non-Vegetarian:
India is land where the eating of non-vegetarian for some is against the religious
practices. Hence, according to the FSSAI Guidelines on Labelling of Food Products, the
manufacturer on the label should mention whether the product is vegetarian or non-
vegetarian. Whether the product is vegetarian or non-vegetarian can easily be known
by just looking at the small sign present on the corner of the label.

Vegetarian and Non-Vegetarian marks

Vegetarian mark Non-Vegetarian mark

5. Declaration regarding Food Additives:

Food additives are substances which are added to food in order to preserve flavor or
enhance its taste and appearance. Hence, it is very necessary to give a declaration
regarding the additives added on the label or the package.

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6. Name and Address of the Manufacturer:
In this, the name of the manufacturer and place of the manufacturing is usually
mentioned. The manufacturer has to give complete address of his factory which
includes street address, city, state, and zip code. Without mentioning any of these,
products can be considered fake in the market

7. Net Quantity:
Net Quantity is also FSSAI Guidelines on Labelling of Food Products. Net Quantity here
refers to the weight of the product. The weight of the product and the packaging weight
are usually combined together and then mentioned in the Net Quantity.

8. Code No./Lot No./Batch No:

A batch number or code number or lot number is a mark of recognition through which
the food can be found in the manufacture and even recognized in the distribution.
Therefore, the Code No./Lot No./Batch No. should be definitely mentioned by the
manufacturer according to FSSAI Guidelines on Labelling of Food Products.

9. Date of Manufacture and Best Before & Use by Date:

The date of manufacture is when the product has been manufactured. Best before
dates are about quality, not safety. When the date is passed, it doesn’t mean that the
food will be harmful, but it might begin to lose its flavour and texture. If the product is
consumed after expiry date, it usually can harm the health of the human.

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10. Infant:
There are specific nutrition labelling requirement, including format and required
nutrients within the Nutrition Facts table for foods solely for infants six months to less
than 12 months of age. Means a child not more than twelve months of age.

11.Country of Origin for Imported Food:

The country of origin of goods means the nationality of imported goods and even refers
to the area where such goods have grown up or have been produced, manufactured or
processed. According to the FSSAI Guidelines on Labelling of Food Products, this also
should be mentioned.

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 FOOD PACKAGING

Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering

resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It may bear a nutrition facts
label and other information about food being offered for sale.
Packaging provides quality and quantity assurance besides creating
hygienic environment for food product. It offers security through tamper proof designs
and contributes to the product image through structural and graphical design. Food safety
is permanent importance as package products against biological, chemical and
distribution damages. The primary objective or packaging is to protect the contents
during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration. It may be physical,
chemical or biological. According to Robertson (1992), packaging as the enclosure of the
products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, battle or
other containers to perform the various functions, i.e. containment, protection,
information, promotion, etc.

Packaging of food serves many purposes such as providing effective

protection to package foods against external contamination from environment;
preserving the quality of food. It is one of the most important parameters that sale the
product and also a communication device to provide detailed information about the
product like, contents, ingredients, notional values, cooking instruction, packaging and
expiry dates, etc. generally packaging material s are lighter in weight, easier to open,

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reseal and store, ensure safe transport and distribution, protect the product from adverse
effects such as heat, cold, moisture, etc.

A. PROPERTIES OF PACKAGING
Properties of Ideal packaging materials should have following qualities:

• It should contain the content within it

• It should not affect the flavor of the product packaged it
• Stable performance over large range of temperature.
• Adequate compulsive strength and sufficient impact and puncture strength.
• Sufficient thickness of cushioning materials with sufficient ventilation, space for rapid
cooling of product.
• Protect the product from moisture and light.
• Protection of the content form adulterations.
• Closure characteristics such as opening, sealing, resealing and pouring.
• Low cost and availability.
• It should non-toxic in nature.
• Proper labeling, storing, marketing appeal to sale, etc.

B. REQUIREMENT OF FOOD PACKAGING

Protection of the product means that there must be a resistance to both internal and
external corrosion, with effective properties that guarantee resistance to gas, oxygen,
water and smell is Packaging must be safe, it must be impregnable and have safeguards
in place to show that it has not been tampered with, much of consumer confidence in
the products they buy derives from ne knowledge that the product has not been opened
or tampered with, as seen through the existence of visible seals on products such as the
mango juice carton. Packaging is vital to conserve product. In industrialized countries only
2% of products are spoilt when they reach the consumer compared with a staggering 30-
50% in developing countries, where the packaging chain is less w developed. Packaging
must meet consumer requirements that products are not just kept in condition but that
they are kept fresher for longer. Packaging also performs overtly technical functions
displaying what the product actually is and information regarding the product, as well as
creating brand awareness. Consumer demands and legislative requirements mean that
information contained on packaging has become far more specific, for example, detailing
the origin and composition of the product. Packaging is also the spokesperson for the
manufacturer of the product. The package is the interface between the maker and
consumer and therefore must present a desirable image.

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1.Packaging requirements for Milk and Milk Products
(a) Wrapping or packaging may not be re-used for dairy products, except where the
containers are of a type which may be re-used after thorough cleaning and
disinfecting.
(b) The sealing device shall be so designed that once the container has been opened,
the evidence of opening remains clear and easy to check.

2. Packaging requirements for Edible oil/ fat

Tin Plate used for the manufacture of tin containers for packaging edible oils and fats
shall conform to the standards of prime grade quality contained in B.I.S. Standards No.
1993 or 13955 or 9025 or 13954 as amended from time to time and in respect of Tin
containers for packaging edible oils and fats shall conform to IS No. 10325 or 10339 as
amended from time to time.

3.Packaging requirements for Fruits and Vegetables Products

(i) Every bottle in which any fruit product is packed shall be so sealed that it cannot be
opened without destroying the licensing number and the special identification mark
of the manufacture to be displayed on the top or neck of the bottle.
(ii) For Canned fruits, juices and vegetables, sanitary top cans made up of suitable kind
of tin plates shall be used.
(iii) For Bottled fruits, juices and vegetables, only bottles/ jars capable of giving
hermetic seal shall be used.
(iv) Juices, squashes, crush, cordials, syrups, barley waters and other beverages shall
be packed in clean bottles securely sealed. These products when frozen and sold in the
form of ice shall be packed in suitable cartons.
(v) For packing Preserves, Jams, Jellies, new cans, clean jars, new canisters, bottles,
chinaware jars, aluminium containers may be used and it shall be securely sealed.
(vi) For Pickles, clean bottles, jars, wooden casks, tin containers covered from inside
with polythene lining of 250 gauge or suitable lacquered cans shall be used.
(vii) For Tomato Ketchups and Sauces, clean bottles shall be used. If acidity does not
exceed 0.5% as acetic acid, open top sanitary cans may also be used.
(viii) Candied fruits and peels and dried fruits and vegetables can be packed in paper
bags, cardboard or wooden boxes, new tins, bottles, jars, aluminium and other suitable
approved containers.
(ix) Fruits and Vegetable products can also be packed in aseptic and flexible packaging
material having food grade quality conforming to the standards laid down by BIS.

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4. Packaging requirements for Canned Meat Products
(i) New sanitary top cans made from suitable kind of tin plate shall be used. The cans
shall be lacquered internally; they shall be sealed hermetically after filling. The lacquer
used shall be sulphur resistant and shall not be soluble in fat or brine.
(ii) Cans used for filling pork luncheon meat shall be coated internally with edible
gelatin, lard or lined with vegetable parchment paper before being filled.
(iii) Meat products packed in hermetically sealed containers shall be processed to
withstand spoilage under commercial conditions of storage and transport.

5. Packaging requirements for Drinking Water

(Both Packaged and Mineral Water) It shall be packed in clean, hygienic, colourless,
transparent and tamperproof bottles/containers made of polyethylene (PE)
(conforming to IS:10146 or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) conforming to IS: 10151 or
polyalkylene terephthalate (PET and PBT) conforming to IS: 12252 or polypropylene
conforming to IS: 10910 or food grade polycarbonate or sterile glass bottles suitable
for preventing possible adulteration or contamination of the water. All packaging
materials of plastic origin shall pass the prescribed overall migration and colour
migration limits.

6.General packaging requirements for Canned products

(i) All containers shall be securely packed and sealed.
(ii) The exterior of the cans shall be free from major dents, rust, perforations and seam
distortions.
(iii) Cans shall be free from leaks

C. PURPOSE OF PACKAGING
In addition to the direct approach to food preservation, such as drying and freezing,
other measures such as packaging and quality management tools need to be
implemented in the process to avoid contamination or recontamination. Although these
measures are not preservation techniques, they can play an important role in producing
high-quality safe food. Packaging performs five main functions i.e. Product containment,
preservation and quality, presentation and convenience, protection, and provide
storage history.

1.Product Containment
The first function of packaging is its capability of containment. The primary purposes of
packaging are containment and protection. It is self-explanatory; liquids, semi- liquids,
and powders, as well as bulk solids, cannot be marketed without suitable containers.
According to the size of the package, different amounts of the product can be delivered
to consumers suiting their choice and convenience. In certain circumstances,
quantification is mandatory, as in the case of medical pills or capsules that are marketed
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 individually in a blister-type package. Containment refers to holding goods in a form
suitable for transport, whereas protection refers to safekeeping goods in a way that
prevents significant quality deterioration.

2.Preservation by Maintaining Quality

The second function of packaging is to control the local environmental conditions to
enhance storage life and safety. The main purpose of food packaging is to protect the
product from surroundings and maintain the quality of the food throughout the
product's shelf life. One means of spreading the product availability over time is by the
proper use of packaging. Product shelf life is controlled by three factors: product
characteristics, properties, and storage and distribution conditions of individual
package. Reactions causing deterioration in foods include enzymatic, chemical, physical,
and microbiological changes. Additional problems include insects, pests, and rodents.

3.Presentation and Convenience

The third function is the presentation and convenience. In many cases, these are most
important factors to the consumers.
Presentation: Food labels are intended by law to provide the information that
consumers need to be able to make the necessary decisions about those purchases of
food. It is important to display the product in an attractive manner to the potential buyer.
A cleverly designed and beautifully produced packaging can help sell a product, which is
an essential ingredient of an effective marketing campaign. The packaging helps in
distinguishing products on the shelf, which is a trait especially important when marketing
low-fat or nutritional products. Furthermore, packaging must address communication,
legal, and commercial demands. For a package to be effective, it must present the
product well and should do its own publicity. The protective packaging may have flaps
that can be opened to give a ready-made display for the product, whereas some stores
may remove the protective packaging to display the product directly on the shelves,
leading to a preference for rectangular containers. The clarity (haze) and gloss optical
characteristics are important in packaging presentation.

Convenience: In many cases, packaging provides convenience to the

consumers, for example, paper carton for milk or juice with an ease-open and easy-pour
cap, thus can also increase consumption. Changes in society, such as diminishing
population pattern, increasing average age, smaller families, more leisure time, as well
as improvements in the quality of life, standard of living, and general level of education,
may also demand specific function of packaging. Eating styles, such as ready-to-eat
meals, snacks, and microwaveable ready meals, have been changed over the years,
which need innovation in packaging. For children, the packaging might represent
innovation or fun.

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 Today's consumer wants to buy food that is ready to eat,
or needs a minimum of preparation, and is good value for money. With microwave food
preparation increasing, there is a need for the packaging industry to confront the
particular problems in designing packages that deliver microwave products to the dinner
table. Food processors can accelerate the usage of microwave ovens by designing
products and packages that use the phenomenon of microwave heating/cooking to
provide quality. Two types of materials, transparent to microwave and reflective to
microwave, can affect the cooking. The transparent materials are nonmetallic
substances, such as ceramics, that are coated or filled with microwave absorbent
materials. The reflective category is composed of all devices that are metallic and absorb
heat. Packaging should meet the future demand of meting eating style of the society.
Other conveniences could be ease of opening, smaller portions, re closable, and tamper-
proof methods. Consumers want tamper-evident closures to avoid packaging being
opened unnoticed. In general, tamper-proof packaging makes products more difficult to
open, so there is clearly a need to balance safety with consumer accessibility. The
tamper-resistant package is to alert the consumer that tampering has taken place and
provide visible evidence of tampering. In many cases, consumers are ready to pay more
for tamper-resistant packaging Value-added packaging allows in-package cooking and
facilitates on-the-go consumption. Self-heating containers are also being developed for
the convenience of consumers, who do not need to reheat the product during
consumption.

4.Protection during Distribution and Processing

The fourth function is to protect the product during transit to the consumer. Packaging
is part of the distribution process necessary to deliver goods to the consumer and
facilitate handling and transportation. It also has affected international trade by making
shipping of food products possible, allowing seasonal products to be more accessible out
of season. Packaging can handle better when there are challenges in food distribution
chain, such as heat, humidity, or dew. It is important to be aware of the distribution
challenges and designing of package to suit it. In case of prepacked product, it should
have the ability to stand the severity or type of process conditions, such as flexible
packaging during canning, microwaveable foods, ovenable, and retortable foods.
Irradiated foods are usually prepacked prior to treatment by ionizing radiation, which
prevents recontamination. Packaging materials are also exposed to radiation during
treatment, though in this instance it can lead to radiation-induced degradation of the
packaging material, followed by interaction between the material and food product.
Protective packaging is a term applied to packaging primarily designed to protect the
goods, rather than for appearance or presentation, so it is generally used to apply to the
outer containers used for transporting goods from the manufacturer to the point of sale,
and filling materials inside the outer containers, e.g., nylon barrier-sealed bubble
packaging (computer parts), urethane expanding foam, PE foam package "cushions," and
PS loose-fill packaging. The most widely used protective package is the outer carton.
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 All packaging is protective as one of its primary
functions, So it is more accurate to call this transport packaging or tertiary packaging (on
the basis of the primary packaging in contact with the product, secondary for grouping
units together for single purchase, and tertiary being for grouping secondary packaging
for convenience distribution). A pallet is the frame base, for carrying the transport packs.
The primary packages are put into cartons and the sealed cartons are transported
through specialized conveyors, allowing products from different processing lines and
sorted onto individual product pallets. Another aspect of protective packaging involves
primary packaging designed to prevent anyone from opening the package before
purchase. Cases of extortion or sabotage are also reported. In the mid-1970s, child-
resistant packaging became an issue, leading to the development of childproof lids for
poisonous products. Tamper-resistant refers to the ability of the packaging to resist
tampering (or opening), e. g. for child protection, whereas tamper-evident refers to the
ability of the packaging to reveal that it has been opened.

D.PACKAGING MATERIALS
In choosing the appropriate packaging for their product, packers must consider many
variables. For example, canners must make packaging choices based on cost, product
compatibility, shelf life, flexibility of size, handling systems, production line filling and
closing speeds, processing reaction, impermeability, dent and tamper resistance, and
consumer convenience and preference. Processors who use films for their product must
select film material based on its "barrier" properties that prevent oxygen, water vapor,
or light from negatively affecting the food. As an example, the use of packaging material
that prevents light-induced reactions will control degradation of the chlorophyll pigment,
bleaching or discoloration of vegetable and red meats, destruction of riboflavin in milk,
and oxidation of vitamin C. Some films are heat stable for cooking applications, and some
show cold temperature resistance in refrigerated or frozen storage. The most common
food packaging materials include metals, glass, paper, and plastic.

Metal: Metals such as steel and aluminum are used in cans and trays. A metal can forms
a hermetic seal, which is a complete seal against gases and vapor entry or escape and it
offers protection to the contents. The trays may be reusable or disposable recyclable
trays and either steam table or No. 10 can size. Metal also is used for bottle closures and
wraps. New microwavable steel cans are available for packaging. Steel cans that are
capable in running on a manufacturer's steel can filling lines are now also capable of
microwave heating by the consumer. In some case, retort packaging may provide more
consistent flavor and texture than food in cans. The requirement on um used in retort
packaging is that it must hold up to varied thermal processing, and the subsequent
processes of distribution and storage.

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Aluminum is formed easily into cans with hermetic seals. It also is used in trays and for
wraps such as aluminum foil, which provide an oxygen and light barrier. is lighter in
weight than steel and resists corrosion.

Glass: Glass is derived from metal oxides such as silicon dioxide (sand). It is used in
forming bottles or jars (which subsequently receive hermetic seals), and thus protects
against water vapor or oxygen loss. The thickness of glass must be sufficient to prevent
breakage from internal pressure, external impact, or thermal stress. Glass that is too
thick increases weight, and thus freight costs, and is subject to an increased likelihood of
thermal stress or external impact breakage.

Paper: Paper is derived from the pulp of wood and may contain additives such as
aluminum particle laminates, plastic coating, resins, or waxes. These additives provide
burst strength (strength against bursting), wet strength (leak protection), and grease and
tear resistance, as well as barrier properties that assure freshness, protect the packaged
food against vapor loss and environmental contaminants, and increase shelf life. Varying
thicknesses of paper may be used to achieve thicker and more rigid packaging.
Paper is thin (one layer) and flexible, typically used in bags and
wrappers. Kraft (or "strong" in German) paper is the strongest paper. It may be bleached
and used as butcher wrap or may remain unbleached and used in grocery bags.
Paperboard is thicker (although still one layer) and more rigid. Ovenable paperboard is
made for use in either conventional or microwave ovens by coating paperboard with PET
polyester. Multilayers of paper form fiberboard, which is recognized as "cardboard".

Plastic: Plastic has shrink, non-shrink, flexible, semi-rigid, and rigid applications, and
varies in its degree of thickness. Important properties of the many types of plastics that
make them good choices for packaging material include the following.

• Flexible and stretchable

• lightweight
• Low-temperature formability
• Resistant to breakage, with high burst strength
• Strong heat sealability
• Versatile in its barrier properties to O2 moisture, and light

Plastic has multiple functions as a packaging material, including use in bottles and jars
closures, coatings, films, pouches, tubs, and trays. It also may be used in combination with
other packaging materials such as metal (for lining cans), paper (for moisture resistance),
and glass reduces bottle breakage). Some of the more commonly used plastics for food
products are discussed in the following:

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Polyethylene (PE): Polyethylene is the most common and the least expensive plastic
comprising 63% of total plastic packaging. It is a water-vapor (moisture) barrier and
prevents dehydration and freezer burn. Use of this PE may be recommended for less
plasticizer migration into food.

Polypropylene (PP): Polypropylene has a higher melting point and greater tensile
strength than polyethylene. It often is used as the inside layer of food packages that are
subject to higher temperatures of sterilization (e. g. retort pouches or tubs).

Polystyrene (PS): Polystyrene is a versatile, inexpensive packaging material and

represents 8% of total plastic packaging. When foamed, its generic name is expandable
polystyrene (EPS). This styrofoam has applications in disposable packaging and drinking
cups. It offers thermal insulation and protective packaging. EPS is used in "clam shell" fast-
food packaging, egg cartons, bowls, cups, and meat trays and is the "peanuts in packages.
Approximately 30% less energy is required to form polystyrene cups than paperboard
cups.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or vinyl): Polyvinyl chloride comprises 6% of total plastic

packaging. It blocks out air and moisture, preventing freezer burn, and offers low
permeability to gases, liquid, flavors, and odors. PVC prevents the transfer of odor and
keeps food fresh by controlling dehydration and is capable of withstanding high
temperatures without melting. PVC has good puncture resistance and "cling" properties.
It is used to prevent splattering in microwave food preparation.

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC, Saran_): Polyvinylidene chloride is a thermoplastic resin

used for household wraps and has excellent barrier properties. Cryovac is a Saran film
used in vaccum- sealing (Kryos = cold Vacus empty in Latin).
Many manufacturers, specify proprietary molded and shaped bottles to hold the food
contents. The appropriate plastic may be chosen to satisfy this highly specialized demand.
There also are food-based materials used to produce thermal plastic resins. They are
made from natural sugars found in corn and other plants. For example, wheat starch and
corn sugar are being developed for packaging purposes.

E. OTHER PACKAGING MATERIALS

Cotton or burlap (jute) may be used for grains, flour, legumes, and some vegetables,
primarily in transport. Edible films are subject to FDA approval because they become part
of the food. Natural edible films extend shelf life, although for shorter time than synthetic
non-edible packaging materials.
Edible films are a unique type of packaging material. As stated in a publication of the
Institute of Food Technologist's Expert Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition: These films
are "defined as a thin layer of edible material formed on a food as a coating or placed
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(preformed) on or between food components. Its purpose is to inhibit migration of
moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide, aromas, and lipids, etc. carry food ingredients (e.g.,
antioxidants, antimicrobials, flavor); and/or improve mechanical integrity or handling
characteristics of the food".

Antimicrobials may be included in films or containers, antimicrobial activity

may be due to the addition of specific substances, radiation, or gas-flushing. Irradiation
sterilization of packaging materials may be forthcoming with FDA approval. Examples of
edible films include those used as the sugar shell on individual chocolate covered candies
(M&Ms); casings, such as in sausage; and edible waxes, such as those applied to fruits and
vegetables. Serving in the role of edible films, the casings "contain" and the waxes
function to improve or maintain appearance, prevent mold, and contain moisture while
still allowing respiration. As well, food may be coated with a thin layer of polysaccharides
such as cellulose, pectin, starch and vegetable gums, or proteins, such as casein and
gelatin. Cut, dried fruit pieces are often sprayed with an edible film prior to their inclusion
into items such as breakfast cereal.
Foil is a packaging material that may be used in snack bags (chips,
etc.) or as a laminate in aseptic packaging (see Aseptic Packaging). It is used as a wrapping
for dry, refrigerator, or freezer storage. It provides a moisture-proof and vapor-proof
barrier.

Laminates are multilayers of foil, paper, or plastics that may be utilized selectively
according to the specific food packaging need. In combination, the various laminates may
provide more strength and barrier protection than the individual laminate material.
Laminates provide barriers useful in controlling 02 water vapor, and light transmission and
they provide good burst strength. The laminates may resist pinholes and flex cracking.
Retort pouches are examples of laminates used in packaging and contain polyester film,
aluminum foil, and polypropylene.

Resins are used for sealing food packages. They must withstand the stress of processing
and offer seal integrity that prevents product contamination.

Wood may be used in the manufacture of crates that contain fresh fruits and vegetables.

Bag-in-a-box is now offered in five-gallon bags with snap-on caps over a 1" polyethylene
spout. There is a high barrier film, with heat-resistance up to 190F. Regardless of the
materials that are selected for use, source reduction, reuse, and recycling should be
important considerations of packaging manufacturers. The food industry challenge is to
provide the appropriate materials to accomplish packaging functions at reasonable cost.

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I. Controlling Atmosphere Packaging
Reduced temperature remains as the primary means of food protection. However,
controlling the known elements in the package environment, such as O2, CO2, water
vapor, and ethylene concentration, also may reduce spoilage and contamination (e.g.
enzymatic, biological), thus extending shelf life (the time required for a food to become
unacceptable from a sensory, nutritional or safety perspective). The creation of a
packaging environment with little or no oxygen has beneficial applications for the food
industry. However, microbiological concerns arise simultaneously. Proper controls need
to be in place for reduced oxygen packages. The function of CO2, addition in packaging is
to inhibit growth of many bacteria and molds. The O2 maintains respiration and color and
inhibits growth of anaerobic microorganisms. Nitrogen (N) is used to flush the package
and rid it of air (O2, specifically). Nitrogen also prevents a collapse of the loose-fitting
packaging material.
Providing control in packaging is needed by fruits and vegetables. They continue to
breathe and require oxygen after harvesting and processing, thus the package must
contain oxygen. Yet it needs as to be controlled, as too high a level causes oxidation and
spoilage and too low a level leads anaerobic spoilage. In extending shelf life of fruit,
oxygen levels should approximate 5% and carbo dioxide at 1-3% (with refrigeration
maintained at temperature-specific levels). Package us environments must match the
respiration rate as closely as possible.

II. Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) modifies the internal package atmosphere of food
and helps preserve packaged food. It replaces the air in the package with nitrogen or
carbon dioxide and the shelf life of the product can increase by as much as 200%. Gas
flushing and sealing reduces oxygen, coming through respiration of vegetables. MAP is a
one-time modification of gases so that it is different from air, which normally contains
78.08% nitrogen, 20.96% oxygen, and 0.03% carbon dioxide.
MAP primarily is applied to fresh or minimally processed foods that are still
undergoing respiration, and it is used for the packaging of a variety of foods. Such foods
include baked goods, coffees and teas, dairy products, dry and dehydrated foods, lunch
kits, and processed meats (to keep the meat pigment looking desirable). It also is used for
nuts, snack food applications, and pasta packaging. This type of packaging with high CO2,
levels inhibits many aerobic bacteria, molds, and yeasts MAP is one of the most widely
used packaging technologies, as it functions to enhance appearance, minimize destructive
waste, extend shelf life, and reduce the need for artificial preservatives. MAP's pure gas
or gas mixture environment varies with the type of food and its packaging, temperature,
and microbial load. In particular, nitrogen is used in bread products while carbon dioxide
is best suited to high-fat products. The addition of nitrogen gas, which is odorless,
tasteless, colorless, nontoxic, and nonflammable, is introduced into the food package
after all atmosphere has been removed from the pouch and vacuum chamber and just

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prior to hermetic sealing of the package. It increases the package's internal pressure. This
modification, by a predetermined dose of liquid nitrogen (LN). offers protection from
spoilage, oxidation, dehydration, weight loss, and freezer burn and extends shelf life, as
nitrogen consumes oxygen.

III. Active Packaging

Active packaging began as "smart" packaging in 1980s, and was referred to as
"interactive" packaging almost from the start. All three terms describe the same thing,
which is packaging that could "sense" changes in the internal environment and respond
by adapting as necessary. Sachets may be added to a package in order to control elements
such as ethanol, oxygen, or microbes. By its inherent design, packaging typically serves in
a passive role by protecting food products from the external environment. It provides a
physical barrier to external spoilage, contamination, and physical abuse in storage and
distribution. Today, packaging more actively contributes to the product's development,
controls maturation and ripening, helps in achieving the proper color development in
meats, and extends shelf life. Thus it is considered to play an active (not passive) role in
protecting foods. Yet, despite the many attributes and benefits of
smart/interactive/active packaging, it generally does not actually "sense" the
environment conditions and change accordingly. Examples of active packaging
technologies are listed in the following text. Active packaging for fresh and minimally
processed foods provide the following,
• Edible moisture or oxygen barrier (to control loss of moisture and enzymatic oxidative
browning in fresh cut fruits and vegetables and to provide controlled permeability
rates matched to the respiration rate of the fruit).
• Edible antimicrobial (biocidal) polymer films and coatings (which may release
controlled amounts of chlorine dioxide into the food, depending on temperature and
humidity; or destroy E. coli 0157:H7 in meats, and prevent mold growth in fruits).
• Films that are scavengers of off-odors.
• Oxygen scavengers for low-oxygen packaging.

Active packaging for processed foods provides the following:

• Edible moisture barrier.
• O2, CO2 and odor scavenger.

IV. Aseptic Packaging

In order to destroy any C. botulinum spores and extend the shelf life of low-acid foods,
aseptic packaging may be utilized. Independent sterilization of both the foods and
packaging material, with assembly under sterile environmental conditions, is the rule for
aseptic packaging which now shows more main stream technology. In an aseptic system
of packaging, the packaging material consists of layers of polyethylene, paperboard, and
foil. It is sterilized by heat (superheated steam or dry hot air) or a combination of heat

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and hydrogen peroxide and then roll-fed through the packer to create the typical
brick/block shape. The container is filled with a sterile (no pathogens or spores) or
commercially sterile (no pathogens, but some spores) liquid food product and sealed in a
closed, sterile chamber. Once packed, the product requires no refrigeration. Liquids such
as creamers, milk, or juices may be packed in this manner. Triple or multiple packs of
flavored milk and juice, with attached straws, are available on grocery shelves. The market
leaders of aseptic packages have introduced easy-open, easy pour features into their
cartons. The plastic devices are injection molded and adhere to the package tops.
The sterility of packaging material has formerly relied on chemical technologies of
sterilization (principally heat with hydrogen peroxide). Nonchemical techniques have
been explored in order to avoid chemical sterilant residues. lonizing and nonionizing
radiation have been tested for use in aseptic packaging.

V. Flexible Packaging
Flexible packaging is available for packaging use in the foodservice industry and is finding
more applications at the retail level, including packaging for bagged cereals and sliced deli
meat Non rigid packaging containers such as stand-up pouches or tubes and zippered bags
are example of flexible packaging used for peanuts, peanut butter, or produce such as
fresh-cut lettuce and peeled baby carrots. The same packaging also might need to be re-
sealable to meet consumer demands an may require zipper handles or spouts with easy
open screw-off tops.
"Flexible packaging uses less material, is more cost effective, and packaging speeds are
getting higher. Large flexible packages have replaced cans and rigid packaging." Whether
it is attributable to flexible packaging alone, or marketing, and so forth, one manufacturer
of snack mix has sa1 "Sales of the product more than doubled just by changing the
package".
Flexible packaging is adequate for the plethora of low-fat/no-fat food
products such as salty snack foods that are available in the marketplace. It keeps these
products fresh by providing flavor and aroma barriers, which keep outside odors out and
flavors in. It is used for fresh fruits and vegetables and matches respiration rate as closely
as possible.

VI. Package Printing

Printing inks for films and papers consist of a dye which is dispersed in a blend of solvents,
and a resin which forms a varnish. Solvents must be carefully removed after application
of the ink to prevent odor contaminating the product and blocking the film during use.
Other considerations include the cost of the ink, and compatibility with the film which is
needed to achieve a high bond strength. There are five processes used to print films and
papers:

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 a. Flexographic printing (or relief or letterpress) in up to six colors, is high speed and
suitable for lines or blocks of color. A fast-drying ink is applied to the film by a flexible
rubber plate with raised characters. The plate is pressed against an inked roller to
cover the raised portions with ink and then against the film or paper. It is used, for
example, for cartons that do not require high print quality.

b. Photogravure printing (or intaglio) is able to produce high-quality detail and realistic
pictures and has been more expensive than flexographic printing, although new
methods of making gravure cylinders have reduced the cost. It uses an engraved
chromium-plated roller with the printing surfaces recessed in the metal. Ink is applied
to the roller and the excess is wiped from all but the recesses. The remaining ink is
then transferred to the packaging material.

c. Offset lithography is based on the incompatibility of grease and water. A greasy ink
is repelled by moistened parts of a printing plate but remains on compatible parts
which carry the design. This method produces a print of similar quality to that of
rotogravure and is suitable for papers and boards that are too rough for rotogravure
printing.

d. Screen printing in which ink passes through a porous surface of a printing screen.

e. Ink-jet printing in which electrically charged droplets of ink are deflected by charged
deflector plates to create the image.

VII. Intelligent Packaging

Intelligent packaging may be defined as (Han et al., 2005). Systems attached as labels
incorporated into, or printed onto a food packaging material offer enhanced possibilities
to monitor product quality, trace the critical points, and give more detailed information
throughout the supply chain.It has also been defined by Yam et. al. (2005) as, A packaging
system that is capable of carrying out intelligent functions (such as detecting, Sensing,
recording, tracing, communicating, and applying scientific logic) to facilitate decision
making to extend shelf life, enhance safety, improve quality. provide information and
warn about possible problems.

Intelligent Packaging Systems

Intelligent packaging systems can include the following components.
1. Indicators:
(a) Time-temperature indicators.
(b) Integrity or gas indicators,
(c) Freshness indicators (microbial or pathogen spoilage).

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 2. Barcodes and radiofrequency identification tags (RFID).

3. Sensors:
(a) Biosensors,
(b) Gas sensors,
(c) Fluorescence-based oxygen sensors.

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CHAPTER 10
FOOD SAFETY AND HYGIENE

INTRODUCTION
Food is a major determinant of health, nutritional status and productivity of the
population. It is, therefore, essential that the food we consume is wholesome and safe.
Unsafe food can lead to a large number of food-borne diseases. You may have seen
reports in the newspapers about health problems caused by contaminated or adulterated
foods. Globally, foodborne illness is a major problem of public health concern. In India,
the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, in September 2010 stated that more than 300
million episodes of acute diarrhoea occur every year in children less than five years of age.
Food-borne illness can not only result in mortality but can damage trade and tourism,
lead to loss of earnings, unemployment and litigation and thus can impede economic
growth, and therefore food safety and quality have gained worldwide significance.

FOOD QUALITY
The term food quality refers to attributes that influence a product’s value to consumers.
This includes both negative attributes such as spoilage, contamination, adulteration, food
safety hazards as well as positive attributes such as colour, flavour, texture. It is therefore
a holistic concept integrating factors such as nutritional traits, sensorial properties
(colour, texture, shape, appearance, taste, flavour, odour), social considerations, safety.
Safety is a preliminary attribute and precursor of quality. In order to ensure that foods
are safe and of good quality, across the world various governments and international
bodies have laid down food standards that manufacturers/suppliers are expected to
adhere to.
Thus, all food service providers (those involved at all stages of pre-preparation and
preparation/processing, packaging and service) should adhere to good manufacturing
practices and ensure food safety.

❖ Salient points to be borne in mind are:

1. Quality of raw materials and water.
2. Cleanliness of the premises, personnel, equipment, food preparation and storage
and serving areas.
3. Storage of food at appropriate temperature
4. Food hygiene
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5. Good service practices.

❖ SIGNIFICANCE OF FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY

Food safety and quality are important at the home level, but are critical in large scale food
production and processing, and also where food is freshly prepared and served. In the
past, many foods were processed at home. Advancement in technology and processing,
larger per capita incomes and better purchasing power as well as increased consumer
demand have led to a variety of products of processed foods, food for health / functional
foods being manufactured. Safety of such foods needs to be assessed.

Quality of food stuff, raw as well as processed is of public health concern and must be
addressed. In the past decade, safety challenges faced globally as well as in India have
changed significantly and issues related to food quality and food safety have gained
tremendous importance. A number of factors are responsible for this:
• with fast changing lifestyles and eating habits, more people are eating outside their
homes. In commercial settings, foods are prepared in bulk handled by many persons,
thus there are more chances of food getting contaminated. Further, food items are
prepared many hours in advance, and may spoil if not stored appropriately.
• There are many processed and packaged foods. Safety of these foods is important.
• Spices and condiments, oilseeds were processed at home in former times and purity of
these were not a concern. In today’s world, pre-packaged individual spices,
condiments, spice powders and mixes are in demand, especially in cities and metros.
Quality of even raw food stuff besides processed foods is of public health concern and
must be addressed.
• Logistics governing transport of bulk food is complex and there is a long gap between
processing and consumption. Thus risk assessment and safety management during
mass production and mass distribution is critical.

• Microbial adaptations, antibiotic resistance, altered human susceptibility and

international traveling have all contributed to increasing incidence of food-borne
microbial diseases. Nearly half of all known food-borne pathogens have been
discovered during the past 25-30 years. There are still many foodborne illnesses of
unknown etiology. This is an issue of global public health concern and there is a need
to detect, identify and recognise emerging pathogens and establish active surveillance
networks, nationally and internationally.

• India is a signatory to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) non-tariff agreement, which
has provided greater access to world markets and opportunities to all countries to enter
international trade. In this scenario, it has become essential for every country to
protect the safety and quality of foods and also ensure that imported foods are of good
quality and safe to eat. Effective food standards and control systems are required to

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 protect food production within the country as well as to facilitate trade with other
nations. All food manufacturers are required to meet the given standards of quality and
safety, and need to have their products regularly tested.

• Pollution in atmosphere, soil and water, including use of pesticides in agriculture, bring
their share of contaminants. Also use of additives such as preservatives, colourants,
flavouring agents and other substances such as stabilisers makes the analysis of food
for various components, both nutrients and contaminants imperative Owing to the
above factors, there is a growing concern for safe, wholesome and nutritious foods in
a highly dynamic food business environment, which in turn has greatly expanded the
scope and has increased career opportunities in this sector. Before learning about the
various career options in this field, it will be worthwhile for us to understand the basic
concepts regarding food quality, food safety, risk assessment, food standards and
quality management systems.

FOOD SAFETY
Food safety means assurance that food will not cause any harm to the consumers. An
understanding of food safety is improved by defining two other concepts - toxicity and
hazard.

Toxicity:
Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to produce harm or injury of any kind under any
conditions.

Hazard:
Hazard is the relative probability that harm or injury will result when substance is not
used in a prescribed manner and quantity.
Hazards can be physical, chemical and biological causing harmful/ adverse effects on
the health of consumers.

1.PHYSICAL HAZARD
Physical hazard is any physical material not normally found in food, which causes illness
or injury and includes wood, stones, parts of pests, hair etc.

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 Physical hazard in Foods

2.CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Chemical hazards are chemicals or deleterious substances which may be intentionally or
un-intentionally added to foods. This category of hazards includes pesticides, chemical
residues, toxic metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, preservatives, food colours and other
additives.

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 Chemical hazards in Foods

3.BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Biological hazards are living organisms and include microbiological organisms. Those
micro-organisms which are associated with food and cause diseases are termed food-
borne pathogens. There are two types of food-borne diseases from microbial
pathogens—infections and poisoning.

Visible biological hazards in foods

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 Invisible/microbiological hazards in foods

FOOD INFECTION
Food infection /Food Poisoning results from ingestion of live pathogenic organisms which
multiply in the body and cause disease. Salmonella is a classic example. This organism
exists in the intestinal tract of animals. Raw milk and eggs are also sources. Heat destroys
Salmonella, however, inadequate cooking allows some organisms to survive. Often
Salmonella is spread through cross-contamination. This could happen when a cook cuts
raw meat/poultry on a chopping board and without cleaning uses it for another food
which does not involve any cooking, such as salad. Food may become infected by
Salmonella if an infected food handler does not wash hands with soap after using
bathroom and before touching food. Salmonella can reproduce very quickly and double
their number every 20 minutes. The symptoms of Salmonella infection include diarrhea,
fever and abdominal cramps.

FOOD INTOXICATION
Food intoxication: Some bacteria produce harmful toxins which are present in food even
if pathogen has been killed. Organisms produce toxins when the food has not been hot
enough or cold enough. Toxins in food cannot be detected by smell, appearance or taste.
Hence foods which smell and appear good are not necessarily safe. One example of such
an organism is Staphylococcus aureus. Such organisms exist in air, dust, water. They are
also present in the nasal passage, throat and on skin, hair of 50 per cent of healthy
individuals. People who carry this organism, contaminate food if they touch these places
on body while food handling. Diarrhea is also one of the symptoms of this contamination.

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Parasites can also cause infestation, e.g. worm infestation by tape worm in pork. In
addition to this, food can be infested by pests and insects.

Infestation of food

Among the various hazards, biological hazards are an important cause of food-borne
illnesses. In spite of all the efforts in the area of food safety, microbial food-borne
pathogens are still a serious concern and new pathogens continue to emerge.
Factors that are important in the emergence of pathogens include human
host, animal hosts and their interactions with humans, the pathogen itself, and the
environment including how food is produced, processed, handled and stored. For
example, changes in host susceptibility due to malnutrition, age and other conditions can
allow for the emergence of new infections in vulnerable populations. Genetic exchange
or mutations in the organisms can create new strains with the potential to cause disease.
Exposure to new pathogens through changes in eating habits, climate, mass production,
food processing and increased globalisation of the food supply can allow pathogens to
emerge in new populations or new geographic areas.
Examples are Norovirus, Rotavirus, hepatitis E contributing to about 70 per cent of cases.
New pathogens will continue to evolve and there is a need to develop methods to isolate
them, control them and detect their presence in foods.
In the context of food safety, it is important to understand the terms contamination and
adulteration.
Contamination: It is the presence of harmful, or objectionable foreign substances in
food such as chemicals, micro-organisms, diluents before/during or after processing or
storage.
Adulteration: It is intentional or accidental addition of impure or cheap or
unnecessary ingredient(s), to cheat, cheapen or falsify a preparation, that will alter the
properties and composition and diminish the quality of the food.

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 FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

FSMS can therefore be defined as a system that uses GMP, GHP and HACCP and other
requirements as defined under Schedule IV of FSS (Licensing & Registration of Food
Businesses) Regulations, 2011. Since FSMS ensures food safety hence it is the
requirement for FBOs to submit a FSMS Plan specific for each FBO as per FSS Regulations.
The FSMS programme helps FBOs to ensure that food is safe for human consumption.
FSSAI has made the FSMS programme in the regulations and FBOs are required to follow
it. It is not possible to get a license unless the FBO provides details of the FSMS
programme to FSSAI.
In India Food safety management system (FSMS) is a set of systems that
are interrelated and which when used in combination ensure that food is safe for human
consumption. FSMS includes procedures and controls laid down by FSSAI. It incorporates
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygienic Practices (GHP), Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and some other practices as may be specified in the
FSSAI regulations. For the FSMS system to be effective food businesses have to adopt all
these regulatory procedures to ensure food safety.

There are several voluntary Food Safety Certifications that also help to meet food safety
and to strengthen it, food safety system like; HACCP, ISO 22000, FSSC 22000 etc.

❖ INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION (ISO)

The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting
body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations.

Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization develops and publishes worldwide

technical, industrial, and commercial standards. It is headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland and works in 165 countries.

It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United
Nations Economic and Social Council.

▪ STRUCTURE OF ISO
ISO is a voluntary organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards,
each one representing one country. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to
discuss the strategic objectives of ISO. The organization is coordinated by a central
secretariat based in Geneva.

A council with a rotating membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and

governance, including setting the annual budget of the central secretariat. The technical

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management board is responsible for more than 250 technical committees, who develop
the ISO standards.

▪ FINANCING OF ISO
ISO is funded by a combination of:

• Organizations that manage the specific projects or loan experts to participate in the
technical work
• Subscriptions from member bodies, whose subscriptions are in proportion to each
country's gross national product and trade figures
• Sale of standards

Membership

• ISO has 165 national members.

• ISO has three membership categories

• Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body
in each country. These are the only members of ISO that have voting rights.
• Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards
organization. These members are informed about the work of ISO, but do not participate
in standards promulgation.
• Subscriber members are countries with small economies. They pay reduced membership
fees, but can follow the development of standards.
• Participating members are called "P" members, as opposed to observing members, who
are called "O" members.

▪ OBJECTIVE OF ISO CERTIFICATION

The aim of getting ISO certification is to advance the improvement of standardisation in
the technology of an organisation.

▪ ADVANTAGES OF ISO CERTIFICATION

• International credibility: ISO Certification plays a vital role in helping the organisation to
build credibility in overseas business.
• Customer Satisfaction: ISO standards are intended to make organisations to serve their
customers in a better way that would simultaneously increase customers’ satisfaction.
• Government Tenders: ISO Certification is quite essential to bid for Government Tenders.
• Business Efficiency: Functional efficiency of organisations is improved by obtaining ISO
Certification. SOP (Standard Operating Procedures) and work instructions can be

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 developed with the help of ISO Certification Agency. Implementation of ISO in an
organisation manages the resources efficiently.
• Product Quality: By obtaining ISO Certification, the product quality matches up the
international standards, it will reduce the risk of product order rejections that may occur
due to the flawed products.
• Marketability: ISO Certification improves the business credibility, and it helps the
business marketing directly.

ISO 22000 STANDARD

ISO 22000 is the most popular voluntary food safety standard in the food industry. The
ISO 22000 family are international voluntary consensus standards which define the
requirements for a Food Safety Management System (FSMS) and incorporates the
following elements which as defined as FSMS principles:

• Interactive communication
• System management
• Prerequisite programs
• HACCP principles

ISO 22000 - Food safety management systems - Requirements for any organization in the
food chain.

❖ CHARACTERISTICS OF ISO 22000

ISO 22000 specifies the characteristics of a management system design to-

1. Carry out the Hazard Analysis
2. Design the HACCP plan.
3. Identify the prerequisite programmes
4. Select the operational prerequisite programmes

ISO 22000 sets out the requirements for a food safety management
system and can be certified to it. It maps out what an organization needs to do to
demonstrate its ability to control food safety hazards in order to ensure that food is safe.
It can be used by any organization regardless of its size or position in the food chain.

The most effective food safety systems are established, operated and updated within the
framework of a structured management system and incorporated into the overall
management activities of the organization. This provides maximum benefit for the
organization and interested parties. ISO 22000 has been aligned with ISO 9001 in order
to enhance the compatibility of the two standards.

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❖ RELATION BETWEEN HACCP & ISO 22000
ISO 22000 integrates the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
(HACCP) system and application steps developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
By means of auditable requirements, it combines the HACCP plan with prerequisite
programmes. Hazard analysis is the key to an effective food safety management system,
since conducting a hazard analysis assists in organizing the knowledge required to
establish an effective combination of control measures. ISO 22000 requires that all
hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur in the food chain, including hazards
that may be associated with the type of process and facilities used, are identified and
assessed. Thus it provides the means to determine and document why certain identified
hazards need to be controlled by a particular organization and why others need not.

❖ ISO 9001 vs ISO 22000

In comparison with ISO 9001, the standard is a more procedural orientated guidance than
a principle based one. Apart from that, ISO 22000 is an industrial-specific risk
management system for any type of food processing and marketing, which is designed
using the ISO high level structure (HLS), also referred to as Annex SL, to be integrated with
the quality management system of ISO 9001. The detailed similarities and differences of
the two standards can be found elsewhere.

Both ISO 9001 and ISO 22000 follow the process approach. The process approach involves
the systematic definition and management of processes, and their interactions, so as to
achieve the intended results in accordance with the food safety policy and strategic
direction of the organization. Management of the processes and the system as a whole
can be achieved using the PDCA cycle, with an overall focus on risk-based thinking aimed
at taking advantage of opportunities and preventing undesirable results.

Both ISO 9001 and ISO 22000 have common management system principles used to
provide a unifying basis for values and beliefs which shape the organization’s purpose,
mission and culture.

• Customer focus
• Leadership
• Engagement of people
• Process approach
• Improvement
• Evidence-based decision making
• Relationship management

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 STEPS INVOLVED IN IMPLEMENTATION OF ISO 22000

ISO-22000
IMPLEMENTATION
STEPS

1.Nomination of the food

safety team

2.Setting up prerequisite
programmes

3. Development of the
HACCP Plan

4.Documentation

5.Training, awareness
generation and
implementation
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 6. Internal FSMS audit

7.Management review

8. Certification

Over the years, issues related to food safety and quality have gone
beyond just the avoidance of food-borne pathogens, chemical toxicants and other
hazards. A food hazard can enter/come into the food at any stage of the food chain,
therefore, adequate control through-out the food chain is essential.

Food safety and quality can be ensured through:

1. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
2. Good Hygienic Practices (GHP)
3. Good Agriculture Practices (GAP)
4. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)

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1.GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) is a system for ensuring that products are
consistently produced and controlled according to quality standards. It is designed to
minimize the risks involved in any pharmaceutical production that cannot be eliminated
through testing the final product.

GMP covers all aspects of production from the starting materials, premises, and
equipment to the training and personal hygiene of staff. Detailed written procedures are
essential for each process that could affect the quality of the finished product. There must
be systems to provide documented proof that correct procedures are consistently
followed at each step in the manufacturing process - every time a product is made.

GMP are a part of quality assurance to ensure that manufacturers/processors take

proactive steps to ensure that their products are safe. It enables to minimize or eliminate
contamination and false labelling, thereby protecting the consumer from being misled
and helping in purchasing products that are not harmful. GMP is a good business tool that
helps to refine compliance and performance by the manufacturers/producers.

2.GOOD HYGIENIC PRACTICES (GHP)

All consumers have the right to expect safe, hygienically prepared and good quality
food. This is the reason that the handling of food requires care to prevent the hazards.
Good Hygiene Practices are the set of requirements to prevent contamination of food in
order to provide safe food to the consumers. Food borne illnesses can result from
contamination due to improper practices like when there is:

• lack of environmental hygiene and poor sanitation

• mixed and inappropriate transportation
• poor storage
• poor personal hygiene,
• unsafe source of food

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CONTAMINANTS ARE IDENTIFIED AS

• Biological: bacteria, viruses or parasites that are present in air, food, water, soil,
animals or humans
• Physical: Foreign bodies in food are usually due to accidental contamination and / or
poor handling practices, these are visible particles like; pebbles, stones, metal, glass,
wood, insects, soil, dirt, jewellery, hair, fingernails etc.
• Chemical: chemicals used for cleaning and sanitizing food contact surfaces, pest control
chemicals, paints and water treatment chemicals, pesticides, fertilizers, fungicides and
also a group of some naturally occurring harmful chemicals like Mycotoxins.

▪ BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF GHP

There are basic 8 requirement of GHP:

1. Primary Production
2. Establishment Design and Facilities
3. Control of operations
4. Maintenance and sanitation
5. Personal Hygiene
6. Transportation
7. Product information and consumer awareness
8. Training

3.GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines Good Agriculture
Practice as a collection of principles to apply for on-farm production and post-production
processes, resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products, while
taking into account economic, social and environmental sustainability. The pillars of GAPs
are economic viability, environmental sustainability, social acceptability and food safety
and quality.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Handling Practices (GHP) are voluntary audits
that verify that fruits and vegetables are produced, packed, handled, and stored to
minimize risks of microbial food safety hazards.
GAP & GHP audits verify adherence to the recommendations made in the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration’s Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits
and Vegetables (pdf) and industry recognized food safety practices.
GAPs apply scientific recommendations and available knowledge to
address environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm production and
post-production processes resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural
products.

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 FAO, 2007 published technical manual on guidelines of "Good
Agricultural Practices for Family Agriculture". According to this GAPs and GMPs (Good
Manufacturing Practices) are a set of principles, regulations and technical
recommendations applicable to production, processing and food transport, addressing
human health care, environment protection and improvement of worker conditions and
their families. Initially the GAPs are more focused on post-harvest handling, processing,
packaging and quality standards. Now the concept of GAPs covers all practices (starting
from production level to ultimate consumer) which are environmentally sustainable,
economical feasible and socially acceptable. The implementation of GAPs requires active
role of farmers, food regulatory authorities, retailers, and consumers in advocating food
safety and sustainable food production.

GAPs may be applied to a wide of farming systems and at different scales. They are
applied through sustainable agriculture methods.

❖ OBJECTIVES OF GAPS:
The major objectives are:
• To improve sustainable natural resources use, workers' health and working conditions.
• To ensures quality and safety of produce in' the food chain.
• Creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters
• Capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain mechanism.

❖ KEY ELEMENTS OF GAPS

The key elements of GAPs have been enumerated as:

i. Prevention of problems before they occur

ii. Risk assessments
iii. Commitment to food safety at all levels
iv. Communication throughout the production chain
v. Mandatory employee education program at the operational level
vi. Field and equipment sanitation
vii. Integrated pest management
viii. Oversight and enforcement
ix. Verification through independent, third-party audit

❖ BENEFITS OF GAPS
The benefits of GAPs are:
i. Quality and safety of food and other agricultural products are improved with
appropriate adoption and monitoring of GAPs.
ii. It helps to reduce the risk of non-compliance with national and international
regulations, standards and guidelines (in particular of the Codex Alimentarius
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Commission, World Organization for Animal Health and the International Plant Protection
Convention (IPPC) regarding permitted pesticides, maximum levels of contaminants
including pesticides, veterinary drugs, radionuclide and mycotoxins in food and non-food
agricultural products, as well as other chemical, microbiological and physical
contamination hazards.
iii. GAPs help to promote sustainable agriculture and contributes to meeting national and
international environment and social development objectives.

❖ CHALLENGES OF GAPS
Many challenges are also associated with GAPs:
• GAPs implementation and record keeping and certification processes in particular will
increases the production costs.
• Lack of coordination between existing GAPs-related schemes and availability of
affordable certification systems has often led to increased confusion and certification
costs for farmers and exporters.
• Standards of GAPs can be used to serve competing interests of specific stakeholders
in agri-food supply chains by modifying supplier-buyer relations.
• Small scale farmers may face high risk of non-availability of export market
opportunities unless they are adequately informed, technically prepared, organized
and facilitate by governments and public agencies to meet this new challenge.
• Follow of all GAPs standards does not always promote all the environmental and social
benefits, which are claimed.

4.HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)

HACCP is a means of providing assurance about safety of food. HACCP is an approach to
food manufacture and storage in which raw materials and each individual step in a specific
process are considered in detail and evaluated for its potential to contribute to the
development of pathogenic micro-organisms or other food hazards. It involves
identification of hazards, assessment of chances of occurrence of hazards during each
step /stage in the food chain – raw material procurement, manufacturing, distribution,
usage of food products and defining measures for hazard(s) control.

Why implementation of HACCP is necessary?

• It is a preventive approach to ensure food safety.
• End product inspection and testing, although important, is time consuming, expensive
and detects the problems only after they occur. In contrast, HACCP enables us to detect
hazards at any stage of processing or manufacture in order to ensure a good quality end
product, by taking appropriate action at the stage where the problem occurs.
• It enables producers, processors, distributors and exporters to utilize resources
efficiently and in a cost-effective manner for assuring food safety.

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• FSSA, 2006 places primary responsibility for safe food with producers and suppliers
through HACCP, GMP, GHP. This is important for consumer protection and international
food trade.
• It assures consistently good quality products.

❖ HACCP (HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT) SYSTEM

HACCP is a system that should lead to the production of microbiologically safe foods by
analyzing for the hazards of raw materials-those that may appear throughout processing
and those that may occur from consumer abuse.
It is a proactive, systematic approach to controlling food borne hazards. Although some
classic approaches to food safety rely heavily on end product testing, the HACCP system
places emphasis on the quality of all ingredients and all process steps on the premise that
safe products will result if these are properly controlled. The system is thus designed to
control organisms at the point of production and preparation.

Control point:
Any point in a specific food system where loss of control does not lead to an unacceptable
health risk.
Critical control point (CCP):
Any point or procedure in a food system where control can be exercised and a hazard can
be minimized or prevented.
Critical limit:
One or more prescribed tolerances that must be met to ensure that a, CCP effectively
controls a microbiological health hazard.
CCP decision tree:
A sequence of questions to assist in determining whether a control point is a CCP.
Corrective action:
Procedures followed when a deviation occurs.
Deviation:
Failure to meet a required critical limit for a CCP
HACCP plan:
The written document that delineates the formal procedures to be followed in
accordance with these general principles.
Hazard:
Any biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause an unacceptable consumer
health risk (unacceptable contamination, toxin levels. growth, and/or survival of
undesirable organisms).
Monitoring:
A planned sequence of observations or measurements of critical limits designed
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to produce an accurate record and intended to ensure that the critical limit maintains
product safety.
Validation: That element of verification focused on collecting and evaluating scientific
and technical information to determine whether the HACCP plan, when properly
implemented, will effectively control the hazards.
Verification:
Methods, procedures, and tests used to determine whether the HACCP system is in
compliance with the HACCP plan.

7 PRINCIPLES OF HACCP

1.Conduct a Hazard
Analysis

7.Establish Record
2.Identify the Critical
keeping Procedure
Control Points

7 Principles of
HACCP
6. Establish 3.Establish Critical
Verification Procedure Limits

5.Establish Corrective 4.Establish Monitoring

Actions Procedure

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7 PRINCIPLES OF HACCP

1.Conduct a hazard analysis-

• Plan to determine the food safety hazards and identify the preventive measures the
plan can apply to control these hazards. A food safety hazard is any biological,
chemical, or physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human
consumption.

2.Identify critical control points -

• A critical control point (CCP) is a point, step, or procedure in a food manufacturing
process at which control can be applied and, as a result, a food safety hazard can be
prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level.
3.Establish critical limits for each critical control point-
• A critical limit is the maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological, or
chemical hazard must be controlled at a critical control point to prevent, eliminate,
or reduce that hazard to an acceptable level.
4.Establish critical control point monitoring requirements-
• Monitoring activities are necessary to ensure that the process is under control at each
critical control point. In the United States, the FSIS requires that each monitoring
procedure and its frequency be listed in the HACCP plan.
5.Establish corrective actions-
• These are actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from an
established critical limit. The final rule requires a plant's HACCP plan to identify the
corrective actions to be taken if a critical limit is not met. Corrective actions are
intended to ensure that no product is injurious to health or otherwise adulterated as
a result if the deviation enters commerce.
6.Establish verification procedure -
• Verification procedures may include such activities as review of HACCP plans, CCP
records, critical limits and microbial sampling and analysis. FSIS is requiring that the
HACCP plan include verification tasks to be performed by plant personnel. Verification
tasks would also be performed by FSIS inspectors. Both FSIS and industry will
undertake microbial testing as one of several verification activities. Verification also
includes 'validation' – the process of finding evidence for the accuracy of the HACCP
system (e. g. scientific evidence for critical limitations).
7.Establish record keeping procedures-
• The HACCP regulation requires that all plants maintain certain documents, including
its hazard analysis and written HACCP plan, and records documenting the monitoring
of critical control points, critical limits, verification activities, and the handling of
processing deviations. Implementation involves monitoring, verifying, and validating
of the daily work that is compliant with regulatory requirements in all stages all the

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 time. The differences among those three types of work are given by Saskatchewan
Agriculture and Food.

▪ LIMITATIONS OF HACCP:
1) HACCP requires the education of nonprofessional food handlers, especially in the food
service industry and in homes; whether this will be achieved remains to be seen. The
failure of these individuals to get a proper understanding of HACCP could lead to is failure.
2) To be effective, this concept must be accepted not only by food processors but also by
food inspectors and the public. Its ineffective application at any level can be detrimental
to is overall success for a product.
3) It is anticipated that experts will differ as to whether a given step is a CCP and how best
to monitor such steps. This has the potential of eroding the confidence of others in
HACCP.
4) The adoption of HACCP by industry has the potential of giving false assurance to
consumers product is safe, and, therefore, there is no need to exercise the usual
precautions between the purchase and consumption of a product. Consumers need to be
informed that most outbreaks of food borne illness are caused by errors in food-handling
in homes and food service establishments and that no matter what steps a processor
takes, principles must be observed after foods are purchased for consumption.

▪ Typical monitoring systems include:

1. Preventive maintenance inspections.
2. Cleaning efficiency inspections.
3. Hygiene audits and inspections.
4. Ensuring compliance with food safety specifications to suppliers.
5. Inspections to detect the presence of infestation and to monitor the effectiveness of
current pest control activities.
6. Temperature checks of food commodities.
7. Food supplier audits and inspections.
Useful information on checking performance against control standards can also be
obtained reactively from the following activities:
a) investigation of food safety incidents
b) food sampling activities;
c) observation of food handling practices; and
d) health surveillance of food handlers.

Reviewing the risk assessment: The frequency of review depends upon the level of
risk in the operation. Further, if a serious food safety incident occurs in the organization,
or elsewhere, but is possible in the organization, and where a check on the risk
assessment shows no assessment or a gap in assessment procedures, then a review is
necessary.

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Risk communication: Risk communication is defined for the purposes of the Codex
Alimentarius Commission as "The interactive exchange of information and opinions
throughout the risk analysis process concerning hazards and risks, risk-related factors and
risk perceptions, among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers, industry, the academic
community and other interested parties, including the explanation of risk assessment
findings and the basis of risk management decisions."

▪ PREVENTING OR CONTROLLING THE RISKS:

Once the food safety hazards have been identified and risks assessed, an operator of a
food business must either prevent the risk arising or, alternatively, control same. Much
will depend upon the magnitude of the risk in terms of the controls applied. in certain
cases, the level of competence of food handlers and others may need to be assessed prior
to their undertaking certain work. e. g. preparation of high risk foods. A range of controls
must be considered, including:

1. Well-managed cleaning procedures.

2. Temperature monitoring of freezers, display units, cold stores and refrigerators and or
frozen foods at time of delivery.
3. Planned preventive maintenance systems covering, for instance, structural
equipment, hot water supplies and mechanical ventilation systems
4. Effective structural proofing against various forms of infestation, together with
monitoring the performance of pest control contractors.
5. Food labelling, dating and stock rotation
6. Measures to protect food from risk of contamination and cross contamination
7. The provision of information, instruction and training for all staff
8. Health surveillance of food handlers in particular, including the use of health
questionnaires for newly-appointed food handlers.
9. Hygienic storage and disposal of waste, together with strict control over rejected food.
10.Checking the quality and fitness of fresh high risk food supplied from external sources
e.g. wholesaler, butcher.
11.The operation of a formally documented product recall system.

❖ Some other International Standards and Regulations

Quality of the food is major concern worldwide now-a-days. So, each country has
formulated. its own standards and created agencies for strict quality control measures
of the food products. Some of them are internationally accepted standards.
International standards may apply to a certain region of the world or any trade between
parties of different countries.

Setting up of international standard for the purpose of food safety depends upon the
following agreements.

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• Agreement on Agriculture (AoA)
• Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary, Measures (SPS Agreement)
• Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement)
• International Health Regulation (2005)

List of main International standards and statutes:

• International Standards Organization (ISO)

• Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
• World Health Organization (WHO)
• World Trade Organization (WT0)
• World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH)
• European Union (EU) Standards
• Food and Drugs Administration (FDA), USA
• International Plant Protection Organization (IPPO)
• Convention on Bio Diversity (CBD)
• International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF)

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CHAPTER 11
FOOD ADDITIVES

Generally Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance
taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for
centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt,
(salting), smoke (smoking), sugar (crystallization), etc.

According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission has defined ,Food Additive means any
substance not normally consumed as a food by itself and not normally used as a typical
ingredient of the food ,whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of
which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture,
processing, preparation, treatment , packing, packaging transport or holding of such food
results, or may be reasonably expected to result (directly or indirectly) in it or its bye
products becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such foods.
The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or
improving its nutritive value.

Food additives are used for the purpose of maintaining or improving

the keeping quality, texture, consistency, appearance and other technological
requirements. Food additives do not include use of vitamins, minerals, herbs, yeast, hops,
starter cultures, malt extract etc.

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD ADDITIVES:

1. Improve the taste or appearance of a processed food

E.g.: beeswax –glazing agent is used to coat apples

2. Improve the keeping quality or stability of a food

E.g.: sorbitol –added to mixed dried fruit to maintain moisture level and
softness of the fruit

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3. Improve shelf life or storage time
E.g. : sulphurdioxide added to sausage meat to avoid microbial growth

4. Ensure nutritional value

Maintain uniform quality and to enhance quality parameters like flavour, colour
etc., in large scale production

TYPES OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Direct or intentional food additives

which are added deliberately to improve its sensory quality, stability, ease in processing
and retention of quality during handling and retailing.

Indirect or unintentional food additives

which get included into foods incidentally during handling, processing and packaging.

WHY USE FOOD ADDITIVES?

Additives such as salt, spices, and sulfites have been used since ancient times to preserve
foods and make them more palatable. With the increased processing of foods in the 20th
century, there came a need for both the greater use of and new types of food additives.
Many modern products, such as low-calorie, snack, and ready-to-eat convenience foods,
would not be possible without food additives.

E-CODES
E-codes are codes sometimes found on food labels in the European Union (Great Britain,
France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Portugal etc.)
The codes indicates an ingredient which is some type of food additives
The “E” indicates that is a “European Union Approved” food additive
Other countries have different food labeling laws

E-CODES NUMBER GROUPS OF FOOD INGREDIENTS

E-CODES NUMBER GROUPS OF FOOD INGREDIENTS
E-100 Coloring agents
E-200 Preservatives
E-300 Anti-oxidants
E-400 Thickeners, Stabilizers, Gelling agents, Emulsifiers
E-500 Agents for physical characteristics
E-600 Flavor enhancers

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 CODEX STANDARDS FOR FOOD ADDITIVES

THE JOINT FAO/WHO EXPERT COMMITTEE ON FOOD ADDITIVES (JECFA)

• Is an international scientific expert committee that is administered jointly by the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health
Organization (WHO). It has been meeting since 1956, initially to evaluate the safety
of food additives.
• Its work now also includes the evaluation of contaminants, naturally occurring
toxicants and residues of veterinary drugs in food.
• The Committee also develops principles for the safety assessment of chemicals in
food that are consistent with current thinking on risk assessment and take account
of recent developments in toxicology and other relevant sciences.
• For the benefit of consumers, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has prepared the
INS for food additives, which provides an agreed international numbering system for
identifying food additives

EFFECTS OF FOOD ADDITIVES ON HUMAN HEALTH

IMMEDIATE EFFECTS:
Headache
Change in energy level
Alterations in mental concentration, or
immune response

LONG TERM EFFECTS:

Increase risk of cancer
cardiovascular disease and
other degenerative conditions

CLASSES OF FOOD ADDITIVES

1. Preservatives.
2. Food colour Additive
3. Flavor enhancers.
4. Sweeteners.
5. Antioxidants.
6. Emulsifiers.
7. Acidulants
8. Anti-caking agents

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1.PRESERVATIVES
Preservatives are the compounds used to prevent and retard the microbial spoilage
of food. Section 3.1.4 of FSS (Food Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulations,
2011 defines preservative as “a substance which when added to food is capable of
inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other
decomposition of food”.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRESERVATIVES
They are classified into Class I and Class II preservative

Class I preservatives are

1. Common salt
2. Sugar
3. Dextrose
4. Glucose
5. Spices
6. Vinegar or acetic acid
7. Honey
8. Edible vegetable oils
Addition of class I Preservative in any food is not restricted

Class II preservatives are

1.Benzoic acid including salts thereof
2. Sulphurous acid including salts thereof
3. Nitrates or Nitrites and/or Sodium and Potassium in respect of foods like ham,
Pickled meat
4. Sorbic acid and its sodium,
5. Potassium and calcium salts
6. Propionates of Calcium or sodium,
7. Sodium, Potassium and Calcium salts of Lactic acid.
8. Nisin
9. Methyl or Propyl parahydroxy Benzoates
10. Sodium Diacetate.
Commonly used in Low fat spreads, Cheeses, margarine,
mayonnaise, Bakery products, Dried fruit preparations.

E.g.: sodium benzoate, sodium nitrite, benzoic acid, BHA (butylated hydroxy anisole)
/BHT (butylated hydroxy toluene).

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i. SODIUM BENZOATE
Used in Carbonated drinks, pickles, sauces

Side effects:
aggravates asthma and suspected to be a neurotoxin and carcinogen, may cause fetal
abnormalities.
Worsens hyperactivity

II.SODIUM NITRITE AND NITRATE

Used in sausages, hotdogs, smoked fish, canned meats

Side effects:
Nitrite is a Carcinogen (prostate, breast and stomach cancer in humans)
Nitrate -Increases risk of miscarriages, fetal deaths and birth defects in lab animals

iii. BENZOIC ACID

Used in drinks, low sugar products,
cereals, meat products

Side effects:
May temporarily inhibit digestive enzyme function.
May deplete GLYCINE levels.

iv. BHA/BHT
Used in Potato chips, vegetable oils, chewing gum (butylated hydroxy anisole/toluene)

Side effects:
May be carcinogenic to humans.
BHA also interacts with nitrites to form chemicals known to cause changes in the DNA of
cells.
Toxic to CNS and liver.

2.COLOUR ADDITIVES
Used to make the food look appealing and so, taste better
These are described as one of the most dangerous additives.
Synthetic colours are made from coaltar or petroleum
Used in colour beverages, dessert powders, ice creams, custards
Cause allergies, asthma, hyperactivity

E.g.: erythrosine, allura red, tartrazine, brilliant blue

Erythrosine (Red No.3) – cherries in fruit cocktail and in canned fruits for salads, baked
foods, dairy products, snack foods.
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Side effects: cancer

i. Tartrazine (yellow 5)
Used in ice cream, carbonated drinks, fish sticks, cake mixes, squashes

Side effects: hyperactivity, asthma, skin rashes, and migraine

ii. Allura red

Used in Carbonted drinks, bubble gum, sauces, soups, wine

Side effects:
may worsen or induce asthma, rhinitis, utricaris (hives)

iii. Brilliant blue

Used in dairy products, sweets

Side effects:
• hyperactivity and skin rashes.
• Listed as human carcinogen.
• Causes DNA damage and tumours in animals

3.FLAVOR ENHANCERS
Taste is a complex mixture of flavors and aroma. Flavourings are added to food products
to give or intensify flavour.
E.g.: monosodium glutamate – is the sodium salt of the aminoacid glutamic acid and a
form of glutamate.

i.Monosodium glutamate
Is found in food, soups, chips, salad dressings, frozen foods, sauces, instant meals

Side effects:
headache, weakness, nausea, altered heart rate, a burning sensation in the forearms and
back of the neck, tightness in the chest.
Neoantal exposure is linked to stunted growth and obesity – due to reduction in release
of GH.

4.SWEETENERS
( nonnutritive or alternative sweeteners)
Substances that impart sweetness to food but supply little or no energy to the body

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Functions:
• Provide texture in baked foods
• Humectant in cakes
• Lowers the freezing point in ice cream
• Preservative in jams
• Adds bulk to baked foods
• Strengthens “mouthfeel” in soft drinks

i. Food sweenteners :
E.g. : aspartame, saccharin, acesulfame K
Found in Sugar free chewing gums,Drinks (carbonted , non-carbonated , milk based ,
alcoholic ),Breakfast cereals, Desserts, fillings and toppings, Processed fruit and vegetable
products(jams, jellies),Yoghurt

Side effects of sweeteners:

behavioural problems,
hyperactivity,
allergies and
possibly carcinogenic

Advantage:
They allow diabetics to have sugar free but sweet tasting food.

5.ANTIOXIDANTS
Oxidation is a destructive process, causing loss of nutritional value and changes in
chemical composition

Antioxidants are added to food to slow the rate of oxidation and if used properly can
extend the shelf life of food in which they have been used.

E.g.: BHA (butylated hydroxy anisole), BHT (butylated hydroxy toulene)

Commonly used in Vegetable oil Meat, fish, poultry Margarine, Dairy products
Mayonnaise / salad dressing, Potato products (instant mashed potato) at KFC

Side effects:
• Hyperactivity,
• Asthma ,
• Angiodema,
• Rhinitis ,
• Utricaria and

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• May affect ESTROGEN levels .
• Have been linked with cancer in animals

6.EMULSIFIERS
Emulsions in food are mixtures of oil and water.
Emulsifier keeps the mixture stable and prevents the
oil and water from seperating into two layers.

Other Functions:
• Make food appealing
• Effect on the texture of food
• Prevent the growth of moulds in low fat spreads
• Aid in processing and help maintain quality and freshness

Examples of food emulsifiers are:

Egg yolk (in which the main emulsifying agent is lecithin)
Proteins and low-molecular-weight emulsifiers are common as well Soy lecithin is another
emulsifier and thickener in some cases, particles can stabilize emulsions through a
mechanism called Pickering stabilization sodium stearoyl lactylate DATEM (Diacetyl
Tartaric Acid Ester of Monoglyceride) is an emulsifier primarily used in baking.

Emulsifiers Commonly found in

•Peanut butter
•Ice cream
•Coffee whiteners
•Margarine/low fat spreads
•Biscuits and toffees
•Cakes
•Frozen desserts
•Bread
•Chewing gum

7.ACIDULANTS
They are additives that give a sharp taste to foods. Also assist in the setting of gels
and to act as preservative.
The acid environment they produce prevents the growth of microbes
E.g. widely used organic acid is citric acid in food products, drinks and pharmaceuticals

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8.ANTICAKING AGENTS
Processed food often contains ingredients that are mixed as powders.
anti-caking agents are added to allow them to flow and mix evenly during the food
production process.
E.g.: silicon dioxide, calcium silicate

Commonly found in
• vending machine powders (coffee, cocoa)
• Milk and cream powders
• Grated cheese
• Icing sugar
• Baking powder
• Cake mixes
• Instant soup powders
• Drinking chocolate
• Table salt- magnesium carbonate is the agent added

HARMFUL FOOD ADDITIVES

• Sodium nitrite and nitrate
• Aspartame
• Acesulfame
• Monosodiumglutamate (MSG)
• BHA and BHT
• Transfat
• Colour additives
• Potassium bromate
• High fructose corn syrup (white sugar)
• Olestra
• Propylgallate
• Sodium chloride

(i) SODIUM NITRITE AND NITRATE:

Used as preservative, colouring and flavouring agent
Found in hotdogs, smoked fish, sandwich meats, Sausages, canned meat
Keep meat that bright red colour and help prevent bacterial growth

Side effects: nausea, dizziness, headache, vomiting

Studies confirm that nitrites and nitrates can cause prosatate, breast, gastric cancer in
humans.

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Link to cancer – nitrites can lead to formation of chemicals called NITROSAMINES in the
digestive tract which may cause cancer.
Nitrates are associated with increased miscarriages, fetal deaths, and birth defects in
laboratory animals.

(ii)ASPARTAME:
An artificial sweetener
Sold as Nutrasweet
Found in frozen desserts, gelatin desserts, diet soft drinks low calorie drinks, yoghurt,
beverages.
Chemically it is Aspartylphenylalanine methylester

Side effects:
It has strong excitatory effect on the brain leading to anxiety, depression, dizziness,
headache, vision loss and Brain cancer.

(iii)ACESULFAME K:
Artificial sweetener,
200 times more sweet than sugar
Found in soft drinks, baked foods, chewing gum, gelatin desserts, alcohol
Side effects: some studies shown that it may cause cancer in mice.

(iv) MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE:

Flavour enhancer
Chemically it is sodium salt of glutamic acid and a form of glutamate
Found in soups, chips, crackers, salad dressings

Side effects:
Cause allergic and behavioural reactions including headache, weakness, nausea, altered
heart rate, a burning sensation in forearm and back of neck, tightness in the chest.
Caution: danger
Pregnant women who ingest this are at increased risk of developing fetus with smaller
pituitary, thyroid ,ovary/testis that leads to reproductive dysfunction.
Neonatal exposure has been linked to stunted growth and obesity as there is reduction in
the release of Growth hormone.

(vi) BHT and BHA:

Antioxidant and preservative.
Derived from petroleum
Found in potato chips, vegetable oils

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Side effects:
Allergic reactions, hyperactivity and CANCER in humans
Behavoiural problems with BHA as some people cannot metabolise it

BHT toxic to nervous system and liver

Link to cancer: BHA interacts with nitrites to form chemicals known to cause changes in
the DNA of cells

Butylate Hydroxyanisole(BHA)
Chronic exposure – gall bladder, endocrine, lungs, thorax -tumors
Mutagen – DNA inhibition, unscheduled
DNA synthesis, DNA damage
Chronic exposure – reproductive damage

(vii) TRANSFAT
Also known as partially hydrogenated vegetable oil
Hydrogenation – process of adding H2 gas under high pressure to liquid oils to turn into
solids at room temperature.
Found in deep fried fast foods, pastries, crackers, butter

Side effects:
• Atherosclerosis and CVS disorders
• Obesity and diabetes
• Immune dysfunction
• Birth defects
• Problems in bones and tendons

(viii) POTASSIUM BROMATE:

Additive that helps dough to become full and obtain a greater volume , during baking.
Found in breads , rolls , pizzas

Side effects:
• Known to cause cancer in animals
• Even smaller amounts in bread can create problems for humans

(ix) COLOUR ADDITIVES:

Most dangerous additives
Made from coal tar / petroleum
Found in drinks, jellies, sweets, ice cream
Dangerous additives – blue 1 and blue 2, red 3, green 3 and yellow 6

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Side effects: allergy, asthma, hyperactivity and possible carcinogen

(x) HIGH FRUCTOSE CORN SYRUP-H F C S

Flavour enhancer
Derived from corn starch, usually a combination of 55% fructose and 45% of
sucrose
Found in soft drinks, baked foods, ketchup

Side effect:
Weight gain, diabetes and increased risk of heart disease particularly in men
May alter Magnesium balance in the body leading to accelerated bone loss

(xi) PROPYL GALLATE

Used in conjunction with BHA and BHT
Found in meat products, chicken soup base and chewing gum
Animal studies have suggested that it could be linked to cancer

(xii) OLESTRA
Synthetic fat
Found in potato chip brands
Side effects:
Severe diarrhea, abdominal cramps and gas
It also inhibits vitamin absorption from fat soluble
carotenoids that are found in fruits and vegetables
(xiii) SODIUM CHLORIDE (TABLE SALT)
Flavour enhancer and preservative
During the refining process, naturally occurring minerals and trace elements are stripped
away, then it is blasted with high heat , bleached and chemicals like aluminium and anti-
caking agents are added to it.

Side effects:
Too much processed salt intake burdens the kidneys and adrenals
Depletes calcium and interferes with absorption of essential nutrients
Causes high BP, heart attack and stroke
“low sodium salt” is more toxic, as chemicals are added to it to remove sodium and
simulate the synthetic taste of salts.

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CHAPTER 12
FOOD ANALYSIS AND TESTING
Food Testing and analysis is an essential part of the food safety ecosystem to assure that
the food is safe to consume. For the same, FSSAI recognizes and notifies NABL accredited
food laboratories under Section 43 of Food Safety and Standards Act,2006.

FSSAI through its Scientific Panel on Methods of Sampling and Analysis is

involved in revision of the existing testing methodologies and new parameters for analysis
of various food articles. So far 13 new manuals on methods of food analysis have been
finalized including Milk and Milk Products, Oil and Fats, Fruits and Vegetable products,
etc. A Methods Review Group has been constituted to review manual of methods and
update them, with experts from Scientific/Research Institutions, Regulatory Bodies,
Independent Scientific experts (including instrumentation companies, private labs) etc.

FOOD TEST VS FOOD TESTING

A. FOOD TEST:
A method used to detect the certain components of a food mixture and to identify the
main class of food.

Types of Food Test:

1. Benedict’s Test (for sugar)
2. Biuret Test (for protein)
3. Ethanol Emulsion Test (for fat)
4. Iodine Solution Test (for starch)

1. TEST FOR SUGAR

Benedict’s Test
Benedict’s test is a chemical test that can be used to check for the presence of reducing
sugars in a given analyte. Therefore, simple carbohydrates containing a free ketone or
aldehyde functional group can be identified with this test. The test is based on Benedict’s
reagent (also known as Benedict’s solution), which is a complex mixture of sodium citrate,
sodium carbonate, and the pentahydrate of copper(II) sulfate.
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When this solution exposed to reducing sugars, the reactions undergone by Benedict’s
reagent result in the formation of a brick-red precipitate, which indicates a positive
Benedict’s test. An image detailing the changes in the colour of Benedict’s reagent (from
clear blue to brick-red) that are triggered by exposure to reducing sugars is provided
below.

Benedict’s Test Procedure

Preparation of Benedict’s Reagent

One litre of Benedict’s reagent can be prepared by mixing 17.3 grams of copper sulfate
pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O), 100 grams of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and 173 grams of
sodium citrate in distilled water (required quantity). Here, the copper (II) sulfate acts as a
source of Cu2+ ions, the sodium carbonate provides an alkaline medium, and the sodium
citrate forms complexes with the Cu2+ ions. Distilled water is used as a solvent.

The purity of Benedict’s reagent can be checked by heating it in a test tube. No changes
in the blue colour of the solution upon heating is an implication that the reagent is pure.

Testing for Reducing Sugars

One millilitre of the analyte sample must be mixed with 2 millilitres of Benedict’s reagent
and heated in a bath of boiling water for 3 to 5 minutes. The development of a brick-red
coloured precipitate of cuprous oxide confirms the presence of reducing sugars in the
analyte.

Interpreting the Results of Benedict’s Test

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 Colour of the Precipitate g % of Reducing Sugar
Green 0.5%
Yellow 1%
Orange 1.5%
Red 2%

2. TEST FOR PROTEIN

Biuret Test

The biuret test is a chemical test that can be used to check for the presence of peptide
bonds in a given analyte. Therefore, the biuret test can be also be used to gauge the
amount of protein present in the analyte. In this test, the presence of peptides results in
the formation of pale purple coloured (or mauve coloured) coordination compounds of
the copper (II) ion (when the solution is sufficiently alkaline). An image detailing a positive
biuret test and the characteristic pale purple colour that denotes it is provided below.

It can be noted that several variants of the biuret test have been developed. Notable
examples of such variations include the modified Lowry test and the BCA test. It can also
be noted that the intensity of the purple colour and, therefore, the absorption at 540
nanometers is directly proportional to the concentration of proteins in the given analyte
(as a consequence of the Beer-Lambert law). A positive reaction for this test is also
received when the analyte contains biuret molecules ([H2N-CO]2NH) since the bonds in
this molecule are similar to peptide bonds.

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Biuret Test Procedure

The procedure that can be followed to conduct a biuret test is provided below.

• An aqueous solution of the analyte must be prepared by dissolving it in water.

• A small amount of this aqueous solution must be treated with 1% sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide. To this mixture, a few drops of CuSO4 (aq) must be added.
• If the solution turns purple upon the addition of copper(II) sulfate, the presence of
protein in the analyte is confirmed.

3.TEST FOR FATS

Emulsion test

Emulsion tests can be used to test for the presence of lipids in a sample. In this test, the
sample is required to be suspended in ethanol causing lipids (if present) to be dissolved.
This is because lipids are soluble in alcohol. Then, this liquid is gradually poured into
water.

4.TEST FOR STARCH

Iodine Test
In simple words, starch can be defined as the most important complex carbohydrate
compounds. It is a polysaccharide and glucoside reserve of plants. It is a renewable and
biodegradable product, so it can act as a perfect raw material and a substitute for fossil-
fuel components in making detergents, glues, plastics, etc.

The starch molecules comprise a large number of glucose units that are bound together
by glycosidic bonds and are produced by all vegetables and other plant sources through
the process of photosynthesis. The starch molecules function as energy storage in plant

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cells, which is necessary for their growth, development, and reproduction. Barley,
potatoes, maize, rice, wheat are a few examples of plant products from which starch are
extracted and distributed to different industries.

Materials Required

• Knife
• Spatula
• Porcelain tile.
• Iodine solution
• Food sample – Potato or any other vegetables or fruits.

Procedure

• Take a fresh Potato which is washed, cleaned and dried.

• Peel off the skin of the potato.
• Cut the potato into small cubes or slices.
• With the help of clean and dried Spatula, place the potato samples on the clean
and dried porcelain tile.
• Add 2 to 3 drops of dilute iodine solution on the potato samples.
• Keep the slide undisturbed and observe the changes.

Observations

There will be a change in colour. A blue-black colour develops on the slice or cubes of the
potato samples.

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Result

The result is positive.

According to the observation the food sample or the potato slice turned to blue-black on
adding the iodine solution. This proves the presence of starch in the given plant source.

This was a simple experiment which is used to check for the presence of starch. This Iodine
Test for Starch can be performed for both the liquid and solid food samples.

B. FOOD TESTING
Section 47 of the Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006, Rule 2.4 of Food Safety &
Standards Rule, 2011 and Food Safety & Standards (Laboratory & Sample Analysis)
Regulations, 2011 provides with the procedure of sampling and analysis along
with sample size of various articles of food.
FSSAI has developed an IT solution for Indian food laboratory network called InFoLNet.
This laboratory management system (LMS) is a centralized system that connects and
collates the network of laboratories. The information on the InFoLNet would help
categorize laboratories on a fit for purpose basis i.e., for regulatory requirements, routine
testing, appellate testing etc. This LMS will also be a one stop portal for food laboratory
information, ranging from ownership details, infrastructure availability, technical
capacity, scope of testing through to test results of different samples. Apart from being
the back bone of the network, this LMS will also be integrated to other FSSAI core IT
systems, such as FLRS (Licensing and Registration), FICS (Import Clearance), Quick access,
FoSTAC, etc. The centralized information will also have profound applications in
deciphering risk analysis, enriching standards, capacity building and training.

FOOD SAMPLING
Food sampling is a process of drawing a sample/a small portion of food which is a
representative of a population/ lot of a food for testing, analysing, intended to show the
nature and quality of the whole specimen. A food sample is normally drawn to check the
safety and standards of the food product. By safety it is meant that whether the
ingredients, additives used are safe and free from any kind of contaminants and
adulteration and by standards it is meant that the ingredients and additives used are as
per the standards or regulations of the said product and additives used are within the
limits prescribed.

OBJECTIVES OF FOOD SAMPLING

The main objectives of food sampling should be borne in mind while deciding sampling
programmes and these objectives may help to formulate priorities for sampling activity.

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(a) Protecting public health.
The most important objective of food sampling is to protect public health. A significant
proportion of sampling activity undertaken will in some way, have a bearing on its wide-
reaching objective. Specifically, sampling to detect naturally occurring toxins,
contaminants, use of unsuitable ingredients, excessive addition of additives and failure to
declare the presence of ingredients to which a consumer may be allergic will all contribute
to this objective.

(b) Detecting fraudulent Activities

Consumers can sometimes end up not getting what they are paying for as a direct result
of deliberate activity to defraud. One area which is becoming increasingly important to
consumers is comprehensive and accurate labelling. For many activities, sampling and
analysis will be the only way in which fraud or mislabelling can be detected; this is
particularly true of imported food sampling where inspection of the manufacturing
process is not an option.

(c) Giving customers sufficient information to make informed choices

Consumers are looking increasingly to product labelling to help them make informed
choices about what products to buy. Such labelling information ranges from details that
may provide guidance on the quality of the food (e.g. the proportion of key ingredients)
to information on the presence or otherwise of substances that a consumer may wish to
avoid, for ethical or health reasons for instance. Sampling is a vital tool to help to check
the veracity and accuracy of this labelling information.

(d) Ensuring that food standards are maintained

Sampling is an essential tool to check whether foods meet the various statutory
standards, the absence of which would be likely to result in debasement of these foods.

(e)Informing the enforcement approach

Sampling is a key element of enforcement action. It can help inform any inspection
activities either as part of, or associated with, visits to establishments. It can also identify
food or feed sectors or products where enforcement attention is required. Sampling is
also of use during the investigation of complaints about food, for example follow-up
sampling to establish if the cause of the complaint was an isolated incident.

(f) Providing product quality advice to the producer

Informing food producers or retailers of sampling results could highlight issues that they
were not aware of, thus allowing them to take prompt action. Similarly, enforcement
sampling alerts industry that products are being monitored for the purpose of consumer
protection and legal compliance.

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(e) Promoting fair trade and deterring bad practice
Legitimate businesses need assurance they will not be undermined by competitors who
cut corners or commit fraud. Businesses and consumers alike need to know where they
stand. It is, therefore, important that food law is effective and is enforced efficiently and
consistently. Fair and effective enforcement helps honest and diligent food and feed
businesses and is supported by industry as a whole.

❖ TYPES OF SAMPLES
Broadly there are two types of samples drawn by the Food Safety Officers in our country

(a) Legal Sample:

The enforcement of food law is primarily the responsibility of Food Safety Officials of the
State/UTs. To deliver a well- balanced enforcement service and effectively protect
consumers, state authorities need to have effective sampling policies, procedures and
programmes in place. Effective routine sampling is an essential element in delivering a
well-balanced enforcement service and should therefore feature in the enforcement
activity of Food Authorities. Legal samples are those samples, where after analysis, if an
adverse result is received legal action shall be initiated along with relevant enforcement
action for quick relief. In other words these samples can be used for prosecution. Legal
samples are drawn as per the sampling procedure detailed in the FSS Act, 2006, rules &
Regulations made there under and the entire procedure is to be strictly followed by the
Food Safety Officers.
(b) Surveillance Sample:
The samples drawn for purposes of surveillance, survey and research, and cannot be not
be used for prosecution. This may be a ongoing process and is normally initiated by the
Food Authority. The policy, plan and programme all may be formulated by the Food
Authority and is normally forwarded to the State Authorities for drawing samples as per
the guidelines enumerated in the plan. The surveillance sampling may also be done by
the Central Authorities or jointly by the Central and State Authorities. This type of
sampling is done to monitor the safety and quality of food manufactured, sold or
imported in the country.

❖ CIRCUMSTANCES FOR DRAWING SAMPLE

(a) When a Food Safety Officer has reason to believe that a food article is being
manufactured, stocked or sold or exhibited for sale in contravention of the
provisions of the Act, or rules and regulations framed there under.
(b) Consumer complaints.
(c) Food Hazard Warnings and food suspected of contamination generally
(d) Changing local concerns

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(e) Additional national surveillance programmes
(f) New businesses
(e) New products or manufacturing practices in existing businesses
(h) Observation during factory inspections

❖ PROCEDURE FOR TAKING SAMPLE AND MANNER OF SENDING IT FOR

ANALYSIS
The Food Safety Officer is empowered for taking sample of food for analysis under clause
A of Sub Section 1 of Section 38 and Section 47 (except 47 (5)) of the Act, and has to follow
and abide by the procedure specified hereunder: This procedure is to be followed only in
cases of procuring Legal Samples.

(a) Make arrangements for one or more witnesses at the time of lifting of the
Samples

(b) Take the signatures from the witnesses in all the forms and documents prepared.

(c) Serve the notice in Form VA to the business operator then and there

(d) In case the food business operator discloses that the product has been obtained
from the manufacturer, the distributor or supplier, a notice has also to be given
to such manufacturer, distributor or supplier.

(e) In case where the sample is drawn from an open container, the person drawing
the sample will also draw a sample from a container in original condition of the
same article bearing the same declaration, if such container is available, and
intimate the same to the Food Analyst.

(f) Where a Food Safety Officer or the purchaser takes a sample of an article of food
for analysis, he has to pay, the cost of the sample, to the person from whom the
sample is taken, calculated at the rate at which the article is sold to the public.

(g) Suitable container is to be used while drawing samples and which has to be
closed to prevent leakage, evaporation or to avoid entrance of moisture in case of
dry substance and shall be carefully sealed. If a sealed package marketed by the
manufacturer/Food Business Operator is taken as sample, further sealing in
separate containers will not be required.

(h) All bottles or jars or other containers containing the samples for analysis is to be
properly labelled and the parcel is to be properly addressed. The label on any
sample of food sent for analysis has to bear,
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 (i) Code number of the sample
(ii) Name of the sender with his official designation
(iii) Date and place of collection
(iv) Nature of articles being sent for analysis
(v) Nature and quantity of preservative, if any, added to the sample

(i)The samples drawn will be packed and sealed in the manner prescribed
hereunder:

(i) Sample has to be divided into four parts or take four already sealed packages and
mark and seal or fasten up each part in such a manner as its nature permits and take
the signature or thumb impression of the person from whom the sample has been
taken on the label mentioned above.

(ii) The stopper/cap has to first be securely fastened so as to prevent leakage of the
contents in transit.

(iii) The bottle, jar or other container is then completely wrapped in fairly strong thick
paper. The ends of the paper to be neatly folded in and affixed by means of gum or
other adhesive.

(iv) A paper slip of the size that goes round completely from the bottom to top of the
container, bearing the signature of the Designated officer or any officer authorized by
Food Safety commissioner and code number of the sample, is to be pasted on the
wrapper. The signature or thumb impression of the person from whom the sample
has been taken, is to be affixed in such a manner that the paper slip and the wrapper
both carry a part of this signature or the thumb impression.

(v) In case the person from whom the sample is taken refuses to affix his signature or
thumb impression, the signature or thumb impression of one or more witnesses is to
be taken in the same manner.

(vi) Provided further that in case the paper slip containing the signature of the
Designated Officer is of such a size that it does not cover completely from the bottom
to the top of the container, the Food Safety Officer will affix additional sheet/s of
paper to the slip containing the signature of the Designated Officer so as to cover the
container completely and the Food Safety Officer will affix his signature on each of
the joints for the purpose of identification. Further where the purchaser or an
Authorized officer draws the sample no such Paper slip is be required to be affixed.

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 (vii) The paper cover is to be further secured by means of strong twine or thread both
above and across the bottle, jar or other container and the twine or thread shall then
be fastened on the paper cover by means of sealing wax on which there shall be
distinct and clear impression of the seal of the sender, of which one is to be at the top
of the packet, one at the bottom and the other two on the body of the packet. The
knots of the twine or thread are to be covered by means of sealing wax bearing the
impression of the seal of the sender.

(j) The Food Safety officers will dispatch the containers of the samples in the
following manner:
(i) the sealed container of one part of the sample for analysis along with
memorandum in Form VI is sent in a sealed packet to the Food Analyst under
appropriate condition to retain the integrity of the sample.
(ii) the sealed container of the second and third parts of the sample and two copies
of memorandum in Form VI is sent to the Designated Officer by any suitable means.
(iii) if requested by the Food Business Operator, the sealed container of the remaining
fourth part of the sample and a copy of memorandum in Form VI is sent to an
accredited laboratory along with fee prescribed by the Authority, under intimation to
the Designated Officer, the payment is made by the Food Business Operator through
Bank draft or online transfer or treasury chalan or any other suitable means as
specified by the Designated Officer. The Accredited lab where the Food Safety Officer
will send the sample, should be within the state or the neighbouring state wherever
available. The fourth part is deposited with Designated Officer if Food business
Operator does not request to send the sample to an accredited laboratory.
(iv) for lifting a sample for testing microbiological parameters, the method of lifting
sample, type of container, temperature to be maintained, method of transportation
and any other condition to maintain the integrity of the sample shall be notified by
the Food Authority from time to time.
(k) The Food Safety Officer has to send to the Food Analyst to whom the sealed container
of first part of the sample was sent, a copy of the memorandum and specimen impression
of the seal used to seal the packet and the same has to be sent forthwith.

(l) The Food Safety Officer or the Authorized Officer, while taking sample for the purpose
of analysis under the provisions of the Act except in the case where the sample is meant
for microbiological testing/ analysis, may add to the sample, a preservative as may be
prescribed from time to time in the regulations for the purpose of maintaining it in a
condition suitable for analysis.

(m) Whenever any preservative is added to a sample, the nature and quantity of the
preservative added has to be clearly noted on the label to be affixed to the container

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(n) The preservative used in the case of samples of any milk (including toned, separated
and skimmed milk), standardized milk chhana, skimmed milk chhana, cream, ice-candy,
dahi, khoa or khoa based and Paneer based sweets, such as Kalakand and Burfi, Chutney
and prepared foods, gur prepared coffee and tea in liquid or semiliquid form shall be the
liquid commonly known as "formalin", that is to say, liquid containing about 40 per cent
off or maldehyde in aqueous solution in the proportion of 0.1 ml. (two drops) for 25 ml.
or 25 grams.

(o) In case of samples of ice-cream and mixed ice-cream, the preservative used is liquid
commonly known as formalin, that is to say, a liquid containing about 40 percent of
formaldehyde in aqueous solution in the proportion of0.6 ml. for 100 ml. or 100 gms.

(p) In case of the unspecified products, the quantity drawn is determined in consultation
with the Food Analyst.

(q) The quantity of sample of food to be sent to the Food Analyst / Referral lab for analysis
is specified in regulations by the Food Authority.
Explanation - Foods that are sold in packaged condition (sealed container or package) is
sent for analysis in its original condition without opening the package as far as practicable,
to constitute approximate quantity along with original label. In case of bulk packages,
wherever preservatives are to be added as per the requirement under these rules, the
sample is to be taken after opening sealed container or package in the presence of the
Food Business Operator or in case of his refusal, in the presence of one or more witnesses
and the contents of the original label is also be sent along with the sample for analysis.
However, such samples is not be used for microbiological analysis.

(r)Where food is sold or stocked for sale or for distribution in sealed containers having
identical label declaration, the contents of one or more of such containers as may be
required to satisfy the quantity prescribed, shall be treated to be a part of the sample.

(s) When a sample of any article of food or adulterant is taken, the Food Safety Officer
has to, by the immediate succeeding working day, send the sample to the Food Analyst
for the area concerned for analysis and report.

(t) Where the part of the sample sent to the Food Analyst is lost or damaged, the
Designated Officer shall, on a requisition made to him, by the Food Analyst or the Food
Safety Officer, despatch one of the parts of the sample sent to him, to the Food Analyst
for analysis.

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 FOOD LABORATORIES
As an essential part of the food safety ecosystem, the Authority (FSSAI) has created a
network of laboratories to fulfil its mandate on food testing and analysis. The network
comprises of accredited primary food-testing laboratories from both government and
private sphere, state food testing laboratories and referral laboratories of which two are
under the direct control of FSSAI.

One of the key mandates of FSSAI as per Chapter VIII, Section 43 of the Food Safety and
Standards Act, 2006 is to foster an ecosystem for testing of food at labs for compliance
with the Food Safety standards.
FSSAI is also recognizing foreign laboratories to reduce the time in
clearance of food consignments at ports. FSSAI approved notified laboratories as National
Reference Laboratories (NRLs) and as ancillary facility of NRLs (ANRLs) for specific
purpose. Lists of all these laboratories are given below-

PRIMARY FOOD LABORATORIES: 220+ Laboratories

REFERRAL FOOD LABORATORIES: 19 Laboratories

NATIONAL REFERENCE LABORATORIES: 14 Laboratories

1.PRIMARY FOOD LABORATORIES

The Food Authority notifies food laboratories and research institutions accredited by
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories or any other
accreditation agency for the purposes of carrying out analysis of samples by the Food
Analysts. Presently there are 190 notified food testing laboratories.

2.REFERRAL FOOD LABORATORIES

The Food Authority recognizes referral food laboratories for the purposes of carrying out
analysis of appeal samples. Presently there are 19 referral food laboratories.

3.NATIONAL REFERENCE LABORATORIES

FSSAI has recognized National Reference laboratory (NRL) to set up a country wide
standard for routine procedures, validation of such standard procedure / testing

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methods, development of new methods and ensuring proficiency in testing across the
food laboratories with special reference to the risks or food categories. Either a primary
food laboratory or a referral food laboratory can be considered for declaration as a NRL.
Presently there are 12 NRLs and 2 ANRLs.

FSSAI Own Food Testing Laboratory:

These National Food Laboratories (NFL) are two premier referral laboratories under the
direct administrative control of FSSAI.
FSSAI has two food laboratories of its own,
1. National Food Laboratory, Ghaziabad (NFL)
The lab will be operational as state of the art laboratory on PPP (Public-Private-
Partnership) mode shortly,

2. Central Food Laboratory, Kolkata (CFLK)

The lab is being upgraded with high end equipment and a modern microbiology
laboratory.

Note : These two laboratories are referral laboratories and are being renamed as
National Food Laboratory, Ghaziabad and National Food Laboratory, Kolkata.

The Food Authority notifies food laboratories and research

institutions accredited by National Accredited Board for Testing and Calibration
Laboratories or any other accreditation agency for the purposes of carrying out analysis
of samples by the Food Analysts under this Act. As per the FSS Act, 2006, the Food
Authority shall, establish or recognise by notification, one or more referral food
laboratory or laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted to the referral food
laboratory by this Act or any rules and regulations made thereunder.
FSSAI has framed the Food Safety and Standards (Recognition and Notification of
Laboratories) Regulations, 2017 which lay down:

1. The functions of food laboratory and referral food laboratory and the local area or areas
within which such functions may be carried out,
2.The procedure for submission to the said laboratory of samples of articles of food for
analysis or tests, the forms of the laboratory's reports thereon and the fees payable in
respect of such reports; and
3.Such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable the said laboratory to
carry out its functions effectively.

As against 64 NABL Accredited food testing laboratories and research institutions notified
by FSSAI in 2014, presently there are 142 NABL accredited food testing laboratories and
research institutions. Similarly FSSAI notified Referral Laboratories have increased from

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12 in 2014 to 16 at present. This is a perpetual activity and the number of notifies
laboratories would keep on increasing in the coming years.

❖ FOOD LABORATORIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. Functions of the Laboratory Notified Under Section 43 (1)- The Notified Laboratory
shall carry out the following functions, namely,

(i) Enforcement of food laws by virtue of testing food against the prescribed quality
and testing parameters (as per relevant FSSR, 2011 as amended from time to time),
(ii) In surveillance activity to ensure that the food products sold are standardized and
also complying with the existing standards;
(iii) Assist in testing of imported food thereby ensuring the transparent mechanism of
trade and also testing of regulatory samples compliance;

2. Functions of Referral Laboratory [Notified Under Section 43 (2)] Referral Laboratory

shall be a Government Laboratory. In addition to the functions entrusted to the
Referral Laboratory under the Act, it shall carry Out the following functions, namely:

(i)Analysis of samples of food sent by any officer or authority authorized by the Food
Authority for the purpose and submission of the certificate of analysis to the
authorities concerned;
(ii) Investigation for the purpose of fixation of standard of any article of food;

(iii)Investigation in collaboration with the laboratories of various States and such

other laboratories and institutions which the Food Authority may approve on its
behalf, for the purpose of standardizing methods of analysis.
(iv) Ensuring that the laboratory follows the scientific protocols laid down for
handling/testing the articles of food.
(v) Maintaining high standards of accuracy, reliability and credibility in the operation
of the laboratory and achieving and maintaining the required levels of accreditation
and reliability.
(vi) Laying down mechanism for ensuring that personnel of the laboratory adhere to
high professional standards and discipline.
(vi) Capacity building by way of organizing professional training, workshops and
seminars for the Food analyst, laboratory personnel in the states specified by the
Food authority.
(vii) Playing the role of appellate laboratory in case of any dispute over the results of
analysis between two parties
(Laboratories/ Food Business Operators) within the ambit of FSSAL,

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 (x) Such other functions, as the Food Authority may lay down for Referral
Laboratories, from time to time.

3. Functions of Reference Laboratory [Any of the Laboratories Notified Under Section 43

(1) and/or (2)1- Referral laboratory shall be a Government Laboratory. The functions
of any laboratory designated as Reference Laboratory shall be the following:

(i)The reference laboratory shall perform the function of method development,

method validation, proficiency testing and training.
(ii) To set up country wide standards for routine testing procedures and reliable
testing methods.
(iii) The reference laboratory shall evaluate the performance of other notified
laboratories.
(iv) It shall coordinate exchange of information amongst notified laboratories.
(v) It shall also collaborate for data generation among their network and collate the
data related to their specific domain.
(vi) Such other functions, as the Authority may lay down for Reference Laboratories.

INDIAN FOOD LABORATORY NETWORK (INFOLNET)

Testing of food products at different levels of supply chain is a critical activity in the entire
food safety compliance eco system to ensure that only products, which comply with the
Act and regulations are sold in the market. Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 gives
authority to Food Safety Officer to draw samples which are intended for sale or human
consumption. Act has also mandated FSSAI to notify laboratories from time to time for
testing of various food products in the country.

Currently testing is being done by State Labs and Private Labs across the country,
however, the test reports are not available to FSSAI in real time. The reports are only
made available in physical form upon request which makes it impossible to keep this data
for future reference.
INFoLNET is a web enabled system connecting all food testing laboratories in the country
to build a repository of Lab test reports. It gives access to FSSAI as well as Non-FSSAI
approved Laboratories to publish their test reports online for all types of samples namely
Compliance, Surveillance, Enforcement, Import and Citizen, in real time so that this
information is readily available to FSSAI for their verification and analysis. It has online as
well as offline version and caters to mobile labs also.
In addition to creation of database of test results, INFoLNET shall also help to maintain
technological and human capabilities of the labs which is required to ensure sufficient
infrastructure with rising population and demand for food products.

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❖ INFOLNET BUILDING BLOCKS

• Database of all food testing laboratories along with their capabilities across the
country
• Database of product standards for which testing is to be done
• Process to test all types of samples mentioned above

❖ INFOLNET USERS

• Laboratory
• Food Safety officer
• Authorised Officer
• Designated Officer
• Food Business Operator
• FSSAI
• Food Safety Commissioner Office
• Research Institutions and Other Government Agencies

❖ INFOLNET MODULES

(I) Sample Registration

Initial step is to register the sample in the system. Following users register the sample in
the system:
• Surveillance Sample/ Enforcement Sample-FSO
• Compliance Sample-FBO
• Import Sample-Authorised Officer
• Citizen Sample- Laboratory

(II) Sample Codification

Every sample has to be uniquely identified before it is sent to Lab. INFoLNET has a
provision to generate sample slip with unique number. FBO, FSO and AO has to generate
the sample slip before registration of sample and key in the unique number in INFoLNET
at the time of registration.

(III) Lab Assignment/Request for testing

In case of surveillance and enforcement samples, INFoLNET based on product and
location, shall shortlist nearby laboratories which can test that product. FSO can then
decide the lab for testing. In case of Citizen and FB0, they can choose the lab depending
upon the product, location and their convenience.

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(IV) Lab Management System
Sample Receipt
Once the sample reaches Lab, they need to acknowledge it in the system. If the sample is
already bar coded, they can proceed for screening else they need to generate a bar code
for the same. For citizen sample, Lab needs to capture the sample details. For other
samples, data is already captured in the system at the time of sample registration.

Screening
At this stage, preliminary screening of sample is done to check the virginity. Sample can
be rejected if found tampered.

Test Result Entry

There are several modes of capturing the test data:
➢ Manual entry
➢ Excel upload
➢ Through LIMS

(V) Approval and Generation of test report

Once the test results are uploaded in the system, it is screened by lab in-charge for final
approval and generation of test report. Modification in test data is allowed only before
generation of test report.

Mobile Lab
Sample Registration
Qualitative Testing
Test Report Upload

Surveillance Planning
Objective of this module is to enable FSSAI and FSC to create a surveillance plan at state
and district level respectively.

Capturing Alerts
Provision for Risk Cell to capture disease alerts/recalls in the system so that surveillance
planning can be done at regional level.

❖ INFoLNET BENEFITS

1. Availability of test data on real time basis for

a. Risk Analysis
b. Risk Profiling of products, locations, FBOs
2. Uniform parametric testing across all facilities for all products

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3. Knowhow of Lab capabilities and identification of need for capacity building, re-
skilling etc.
4. Better surveillance planning
5. Improvement in product standards based on historic trends of test data
6. Transparency in sampling procedure.
7. Need analysis of Lab requirement at a particular geographic location for particular
food product, testing facility etc.

MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF FOODS

Food serves as excellent substrate for the growth of different kinds of microorganisms.
Microorganisms enter into food and grow as contaminants. Growth of microorganisms in
food may spoil food quality and consumption of such food creates hazardous health
effects in human and animal. So is becomes necessary to examine the microorganism in
food.
Microbiological testing of food is the examination of the microscopic
organisms in food. These organisms could be single cell, multiple cell or without cell.
Microbiology includes various sub-disciplines like Virology, Mycology, Parasitology and
Bacteriology. Microorganisms play an important role in our surroundings as all humans,
plants & animals and probably they are the largest mass of living materials on our earth.
These diversified living organisms can grow in extreme conditions where no other living
organisms can survive. They can grow in a temperature like at boiling points and can
similarly can grow and survive in extreme freezing conditions like -20 degrees & -30
degrees.

Microbial pathogens, such as Bacteria & Archaea known as prokaryotes and various types
of Fungi, protozoa etc. which are called eukaryotes need to be taken care well as this may
be harmful to some extent.

As per the latest Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, every food
product has to be tested & approved before it is put up for sale in the market.

There is a direct relationship between microorganisms and diseases as these harmful

living organisms are responsible for taking many lives with diseases like diphtheria,
pneumonia, typhoid, amoebiasis, botulism, cholera, dysentery etc.

The microorganisms can be found in various foods & beverages and they can be harmful
if they enter into a human body. Some of these microorganisms could prove to be
resistant to one or more types of antibiotics.

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❖ METHOD FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF FOOD

A. CONVENTIONAL METHODS

1. Standards Plate Count Methods

2. Direct Microscopic Examination
3. Dye Reduction Techniques
4. Most Probable Number Counts

B.RAPID METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF SPECIFIC ORGANISMS AND TOXINS

1.Immunological Methods
2.DNA/RNA Methodology

C.CHEMICAL METHODS

1. Limulus Lysate Method for Endotoxins

2. Adenosine Triphosphate Measurement
3. Radiometry

A. CONVENTIONAL METHODS

1. STANDARD PLATE COUNT

SPC can be performed by two methods:
(i) Spread plate
(ii) Pour plate

(i) Spread Plate Method:

In spread plate method pre poured and hardened agar plates with dry surfaces are used.
The food samples are serially diluted and 0.1 mm inoculum is taken using sterile pipette
and evenly distributed over the agar surface. The inoculum is distributed over the agar
surface with the help of bent glass rod.

The dispersed cells develop into isolated colonies called Colony Forming Units (CFU).
Because the number of colonies should equal the number of viable organisms in the food
sample and spread plates can be used to count the microbial population in food sample.

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Surface plating offers advantages in determining the number of heat- sensitive
psychrotrophs in a food product because the organisms do not come in contact with
melted agar. It is the method of choice when the features of a colony are important to its
presumptive identification and for most selective media. Strict aerobes are obviously
favoured by surface plating, but microaerophilic organisms tend to grow slower rate.

The disadvantages of surface plating are the problem of spreaders (especially when the
agar surface is not adequately dry prior to plating) and the crowding of colonies, which
makes enumeration more difficult.

(ii) Pour Plate Method:

The original food sample is diluted several times to reduce the microbial population
sufficiently to obtain separate colonies when plating. Then small volumes, around one ml
of several diluted samples mixed with liquid agar that has been cooled to about 45°C, and
the mixtures are poured immediately into sterile culture dishes.

After the agar has hardened, each cell is fixed in place and forms an individual colony
(CFU). Plates containing between 30 and 300 colonies are counted.

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The total number of colonies equals the number of viable microorganisms in the diluted
sample. Colonies growing on the surface also can be used to inoculate fresh medium and
prepare pure cultures.

(2). DIRECT MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

When examining foods, the possibility of detecting the presence of micro-organisms by

looking at a sample directly under the microscope should not be missed. A small amount
of material can be mounted and teased out in a drop of water on a slide, covered with a
cover slip, and examined, first with a low magnification, and then with a X45 objective.
The condenser should be set to optimize contrast even though that may result in some
loss of resolution.

Alternatively dark-field illumination or phase-contrast microscopy may be used. It is

usually relatively easy to see yeasts and moulds and with care and patience it is possible
to see bacteria in such a preparation.

The high refractive index of bacterial endospores makes them particularly easy to see with
phase-contrast optics and, if the preparation is made as a hanging drop on the cover glass
mounted over a cavity slide, it should also be possible to determine whether the bacteria
are motile.

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Since only a small sample of product is examined in this way, micro-organisms will not be
seen unless present in quite large numbers, usually at least 106 ml-1. In the case of some
liquid commodities, such as milk, yoghurt, soups and fruit juices, it may be possible to
prepare and stain a heat-fixed smear. But the food constituents often interfere with the
heat fixing and care is needed to prevent the smear being washed away during staining.

It may be necessary to dilute the sample with a little water, although that will reduce the
concentration of micro-organisms further. The great advantage of such techniques is their
rapidity, although in their simplest forms they do not distinguish between live and dead
cells.

3.DYE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

A group of tests which have been used for some time in the dairy industry depend on the
response of a number of redox dyes to the presence of metabolically active micro-
organisms. They are relatively simple and rapid to carry out at low cost. The redox dyes
are able to take up electrons from an active biological system and this results in a change
of colour.

Usually the oxidized form is coloured and the reduced form is colourless but the
triphenyltetrazolium salts are an important exception. There are three most widely used
redox dyes, methylene blue, resazurin and triphenyltetrazolium chloride.

Methylene blue is a dye which remains blue in its oxidized state and turn colourless on its
reduction state. The result of this test is expressed in terms of time required for the colour
of methylene blue to disappear at incubation temp. of 37°C.From 1937, and until
relatively recently, the methylene blue test was a statutory test for grading the quality of
milk in England and Wales. Changes in the technology of handling bulk milk, especially
refrigeration, have made this test less reliable and it is no longer a statutory test because
results show little correlation with the numbers of psychrotrophic bacteria.

The reduction of resazurin takes place in two stages, from blue to pink to colourless, there
is a wider range of colour that can be scored using a comparator disc and the ten-minute
resazurin test is still useful for assessing the quality of raw milk at the farm or dairy before
it is bulked with other milk.

Triphenyltetrazolium salts and their derivatives are initially colourless and

become intensely coloured, and usually insoluble, after reduction to formazans.
Triphenyltetrazolium chloride itself is most widely used as a component of diagnostic and
selective agar media on which some bacterial colonies will become dark red to maroon as
formazan becomes precipitated within the colony.
The crystals of the formazan produced from 2-(p-iodo-phenyl)-3-( p– nitro-phenyl)-5-
phenyl-tetrazolium chloride (INT) are so intensely coloured that they are readily seen in
individual microbial cells under the microscope and their presence may be used to assess

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the viability of cells. One possible development would be the incorporation of INT as part
of the staining procedure in the DEFT analysis.

4.MOST PROBABLE NUMBER COUNTS

Monitoring and detection of indicator and disease-causing microorganisms are a major
part of sanitary microbiology. A wide range of viral, bacterial and protozoan diseases
result from the contamination of water with human fecal wastes. Although many of these
pathogens can be detected directly, environmental microbiologists have generally used
indicator organisms as an index of possible water contamination by human pathogen.
Coliforms are defined as gram-negative, non-sporing, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped
bacteria that ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35°C.

THE FOLLOWING ARE AMONG THE SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR INDICATOR ORGANISMS:

(a) The indicator bacterium should be suitable for the analysis of all types of water tap,
river, ground, impounded, recreational, estuary, sea, and waste.
(b) These organisms should be present wherever enteric pathogens are present.
(c) The indicator bacterium should survive longer than the hardiest enteric pathogen.
(d) The indicator bacterium should not reproduce in the contaminated water and
produce an inflated value.
(e) The assay procedure for the indicator should have great specificity; in other words,
other bacteria should not give positive results. In addition, the procedure should
have high sensitivity and detect low levels of the indicator.
(f) The testing method should be easy to perform.
(g) The indicator should be harmless to humans.
(h) The level of the indicator bacterium in contaminated water should have some direct
relationship to the degree of fecal pollution.

MPN test is the most widely used method to find out the potability of water
by testing the viable bacterial count. This method was introduced by Mc Crady in 1915.
The original test for coliforms that was used to meet this definition involved the
presumptive, confirmed, and completed tests. The presumptive step is carried out by
means of tubes inoculated with three different sample volumes to give an estimate of the
most probable number (MPN) of coliforms in the water.
The complete process, including the confirmed and
completed tests, requires at least 4 days of incubations and transfers. So, water to be
tested to find out presence of fecal coliforms. These coliforms are derived from the
intestine of warm-blooded animals, which can grow at the more restrictive temperature
of 44.5°C. Three serial aliquots or dilutions are then planted into 9 or 15 tubes of
appropriate medium for the three- or five-tube method, respectively. Numbers of
organisms in the original sample are determined by use of standard MPN tables. It is not

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a precise method of analysis; the 95% confidence intervals for a three-tube test range
from 21 to 395.

B. RAPID METHODS FOR THE DETECTION OF SPECIFIC ORGANISMS AND TOXINS

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY TECHNIQUES

1.NUCLEIC ACID (DNA/RNA) METHODOLOGY

All biochemical, immunological and other characteristics used in the detection of micro-
organisms are governed directly or indirectly by the base sequences encoded in the
organism’s genome. The specificity of this information can now be mobilized to provide
methods capable of identifying genera, species or even strains within a species.

Nucleic acid probes can be designed which recognize and bind (hybridize) to specified
regions of either chromosomal or plasmid DNA or to RNA, and the region chosen to give
the desired level of specificity. Thus, for example, ribosomal RNA contains both conserved
and variable regions, the former being suitable for recognition at the genus level whereas
the latter may be considerably more specific.

Although RNA is a more labile molecule than DNA, there are many more copies of
ribosomal RNA in a cell than genomic DNA which should make methods based on this
molecule more sensitive.

The nucleic acids have to be released from the cells by some form of lysis and, in the case
of double-stranded DNA, it has also to be denatured, usually by heat treatment, to the
single-stranded form. The denatured nucleic acid is then adsorbed onto a membrane,
fixed to it by heat or alkali treatment, and the membrane is treated with some form of
blocking agent to prevent nonspecific binding of the probe.

After incubating with the labelled probe and washing off un-adsorbed probe, the
presence of the hybridization product is measured using the label attached to the probe.
In the earliest stages of the development of this methodology probes were directly
labelled with radioactive isotopes such as 32P or 35S and hybridization was detected by
autoradiography.

This is a very sensitive method but the routine use of radioactive compounds in a food-
associated environment is not usually acceptable. Probes can be labelled with an enzyme
and detected with a chromogenic substrate or they can be labelled with a small molecular
weight hapten for which an enzyme-linked monoclonal antibody is available.

Such probes are available for the enterotoxin gene of Staphylococcus aureus, the
haemolysin gene and rRNA of Listeria monocytogenes, 23S rRNA of Salmonella, as well as

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several other systems. One interesting example is a ribosomal RNA probe to detect
Listeria monocytogenes which uses a chemiluminescent label.

The single-stranded DNA probe has a chemiluminescent molecule bound to it. When the
probe binds to its RNA target, the chemiluminescent molecule is protected from
degradation in a subsequent step so that successful hybridization is indicated by light
emission measured in a luminometer.

2.DNA AMPLIFICATION (PCR)

PCR has been used to detect Enterotoxigenic E. coli, Vibrio, Clostridium, etc. and this
method is an elegant technique to determine the pathogen by amplifying their DNA using
specific primer.

IMMUNOLOGIC METHODS

Because of the potential specificity of immunoassays using polyclonal or monoclonal

antibodies, there has been considerable effort devoted to developing their application in
food microbiology. Commercial immunoassay kits are now available for detecting a
variety of foodborne micro-organisms and their toxins, including mycotoxins.

Raising antibodies to specific surface antigens of micro-organisms, or to macromolecules

such as staphylococcal or botulinum toxins, is relatively straightforward and can be
achieved directly. Mycotoxins, however, belong to a class of molecules known as haptens
which can bind to an appropriate antibody but are of relatively low molecular weight and
are not themselves immunogenic.

Serological reactions are effective method for detecting the pathogenic

microorganisms or their toxin. The most commonly used serological methods are
discussed below:

I. FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY:
An antibody to a given antigen is made fluorescent by coupling it to a fluorescent
compound and when the antibody reacts with its antigen, the antigen-antibody complex
emits fluorescence and can be detected by the use of a fluorescence microscope. The
fluorescent markers used are rhodamine B, fluorescein isocyanate, and fluorescein
isothiocyanate with the last being the most widely used.

The fluorescent antibody (FA) technique can be carried out by use of either of two basic
methods. The direct method employs antigen and specific antibody to which is coupled
the fluorescent compound (antigen coated by specific antibody with fluorescent label)
with the indirect method, the homologous antibody is not coupled with the fluorescent
label, but instead an antibody to this antibody is prepared and coupled in the indirect

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method, the labelled compound detects the presence of the homologous antibody; in the
direct method, it detects the presence of the antigen.

II. ENRICHMENT SEROLOGY:

The use of Enrichment Serology (ES) is a more rapid method for recovering salmonellae
from foods than the conventional culture method. It is carried out in four steps: pre-
enrichment in a nonselective medium for 18 hours; selective enrichment in selenite-
cystine and/or tetrathionate broth for 24 hours; elective enrichment in M broth for either
6-8 hours or 24 hours; and agglutination with polyvalent H antisera at 50°C for 1 hour.
The Oxoid Salmonella Rapid Test (OSRT) is a variation of ES. It consists of a culture vessel
containing two tubes, each of which contains dehydrated enrichment media in the lower
compartments and dehydrated selective media in the upper compartments.
The media are hydrated with sterile distilled water and a special salmonella elective
medium is added to the culture vessel along with a novobiocin antibiotic disk, followed
by 1ml of pre-enrichment culture of sample. Following incubation at 41°C for 24 hours,
media in the upper compartment (selective media) of each tube are examined for colour
change, indicating the presence of salmonella.

III. SALMONELLA 1-2 TEST:

Salmonella 1-2 Test employs the use of a semisolid phase. The test is conducted in a
specially designed plastic device that has two chambers, one for selective broth and the
other for a nonselective motility medium. In addition to selective ingredients, the
nonselective medium contains the amino acid L-Serine, which is selective for salmonellae.
Following inoculation of the selective medium chamber, the device is incubated, during
which time motile salmonellae move into the nonselective medium chamber. The non-
selective medium contains flagellar antibodies, and when the motile organisms enter the
antibody area, an immune band develops, indicating antigen-antibody reaction.

IV. RADIOIMMUNOASSAY:
This technique consists of adding a radioactive label to an antigen, allowing the labelled
antigen to react with its specific antibody, and measuring the amount of antigen that
combined with the antibody by the use of a counter to measure radioactivity. Solid- phase
radioimmunoassay (RIA) refers to methods that employ solid materials or surfaces onto
which a monolayer of antibody molecules binds electrostatically.
The solid materials used include polypropylene, polystyrene and bromacetyl cellulose.
The ability of antibody-coated polymers to bind specifically with radioactive tracer
antigens is essential to the basic principle of solid-phase RIA. When the free-labelled
antigen is washed out, the radioactivity measurements are quantitative.

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V. ELISA:
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA, enzyme immunoassay, or EIA) is an
immunological method similar to RIA but employing an enzyme coupled to either an
antigen or an antibody. A typical ELISA is performed with a solid-phase (polystyrene)
coated with antigen and incubated with antiserum. Following incubation and washing, an
enzyme-labelled preparation of anti-immunoglobulin is added.
After gentle washing, the enzyme remaining in the tube or microtiter well is assayed to
determine the amount of specific antibodies in the initial serum. A commonly used
enzyme is horseradish peroxidase and its presence is measured by the addition of
peroxidase substrate.
The amount of enzyme present is ascertained by the colorimetric determination of
enzyme substrate. One variation of basic ELISA consists of a “sandwich” ELISA in which
the antigen is required to have at least two binding sites. The antigen reacts first with
excess solid-phase antibody, and following incubation and washing, the bound antigen is
treated with excess labelled antibody. The ELISA technique is used widely to detect and
quantify organisms and/ or their products in foods.

C.CHEMICAL METHODS
1.LIMULUS LYSATE FOR ENDOTOXINS
Endotoxins, a type of pyrogen, are natural compounds found in the outer cell membrane
of Gram-negative bacteria and can impact over 30 biological activities. Endotoxin can lead
to cell death by initiating complement activation. The Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test
was commercially introduced in the 1970s. LAL is derived from the blood cells, or
amebocytes, of the horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus.Gram-negative bacteria are
characterized by their production of endotoxins ,which consist of a lipopolysaccharides
(LPS) layer (outer membrane ) of the cell envelope. The LPS is pyrogenic and responsible
for some of the symptoms that accompany infections caused by gram-negative bacteria.
The Limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) test employs a lysate protein obtained from the
blood cells (amoebocytes) of the horseshoe crab (Limulus Polyphemus).

The LAL test is performed by adding aliquots of food suspensions or other test material
to small quantities of lysate preparation, followed by incubation at 37° C for 1hr. The
presence of endotoxins causes gel formation of the lysate material.

2.ATP (ADENOSINE -TRIPHOSPHATE) MEASUREMENT

ATP is a molecule found in and around living cells, and as such it gives a direct measure of
biological concentration and health. ATP is quantified by measuring the light produced
through its reaction with the naturally occurring firefly enzyme luciferase using a
luminometer. The amount of light produced is directly proportional to the amount of ATP
present in the sample.

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Adenosine-triphosphate (ATP) is the primary sources of energy in all living organism. It
disappears within 2 h after cell death, and the amount per cells is generally constant. The
simplest ways to measure ATP is by use of the firefly luciferin-luciferase system. In the
presence of ATP, luciferase emits light, which is measured with a liquid scintillation
spectrometer or a luminometer. The amount of light produced by firefly luciferase is
directly proportional to the amount of ATP added.

The application of the measurement as a rapid method for estimating microbial numbers
has been used in clinical microbiology.

3.RADIOMETRY
The radiometric detection of microorganisms is based on the incorporation of a 14C-
labeled metabolite in a growth medium so that when the organisms utilize this
metabolite, 14CO2 is released and measured by use of a radioactivity.

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CHAPTER 13
MODERN ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION
The aim of food products analysis is obtaining results, which provides information about
the composition of food products or food raw material sample. This obtaining information
can be carried out on different levels. These levels can be the following: elemental,
molecular, and structural. The level of the chemical elements (elemental) means that
answer can be given to the question that what (qualitative analysis) and how much
(quantitative analysis) can be found in the given sample. Although, on the molecular level
the answer can be given about what compounds and crystalline forms consist of the
sample from the building elements. The examination of the structure can mean
arrangement of the molecules as well (e.g.: determining the order of the amino acids in a
protein). The difficulty of the analytical task differs among levels. Any technique selected
for food analysis depends on what the researcher is looking for, and there is a host of food
properties from which to choose. The development and application of analytical methods
and techniques in food science has grown parallel to the consumers concern about what
is in their food and the safety of the food they eat.

MODERN ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES/ INSTRUMENTAL ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR

FOOD ANALYSIS
At the beginning of the twentieth century scientists began to take more and more
advantage of the different opportunities provided by the measured components’ physical
correlations. With the help of them they developed better and better instrumental
analytical methods which they found solution for several problems of the classical
analytical methods. Such physical characteristics are for example: conductivity, electrode
potential, light absorption, light emission, fluorescence and the mass-charge ratio, which
were started to be used for quantitative analysis. Furthermore, highly effective
chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques were also used to substitute distillation,
extraction or precipitation, applied to divide the mixture of components of food or food
raw material samples with unusually complex matrix before the qualitative or
quantitative determination. The aforementioned new methods, used for the separation
and determination of different components, are called instrumental analytical methods.
The rapid development of the computer and electronics industry highly contributed to
the improvement and spread of the modern instrumental analytical methods.

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characteristics of the analytical methods
1. Selectivity,
2. Specificity,
3. Ruggedness,
4. Measurement range,
5. Linearity,
6. Detection limit,
7. Quantitation limit,
8. Accuracy, and
9. Precision.

1. Atomic absorption spectrometry

In atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) the analysed element is transformed into free
ground state atoms with energy transfer (in a flame or graphite furnace). Through this
atomic vapour a light with the wavelength characteristic for the element that is directed
through and the decrease of the intensity of light is measured. The wavelength of the
used light determines the quality of the analysed material, while the relative decrease of
the intensity of light determines the relative and absolute quantity of the element.

Hollow Cathode Lamp Flame Monochromator Detector

Or Polychromator

2. Gas chromatography
Gas chromatography is a column chromatography technique, where the mobile phase is
gas and the stationary phase is either an immobilized liquid or a solid packed in a closed
tube. GC is useful for separation of thermally stable volatile components of a mixture (for
example fatty acid methyl esters). During the gas–liquid GC the sample is vaporized and
injected into the head of the column. By using a controlled temperature gradient, the
sample is transported through the column by the mobile phase, which usually is an inert
gas. The volatile components then are separated based on boiling point, molecular size,
and polarity. GC has been used for the determination of fatty acids, triglycerides,
cholesterol and other sterols, gases, solvent analysis, water, alcohols, and simple sugars,
as well as oligosaccharides, amino acids and peptides, vitamins, pesticides, herbicides,
food additives, antioxidants, nitrosamines, polychlorinated biphenyls, drugs, flavor
compounds, and many more.

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3. Supercritical fluid chromatography
Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) refers to chromatography that is performed
above the critical pressure (Pc) and critical temperature (Tc) of the mobile phase. A
supercritical fluid (or compressed gas) is neither a liquid nor a typical gas. The
combination of Pc and Tc is known as the critical point. A supercritical fluid can be formed
from a conventional gas by increasing the pressure or from a conventional liquid by raising
the temperature. Carbon dioxide frequently is used as a mobile phase for SFC, because it
is not a good solvent for polar and high molecular-weight compounds. Other supercritical
fluids are nitrous oxide, trifluoromethane, sulphur hexafluoride, pentane and ammonia.
The high diffusivity and low viscosity of supercritical fluids mean decreased analysis times
and improved resolution compared to LC.
SFC offers a wide ranges of selectivity adjustment, by
changes in pressure and temperature as well as changes in mobile phase composition and
the stationary phase. SFC makes possible separation of nonvolatile, thermally labile
compounds that are not amenable to GC. SFC can be performed by using either packed
columns or capillaries, and has used primarily for nonpolar compounds. Fats, oils, and
other lipids are compounds which SFC is increasingly applied.

4. High-performance liquid chromatography

Originally, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was the acronym for high
pressure liquid chromatography, reflecting the high operating pressures generated by
early columns. By the late 1970s, highperformance liquid chromatography had become
the preferred term, emphasizing the effective separations achieved. HPLC can be applied
to the analysis of any compound with solubility in a liquid that can be used as the mobile
phase. Although most frequently employed as an analytical technique, HPLC also may be
used in the preparative mode.

There are many advantages of HPLC over traditional low-pressure column liquid
chromatography, because many analyses can be accomplished in 30 min or less, a wide
variety of stationary phases, improved resolution and greater sensitivity, because various
detectors can be employed, and easy sample recovery, because of less eluent volume to
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remove. A basic HPLC system consists of a pump, injector, column, detector, and data
system. HPLC is widely used for the analysis of small molecules and ions, such as sugars,
vitamins, and amino acids, and is applied to the separation and purification of
macromolecules, such as proteins and polysaccharides.

5.Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectromatry (GC-MS)

Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a hyphenated analytical technique
that combines the separation properties of gas-liquid chromatography with the detection
feature of mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample. GC is
used to separate the volatile and thermally stable substitutes in a sample whereas GC-MS
fragments the analyte to be identified on the basis of its mass. The further addition of
mass spectrometer in it leads to GC-MS/MS. Superior performance is achieved by single
and triple quadrupole modes.

Foods and beverages have several aromatic compounds existing naturally in native state
or formed while processing. GC-MS is exclusively used for the analysis of esters, fatty
acids, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes etc. GCMS is also used to detect and measure
contaminants, spoilage and adulteration of food, oil, butter, ghee that could be harmful
and should to be controlled and checked as regulated by governmental agencies. It is used
in the analysis of piperine, spearmint oil, lavender oil, essential oil, fragrance reference
standards, perfumes, chiral compounds in essential oils, fragrances, menthol, allergens,
olive oil, lemon oil, peppermint oil, yiang oil, straw berry syrup, butter triglycerides,
residual pesticides in food and wine.

6. Infra-red (IR) spectroscopy

Infra-red spectroscopy is used to measure IR radiation absorbed by or reflected from a
sample. The absorption of IR radiation is related to the changes of vibrational or rotational
energy states of molecules. Its applications for analysis of gaseous, liquid or solid samples,
identification of compounds and their quantitative analysis etc. The IR spectrum obtained
for functional groups of molecules, constitution of molecules and interaction among
molecules provides information about the samples.

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Main components of an instrument,

1. radiation source
2. measuring (and reference) cell
3. wavelength selector 4. detector (transducer)

MASS SPECTROMETRY
In the food industry, food safety and quality are still performed as an important issue all
over the world, which are directly related to people’s health and social progress.
Consumers are gradually looking for quality seals and trust marks on food products, and
expect manufacturers and retailers to provide products of high quality. All of these factors
have underlined the need for reliable techniques to evaluate the food quality (Haiyan and
Yong, 2007). Protein, Fiber and fat content are the routine biochemical food quality
parameters which are employed world-wide to determine the quality of any food
matrices.

Mass spectrometry (MS) is an extremely valuable analytical technique in which the

molecules in a test sample are converted to gaseous ions that are subsequently separated
in a mass spectrometer according to their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio and detected. The
mass spectrum is a plot of the (relative) abundance of the ions at each m/z ratio. Note
that it is the mass to charge ratios of ions (m/z) and not the actual mass that is measured.
If for example, a biomolecule is ionised by the addition of one or more protons (H+ ions)
the instrument measures the m/z after addition of 1 Da for each proton if the instrument
is measuring positive ions or m/z minus 1 Da for each proton lost if measuring negative
ions.

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The development of two ionisation techniques, electrospray (ESI) and matrix-assisted
laser desorption/ionisation (MALDI), has enabled the accurate mass determination of
high-molecular-mass compounds as well as low-molecular-mass molecules and has
revolutionised the applicability of mass spectrometry to almost any biological molecule.
Applications include the new science of proteomics as well as in drug discovery. The latter
includes combinatorial chemistry where a large number of similar molecules
(combinatorial libraries) are produced and analysed to find the most effective compounds
from a group of related organic chemicals.
Mr is sometimes used to designate relative molar mass. Molecular weight (which is a force
not a mass) is also frequently and incorrectly used. Mr is a relative measure and has no
units. However, Mr is numerically equivalent to the mass, M, which does have units and
the Dalton is frequently used.

The essential features of all mass spectrometers are therefore

1. production of ions in the gas phase;
2. acceleration of the ions to a specific velocity in an electric field;
3. separation of the ions in a mass analyser; and
4. detection of each species of a particular m/z ratio.

The instruments are calibrated with standard compounds of accurately known Mr values.
In mass spectrometry the carbon scale is used with 12C ¼ 12.000000. This level of
accuracy is achievable in high-resolution magnetic sector double-focussing, accelerator
mass spectrometers and Fourier transform mass spectrometers.
The mass analyser may separate ions either by use of a magnetic or an electrical field.
Alternatively the time taken for ions of different masses to travel a given distance in space
is measured accurately in the time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer (Section 9.3.8). Any
material that can be ionised and whose ions can exist in the gas phase can be investigated
by MS, remembering that very low pressures, i. e. high vacuum, in the region of 106 Torr
are required (Torr is measure of pressure which equals 1 mm of mercury (133.3 Pa;
atmospheric pressure is 760 Torr)). The majority of biological MS investigations on
proteins, oligosaccharides and nucleic acids is carried out with quadrupole, quadrupole–
ion trap and TOF mass spectrometers. In the organic chemistry/biochemistry area of
analysis, the well-established magnetic sector mass spectrometers still find wide
application and their main principles will also be described. The treatment of mass
spectrometry in this chapter will be strictly non-mathematical and non-technical.
However, the intention is to give an overview of the types of instrumentation that will be
employed, the main uses of each, complementary techniques and
advantages/disadvantages of the different instruments and particular applications most
suited to each type. Data analysis and sample preparation to obtain the best sensitivity
for a particular type of compound will also be covered.

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Components of a mass spectrometer

1. A high vacuum system (106 torr or 1 m torr): These include turbomolecular pumps,
diffusion pumps and rotary vane pumps.
2. A sample inlet: This comprises a sample or target plate; a high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) or capillary electrophoresis
system; solids probe; electron impact or direct chemical ionisation chamber.
3. An ion source (to convert molecules into gas-phase ions): This can be MALDI; ESI;
fast atom bombardment (FAB); electron impact or direct chemical ionisation.
4. A mass filter/analyser: This can be: TOF; quadrupole; ion trap; magnetic sector or
ion cyclotron Fourier transform (the last is also actually a detector).
5. A detector: This can be a conversion dynode, electron multiplier, microchannel
plate or array detector.

High vacuum system

Ion Mass Data

Inlet Detector
source filter system

MASS SPECTROMETER
Mass spectrometer is an analytical tool that is used to measure the mass-to-charge
ratio of ions. The results are presented as a mass spectrum, a plot of intensity as a
function of the mass-to-charge ratio. Mass spectrometry is used in many different fields
and is applied to pure samples as well as complex mixtures.
A mass spectrum is a plot of the ion signal as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. These
spectra are used to determine the elemental or isotopic signature of a sample, the masses
of particles and of molecules, and to elucidate the chemical identity or structure of
molecules and other chemical compounds.

In order to measure the characteristics of individual molecules, a mass spectrometer

converts them to ions so that they can be moved about and manipulated by external
electric and magnetic fields. The three essential functions of a mass spectrometer, and
the associated components, are:

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1. A small sample is ionized, usually to cations by loss of an electron. (The Ion Source)
2. The ions are sorted and separated according to their mass and charge. (The Mass Analyzer)
3. The separated ions are then measured, and the results displayed on a chart. (The Detector)

Because ions are very reactive and short-lived, their formation and manipulation must be
conducted in a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure is around 760 torr (mm of mercury). The
pressure under which ions may be handled is roughly 10-5 to 10-8 torr (less than a billionth
of an atmosphere). Each of the three tasks listed above may be accomplished in different
ways. In one common procedure, ionization is effected by a high energy beam of
electrons, and ion separation is achieved by accelerating and focusing the ions in a beam,
which is then bent by an external magnetic field. The ions are then detected electronically
and the resulting information is stored and analyzed in a computer. A mass spectrometer
operating in this fashion is outlined in the following diagram. The heart of the
spectrometer is the ion source. Here molecules of the sample (black dots) are bombarded
by electrons (light blue lines) issuing from a heated filament. This is called an EI (electron-
impact) source. Gases and volatile liquid samples are allowed to leak into the ion source
from a reservoir (as shown). Non-volatile solids and liquids may be introduced directly.
Cations formed by the electron bombardment (red dots) are pushed away by a charged
repeller plate (anions are attracted to it), and accelerated toward other electrodes, having
slits through which the ions pass as a beam. Some of these ions fragment into smaller
cations and neutral fragments. A perpendicular magnetic field deflects the ion beam in an
arc whose radius is proportional to the mass of each ion. Lighter ions are deflected more
than heavier ions. By varying the strength of the magnetic field, ions of different mass can
be focused progressively on a detector fixed at the end of a curved tube (also under a high
vacuum).

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When a high energy electron collides with a molecule it often ionizes it by knocking away
one of the molecular electrons (either bonding or non-bonding). This leaves behind
a molecular ion (colored red in the following diagram). Residual energy from the collision
may cause the molecular ion to fragment into neutral pieces (colored green) and
smaller fragment ions (colored pink and orange). The molecular ion is a radical cation, but
the fragment ions may either be radical cations (pink) or carbocations (orange),
depending on the nature of the neutral fragment.

Various types of Mass Spectrometry

1. AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry)
2. Gas Chromatography-MS
3. Liquid Chromatography-MS
4. ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass spectrometry)
5. IRMS (Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry)
6. Ion Mobility Spectrometry-MS
7. MALDI-TOF
8. SELDI-TOF
9. Tandem MS
10.TIMS (Thermal Ionization-Mass Spectrometry)
11.SSMS (Spark Source Mass Spectrometry)
12.Rarely used Mass Spectrometry Ionization Types

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CHAPTER 14
FOOD SAFETY AUDIT & INSPECTION
INTRODUCTION
To strengthen the food safety surveillance system, FSSAI has envisaged audits of Food
Business Operators through Private Auditing Agencies. In order to cultivate and foster the
growth of compliance culture, FSSAI is enabling compliance through private recognised
Auditing Agencies. Food Safety and Standards (Food Safety Auditing) Regulations,
2018 have been notified on 28th August 2018 for the same.

Food Safety Audits will reduce the regulatory Food Safety Inspections conducted by
Central or State Licensing Authorities. Satisfactory Audits will lead to less frequent
regulatory inspections by Central or State Licensing Authority except the regulatory
sampling. This will strengthen food safety surveillance system and encourage self-
compliance while at the same time assuring safe food to the consumers.

An audit is an "independent examination of financial

information of any entity, whether profit oriented or not, irrespective of its size or legal
form when such an examination is conducted with a view to express an opinion thereon.”
Auditing also attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by
the concern as required by law. Auditors consider the propositions before them, obtain
evidence, and evaluate the propositions in their auditing report.

Audits provide third-party assurance to various stakeholders that the subject matter is
free from material misstatement. The term is most frequently applied to audits of the
financial information relating to a legal person. Other commonly audited areas include:
secretarial and compliance, internal controls, quality management, project management,
water management, and energy conservation. As a result of an audit, stakeholders may
evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance
over the subject matter.

Auditing has been a safeguard measure since ancient times, and has since expanded to
encompass so many areas in the public and corporate sectors that academics have started
identifying an "Audit Society"

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 Food inspection is at the heart of the enforcement system.
The approach for food inspection has shifted from being mostly reactive, based on end-
product inspection, to being preventive and risk-based, taking into account the entire
food chain to better manage modern and often highly complex supply chains. Risk based
inspection planning also has the benefit of helping authorities to allocate their (often
scarce) resources where the greater risks are located in the food chain, therefore
maximizing the benefits of their actions.

The Food Safety Officers are empowered by law and regulation to conduct inspections so
it is necessary for the FSO to have a thorough knowledge about these laws and regulations
and about the scope of the authority vested in him/her. They should have copies of all
the pertinent law(s) and regulations for consultation in case of any disagreement. In
absence of laws and regulations to allow an FSO to implement a risk based approach to
food inspection, areas for improvement identified during the inspection can be raised as
recommendation instead of noncompliance while legislation is reviewed.

Food Safety & Standards (Licensing & Registration of Food Businesses)

Regulations, 2011, provides details for procedure of inspections of various food
establishments.

It is the duty of the Food Safety Officers to ensure food safety and quality within the area
assigned to him. In other words, the major part of enforcement of the Act and various
Regulations on food lies with them.

FOOD SAFETY AUDIT

strengthen the food safety surveillance system, FSSAI has envisaged audits of Food
Business Operators through private Auditing Agencies. A Draft Food Safety and Standards
(Food Safety Auditing) Regulations, 2017, FSSAI has been prepared for the same.
In accordance with the draft regulation, FSSAI has now started the procedure to
Provisionally recognise Auditing Agencies to create a pool of recognised Auditing
Agencies. Presently, the Provisionally recognised auditing Agencies will only be engaged
by FSSAI to audit some food businesses as decided by the FSSAI from time to time. once
the Draft Food Safety and Standards (Food Safety Auditing) Regulations, 2017 after
considering the comments from relevant stakeholders, is finally vetted and notified, the
food authority shall from time to time specify the category of food businesses which shall
be liable for mandatory audits.

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❖ NEED FOR PRIVATE AUDITING OF FBOS

Inspecting and auditing food businesses is a humongous task for FSSAI, hence in order to
cultivate and foster the growth of compliance culture, FSSAI is enabling compliance
through private recognised Auditing Agencies.
Food Safety Audits will reduce the regulatory Food Safety Inspections conducted by
Central or State Licensing Authorities. Satisfactory Audits will lead to less frequent
regulatory inspections by Central or State Licensing Authority except the regulatory
sampling. Food Businesses classified by Food Authority for mandatory Food Safety Audits
are liable to get their businesses timely audited by recognised Auditing Agencies. Food
Authority will declare the category/type of food businesses subject to mandatory audit
based on risk classification and the frequency of audits. This classification will be based
on factors like Food type, Intended Customer use, nature of activity of the business,
Volume of the business & Method of processing/any other factors prescribed by
Authority.
Food businesses which are not subject to mandatory Food Safety auditing can also
conform to auditing of their businesses on voluntary basis. This will encourage self-
compliance among them.

❖ OBJECTIVES OF FOOD SAFETY AUDITS

1. Strengthen food safety surveillance system.

2. Reduces the regulatory Food Safety Inspections conducted by Central/State
Licensing Authorities.
3. Encourage Self Compliance.
4. Develop a self-sustaining ecosystem for ensuring compliance of FBOs.
5. Reduce the gap between regulator led enforcement& field level Non-Compliance.

❖ Criteria for Recognition of Auditing Organisations/Agencies

• They should be a legal entity in India.

• They should have valid accreditation against ISO/EC 17020 and ISO/IEC 17021.
• Accreditation body is member of IAF (International Accreditation Forum) and
signatory to IAF Multilateral Recognition Arrangements.
• Should have a minimum of 3 qualified auditors
• It is desirable to have indemnity insurance.

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❖ CRITERIA FOR APPROVAL AND RECOGNITION OF AUDITING AGENCY:

Auditing Agencies applies for recognition along with Fees

Applications reviewed by FSSAI

Applications placed before the Screening Committee

Assessed by Screening Committee on the basis of Qualifications/Experience

and if necessary through interview/exams etc. Reject

Approved

Certificate of Provisional Recognition Issued and List of recognized

Auditors of the Agency published on FSSAI website with validity and
Scope of Audit

FBO choose the auditor as per their business requirement

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❖ AUDITOR TRAINING
Each potential recognised food safety auditor as part of an agency must attend a training
session with the FSSAI on policies, procedures, reporting and other requirements. The
training must be attended by every Food Safety Auditor before commencing any food
safety audits as recognised auditor. An Auditor Manual/Guide will be provided during the
training.

Duties of Auditors:

a. They should conduct food safety audit of Food Business Operator

b. They should check compliance with the provisions of the various regulations made
under the Act;
c. They should conduct pre-commissioning inspection of newly established food
business units, as directed by the Food Authority:
d. They should keep all commercial-in-confidence material confidential, which
includes process and product formulation information, food safety program
information and audit outcomes;
e. They should forward the audit report to the Food Authority within fifteen days of
the conduct of food safety audit;
f. They should carry out necessary follow-up action, including further audits, to check
whether any corrective action was taken to remove any deficiency of such food
safety program identified in an audit;
g. They should maintain the confidentiality during food safety audit;
h. Any other related assignment which the Food Authority may specify from time to
time.

❖ AUDIT PROCESS
The Food Authority shall, from time to time specify the category or type of food
businesses which shall be subject to mandatory food safety auditing, primarily based on
their risk classification. The classification of food business shall be done after
consideration of the major risk factors like food type, intended customer use, nature of
activity of the business, volume of the business, method of processing and or any other
factors that the Food Authority may specify in this behalf. Such food businesses shall get
their business audited by the recognized auditing agency as per the frequency specified
by the Food Authority. Food businesses which are not mandatorily subject to food safety
auditing but are desirous of getting audited by the recognized auditing agency, can opt
for the same.

Food businesses in which food safety audits have been satisfactorily conducted may be
subject to less frequent inspections by the Central or the State licensing authorities except
for regulatory purpose. Provided that in case of any complaints against the food
businesses or when it comes to the knowledge of the Food Authority that the public
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health and safety is at risk, the Food Authority shall have the discretion to undertake more
frequent inspections.
The audit process involved for assessing the food safety management system of a Food
Business Operator shall be based on IS/ISO 19011:2011 (Guidelines for auditing
management systems).

❖ AUDIT EXAMINATION
Audit examination shall cover collection of objective evidence and documenting audit
observations. Evidence can be collected through interviews, examination of
documentation and observation of activities. Where the deficiencies or non-
conformances detected, they shall be documented clearly and concisely and shall
point out the regulatory requirements that are being contravened. During the audit
process, the auditing agency shall verify the compliance not only with the food safety
measures but also with the Food Safety Standards Regulations as applicable other than
those which may require specific sampling and laboratory analysis of the products. The
auditing agency shall check relevant documents related to laboratory reports
maintained by the Food Business Operator as part of compliance with various
regulations made under the Act.

❖ AUDIT REPORT
The auditor shall report the findings of the audit to the food business after the
completion of the audit, wherein the food business shall be given an opportunity to
discuss the findings and provide further information or clarification to the auditor, if
necessary. The auditing agency shall submit the audit report in the format specified by
Food Authority to the Food Business Operator immediately after completion of the
audit and also to the Central or State Licensing authority within fifteen days. The audit
report shall clearly bring out the finding or nonconformities. The non-conformities of
the audit may be classified into two categories, namely

1) Major Non-Conformity- When there is a serious failure in the food safety

management system of the Food Business Operator, which may result in adverse
health consequence possibly even fatal, the auditor shall report such findings to
the Central or State Licensing Authority within twenty four hrs. The Central or State
Licensing Authority after ascertaining the seriousness of the situation shall take
regulatory action against the concerned food business operator.
2) Minor Non-Conformity- When there is a shortcoming in the food safety
management system or regulatory contravention of the Food Business Operator,
which may not cause any adverse health consequence, the auditor shall set up an
appropriate timeframe for its rectification and follow up, so that the non-
conformance could be rectified.
Failure by food business operator to rectify the minor non
conformity within the specified timeframe shall be referred to the Central or State

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 Licensing Authorities, as the case may be. The auditor may recommend in writing
the reasons for the change in audit frequency of the food business operator to the
Central or State Licensing Authority based on the audit.

❖ AUDIT MONITORING
The Food Authority shall monitor the performance of the recognized auditing agency in
the following manner, namely:

1) MECHANISM
The monitoring mechanism shall include review of the audit reports and
performance; on site assessment of the auditors to ensure their competency of
auditing the food safety management systems and the regulatory requirements;
assessment of auditing agency on the basis of report of the accreditation body and
any other mechanism as specified by the Food Authority.

2) HANDLING DISPUTES

(i) The Central or the State Licensing Authorities shall be the contact point for Food
Business Operator to engage in case of any dispute or disagreement with auditors.
(ii) In case of any non-cooperation or resistance to the working of the auditing
agencies or auditors by food business operator, the same shall be referred to the
Central or the State Licensing authorities for resolution.

3) RECORD KEEPING

(i) The final conformance report and all other documents related to the audit
conducted including the first audit report, actions taken and successive
communications on rectification measures shall be preserved by the auditing
agencies at least for a period of five years and full confidentiality of the documents
shall be maintained.
(ii) Food Business Operator shall maintain all records of audit findings and
rectification for a period of five years.

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 INSPECTION

Inspection and monitoring programmes are at the heart of the enforcement system.
In the old conception of food control, inspection activities focused on sampling and
testing of end products to determine their compliance with regulations.
It is now considered more efficient to focus inspection activities on ensuring compliance
of systems for food safety management (implementation of the general principles for
food hygiene and HACCP based approaches) that can minimise the occurrence of food
safety problems.
This shift from a “reactive” towards a “preventive” approach to food safety risks is subject
to a general international consensus.

This new approach requires that Food safety officers have new skills (i. e. the ability to
analyse processes and assess the relevance and efficiency of different paths to reach a
food safety outcome, rather than merely checking for compliance with prescriptive
provisions).

While inspection primarily focuses at ensuring compliance of food business operators

with regulatory requirements, monitoring programmes are aiming at a systematic
gathering information on food safety in a specific context, thus providing a “picture” of a
given situation.

They provide data which are used in risk based planning, allowing for example a more
focused programming of inspection activities, as well as other regulatory (elaboration of
new regulations) and non-regulatory strategies (training and sensitization programmes
among food business operators, consumers) and policy level decisions. They are also a
tool for increased credibility of food control systems on international markets.

We support national authorities in their shift towards risk based food inspection and
monitoring activities in providing tools and tailor made technical assistance (specific
advice and training courses) on:

• the use the risk analysis framework for building monitoring and inspection
programmes
• the management of inspection programmes and services
• technical skills requested for risk based inspection
• specific sampling issues (e. g. impact of different options for sampling plans,
sampling techniques in relation to specific contaminants)

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 The Food Safety officers are empowered by law and
regulation to conduct inspections so it is necessary for the FSO to have a thorough
knowledge about these laws and regulations and about the scope of the authority vested
in him/her.
They should have copies of all the pertinent law(s) and regulations for consultation in case
of any disagreement. In absence of laws and regulations to allow an FSO to implement a
risk based approach to food inspection, areas for improvement identified during the
inspection can be raised as recommendation instead of noncompliance while legislation
is reviewed.

Food Safety& Standards (Licensing & Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations, 2011,
provides details for procedure of inspections of various food establishments.
It is the duty of the Food Safety Officers to ensure food safety and quality within the area
assigned to him. In other words, the major part of enforcement of the Act and various
Regulations on food lies with them.

IMPORTANT CODE OF ETHICS FOR INSPECTION

1) Inspection should be conducted in a planned manner and as per schedule only after
approval by the Designated Officer.
2) Improvement notices as per provisions of the act should be issued in place of penal
measures wherever possible.
3) Electronic reporting of findings of inspection should be submitted by the Food
Safety Officer within 24 hours to the supervisory officer and Food Safety
Commissioner.
4) Confidentiality of outcome of inspection should be maintained by the officer unless
required in public interest.
5) Food safety officers are prohibited from demanding/ receiving any compensation
directly or indirectly from food business operator or any other part.
6) Final decision and action shall be decided by supervisory officers within stipulated
time.
7) Monitoring of inspection findings should be done in the steering committee
meetings at the state level.
8) Grievance redressal mechanism should be made available/operational at the
offices of designated officers and
9) food safety commissioners' level.

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❖ TYPES OF INSPECTIONS

(a)Pre-Registration Inspection
(b) Pre-License Inspection
(c) Routine inspection
(d) Follow up Inspection
(e) Inspection before renewal of license
(f) Inspection for investigation of complaint

(a) Pre-Registration Inspection

When a petty Food Business Operator submits application for registration to the
Registering Authority of the concerned area, an inspection may be ordered within 7 days.
If the Registering Authority finds short comings he may suggest improvement and it will
be incumbent on the Food Business Operator suggested by the Registering Authority. The
registration will be granted by the registering Authority after being satisfied with the
safety, hygiene and sanitary conditions of the premises as contained in Part l of Schedule
4.
This is basically a pre- informed inspection i. e. the Food Business Operator is given prior
information before inspection.

(b) Pre-License Inspection

The Designated Officer after receiving an application for license may assign inspection of
the premise of the Food Business Operator to a Food Safety Officer within the area of his
jurisdiction.
The Food Safety Officer will inspect the premise and if he satisfies himself that the
conditions of license are being compiled by the Food Business Operator, submits a report
to the Designated Officer.
The Food Safety Officer may recommend the Designated Officer to issue improvement
notice to the Food Business Operator, if he finds any short comings or deviation from the
provisions of the Act & Regulations in the premise, at the time of inspection, giving the
Food Business Operator an opportunity in order to comply with the conditions of license
within a prescribed time limit.
This is basically a pre- informed inspection i. e. the Food Business Operator is given prior
information before inspection.

(c) Routine Inspection

The Registering Authority / Food Safety Officer should carry out food safety inspections
of the registered establishments at least once in a year as a part of routine inspection.
The Food Safety Officer should ensure that all conditions of license along with safety,
sanitary and hygienic requirements provided in the Schedule 4 contained under different
Parts, depending on nature of business are complied with at all times. To achieve this

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Licensing Authority/Designated Officer shall ensure periodical food safety audit and
inspection of the licensed establishments through the Food Safety Officers.
The Food safety Officer will inspect the food establishments licensed as frequently as may
be prescribed by the Designated officer. If the food Safety Officer satisfies himself that
the food establishment is laid down and is working as per the provisions of the Act
&various Regulations there under, will submit a report to the Designated Officer .If the
Food Safety Officer observes that the food establishment is not laid down or functioning
as per the provisions laid in the Act and Regulations made there under, he recommends
the Designated Officer to issue improvement notice to the Food Business Operator to
comply with the conditions of license within the prescribed time limit.
This inspection is basically a pre informed inspection but in rare cases it may be a surprise
inspection where the Food Safety officer has a reason to belief that the unit is not running
as per the provisions of law.

(d) Follow up Inspection

The Food Safety Officer undertakes follow up inspection of the premise of petty business
operator to ensure and satisfy himself that the Food Business Operator has fulfilled all the
improvement suggestions provided by the Food Safety Officer either during
Preregistration Inspection or Routine Inspection.
Similarly, the Food Safety Officer on the directions of the Designated Officer, undertakes
follow up inspection of the food establishment of a Food Business Operator to ensure and
satisfy himself that the Food Business Operator has complied with all the suggestions
mentioned in the improvement notice issued by the Designated Officer either at the time
of Pre-License Inspection or Routine Inspection. This inspection may be a pre informed
inspection or a surprise inspection.

(e) Inspection before renewal of license

The Food Safety Officer may inspect a food establishment of a petty food business
operator before renewal of a Registration Certificate, if considered necessary for reasons
to be recorded in writing.
A Designated Officer may order an inspection before renewal of a license if considered
necessary for reasons to be recorded in writing.
This is normally inspection after prior information to the Food Business Operator. It may
be a surprise inspection sometimes.

(f) Inspection for investigation of complaint

The Food Safety Officer should investigate any complaint which is made to him in writing
in respect of any contravention of the provisions of the Act or Rules & Regulations made
there under. This is a surprise inspection.

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❖ PROCEDURE OF INSPECTION

A general procedure may be followed by the Food Safety Officer for carrying out
inspections of a food establishment,

(a) Preparation for Inspection

i. Preparations for Inspection

ii. Pre-announcement (Except if inspection in response to compliant/Violation)
iii. Review inherent risk factors/ products
iv. Prepare for inspection (Time, dress, tools)
v. Schedule opening meeting
vi. Examine Records/study Schedule IV/ GHP/GMP requirements and documents
required to be maintained by the FBO.
vii. Foresee food borne disease risk factors
viii. Review facility's quality and safety management system/ (documents)

The Food Business Operator may be informed about the inspection schedule of
inspection few days prior to the inspection to be commenced (except if the inspection is
in response to a complaint or any violation of the FSS Act, 2006&Rules & Regulations
made there under). The inherent risk factors of the process of manufacturing or
ingredients or product should be reviewed. Before visiting the premise all the records and
documents pertaining to the file of the FBO is to be studied. A process flow chart of the
kind of business and product should be prepared in advance. Food Safety Officer should
schedule a open meeting with the FBO and the management.

(b) Inspection Opening Meeting

i. FSO (and team identification)

ii. Explain regulations & philosophy
iii. State objectives, scope, procedure and confidentiality of inspection (records
information).
iv. Request management collaboration
v. Seeking questioning of operators

The Food Safety Officer himself may inspect a FB0 premise or he may
constitute a team to carry out a particular inspection as is required. The Food Safety
Officer should put on neat and clean dress and if possible carry aprons, head gears and
gloves at the time of visit of FBO premise. Fie should carry inspection check lists, relevant
forms for sampling, seizure and detention forms and all other relevant documents along
with all tools required for sampling. Fie should also carry his identity document issued
from his department to avoid any confusion of his entry into the premise.

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During the meeting the FSO shall make the FBO & his management aware about the FSS
Act, Rules & Regulations and the duties of a FBO. The FSO should encourage F80 to
cooperate in the inspection.
All the documents required to be maintained by the FBO as per the concerned Regulations
is inspected by the FSO. The FSO may seek various information from the food handlers.

(c) Process Flow Chart

1. Obtain/prepare operation flow chart

2. Method of monitoring & validation
3. Anticipate CCPs
4. Focus on risk factors Check CCP critical limits

The FSO may ask for a process flow chart of the products being
manufactured in the premise, methods of monitoring and validation. FSO may anticipate
CCPs and focus a on risk factors. FSO may also check CCP critical limits.

(d) Counter-Flow walk through

Inspection should be carried out from least contaminated area to most contaminated
area i.e. from Finished Goods to Processing and then to Raw materials
storage/preparation area (fruits, vegetables, milk, fish, meat etc.) to avoid contamination.

a. Storage/transportation of finished products, Packaging and Labelling

b. Product characteristics/labelling/ sampling
c. Processing-verify control measures
d. Verify that critical limits are observed
e. Facility assessment
f. Equipment assessment
g. Employee/ staff health, hygiene & Training
h. Sick employee policy/ hand washing
i. Examine employee facilities
j. Check raw material reception/ storage
k. Additives and non-food chemicals
l. Packaging material specifications/storage
m. Sanitation and pest control
n. Site & surrounding environment assessment
o. Inspect laboratory facility wherever necessary and check the proper functioning
of the various equipment.

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 During inspection the FSO should make inspection as per
Schedule IV of FSS (Licensing & Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations, 2011
applicable for the particular kind of business and product. Fie should review the critical
control points and safety management systems with a focus on risk factors and provisions
made in the food safety management system for these risk factors. Accordingly, he should
cover all the points mentioned in the Schedule IV and inspection checklist. All the areas
provided in the premise should be inspected. If any area is locked the FSO should make
sure that the room/area is unlocked for inspection.

(e) Closing Meeting (Caution)

1. Discuss finding (especially non-compliance & Violation)
2. Agree on time line for corrective action
3. Sign report, get it signed by the FBO and handover a copy to the FBO and retain
one copy of the inspection report which is to be submitted to the Designated
Officer for issuing improvement Notice to the FBO.
4. Discuss possible improvements
5. Schedule follow-up inspection.

After the physical inspection of the food establishment is over, the Food Safety Officer
will note down all the observations an inspection report in the inspection checklist. Fie
will discuss the findings and possible improvements with the FBO and the management
(especially in case of noncompliance & violation of law) and also timeline for corrective
action. The FSO & FBO should interact freely and FSO should advice the FBO to comply
with the provisions of the Act, Rules & Regulations made there in to avoid any kind of
penalty. FSO will then sign the report, get it signed by the FBO and handover a copy to
the FBO and retain one copy of the inspection report which is to be submitted to the
Designated Officer for issuing a Improvement Notice to the FBO. Confidentiality of
outcome of inspection should be maintained by the officer unless required in public
interest.

The FSO may also schedule a follow up inspection in case of registration but in case of a
licensed unit the schedule will be finalized by the Designated Officer and then assigned to
the FSO.

(f) Follow Up Inspection

(i) Schedule inspection after the prescribed time period of corrective action by FBO is over
in case of registered unit. However, in case of licensed units the same will be scheduled
by the Designated Officer and assigned to the Food Safety Officer.

(ii) Follow up inspection is carried out to verify whether the suggestions for improvement
have been carried out by the FBO within the prescribed time limit. This may be surprise
after prior information.

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Note: Inspection of Various Food Establishments as per Schedule Iv, GHP/GMP (Refer to
FSS Registration of Food Businesses)) (Licensing & For Inspection Checklists of various
Food Establishments.

❖ DOCUMENTS TO BE INSPECTED DURING INSPECTIONS OF VARIOUS FOOD

MANUFACTURING UNITS AND FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS

(a) Blueprint/layout plan of the processing unit showing the dimensions in

metres/square metres and operation wise area allocation.
(b) Name and List of Equipment and Machinery along with the number, installed
capacity and horse power used.
(c) Analysis report (Chemical & Bacteriological) of water to be used as ingredient in
food from a recognized/ public health laboratory to confirm the portability
indicating the name of authorized representative of Lab who collected the sample
and date of collecting sample
(d) Proof of possession of premises. (Sale deed/ Rent agreement/ Electricity bill, etc.)
(e) Partnership Deed/Affidavit/Memorandum & Articles of Association towards the
constitution of the firm. Copy of certificate obtained under Coop Act-1861/Multi
State Coop Act-2002 in case of Cooperatives.
(f) NOC from manufacturer in case of Re-labellers& Re-packers
(g) Food Safety Management System plan or certificate if any,
(h) Source of milk or procurement plan for milk including location of milk collection
centres etc. in case of Milk and Milk Products processing units.
(i) Source of raw material for meat and meat processing plants.
(j) Pesticide residues report of water to be used as ingredient in case of units
manufacturing Packaged Drinking Water, packaged Mineral water and/or
carbonated water from a recognised/ public health laboratory indicating the name
of authorised representative of Lab who collected the sample and date of collecting
sample, including source of raw water and treatment plan.
(k) Recall plan wherever applicable, with details on whom the productis distributed.
(l) NOCs from Municipality or local body and from State Pollution Control Board
except in case of notified industrial area.
(m) List of workers with their medical fitness as per the Medical Fitness Performa by
the Food Authority
(n) Pest Control document along with day to day records of treatments.
(o) Documents related to transportation of raw materials and finished goods. If food is
transported under controlled conditions the records of temperature controls.
(p) Cleaning and sanitation programme of the premise along with day to day
maintenance records of the same.

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 (q) Records of source and standards of raw material used are of optimum quality as
per the Regulations and standards.
(r) Test Reports from NABL accredited/ FSSAI notified laboratories regarding
microbiological contaminants in food.
(s) Records of daily production, raw material utilized and sales.
(t) Records of sale and purchase that the food product is sold to registered/ licensed
vendor and raw material purchased from registered/licensed supplier.
(u) Records for periodic audit of the whole system according to Standard Operating
Procedure conducted regarding GHP/GMP system.
(v) Appropriate records of food processing/ preparations, food quality, laboratory test
results, pest control, etc. for a period of one year or the shelf life of the product,
whichever is more.
(w) Training records of food production personnel and production floor
managers/supervisors on food hygiene.
(x) Food labels for requisite information as per the FSS (Packaging & Labelling)
Regulation, 2011.
(y) Form no. (Form of Nomination - Refer rule 2.5.1) nomination of persons by a
company.

❖ PROCEDURE OF TAKING EXTRACTS OF DOCUMENTS AND MATTERS CONNECTED

THEREWITH
Rule 2.2 of the Food Safety & Standards Rule, 2011, details the manner in which the
extracts from any books of accounts and other relevant documents are taken by a Food
Safety Officer.

(a) When a Food Safety Officer has seized any books of account and other relevant
documents in exercise of powers conferred upon him under sub-section (6) of Section 38
of the Act, he has to return the same to the person from whom they were seized within a
period not exceeding thirty days from the date of such seizure.

(b)Before returning the books of account and other documents, the Food Safety Officer
can take for copies thereof or extracts there from, as the case may be.

(c) When a communication has been received from the Food Safety Office, the person
from whom the books of account and documents were seized has to provide the copies
or extracts as the case may be, duly authenticated by the Food Business Operator.

(d) The extracts can be taken by the Food Safety Officer or by any person authorized by
him.

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(e) The person making the extracts cannot in any manner cause dislocation, mutilation,
tampering or damage to the records in the course of making extracts.

(f) The person making extracts cannot make any marking on any record or paper

(g) The extracts or the copies above, has to be initialled on each page of such extracts or
copies by the person from whom the books of account and other documents were seized
and such authenticated extracts or copies is to be provided to the Food Safety Officer,
and the same has to be accompanied by an Affidavit in For ml of the person from whom
the books of account and other documents were seized, certifying the authenticity of such
extracts or copies.

A list of Common adulterants and Quick Tests for detection of these adulterants
is given at Annexure-Il.

RISK BASED INSPECTION SYSTEM (RBIS)

Section 31(1) of FSS Act, 2006 provides that no person shall commence or carry on any
Food Business except under a license. However, it is not possible with limited number of
officials to inspect the premises of all food businesses. So far, inspections for Enforcement
and Surveillance are undertaken as per the plans developed by each State as per their
respective perceptions of risk. A more comprehensive Risk Based Inspection System (RBIS)
is required to increase transparency and ensure that scarce Government resources are
focused on products and businesses to which greater risk is attached. RBIS seeks to target
Food Business Operators (FBOs) at risk, optimizing inspection tools and outputs.

Objectives
1. Prevent release of un-safe food in the domestic market, in order to protect consumers
in India.

2. To draw a food inspection system from a product-based process to a risk-based process

that can be used by FSOs in their inspection across the food sector, regardless of the
specific products) handled or manufactured by the inspected establishment;

3. Linking "Risk grade" with Food Licensing &Registration System (FLRS).

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COMPONENT OF RISK BASED INSPECTION SYSTEM
The risk-based inspection system has two main components:

1. Scheduling regular inspections based on a risk classification (using a Risk Grade) of food
establishments (implemented at FSSAI and State FDA levels).

2. Conducting inspections following a risk-based process control approach and using

appropriate inspection grids (implemented by FSOs at local level).

FOOD SAFETY COMPLIANCE THROUGH REGULAR INSPECTIONS AND SAMPLING

(FOSCORIS)

Introduction
1. Food Safety Compliance through Regular Inspections and Sampling (FoSCoRIS) is a
system to verify compliance of food safety and hygiene standards by food businesses as
per regulatory requirements through inspections and sampling. This would ensure that
periodic inspections of food businesses are done on a regular basis by regulatory staff in
an objective and transparent manner. Such inspections would use standard compliance
matrices to ensure consistency in approach of inspections across the country.

2. This would replace the current system of ad hoc and subjective inspections and
sampling that are currently carried out by the regulatory staff. This would use a nation-
wide IT platform to bring together all key stakeholders, namely the food businesses, food
safety officers (FSOs), designated officers (DOs), state food safety commissioners (FSCs)
so that such inspections and sampling is done by maintaining a high level of integrity of
the process and the process itself is effectively monitored at various levels.

3. FoSCoRIS is a web-based real-time inspection platform for Food Safety Officers (FSOs).
It can be used via hand held device like mobile phones and Tablets. It uses instant geo-
tagging, time stamping, real time data collection and d multi-levels of verification.
4. The application based inspection not only saves time but also increases effectiveness
and efficiency of the FSOs. The platform gives clear picture to all the stake holders in the
food Business on real time basis. Stake holders in the Food Business start from the Food
Business Operator to the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India with Food Safety
officers, Designated Officers and the State Food Commissioners playing a very vital role
in the process.
5. This system gives clear picture to FSSAI on the real time basis. Helps elimination of any
discrepancy hence inspection is accountable. Technology based inspection shall also
develop interest among FS0s. The system will ease out the process of sample collection,
make it transparent, traceable and controls the quality of compliances.

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❖ METHODOLOGY
INSTALLATION OF INFRASTRUCTURE

1. Create a food safety compliance verification platform- FSSAI will develop FoSCoRIS
and put in place infrastructure required for its operation and maintenance.
2. Integrate profiles of food safety authority officers (FSSAI and States) with FoSCoRIS-
A district wise and state wise food safety compliance matrix of the country will be
created. At the initial stage, FSSAI will integrate profile of Food Safety Officers
received from States/UTs with FoSCoRIS. In this regard, States will provide profiles
of officers to FSSAL Subsequently, the States will be required to update the profiles
of their officers on the system.
3. Hand held devices with internet connectivity to field level officers- The FSOs will
have hand held devices and internet connectivity preferably with the specifications
as mentioned in this document. For this purpose, States Food Authorities may
consider various options like providing tablets/mobiles to FSOs, bundled/rental
plans from carriers, reimbursement of mobile expenses to FSOs with mobile/tablet
etc.
4. Training and Rollout support During the roll out there will be trainings and hand
holding exercises. FSSAI will conduct training of FoSCoRIS to State Food Authority
Officers. FSOs will be provided with offline Support as well as Online Support to
conduct inspection/sampling. In addition, there will be FAQs to assist FSOs in
carrying out their task.

PROCEDURE OF INSPECTION/SAMPLING ON FOSCORIS

1. This web based application can be logged in using the user ID and password. For
this purpose, User 1D and Password would be given to each FSO. After logging in,
verification of the Login Credentials rolls out and FSOs land on the live Server
system.
2. The FSO is required by App to fill in FSSAI license number of the FBO and kind of
business. This would prompt the App to pop up Inspection matrix based on the kind
of business mentioned in FBO's license number. The FSO will be required to select
any one of the options against each point in the inspection sheet. Each point will
also have an option for comments and attaching evidence. The session will end with
report submission and log out.
3. During the inspection, samples could also be picked and noted. The evidence and
traceability follow based on the Unique ID generated for the said sample.

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MONITORING AND DATA ANALYSIS

1. Through FoSCORIS, details of FSO's location and area of FBO will be collected on
real time basis. Every details of log in and log out time and location shall be
collected on the Central Server of the system. A random 4-5 pictures would
automatically be captured by the device using the front as well as the rear camera.
The collected data in the system includes Geo Tags of location, time, date,
inspection report and pictures of FSOs and his location.
2. The FSSAI and State Food Safety Commissioners would be able to monitor each and
every inspection on real time basis and afterwards as well.
3. The data collected from inspection reports and samples will be analyzed to
understand the areas and food products to be focused on, identify hotspots, trends
and pattern in food safety to take corrective measures and policy interventions.
This will also help assess the performance of field level officers and help improve
their efficiency.

HARDWARE AND CONNECTIVITY REQUIREMENTS

1.The system will enquire a hand held device like mobile, tablet, et. with certain
specifications. The specifications are listed below:
a. 3G/4G network Ready
b. 2G8 or above RAM
c. 16GB Internal memory
d. Front-Rear cameras
e. Screen size of 5-5.5inches
f. GPS Support Framework

2.The device should have carrier plan for internet connectivity

ACCESSIBILITY RIGHTS TO FOSCORIS

The FSSA, Food Safety Commissioners, Designated Officers and other stakeholders would
have certain accessibility rights to the system. FSSA, Food Safety Commissioner and
Designated officer will have viewing and commenting rights to monitor real time
inspections and sampling happening. They may wherever required give their comments.
The FBO will also able to view his/her inspection report with the facility to get a printout
of inspection report and upload the conformity reports.
Accessibility rights to the system would be as under:

a. Food Safety Officer-Filling, Viewing, Printing. (As assigned by DO)

b. Designated Officer- Viewing, Commenting, Printing, issuing warning notice. (As
assigned by FSC).

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 c. Food Safety Commissioner-Viewing, Commenting, Printing, issuing warning notice.
(State level).
d. Food Business Operator- Viewing, Commenting, Printing, Putting corrective
actions. (Inspection of concerned FBO).

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CHAPTER 15
FOOD ALERT & FOOD RECALL

INTRODUCTION
Section 28(1) of FSS Act, 2006 stipulates that If a food business operator considers or has
reasons to believe that a food which he has processed, manufactured or distributed is not
in compliance with this Act, or the rules or regulations, made thereunder, he shall
immediately initiate procedures to withdraw the food in question from the market and
consumers indicating reasons for its withdrawal and inform the competent authorities
thereof. Recall can be defined as an action to remove food products from market at any
stage of the food chain, including that possessed by consumer, which may pose a threat
to the public health or food that violate the Act, or the rules or regulations made
thereunder. Recall of food product is in the common interest of the industry, the
government and in particular the consumer. Recalls afford equal consumer protection but
generally are more efficient and timely than formal administrative or civil actions,
especially when the product has been widely distributed.

SOME BASIC TERMS RELATED TO THIS CHAPTER

Food Chain
For the purposes of these regulations includes food involved in manufacture, processing,
distribution, sale, import and export.

Food Recall
Means the action to remove food from the market at any stage of the food chain,
including that possessed by consumers.

Food Recall Plan

Means the procedures and arrangements that a food business operator shall have in place
to retrieve food and food products from the food chain if a problem arises

Food Under Recall

means the specific lot or batch or code number of food product that has been determined
by the Food Authority or the Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory

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or the Food Business Operator as not in compliance with the Act or rules or regulations
made there under;

Recall Alert
means any alert issued to the public by the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India or the Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union
territory or the Food Business Operator under intimation to Chief Executive Officer, Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India and the concerned Commissioner(s) of Food
Safety of the State(s) about the food under recall

Traceability
Means the ability to follow the movement of a food article through specified stages of its
production, processing and distribution.

Unsafe Food
Means food as defined under clause (z2) of sub- section (1) of section 3 of the A

SCOPE
Scope of the Food Recall Procedure-Food Recall Regulations shall apply to the food or
food products that are determined or prima facie considered unsafe and/or as may be
specified by the Food Authority from time to time.

Explanation: Food articles which require the mandatory mention of statutory warnings
related to consumption being "injurious to health" may not be treated as unsafe food as
part of any recall plan unless they are specifically determined unsafe and injurious to
health

ACCORDING TO SECTION 16 (3): DUTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD AUTHORITY

SECTION 16 (3) The Food Authority shall also-

(a) Provide scientific advice and technical support to the Central Government and the
State Governments in matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which have
a direct or indirect bearing on food safety and nutrition;

(b) Search, collect, collate, analyse and summarise relevant scientific and technical
data particularly relating to -

(i) food consumption and the exposure of individuals to risks related to the
consumption of food;
(ii) incidence and prevalence of biological risk;

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 (iii) contaminants in food;
(iv) residues of various contaminants;
(v) identification of emerging risks; and
(vi) introduction of rapid alert system;

FOOD ALERT
Food Alerts are the FSA’s way of letting local authorities and consumers know about
problem associated with food and ,in some cases ,provide details of specific action to be
taken.
There are mainly two types of food Alerts communication system, one is ‘for Information’
another is ‘for Action’.
They are often issued in conjunction with a products withdrawal or recall by a
manufacturer, retailer or distributor.

Recent Food Alert by Food Authority

1. Announcement of Technically Qualified Bidder (s) for undertaking Study on
consumption pattern of Caffeinated / Energy Drinks in India. (Uploaded on:
10.08.2015).
2. INFOSAN Alert on recall of ice cream and other Forzen products due to
contamination with Listeria monocytogenes. (Uploaded on: 07.05.2015).
3. Recall of Probiotic Dietary Supplement dated 25thNovember 2014 for Infants and
Children due to contamination with Rhizopus oryzae (Uploaded on: 26-11-2014).
4. Appointment of Members (ex-officio) dated 04thAugust 2014 in the Food Safety and
Standard Authority of India (Uploaded on: 22-08-2014).
5. Consuming fruits ripened artificially by Calcium Carbide may pose health: problems
(Uploaded on: 06-06-2014).

Note: For more detail of these food Alert please at FSSAI’s official website.

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 FOOD TRACEABILITY SYSTEM
According to ISO 22005 traceability is the ability to follow the movement of various foods
and animal feeds throughout the different stages of production, processing and
distribution. Traceability makes it possible to locate any product anywhere in the food
chain. Since traceability contributes to searching out where nonconformity to regulations
has taken place it becomes easy to withdraw or recall products if it is necessary.
Movement of foods can relate to the origin of the material and processing history.

Traceability consists of two types of movement one is ‘tracking’ and the other is ‘tracing.’
Tracing means to create the history of the product in the food chain and identify where it
originated and where its movement went forward. The information can be for a single
unit or a batch of food within the supply chain. Tracking on the hand means the ability to
be able to identify the destination of a product in a food chain and to follow the path of a
specified unit and batch of product as it moves from the manufacturing unit towards the
final point of sale, service or consumption. Tracing is a backward movement to the origin
while tracking is a forward movement to the destination. This way, food manufacturers
know exactly where the nonconformity happened and who it is likely to affect.

Traceability systems should not only be practical to apply but must also be in compliance
of the applicable regulation and must work within the defined requirements. Traceability
can only be effective if it is:
• verifiable
• applied consistently and equitably
• result oriented
• cost effective

IMPORTANCE OF TRACEABILITY
• Traceability is a tool that is used to ensure quality and to also identify what is the
problem that is lowering quality
• play an important role in consumer safety as speedy and targeted recalls and
withdrawal can be performed immediately
• meet requirement of regulations
• protect the brand image and hence contribute to marketing

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DEVELOPING A FOOD CHAIN TRACEABILITY SYSTEM
If you have to develop a food chain traceability system for your food manufacturing
operations then you have to keep the following traceability objectives in mind. Your
system for traceability must be such that it,
• supports food safety and/or quality
• meets customer specification(s)
• is capable of determining the history or origin of the product
• facilitates the withdrawal and/or recall of products
• is able to identify organizations in the animal feed and food chain that were
responsible
• is able to verify specific information about the product
• communicates information to relevant stakeholders and consumers
• fulfils local, regional, national or international regulations or policies
• helps to improve the effectiveness, productivity and profitability of the
organization.

FOOD SAFETY SURVEILLANCE

The food safety surveillance is done with this objective so as to determine whether a
food safety hazard exists, assess the nature and extent of the issue, and take appropriate
actions to eliminate or minimize potential risks to consumers. FSO should be a part of
food safety surveillance and recall procedure, when there is an evidence that food for
consumers is potentially contaminated with some hazard and can pose health risk.

Steps for Food Safety Surveillance,

1. Prepare a food safety surveillance plan for identification and addressing safety
hazards in their jurisdiction. The plan should be based on focussed commodities to
be taken up for survey.
2. Start sampling on targeted food products and the number of samples to be lifted
has to be statistically calculated.
3. Get the samples analysed in food laboratories. For FSSAI organized surveillance
projects, the samples have to be tested in prescribed laboratories.
4. Upload Laboratory Analysis Report into the database for further analysis and
Interpretation.
5. State Food Authority and FSSAI will use the data for hazard identification and other
risk assessment activities.

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 FOOD RECALL
Food Recall, means the action to remove food from the market at any stage of the food
chain, including that possessed by consumers. This applies to the food or food products
that are determined or prima facie considered unsafe and/or as may be specified by the
Food Authority from time to time. The Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006 and Food Safety
& Standards (Food Recall Procedure) Regulations, 2017 describes the procedure of food
recall.

ACCORDING TO SECTION 28: FOOD RECALL PROCEDURES

(1) If a food business operator considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he
has processed, manufactured or distributed is not in compliance with this Act, or the rules
or regulations, made thereunder, he shall immediately initiate procedures to withdraw
the food in question from the market and consumers indicating reasons for its withdrawal
and inform the competent authorities thereof.

(2) A food business operator shall immediately inform the competent authorities and co-
operate with them, if he considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he has
placed on the market may be unsafe for the consumers.

(3) The food business operator shall inform the competent authorities of the action
taken to prevent risks to the consumer and shall not prevent or discourage any person
from cooperating, in accordance with this Act, with the competent authorities, where this
may prevent, reduce or eliminate a risk arising from a food.

(4) Every food business operator shall follow such conditions and guidelines relating
to food recall procedures as the Food Authority may specify by regulations.

❖ GUIDELINES FOR FOOD RECALL

Food on sale for human consumption must be wholesome, unadulterated,
uncontaminated, properly labelled and fit for human consumption. Violation of the
provisions in these regards may lead to regulatory action against the concerned FBO
under the Act, or rules and regulations made thereunder.
Food recalls are an appropriate method for removing or correcting marketed
food products and their labelling that violate the laws administered by the regulatory
authority. Recall can be defined as an action to remove food products from market at any
stage of the food chain, including that possessed by consumer, which may pose a threat
to the public health or food that violate the Act, or the rules or regulations made
thereunder. Recall of food product is in the common interest of the industry, the
government and in particular the consumer. Recalls afford equal consumer protection but
generally are more efficient and timely than formal administrative or civil actions,

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especially when the product has been widely distributed. Manufacturers and/or
distributors should initiate a recall at any time to fulfil their responsibility to protect the
public health from products that present a risk of injury or gross deception, or are
otherwise defective. Firms may also initiate a recall following notification of a problem by
Food Authority or a state agency, in response to a formal request by authority, or as
ordered by Authority.

❖ ROLE OF THE FOOD AUTHORITY FOR FOOD RECALL

The Food Authority’s main role in a recall is to monitor the progress of the recall and
assess the adequacy of the action taken by the FBO in this regard. After a recall is
completed, the Food Authority will make sure that the product is destroyed or suitably
improved.
Where the recall is related to serious defects in the manufacturing process, the concerned
authority may review the license of the FBO concerned. The Food Authority will publicise
the recall when it is of the opinion that the public need to be alerted about a health hazard
or that clarification of the situation needs to be made to allay public worries.
In cases of public health emergencies, the Food Authority may, depending on the
available evidence, alert the public before a decision on recall has been reached.

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 OBJECTIVES OF THE FOOD RECALL PROCEDURE
(a) Ensure removal of food under recall from all stages of the food chain in accordance
with Section 28 of the Act.
(b) Ensure dissemination of information to concerned consumers and customers,

(c) Ensure retrieval, destruction or reprocessing of food under recall.

STAGES OF A PRODUCT RECALL

Recall
Managements ASSEMBLE TEAM AND IDENTIFY RESPONSIBILITIES
Team

IMMEDIATE NOTIFICATION TO STATE /CENTRAL AUTHORITY

NOTIFICATION CONSUMER THRIUGH PRESS RELEASE

IDENTIFY FOOD TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL AND BUSINESS TO WHOM FOOD MAY HAVE BEEN
BE RECALLED SUPPLIED

SEGREGATED STORAGE
PRODUCT RECOVERY
REPROCESS /DESTROY

EFFECTIVE RECALL EFFECTIVENESS CHECK OF INITIATIVED RECALL

PROVIDE AUTHORITY WITH INTERIM REPORT INCLUDING ACTION TAKEN ,RESULT

FOLLOW UP ACTION
OF RECALL ,METHOD OF DISPOSAL AND PREVENTIVE ACTION

RECALL
STATE FOOD AUTHORITY WILL TERMINATE RECALL
TERMINATION

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 INITIATION OF THE FOOD RECALL PROCESS
(i) Every food business operator shall follow food recall procedure including complete
process of recall, post recall report, and follow-up action in order to ensure the
effectiveness of the recall and prevent recurrence.

(ii) The food business operator shall initiate a recall process to fulfil his responsibility
in accordance with section 28 of the Act.

(iii) The Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or the
Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory or both may direct the
food business operator to initiate the recall process.

(iv) The recall process shall also be initiated as a result of reports or complaints
referred to the food business operator from any stakeholder and if food business
operator determines that there is a need to recall. In case the food business
operator does not respond to the complaint, the complainant or the consumer may
inform the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or
Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory or both who will take
steps to determine the need for recall and instruct the concerned food business
operator regarding the recall, who shall be bound by such instructions.

(v) It is the responsibility of all the food business operators in the entire food chain to
implement the instructions relating to food recall. Failure to do so shall render the
food business operator liable to action as provided under the Act or the rules or
regulations made thereunder.

(vi) When a food business operator refuses to undertake a recall directed by the Chief
Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of
Food Safety of the State or Union territory or where the Chief Executive Officer,
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of Food Safety of
the State or Union territory has sufficient reasons to believe that additional
measures would be required to make the recall effective, or determines that a
recall is ineffective, or has a reason to believe that unsafe food is continuing to be
manufactured by food business operator, the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety
and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or
Union territory will take appropriate action as provided under the Act, rules or
regulations made thereunder and the food business operator shall be liable for
such action.

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 (vii) A recall of imported food may also be initiated on the basis of reports of health
and food authorities, or from information received from such authorities or if it
otherwise comes to the notice of the concerned authority.

(viii) The initiation of food recall shall not preclude the Chief Executive Officer, Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of Food Safety of the State
or Union territory from taking further regulatory action against the concerned food
business operator as may be required under the A

OPERATION OF FOOD RECALL SYSTEM

(i) The food business operator shall maintain the food distribution records which
include the names and addresses of suppliers and customers, nature of food, date
of purchase, date of delivery, lot number, batch code, pack size, brand name, date
of manufacture, date of expiry and best before date, and shall maintain such
records for a period of one year from best before date or the expiry date, as
applicable.

(ii) In case of alcoholic beverages where declaration of best before date is exempted
under food safety regulations, one shall maintain records for a period of two years
from date or month of supply from the manufacturer.

(iii) The food business operator shall submit information as specified under Schedule l
of the Regulations to the concerned Authority immediately but not exceeding
twenty-four hours from the time it comes to his notice that such food requires
recall in accordance with the provisions of these regulations and initiate the recall
exercise, such information alert(s) may be sent by quickest means of
communication including fax, e-mail and speed post. The Commissioner of Food
Safety of the State or Union territory shall inform the Chief Executive Officer, Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India within twenty-four hours of receipt of such
information.

(iv) The food business operator shall stop distribution of food under recall and also
stop its production if necessary, without waiting for any instructions from the Chief
Executive officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of
Food Safety of the State or Union territory so as to ensure that consumer safety is
not compromised and he shall contact everyone from the raw material vendor to
the final consumer of the affected food by written communication, phone, e-mail,
fax, or a combination thereof notify the suppliers and any other relevant retailer or
trade association and immediately identify all required product details along with
any additional details which would facilitate speedy identification and recall.

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 FOOD RECALL PLAN
(i) All food business operators engaged in the manufacture or importation or
wholesale supply of food regulated under the Act must have an up-to-date recall
plan. The food retailers are not required to have a food recall plan, unless they are
also engaged in the manufacture or importation or wholesale supply of food.
Provided that food businesses in the food service sector such as restaurants,
caterers and takeaway joints are exempted from having a recall plan unless they
are running multi-outlet food business chains with integrated manufacturing and
distribution network.

(ii) The food retailers and food businesses in the food service sector, which do not
require to have a recall plan, shall remove the recalled stock from shelves and
return it to the manufacturer, importer or wholesaler and must ensure that food
under recall is separated and identified from other food until it is disposed of in
accordance with the instructions provided under the recall plan.

(iii) The recalling food business operators shall formulate a detailed recall plan as part
of their food safety management system as per the guidelines that maybe framed
by the food authority from time to time.

(iv) At the time of actual recall being carried out, the food business operator shall
submit the details of the implementation of the food recall plan to the Chief
Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India and the
Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory taking into account the
food safety aspects, supervise the recall, assemble data and report on the
completion of recall.

(v) The food business operator(s) shall ensure effective implementation of the recall
process as per the formulated recall plan.

RECALL COMMUNICATION

(i) The food business operator initiating a food recall shall promptly inform food
business operators in the food chain including consumers about the recall.
(ii) Such recall communication shall be through written communication, phone, e-mail,
fax, print media, electronic media (TV or Radio or Internet or combination) or a
combination thereof and in case of written communication it shall be conspicuously
marked "Food Recall". The communication shall also be marked "urgent" and
telephone calls or other personal communication shall be confirmed by one of the
above methods and documented in an appropriate manner.
(iii) Every Food business operator in the food chain who receives a recall
communication shall immediately carry out the instructions detailed therein by the
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 recall initiating food business operator and extend the recall to all concerned
stakeholders.
(iv) The food business operator shall promptly inform the consumers in the affected
area of the food recall through press release, letters to the concerned parties or
advertisements in the media and such press release, letter or advertisement shall
be in the form of 'Food Recall Notice' and shall
contain requisite information under the regulations.
(v) Food business operator shall respond to queries if any from the Chief Executive
Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India and Commissioner of Food
Safety of the State or Union territory within twenty four hours of the receipt of the
query. However detailed data, if required, may be submitted subsequently.

RECALL STATUS REPORT

(i) The food business operator shall determine whether the recall is progressing
effectively and shall submit periodic status reports to the Chief Executive Officer,
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of Food Safety of
the State or Union territory to inform them of the recall. The frequency of such
reports shall be submitted once in a week or as progress otherwise specified by the
Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or
Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory based on the relative
urgency or gravity of the recall.
(ii) Unless otherwise specified or not applicable in a given recall case, the recall status
report shall contain the information as specified in Schedule-I the Regulations.
(iii) Recall status reports are to be discontinued when the recall is terminated by the
Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India or
Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory or both, as the case
may be.
(iv) The food business operator shall retain proper and complete documentation on
food recall for inspection and verification by the Chief Executive Officer, Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India or Commissioner of Food Safety of the State
or Union territory or both, as the case may be.

FOOD RECOVERY
(i) The food business operator shall store the recovered food in an area which is
separated from any other food and is identified by a label plate including
prominently that "RECALLED PRODUCT NOT FIT FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION"
(ii) The food business operator shall maintain accurate records of the recovered food
including their lot number, batch code, pack size, brand name, date of
manufacture, date of expiry, best before date, and all related data. Proper
recording system shall be available to ensure that recalled food is retrieved and its
details are recorded.

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 (iii) The food business operator may correct or re-process the recovered food, if
permitted by Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India.
In all other cases, the food business operator shall ensure disposal of such food in
consultation with the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority
of India. A complete record of the disposal of such product shall be maintained.

POST-RECALL REPORT
(i) The food business operator shall submit a post-recall report to the Chief Executive
Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India after completion of the recall
process so as to enable the assessment of adherence to the recall procedures.
(ii) In addition, it is necessary for the food business operator to investigate the reasons
that led to such recall and taking action to prevent recurrence of the problem.

TERMINATION OF A RECALL
(i) The food business operator may request termination of recall by submitting a
written request to the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and Standards Authority
of India along with recall status report or post-recall report certifying that the recall
was effective. The request may be made in the form specified in Schedule-III.
(ii) A recall may be terminated when the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India determines that it is reasonable to believe that the
food under recall has been removed and/or disposed of in an appropriate manner
and that steps have been taken to ensure that such incidents do not recur and a
written communication shall be sent to the food business operator within two
weeks of the request submitted by the food business operator and food business
operator can resume normal operations thereafter.
(iii) In case of unsatisfactory reports, the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India may consider further action like stepped-up
inspection, seizure or any other legal action against the food business operator.

FOLLOW-UP ACTION
The food business operators shall provide the Chief Executive Officer, Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India with a report as soon as a recall is completed, in any case
not later than thirty days after the completion of a recall, covering the following
information, namely:

(a) The circumstances leading to the recall;

(b) The action taken by the food business operator including details of any publicity;
(c) The extent of distribution of the relevant batch in the country and overseas;
(d) The results of the recall (quantity of stock returned, corrected, outstanding, etc.
(e) The proposed method of disposal or otherwise of recalled stock with record of
destruction and/or correction; and

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 (f) The action proposed to be implemented in future to prevent a recurrence of the
problem.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE FOOD BUSINESS OPERATOR

(i) The food business operator shall have procedures and systems in place to identify
the food businesses to whom they have supplied their food.
(ii) The food business operator shall collaborate with the Commissioner of Food Safety
of the State or Union territory or the Food Authority on action taken to avoid or
reduce risks posed by the specific batch or lot or code of food, which they supply
or have supplied.
(iii) The food business operator shall remove the food from sale or distribution, when
requested by the Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory or
the Food Authority, as the case may be.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COMMISSIONER OF FOOD SAFETY OF THE STATE OR UNION

TERRITORY
The Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory shall supervise the recall
by the food business operator and inspect the food business operator's capability of recall
after receiving the recall alert information and shall also be responsible for the following,
namely:

(i) Inspect the suspected or determined unsafe food after receiving complaint from the
consumer, take action as per the provisions of the Act and advise the food business
operator, in consultation with the Food Authority wherever required, to recall such
food;
(ii) to prepare and issue a media release for immediate use by the media in recalls
involving consumers, and where required, in consultation with the food business
operator;
(iii) conduct audit checks when it is determined that the food business operator is
unable to ensure the effectiveness of its recall;
(iv) give instructions on the frequency of reporting the condition of recall, subject to the
urgency of the case, and to monitor the recall progress of the food business
operator(s);
(v) supervise the food business operator in completion of recall and assess their recall
report;
(vi) as for the foods imported into India which are recalled products in other markets or
where Indian made foods are subject to recall or rejection in country of export and
returned to India, the Food Authority or the commissioner of Food Safety of the
State or Union territory shall, in consultation with the concerned food business
operator, determine the fate of such products for disposal or reprocessing at port

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 or otherwise and shall review recall plan for the exported foods and advice the
health authorities in the importing countries about such recall.
(vii)The Commissioner of Food Safety of the State or Union territory shall inform the
Food Authority about the execution of the above process and follow such
instructions as the Food Authority may deem appropriate.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE FOOD AUTHORITY

(i) The Food Authority shall guide and supervise the Commissioner of Food Safety of
the State or Union Territory in the execution of the Recall Plan and, where
necessary, it may assess the relevant reports submitted by the food business
operator and give instructions as may be required.
(ii) The Food Authority may establish a web based facility titled 'Food Recall portal' on
its website with a unique identification number assigned to each recall for
monitoring and to provide information to the consumers about such recall.
(iii) The Food Authority may also published about the recall when it considers that the
public need to be alerted about the health hazard depending upon seriousness of
the situation and it shall keep the concerned food business operators aware of the
same.

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CHAPTER 16
MICROORGANISM & THEIR ROLE IN FOOD

MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms or microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular,
multicellular, or cell clusters. Microorganism are widespread in nature and are beneficial
to life, but some can cause serious harm.

WHAT IS MICROBIOLOGY?
Microbiology is the study of living organisms that are so small or the study of microscopic
organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and protozoa. Microorganisms are
living entities of microscopic size and include bacteria, viruses, yeasts and molds (together
designated as fungi), algae, and protozoa. While bacteria are classified as prokaryotes
(cells without definite nuclei), the fungi, algae, and protozoa are eukaryotes (cells with
nuclei); viruses do not have regular cell structures and are classified separately. Micro-
organisms are present everywhere on earth, which includes humans, animals, plants and
other living creatures, soil, water, and atmosphere, and they can multiply everywhere
except in the atmosphere. Together, their numbers far exceed all other living cells on this
planet. They were the first living cells to inhabit the earth over 3 billion years ago; and
since then they have played important roles, many of which are beneficial to the other
living systems. Among the micro-organisms, some molds, yeasts, bacteria, and viruses
have both desirable and undesirable roles in our food.

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 TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL ENTITIES STUDIED BY MICROBIOLOGISTS

BIOLOGICAL ENTITIES
STUDIES BY
MICROBIOLOGIST

Cellular Acellular

Virus composed of Protein

Fungi e.g. Yeast Molds and nucleic acid
Protista e.g. Algae, Protozoa Viroid composed of RNA
Bacteria e.g. Escherichia coli Satellites Composed of
Archaea e.g. Methanogens Nucleic Acid often RNA
Prions Composed of Protein

❖ BASIC CONCEPT OF MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology is the branch of the biological sciences that deals with microorganisms, i. e.
bacteria, fungi, some algae, protozoa, viruses, viroid and prions.
Most micro-organisms have the following characteristics:
1) They are generally too small to be seen with the unaided human eye, and some form
of microscopy is required for the study of their structure.
2) Cells or other structures are relatively simple and less specialized than those of higher
plants and animals.
3) They are handled and cultured in the laboratory in ways that are generally quite similar.

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Microbiology has developed into a science that can be studied from a number of
perspectives.
A specialist study can be made of each of the individual groups giving rise to the
following disciplines:
• Bacteriology - the study of bacteria
• Mycology - the study of fungi
• Protozoology - the study of protozoa
• Phycology (algology) - the study of algae
• Virology - the study of viruses.

Micro-organisms can also be studied from the applied viewpoint, i. e. the relationship
between micro-organisms, the environment and human activity.
This again gives rise to a number of areas of specialist study:

Medical microbiology: It includes some aspects of pathology (the study of diseases),

immunology (how the immune system operates to prevent invasion by micro-organisms)
and epidemiology (how diseases are distributed and spread).

Agricultural microbiology: The study of micro-organisms for crop/plant health and

related areas.

Industrial microbiology / biotechnology: The study of the use of Microorganisms in large

scale industrial processes.

Food microbiology: The study of the role that micro-organisms play in food spoilage, food
production, food preservation and food-borne disease.

FOOD MICROBIOLOGY AND ITS ORIGIN

Although processes of food spoilage and methods of food preservation and food
fermentation have been recognized since ancient times, it was not until the 1800s that
the relationship between foods and micro-organisms was established. In 1837 Schwann
proposed that the yeast which appeared during alcoholic fermentation was a microscopic
plant, and between 1857 and 1876 Pasteur showed that micro-organisms were
responsible for the chemical changes that take place in foods and beverages. Their
observations laid the foundation for the development of food microbiology as we know
it today. Soon after these early discoveries were made, knowledge about the role that
micro-organisms play in food preservation, food spoilage and food preservation, food
spoilage and food poisoning accelerated rapidly until food microbiology gradually
emerged as a discipline in its own right. Food microbiology is now a highly developed area
of knowledge with the main areas of interest highlighted in Fig.

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 Laboratory
Food hygiene
management
Food
fermentations

Major Area of Food Food-borne

Water quality
Microbiology disease

Food
Quality control
preservation
Food spoilage

Not all groups of micro-organisms are of equal interest to the food microbiologist.
Bacteria come very much on top of the list with molds and yeasts also of considerable
importance and viruses less so. The associations that these organisms have with the
manufacture and consumption of foods are summarized.

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 Bacteria Molds
Food-borne disease Food-borne disease
Food spoilage Food fermentations
Food fermentations Food spoilage
Production of food additives and enzymes Production of single cell protein
Production of enzymes

Various groups of micro-organisms and their associations with food

Viruses Yeast
Food-borne disease Food spoilage
Identification of food poisoning bacteria Food fermentations
Failure of dairy fermentations Production of food additives and enzymes

Protozoa and algae have minimum direct impact on the production, processing and
consumption of food. Food-borne disease can be caused by some protozoa and others
belonging to this group are important in the treatment of wastes. Algae are used to
produce alginates; some have the potential for use in the production of single-cell protein
and some marine species produce toxins that might enter our food along with sea foods.

ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FOODS

Since 1900 A.D. our understanding of the importance of micro-organisms in food has
increased greatly. Their role in food can be either desirable (food bioprocessing) or
undesirable (food borne diseases and food spoilage), which is briefly discussed here.

▪ Food-borne Diseases
Many pathogenic micro-organisms (bacteria, molds and viruses) can contaminate foods
during various stages of their handling, between production and consumption.
Consumption of these foods can cause food borne diseases.
Food borne diseases can be fatal and may also cause large economic losses. Foods of
animal origin are associated, more with food borne diseases than foods of plant origin.
Mass production of food, introduction of new technologies in the processing and storage
of food, changes in food consumption patterns and increased import of food from other
countries have increased the chances of large outbreaks as well as the introduction of
new pathogens. Effective intervention technologies are being developed and
implemented to ensure the safety of consumers against food borne diseases. New

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methods are also being developed to effectively and rapidly identify the pathogens in
contaminated foods.

▪ Food Spoilage
Except for sterile foods, all foods harbor micro-organisms. Food spoilage stems from the
growth of these micro-organisms in food or is due to the action of microbial enzymes.
New marketing trends, consumers’ desire for foods that are not overly processed and
preserved, extended shelf life, and chances of temperature abuse between production
and consumption of foods have greatly increased the chances of food spoilage and, in
some instances, with new types of micro-organisms. The major concerns are the
economic loss and wastage of food. New concepts are being studied to reduce
contamination as well as control the growth of spoilage microbes in foods.

▪ Food Bioprocessing
Many food-grade micro-organisms are used to produce different types of fermented
foods using raw materials from animal and plant sources. Consumption of these foods has
increased greatly over the last 15 to 20 years and is expected to increase further in the
future. There have been great changes in the production and availability of these
microorganisms (starter cultures) to meet the large demand. In addition, novel and better
strains are being developed by using genetic engineering techniques.

▪ Food Additives
Microbial enzymes are also being used to produce food and food additives. By employing
genetic recombination techniques, and using diverse microbial sources enzymes of higher
purity & activity are obtained. Many types of additives from microbial sources are being
developed and used in food. Some of these include single-cell proteins, essential amino
acids, color compounds, flavor compounds, stabilizers and organic acids.

▪ Food Bio-preservation
Antimicrobial metabolites (e.g. bacteriocins and organic acids like acetic, propionic and
lactic acids) of desirable Micro-organisms are being developed and used in foods in place
of preservatives of non-food (chemical) origin to control pathogenic and spoilage micro-
organisms in food. Economic production of these antimicrobial compounds and their
effectiveness in food systems have generated wide interest.

▪ Probiotics
Consumption of foods containing live cells of bacteria and that have apparent health
benefits has generated interest among consumers. The role of these bacteria for health
and bacterial efficacy benefits is being critically investigated.

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 CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Living cellular organisms, on the basis of phylogenetic and evolutionary relationships, are
grouped into five kingdoms in which bacteria belong to prokaryote (before nucleus), while
the eukaryotic (with nucleus) molds and yeasts are grouped under fungi.
Viruses are not considered as living cells and are not included in this classification system.
For the classification of yeasts, molds, and bacteria, several ranks are used after the
kingdom. These are divisions, classes, orders, families, genera (singular, genus), and
species.
The basic taxonomic group is the species. Several species with similar
characteristics form a genus. A family is made up of several genera, and the same
procedure is followed in the hierarchy. Ranks above species, genus, and family are seldom
used in food microbiology. Among bacteria, a species is regarded as a collection of strains
having many common features. A strain is the descendent of a single colony (single cell).
Among the strains in a species, one is assigned as the type strain; it is used as a reference
strain while comparing the characteristics of an unknown isolate.
The basic taxonomic group in bacteria, yeasts, and molds is the species, and
each species is given a name. The name has two parts (binomial name); the first part is
the genus name and the second part is the specific epithet (adjective). Both parts are
Latinized; when written, they are italicized (or underlined) with the first letter of the genus
written in a capital letter and species name in small letters. For e. g. Bacillus subtilis
(genus is Bacillus and species is subtilis).

MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FOOD
The Micro-organisms most common to food are bacteria and fungi. The fungi, which are
less common than bacteria, consist of two major types of Microorganisms, viz. molds and
yeasts. Apart from these, food may contain viruses and other parasites such as
protozoans, worms etc.

Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular Micro-organisms that are approximately one micro meter (10-
3mm) in diameter with variations in morphology from short and elongated rods (bacilli),
spherical or ovoid forms(cocci), vibrio (comma shaped) and even spiral in shape. Cocci
(meaning “berry”) are sphere shaped bacteria. Individual bacteria closely combine in
various forms according to genera. Some sphere-shaped bacteria occur in clusters similar
to a bunch of grapes (i.e. staphylococci). Other bacteria (rod shaped or sphere shaped)
are linked together to form chains (i.e. streptococci in case of cocci chain).
Certain genera of sphere-shaped bacteria are found together in
pairs (diplococci i.e. Pneumococci) or as a group of four (Square or cubical packets
formation; i.e. sarcina), while other genera appear as an individual bacterium. Other
bacteria (in majority) are rod shaped and possess flagella and are motile. Bacteria produce
various pigments which range from shades of yellow to dark pigments such as brown or

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black. Certain bacteria have pigmentation of intermediate colors such as red, pink,
orange, blue, green, or purple. These bacteria cause food discoloration, especially, among
foods with unstable color pigments such as meat. Some bacteria also cause discoloration
by slime formation.

Shape of Bacteria

Molds
Molds are multicellular micro-organisms with mycelial (filamentous) morphology. These
microbes are also characterized by their display of a variety of colors and are generally
recognized by their mildew or fuzzy, cotton like appearance. Molds can develop
numerous tiny spores that are found in the air and can be spread by air currents. These
spores can produce new mold growth if they are transferred to a location that has
conditions conducive to germination. Molds generally withstand greater fluctuation in pH
than bacteria and yeasts and can frequently tolerate more temperature fluctuation.
Although molds thrive best at or near a pH of 7.0, a pH range of 2.0 to 8.0 can be tolerated,
even though an acid to neutral pH is preferred.
Molds thrive better at ambient temperature than in a colder
environment, even though growth can occur below 0°C. Although mold growth is optimal
at a water activity (Aw) of approximately 0.85, growth can and does occur below 0.80. At
an Aw of 0.90 or higher, bacteria and yeasts grow more effectively and normally utilize
available nutrients for growth at the expense of molds. When the Aw goes below 0.90,
molds grow more effectively. That is why foodstuffs, such as pastries, cheeses, and nuts,
that are low in moisture content are more likely to spoil from mold growth.

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 Molds
Yeasts
Yeasts are generally unicellular and differ from bacteria in their large cell size and
morphology, and because they produce buds during the process of reproduction by
division. Like molds, yeasts can be spread through the air, or other means, and alight on
the surface of foodstuffs. Yeast colonies are generally moist or slimy in appearance and
creamy white colored. Yeasts prefer an Aw of 0.90 - 0.94, but can grow below 0.90. These
micro-organisms grow best in the intermediate acid range, pH from 4.0 to 4.5. Food that
is highly contaminated with yeasts will frequently have a slightly fruity odor.

Viruses
Viruses are 10- 450 nm in size; cannot reproduce without a living host; attack only
susceptible host cell lines; infect plants, animals, and bacteria; and have the capacity to
produce specific diseases in specific hosts. Transmission occurs in foods, water and air.
Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages.
Viruses are too small to be visualized with an ordinary compound microscope. Only after
the electron microscope was developed, the direct observation of viruses was possible.
Viruses consist of a DNA or RNA core surrounded by a protein coat. Because they lack all
the apparatus for normal cellular metabolism, they must utilize the cellular machinery of
the host cell in order to grow and divide. Once they invade a host cell, however, viruses
can multiply very rapidly.

Parasitic Organisms
A number of parasitic worms can also be transmitted by food to cause diseases in humans.
Cestodes are flatworms that inhabit the intestinal tract, heart, and lungs of animals. Beef,
swine, dogs and other canine species, bears, and fish can all harbour tapeworms and
flatworms, which can be transmitted to and can infect humans. Trematoda are non-
segmented flatworms that possess a mouth and oral sucker and depend on a snail as an
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intermediate host before infecting humans by being ingested in drinking water or aquatic
plants. Intestinal flukes, pyriform worms from fish, sheep and Chinese liver flukes, and
oriental lung flukes are all examples of food-transmitted parasites. Nematodes or true
roundworms also can be transmitted from animals to humans. Eggs carried in excrement
from roaches and dung beetles ingested by cattle, sheep and hogs contaminate humans.
Trichinosis is an inflammation of the muscle tissue caused by ingesting the worm
Trichinella spiralis. Pork is the most common vector. Capillary worms, whipworms, and
pinworms are other examples of nematode parasites. Protozoa are microscopic single-
celled animals, which can be taken in with food or water to cause human illness.
Entamoeba histolytica, Toxoplasma gondii, Balantidium coli, and Giardia lamblia are the
most common food borne protozoan parasites.

▪ IMPORTANT MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FOOD

• Important Mold Genera
Molds are important in food because they can grow in conditions in which many bacteria
cannot, such as low pH, low water activity (aw), and high osmotic pressure. They are
important spoilage micro-organisms. Many strains also produce mycotoxins and have
been implicated in food borne intoxication. Many are used in food bioprocessing. Finally,
many are used to produce food additives and enzymes. Some of the most common genera
of molds found in food are listed here:

1) Aspergillus:
They are widely distributed and contain many species that are important in food. They
have septate hyphae and produce a sexual spores (black color) or conidia. Many are
xerophilic (able to grow in low aw) and can grow in grains, causing spoilage. They are also
involved in spoilage of foods such as jams, cured ham, nuts, and fruits and vegetables
(rot). Some species/strains produce mycotoxin (e.g., Aspergillus flavus produces
aflatoxin). Many species/strains are also used in food and food additive processing.
Aspergillus oryzae is used to hydrolyze starch by alpha-amylase in the production of sake.
Aspergillus niger is used to process citric acid from sucrose and to produce enzymes like-
galactosidase.

2 ) Alternaria:
They are also septate and form dark-brown colored many celled conidia on the
conidiophere. They cause rot in tomatoes and rancid flavor in dairy products. Species:
Alternaria tenuis.

3 ) Geotrichum:
The hyphae are septate and form rectangular asexual arthrospores (oidia). They grow
forming a yeast like, cottony, creamy colony. They establish easily in equipment and often
grow on dairy products (also known as dairy mold). Species: Geotrichum candidum.

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4 ) Mucor:
They are widely distributed. They have nonseptate hyphae and produce
sporangiophores. They produce cottony colonies. Some species are used in food
fermentation and production of enzymes. They cause spoilage of vegetables. Species:
Mucor rouxii.

5 ) Penicillium:
They are widely distributed and contain many species.They have septate hyphae and
form conidiophore on a blue-green, brushlike conidia head. Some species are used in
food production, such as Penicillium roquefortii and Penicillium camembertii in cheese.
Many species cause fungal rot in fruits and vegetables.

6) Rhizopus:
The hyphae are aseptate and form sporangiophores in sporangium. They are involved in
the spoilage of many fruits and vegetables. Rhizopus stolonifer is the common black
bread mold.

• Important Yeast Genera

Yeasts are important in food due to their ability to cause spoilage. Many are also used in
food bioprocessing. Some are used to produce food additives. Several important genera
are briefly described below.

1 ) Saccharomyces:
Cells are round, oval, or elongated. It is the most important genus and contains
heterogeneous groups. Saccharomyces cerevisiae variants are used in baking for
leavening of bread and in alcoholic fermentation. They are also involved in spoilage of
food with the production of alcohol and CO2.

2) Pichia:
They are oval to cylindrical cells and form pellicle in beer, wine,and brine to cause
spoilage. Some are also used in oriental food fermentation. Species: Pichia
membranaefaciens.

3) Rhodotorula:
They are pigment (red, pink or yellow) forming yeasts and can cause discoloration of
foods, such as in meat, fish, and sauerkraut. Species Rhodotorula glutinis.

4 ) Torulopsis:
They have spherical to oval structure. They cause spoilage of milk due to the ability to
ferment lactose (Torulopsis sphaerica).They also spoil fruit juice concentrates and acid
foods.

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5 ) Candida:
Many spoil foods with high acid, salt, and sugar and form pellicle on the surface of liquids.
Some can cause rancidity in butter and dairy products (Candida lipolytica).

6) Zygosaccharomyces:
Involved in spoilage of foods, containing high sugar/salt levels ex. honey, sirups,
molasses, soy sauce. (Zygosaccharomyces nussbaumeri). These yeasts are termed
osmophilic, because they can grow in high concentrations of solutes.

• Important Viruses
Viruses are important in food for three reasons. Some are able to cause enteric disease
and thus, if present in a food, can cause food borne diseases. Hepatitis A and Norwalk
viruses have been implicated in food borne outbreaks. Several other enteric viruses, such
as Poliovirus, Echovirus, and Coxsackievirus, have the potential of causing food borne
diseases. In some countries where the level of sanitation is not very high, they can
contaminate foods and cause disease. Some bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) are used
in the identification of species/strains by a process called transduction (e.g., in
Escherichia, coli, Lactococcus lactis). Finally, some bacteriophages can be very important
due to their ability to cause fermentation failure. Many lactic acid bacteria, used as starter
cultures in food fermentation, are sensitive to different bacteriophages. These phages can
infect and destroy starter culture bacteria, causing product failure. Among the lactic acid
bacteria, bacteriophages have been isolated for many species in genera Lactococcus,
Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, and Lactobacills. Methods are being studied to genetically
engineer lactic acid start cultures so that they become resistant to multiple
bacteriophages.

Human Intestinal Viruses with High Potential as Food Contaminants

Types of Viruses Example
Picornaviruses Polioviruses
Coxsackievirus A
Coxsackievirus B
Echovirus
Enterovirus
Reoviruses Reovirus
Rotavirus
Parvoviruses Human gastrointestional viruses
Papovaviruses Human BK and JC viruses
Adenoviruses Human adenoviruses

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• Important Bacterial Genera
Bacterial classification is rapidly changing. In the following Table 1.2, only those species
and genera currently approved and listed in Bergey’s Manual have been used.

Common Bacterial Groups in Foods

Group Family Genera

Spiral and curved Spirallaceae Campylobacter
bacteria
Gram-negative aerobic Pseudomonadaceae Pseudomonas, Altermonas
rods and cocci Gluconobacter, Xanthomonas
Halobacteriaceae Halobacterium, Halococcus
Genera of uncertain Alcaligenes, Acetobacter,
affinity Brucella
Gram-negative Enterobacteriaceae Escherichia, Citrobacter,
facultative anaerobic Salmonella, Shigella,
rods Klebsiella, Enterobacter,
Serratia, Proteus, Yersinia,
Erwinia
Vibrionaceae Vibrio, Aeromonas
Genera of uncertain Flavobacterium,
affinity Chromobacterium
Gram-negative Neisseriaceae Moraxella, Acinetobacter
diplococci Micrococcaceae Micrococcus, Staphylococcus
and diplococcobacilli Streptococcaceae Streptococcus, Leuconostoc,
Gram-positive cocci Pediococcus, Lactococcus,
Enterococcus
Peptococcaceae Peptococcaceae Sarcina
Endospore forming rods Bacillaceae Clostridium, Bacillus
Gram-positive Lactobacillaceae Lactobacillus
asporogenous rod of Genera of uncertain Listeria
regular shape affinity
Non spore-forming Coryneform bacteria Arthrobacter,
rods of irregular shape Brevibacterium,
Propionibacterium
Rickettsia Rickettsiaceae Coxiella

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• GENERA OF BACTERIA IMPORTANT IN FOOD
Among the Micro-organisms found in foods, bacteria constitute a major important group.
This is not only because many different species can be present in foods, but is also due to
their rapid growth rate, ability to utilize food nutrients, and their ability to grow under a
wide range of temperatures, aerobiosis, pH, and water activity, as well as to survive under
adverse situations, such as survival of spores at high temperature. For convenience,
bacteria important in foods have been arbitrarily divided into several groups on the basis
of similarities in certain characteristics. This grouping does not have any taxonomic
significance. Some of these groups and their importance in foods are listed here.

1) Lactic Acid Bacteria

Those bacteria that produce relatively large quantities of lactic acid from carbohydrates.
Include species mainly from genera Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Lactobacillus
and Streptococcus thermophilus.

2) Acetic Acid Bacteria

Those bacteria that produce acetic acid, such as Acetobacter aceti.

3) Propionic Acid Bacteria

Those bacteria that produce propionic acid and are used in dairy fermentation. Include
species such as Propionibacterium freudenreichii.
4) Butyric Acid Bacteria
Those bacteria that produce butyric acid in relatively large amounts.Some Clostridium
spp., such as Clostridium butyricum.

5) Proteolytic Bacteria
Those bacteria that are capable of hydrolyzing proteins due to production of extracellular
proteinases. Species in genera Micrococcus, Staphylocccu ,Bacillu ,Clostridium,
Pseudomonas, Alteromonas,Flavobacerium, and Alcaligenes; some in Enterobacteriaceae
and Brevibacterium are also included in this group.

6) Lipolytic Bacteria
Able to hydrolyze triglycerides due to production of extracellular lipases. Species in
genera Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Serration, Pseudomonas, Alteromonas, Alcaligenes
and Flavobacterium are included in this group.

7) Saccharolytic Bacteria
Able to hydrolyze complex carbohydrates. Include some species in genera Bacillus,
Clostridium, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Enterobacter.

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8) Thermophillic Bacteria
Able to grow at 500C and above. Include some species from genera Bacillus, Clostridium,
Pediococcus, Streptococcus, and Lactobacillus.

9) Psychrotrophic Bacteria
Able to grow at refrigerated temperature (<50C). Include some species of Pseudomonas,
Alteromonas, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Serratia, Bacillus, Clostridium, Lactobacillus,
Leuconostoc, Listeria, Yersinia and Aeromonas.

10) Thermoduric Bacteria

Able to survive pasteurization temperature. Include some species of Micrococcus,
Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Bacillus (spores) and Clostridium (spores).

11) Halotolerant Bacteria

Able to survive high salt concentrations (>10%). Include some species of Bacillus,
Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Pediococcus, Vibrio Streptococcus, Clostridium and
Corynebacterium.

12) Aciduric Bacteria

Able to survive at low pH (below 4.0). Include some species of Lactobacillus, Pediococcus,
Lactococcus, Enterococcus and Streptococcus.

13) Osmophilic Bacteria

Can grow at a relatively higher osmotic pressure (environment) than other bacteria. Some
species from genera Staphylococcus, Leuconostoc, and Lactobacillus are included in this
group. They are much less osmophilic than yeasts and molds.

14) Gas-producing Bacteria

Produce gas (CO2, H2, H2S) during metabolism of nutrients. Include spices from genera
Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Brevibacterium and Escherichia.

15) Slime Producers

Produce slime due to synthesis of polysaccharides. Include some species or strains of
Xanthomonas, Leuconostoc, Alcaligenes, Enterobacter, Lactococcus, and Lactobacillus.

16) Spore formers

Ability to produce spore. Include Bacillus, Clostridium and Desulfotomaculum spp. They
are again divided into aerobic, anaerobic, flat sour thermophilic and sulfide-producing
spore formers.

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17) Aerobes
Require oxygen for growth and multiplication. Species of Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and
Flavobacterium are included in this group.

18) Anaerobes
Cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. Include species of Clostridium.

19) Facultative Anaerobes

Able to grow both in the presence and absence of oxygen. Lactobacillus, Pediococcus,
Leuconostoc, enteric pathogens, some species of Bacillus, Serratia, and coliforms are
included in this group.

20) Coliforms
Include mainly species from Escherichia, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, and Klebsiella, and
used as index of sanitation.

21) Fecal Coliforms

Include mainly Escherichia coli. Also used as index of sanitation.

22) Enteric Pathogens

Include pathogenic Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, Escherichia, Vibrio,
Listeria, Hepatitis A, and others that can cause gastrointestinal infection.

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CHAPTER 17
FOOD CONTAMINATION & DISEASE

Food contamination refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and microorganisms

in food, which can cause consumer illness. This article addresses the chemical
contamination of foods, as opposed to microbiological contamination, which can be
found under foodborne illness.
A food contamination has been defined as any substances not intentionally added to
food, which is present in such food as a result of the production, manufacture,
processing, preparation, treatment, packing, transport or storage of such food as a result
of environmental contamination.

There are three ways in which food can become contaminated-

1. Microbial contamination
2. Physical contamination
3. Chemical contamination

1.MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION
If food is consumed that has been contaminated by certain, harmful bacteria or their
toxins (poisons produced by some of these bacteria), food poisoning may result.
Bacteria are responsible for most food poisoning cases. Symptoms of food poisoning
may include vomiting, diarrhea, fever and abdominal pain. The symptoms may take
some time to occur depending on the type of bacteria. In general, the bacteria must
grow in the food to produce sufficient numbers to infect the body, multiply with in the
intestine and cause illness. Alternatively, toxins may be produced in the foodstuff or
within the intestine, to produce symptoms very soon after ingestion. It is important to
remember that food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria will look, taste and smell
perfectly normal. Steps must therefore be taken to prevent pathogenic bacteria getting
onto food and multiplying to levels that will cause food poisoning.

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Food poisoning due to microbes is very common, some food borne disease are given
below-

S. No. Organism Disease

1 Staphylococcus aureus Gastroenteritis
2 Clostridium botulinum Botulism
3 Bacillus cereus Diarrhea
4 Salmonella typhi Enteric fever typhoid
5 Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis, diarrhoea

Prevention and Control of Microbial Contamination

• Areas must be regularly cleaned and, where necessary, disinfected.

• Interior surfaces, e. g. floors, walls, ceilings should be smooth, free from cracks and
should permit easy and effective cleaning.
• A high level of cleansing and hygiene should be practiced in every aspect of the
manufacture of drug product.
• Suitable grade of cleaning agents should be used to minimize health risks.
• Contact time, application, temperature, mechanical action and the chemistry of the
cleaning agents should all be considered during the design of the cleaning process.
• Materials used for cleaning should not come in direct contact with the product.
• Validation of cleaning practices must be carried out to provide evidence that the
process is effective in controlling microbial contamination.
• Steam used for cleaning and sanitization of production tools and equipment, supply
for autoclaves and humidification must be clean and free of additives.

2. CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION
Chemical contamination occurs when food is contaminated by chemicals. Some of the
most common causes of chemical contamination are cleaning products or pesticides and
herbicides from unwashed fruit and vegetables. Contamination may occur through
environmental pollution of the air, water and soil, such as the case with toxic metals, PCBs
and dioxins, or through the intentional use of various chemicals, such as pesticides, animal
drugs and other agrochemicals.

Chemicals including pesticides, bleach and other cleaning materials can

contaminate food if not used carefully. For example, store cleaning fluids separate to
foods to prevent tainting and contamination if there is a spillage.
The impact of chemical contaminants on consumer health and well-being is often
apparent only after many years of prolonged exposure at low levels (e.g. cancer).

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Chemical contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing
(unlike most microbiological agents). Chemical contaminants can be classified according
to the source of contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product.

Agrochemical:
Agrochemical are chemicals used in agriculture practices and animal husbandry with the
intent to increase crop yields and reduced costs. Such agents include pesticides (e.g.
insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides), plants growth regulators, veterinary drugs (e.g.
nitrofuran, fluoroquinolones, malachite green, chloramphenicol), and bovine
somatotropin.

Environmental:
Environmental contaminants are chemical that are present in the environment in which
the food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed and consumed.
The physical contact of the food with its environment results in its contamination are:
Air: Radionuclides (137Caesium, 90Strontium), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Water: Arsenic, mercury
Soil: Cadmium, nitrates, perchlorates.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), dioxins and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are
ubiquitous chemicals, which are present in air ,water ,soil and the entire biosphere.
Packaging material: Antimony, tin, lead, perfluorooctanoic acid (AFOA), semicarbazide,
benzophenone.
Processing/Cooking equipment: Copper or other metal chips, lubricants, cleaning and
sanitizing agents.
Naturally occurred Toxins: Mycotoxins, phytohaemagglutinin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
grayanotoxin, mashroomtoxins ,scombrotoxin (histamine), ciguatera, shellfish toxins ,
tetrodotoxin ,among many others.
Processing contaminants are generated during the processing of foods (e.g. heating
,fermentation).They are absent in the raw material and are formed by chemical reactions
between natural and added hydrocarbons (PAH),heterocyclic amines ,histamine,
acrylamide, furan, benzene, trans-fat, monochloropropanediol (MCPD), semicarbazide, 4-
hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and ethyl carbamate.

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 FOOD POISONING & FOOD BORNE ILLNESS
The term “food poisoning” is however restricted only to acute gastroenteritis due to
bacterial pollution of food or drink. The term “food-borne” disease is defined as,
“A disease, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the
body through the ingestion of food”
Food poisoning syndrome results from ingestion of water
and wide variety of food contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, fungi), their toxins and chemicals. Food poisoning must be suspected
when an acute illness with gastrointestinal or neurological manifestation affect two or
more persons, who have shared a meal during the previous 72 hours. Some
microbiologists consider microbial food poisoning to be different from food-borne
infections. In microbial food poisoning, the microbes multiply readily in the food prior to
consumption, whereas in food-borne infection, food is merely the vector for microbes
that do not grow on their transient substrate. Others consider food poisoning as
intoxication of food by chemicals or toxins from bacteria or fungi. Consumption of
poisonous mushroom leads to mycetism, while consumption of food contaminated with
toxin producing fungi leads to mycotoxicosis.
Some microorganisms can use our food as a source of
nutrients for their own growth. By growing in the food, metabolizing them and producing
by-products, they not only render the food inedible but also pose health problems upon
consumption. Many of our foods will support the growth of pathogenic microorganisms
or at least serve as a vector for their transmission. Food can get contaminated from plant
surfaces, animals, water, sewage, air, soil, or from food handlers during handling and
processing.
Intoxication; Illness caused by the consumption of bacterial toxin formed in the food e.g.
Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus.
Infection: Illness caused by the entrance of the bacteria into the body through ingestion
of contaminated food and reaction of the body to their metabolites.

▪ CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD POISONING:

Food Poisoning may be of two types:
Non-Bacterial: Caused by chemicals such as arsenic, fertilizers, pesticides, cadmium,
mercury, certain plant and sea foods.
Bacterial: Caused by the ingestion of foods, contaminated by living bacteria or their
toxins. Thus they are two types, namely:

1. Food-Borne Intoxications
2. Food-Borne Infections

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1.Food-Borne Intoxications
Food-borne intoxications are caused
1. Due to naturally occurring toxins in some foods, including
i. Lathyrism (beta-oxalyl amino-alanine)
ii. Endemic Ascites (Pyrrolizidine alkaloids)
2. Due to toxins produced by certain bacteria, including
i. Botulism
ii. Staphylococcus toxins
3. Due to toxins produced by some fungi, including
i. Aflatoxin
ii. Ergot
iii. Fusarium toxins
4. Due to toxins produced by some algae, like
i. Planktonic dinoflagellates
ii. Diatoms
iii. Cyanobacteria
5. Due to food-borne chemical poisoning

2.Food-Borne Infections
Food-borne infections include
1. Bacterial infections such as
▪ Salmonellosis
▪ Shigellosis
▪ E. coli diarrhea
▪ Cholera
▪ Streptococcal infection
▪ Brucellosis
▪ Listeriosis
2. Viral infections such as
▪ Viral gastroenteritis
▪ Hepatitis A
3. Parasitic infections such as
▪ Taeniasis
▪ Trichinosis

▪ Bacterial Food Poisoning

Food-Borne Diseases and Food Poisoning
Food-borne disease is a disease caused by ingestion of food contaminated by any agent,
chemical or biological. Food poisoning is an acute enteritis caused by the ingestion of
food, characterized by diarrhea, vomiting, with or without fever and abdominal pains.

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Food poisoning is normally associated with the small and large intestine. Certain types
of food poisoning are described as intoxications and others as infections.
Bacterial Etiology of Food Poisoning:
Food infections by bacteria can be divided into two types:
1. Those in which the food does not ordinarily support the growth of pathogens but
merely carries them. E.g.
Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio etc.

2. Those in which the food can serve as a culture medium for growth of pathogens to
numbers that can infect
the person.
Food borne infections by bacteria can also be classified as toxicosis and food-infections.
In toxicosis, the toxins are released by bacteria such as Clostridia, Bacillus and
Staphylococcus. In food-infections, the bacteria are ingested, which later initiate the
infection.

▪ FOOD POISONING BACTERIA

Staphylococcus aureus:
S. aureus is gram positive cocci that occurs in singles, pairs, short chains, tetrads and
irregular grape like clusters. It is present ubiquitously in the environment. Only those strains
that produce enterotoxin can cause food poisoning. Food is usually contaminated from
infected food handler. The food handler with an active lesion or carriage can contaminate
food.
Incriminated food: Custard and cream filled bakery food, ham, chicken, meat, milk, fish,
salads, puddings, pie etc.
Pathogenesis: If the food is stored for some time at room temperature the organism may
multiply in the food and produce toxin. The bacteria produce enterotoxin while multiplying
in food. S. aureus is known to produce six serologically different types of enterotoxins (A,
B, C, C2, D and E) that differ in toxicity. Most food poisoning is caused by enterotoxin A.
Isolates commonly belong to phage type III. These enterotoxins tend to be heat stable, with
type B being most heat resistant. Low temperature heat inactivated enterotoxin can
undergo reactivation in some food. Ingestion of as little as 23 μg of enterotoxin can induce
vomiting and diarrhea.
Staphylococcal enterotoxins act as superantigens, binding to MHC II molecules and
stimulating T cells to divide and produce lymphokines such as IL-2 and TNF-alpha, which
induces diarrhea. The toxin acts on the receptors in the gut and sensory stimulus is carried
to the vomiting center in the brain by vagus and sympathetic nerves.

Incubation period: Since the ingested food contains preformed toxin, the incubation period
is usually 1-6 hours.

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Clinical features: The onset is sudden and is characterized by vomiting and diarrhea but no
fever. The illness lasts less than 12 hours. There are no complications and treatment is
usually not necessary.
Laboratory diagnosis: The presence of a large number of S. aureus organisms in a food may
indicate poor handling or sanitation; however, it is not sufficient evidence to incriminate a
food as the cause of food poisoning. Staphylococcal food poisoning can be diagnosed if they
are isolated in large numbers from the food and their toxins demonstrated in the food or
the isolated S. aureus must be shown to produce enterotoxins. Dilutions of food may be
plated on Baird-Parker agar or Mannitol Salt agar. Enterotoxin may be detected and
identified by gel diffusion.

Bacillus cereus:
B.cereus is a gram positive aerobic spore bearing bacilli. It is found abundantly in
environment and vegetation.
Incriminated food: Commonly associated with rice and vegetables.
Pathogenesis: During the slow cooling, spores germinate and vegetative bacteria multiply,
then they sporulate again. Sporulation is also associated with toxin production. The toxin is
heat-stable, and can easily withstand the brief high temperatures used to cook fried rice.
The short-incubation form is most often associated with fried rice that has been cooked
and then held at warm temperatures for several hours. Long-incubation food poisoning is
frequently associated with meat or vegetable-containing foods after cooking. The short-
incubation form is caused by a preformed heat-stable enterotoxin of molecular weight less
than 5,000 Dalton. The long incubation form of illness is mediated by a heat-labile
enterotoxin (molecular weight of approximately 50,000 Daltons), which activates intestinal
adenylate cyclase and causes intestinal fluid secretion.
Incubation period: 1-6 hours in short-incubation form and 8-16 hours in long incubation
form.
Clinical features: B. cereus causes two types of food-borne intoxications. The ‘emetic-type’
or the short incubation type has an incubation period of 1 to 6 hours. It is characterized by
nausea, vomiting and abdominal cramps and resembles S. aureus food poisoning in its
symptoms and incubation period. Within 16 hours of eating contaminated fried rice,
patients suffer a bout of vomiting that generally lasts for less than a day. The second type
is manifested primarily by abdominal cramps and diarrhea with an incubation period of 8
to 16 hours. Diarrhea may be a small volume or profuse and watery. This type is referred
to as the "long-incubation" or diarrheal form of the disease, and it resembles food
poisoning caused by Clostridium perfringens. In either
type, the illness usually lasts less than 24 hours after onset.
Laboratory diagnosis: The short-incubation or emetic form of the disease is diagnosed by
the isolation of B. cereus from the incriminated food. The long-incubation or diarrheal form
is diagnosed by isolation of the organism from stool and food. Isolation from stools alone

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is not sufficient because 14% of healthy adults have been reported to have transient
gastrointestinal colonization with B. cereus.

Clostridium perfringens:
It is a gram positive anaerobic spore bearing bacilli that is present abundantly in the
environment, vegetation, sewage and animal feces.
Incriminated food: food-borne outbreaks of C. perfringens involve meat products that are
eaten 1- 2 days after preparation. Meats that have been cooked, allowed to cool slowly,
and then held for some time before eating are commonly incriminated. Fish pastes and cold
chicken too have been incriminated.
Pathogenesis: Spores in food may survive cooking and then germinate when they are
improperly stored. When these vegetative cells form endospores in the intestine, they
release enterotoxins. The bacterium is known to produce at least 12 different toxins. Food
poisoning is mainly caused by Type A strains, which produces alpha and theta toxins. The
toxins result in excessive fluid accumulation in the intestinal lumen.
Incubation period: 8-24 hours
Clinical features: Illness is characterized by acute abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting.
Illness is self-limiting and patient recovers in 18-24 hours.
Laboratory diagnosis: Since the bacterium is present normally in the intestine, their
isolation from feces may not be sufficient to implicate it. Similarly, isolation from food
except in large numbers (>105/gram) may not be significant. The homogenized food is
diluted and plated on selective medium as well as Robertson cooked meat medium and
incubated anaerobically. The isolated bacteria must be shown to produce enterotoxin.

Clostridium botulinum:
It is a gram-positive anaerobic spore bearing bacilli that is widely distributed in soil,
sediments of lakes and ponds, and decaying vegetation.
Incriminated food: Most cases of botulism are associated with home canned or bottled
meat, vegetables and fish. In general, the low and medium acid canned foods are often
incriminated. The anaerobic environment produced by the canning process may further
encourage the out-growth of spores.
Pathogenesis: Not all strains of C. botulinum produce the botulinum toxin. Seven toxigenic
types of the organism exist, each producing an immunologically distinct form of botulinum
toxin. The toxins are designated A, B, C1, D, E, F, and G. Lysogenic phages encode toxin C
and D serotypes. Food-borne botulism is not an infection but an intoxication since it results
from the ingestion of foods that contain the preformed clostridia toxin. If contaminated
food has been insufficiently sterilized or canned improperly, the spores may germinate and
produce botulinum toxin. The toxin is released only after the death and lysis of cells. The
toxin resists digestion and is absorbed by the upper part of the GI tract and then into the
blood. It then reaches the peripheral neuromuscular synapses where the toxin binds to the

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presynaptic stimulatory terminals and blocks the release of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine. This results in flaccid paralysis. Even 1-2 μ g of toxin can be lethal to humans.
Incubation period: 12-36 hours
Clinical features: Common features include vomiting, thirst, dryness of mouth,
constipation, ocular paresis (blurred-vision), difficulty in speaking, breathing and
swallowing. Coma or delirium may occur in some cases. Death may occur due to respiratory
paralysis within 7 days.
Laboratory diagnosis: Spoilage of food or swelling of cans or presence of bubbles inside the
can indicate clostridia growth. Food is homogenized in broth and inoculated in Robertson
cooked meat medium and blood agar or egg-yolk agar, which is incubated anaerobically for
3-5 days at 37oC. The toxin can be demonstrated by injecting intraperitoneally the extract
of food or culture into mice or guinea pig.

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC):

E. coli are gram negative enteric bacilli that are carried normally in the intestine of humans
and animals. Some specific serotypes harbor plasmids that code for toxin production. The
enterotoxin production is limited to following O serotypes: O6, O8, O15, O25, O63, O78,
O148 and O159.
Incriminated food: Infection is acquired by ingestion of food or water contaminated with
ETEC. Contamination of water with human sewage may lead to contamination of foods.
Infected food handlers may also contaminate foods. The infective dose is 106-1010 bacilli.
Pathogenesis: The bacteria colonize the GI tract by means of fimbriae to specific receptors
on enterocytes of the proximal small intestine. Enterotoxins produced by ETEC include the
LT (heat-labile) toxin and or the ST (heat-stable) toxin. LTs are similar to cholera toxin in
structure and mode of action. LTs are holotoxin consisting of A subunit and B subunit. The
B subunit of LTs binds to specific ganglioside receptors (GM1) on the epithelial cells of
small intestine and facilitates the entry of A subunit where it activates adenylate cyclase.
Stimulation of adenylate cyclase causes an increased production of cAMP, which leads to
hypersecretion of water and electrolytes into the lumen and inhibition of sodium
reabsorption.
Incubation period: 16-72 hours
Clinical features: Sudden onset of watery diarrhea associated with nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramping and bloating is commonly observed. This bacterium is responsible for
majority of traveler’s diarrhea. The disease is self-limiting and resolves in few days.
Laboratory diagnosis: The sample of feces is cultured on MacConkey’s agar. The ETEC
stains are indistinguishable from the resident E. coli by biochemical tests. These strains are
differentiated from nontoxigenic E. coli present in the bowel by a variety of in vitro
immunochemical, tissue culture, or DNA hybridization tests designed to detect either the
toxins or genes that encode for these toxins. With the availability of a gene probe method,
foods can be analyzed directly for the presence of enterotoxigenic E. coli in about 3 days.

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LTs can be detected by Ligated rabbit ileal loop test, morphological changes in Chinese
hamster ovary cells and Y1 adrenal cells, ELISA, immunediffusion, coagglutination etc.

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC):

E. coli are gram negative enteric bacilli that are carried normally in the intestine of humans
and animals. EHEC strains have been associated with many serogroups including O4, O26,
O45, O91, O111, O145 and O157. The most serotype is O157:H7.
Incriminated food: Cattle appear to be the main source of infection; most cases being
associated with the consumption of undercooked beef burgers and similar foods. This
disease is often associated with ingestion of inadequately cooked hamburger meat, raw
milk, cream and cheeses made from raw milk.
Pathogenesis: EHEC strains may produce one or more types of cytotoxins, which are
collectively referred a Shiga-like toxins (SLT) since they are antigenically and functionally
similar to Shiga toxin produced by Shigella dysenteriae. SLTs were previously known as
verotoxin. The toxins provoke cell secretion and kill colonic epithelial cells.
Incubation period: 72-120 hours
Clinical features: Initial symptoms may be diarrhea with abdominal cramps, which may
turn into grossly blood diarrhea in a few days. There is however, no fever.
Laboratory diagnosis: Laboratory diagnoses involve culturing the faeces on MacConkey's
agar or on sorbitol MacConkey's agar, where they don't ferment sorbitol. Strains can then
be identified by serotyping using specific antisera. SLTs can be detected by ELISA and genes
coding for them can be detected by DNA hybridization techniques.

Vibrio parahemolyticus:
They are straight or curved gram-negative halophilic bacilli. In morphology and staining it
resembles V. cholerae and is actively motile in liquid cultures. It is commonly found in
coastal seas, where it has been isolated from marine fauna such as crabs, shrimps, fishes
and mollusca.
Incriminated food: Infections are associated with consumption of uncooked or
undercooked crabs, prawns, shrimps and other seafood.
Pathogenesis: No enterotoxin has been demonstrated in the bacterium. The infection is
thought to result from invasion of intestinal epithelium.
Incubation period: 7-48 hours
Clinical features: The clinical infection is characterized by a sudden onset of acute
gastroenteritis. Infection may also result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting and fever.
Laboratory diagnosis: Homogenized food may be inoculated into TCBS agar or into
double strength alkaline peptone water and incubated overnight at 37oC. This bacterium
is positive for Kanagawa phenomenon where isolates from human feces show hemolysis
on blood agar.

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Salmonella enteritidis:
These are gram-negative rod shaped bacteria that are classified under family
enterobacteriaceae. This species does not occur normally in humans but several animals
act as reservoirs.
Incriminated food: Most important sources are chicken and poultry. Chicken, duck,
turkey and goose may be infected with Salmonella, which then find its way into its feces,
eggs or flesh of dressed fowl. Milk and milk products including ice creams have been
incriminated.
Pathogenesis: Organism penetrates and passes through the epithelial cells lining the
terminal portion of the small intestine. Multiplication of bacteria in the lamina propria
produces inflammatory mediators, recruits neutrophils and triggers inflammation.
Release of LPS causes fever. Inflammation causes release of prostaglandins from
epithelial cells. Prostaglandins cause electrolytes to flow into lumen of the intestine.
Water flows into lumen in response to osmotic imbalance resulting in diarrhea.
Incubation period: 12-36 hours
Clinical features: Sudden onset of abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, which
may be watery, greenish and foul smelling. This may be preceded by headache and chills.
Other findings include prostration, muscular weakness and moderate fever. In most
cases the symptoms resolve in 2-3 days without any complications.
Laboratory diagnosis: Homogenized food is cultured in selenite F broth and then sub-
cultured on deoxycholate citrate agar. Plates are incubated at 37oC overnight and
growth identified by biochemical tests and slide agglutination test.

Yersinia enterocolitica:
It is a gram-negative psychrophilic rod shaped bacterium that is motile only at
temperature below 30oC. Yersini enterocolitica is widely distributed in environment and
have been isolated frequently from soil, water and animals. The major animal reservoir
for Y. enterocolitica strains that cause human illness is pigs, but may also found in many
other animals including rodents, rabbits, sheep, cattle, horses, dogs, and cats.
Serogroups that predominate in human illness are O:3, O:8, O:9, and O:5.
Incriminated food: Infection is most often acquired by eating contaminated food,
especially raw or undercooked pork products. Drinking contaminated unpasteurized milk
or untreated water can also transmit the infection.
Pathogenesis: This organism may survive and grow during refrigerated storage. Strains
that cause human yersiniosis carry a plasmid that is associated with a number of
virulence traits. Ingested bacteria adhere and invade M cells or epithelial cells. They
exhibit resistance to complement and phagocytosis. They produce ST only at
temperatures below 30ºC. The role of ST in the disease process remains uncertain.
Incubation period: 4-7 days
Clinical features: Disease produced by Y. enterocolitica is a typical gastroenteritis
characterized by fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, which is often bloody. Illness

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generally lasts from 1 to 2 weeks but chronic cases may persist for up to a year. Apart
from gastroenteritis it may also cause pseudoappendicitis, mesenteric lymphadenitis,
and terminal ileitis.
Laboratory diagnosis: Suspected food is homogenized in phosphate-buffered saline and
inoculated into selenite F broth and held at 4oC for six weeks. The broth is sub-cultured
at weekly intervals on DCA or Yersinia selective agar plates. This is termed as cold
enrichment technique.

Campylobacter jejuni:
These are small, curved-spiral gram-negative bacilli with polar flagella. Campylobacter
jejuni appear in comma, S-shaped or “gull-wings/sea-gull” form. Campylobacter are
harbored in reproductive and alimentary tracts of some animals.
Incriminated food: Transmission to humans occurs via a fecal-oral route, originating
from farm animals, birds, dogs, and processed poultry, with chicken preparation
comprising 50-70% of all campylobacter infections. The organism is transmitted to man
in milk, meat products and contaminated water. Undercooked poultry and
unpasteurized dairy are most often implicated as a source of C. jejuni.
Pathogenesis: As few as 500 organisms can cause enteritis. The organism is invasive but
generally less so than Shigella. Campylobacter produces adenylate cyclase-activating
toxins same as of E.coli LT and cholera.
Incubation period: Ranges from 2 to11 days.
Clinical features: Patients present with abdominal pain and cramps, diarrhea, malaise,
headache, and usually fever. Typically the diarrhea is watery, but in severe cases bloody
diarrhea may occur. Diarrhea may last 2-7 days and the organism may be shed in the
patients stool for up to 2 months. Bacteremia is observed in a small minority of cases.
The disease is usually self-limiting.
Laboratory diagnosis: The feces may be inoculated in enrichment medium or on
selective media such as Campy BAP or Skirrow's medium. The plates are incubated in
microaerophilic conditions at 42° for 2-5 days.

▪ FOOD POISIONING BY VIRUS:

Viruses are not living organisms but bits of reproductive material that attack human cells
and hijack them. The most important viruses that cause foodborne disease are Hepatitis
A, Norwalk virus, Norovirus and some of the Calici viruses. Viruses don’t grow in food, and
one particle is enough to make you sick. Symptoms can be severe gastroenteritis or similar
to the ‘flu’. Generally the illness only lasts one or two days. The exception is Hepatitis A
which can be a severe illness and last for many weeks.

Viral Gastroenteritis: Viral gastroenteritis is usually regarded as a mild self-limiting

disease lasting 24-48 hours.

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However, people can feel debilitated for 2 to 3 weeks, which has considerable economic
implications in terms of working days lost and impaired performance
Symptoms include, malaise, abdominal pain, pyrexia, diarrhea and/or vomiting. A range
of symptoms occurring in an outbreak should alert investigations to the possibility of a
viral cause. The viruses are usually transmitted by the faecal-oral route, but they are also
present in vomitus. Virus will be disseminated over a wide area in aerosol droplets, which
is a particular hazard where food is being prepared and laid out. Although most
transmission is directly from person to person, contaminated food and water can give rise
to common-source outbreaks. For instance, it has been estimated that NLVs have an
infective dose of between 10 and 100 virus particles.

Norwalk-like Viruses: This group of viruses infects all age groups. There is a variable
incubation period of 12-60 hours, which is thought to be dose-dependent. These viruses
are responsible for both sporadic cases of gastroenteritis in the community and for
outbreaks in schools, hospitals, old age homes, hotels and cruise ships.

Rotavirus: Rotaviruses mainly infect young children. It is estimated that they cause one
million deaths a year in children under 5 years of age, mostly in developing countries. In
developed countries deaths are relatively rare, but rotavirus gastrotenteritis is the most
frequent reason for admission of young children to hospital. Rotaviruses consistently
account for around 80% of all gastroenteritis viruses.

Astro virus
The Astro virus form a morphologically distinct group of viruses, been associated with
illness in children, often under 1 year of age, although outbreaks have been reported in
the elderly. The use of more sensitive molecular detection methods is required to assess
the incidence and epidemiology of these viruses. Astroviruses have been seen in some
adults following the consumption of shellfish or contaminated water, but these incidents
appear to be comparatively rare.

HEPATITIS:
There are two forms of enterically transmitted hepatitis, hepatitis A and hepatitis E.
Hepatitis A
The most characteristic symptom of hepatitis A is jaundice, but milder symptoms of
nausea and general malaise without jaundice are common. Patients may feel unwell for
several weeks, but recovery is complete. Deaths are rare. Some infections, particularly in
children, may be asymptomatic. Like viral gastroenteritis, transmission is by the faecal-
oral route, but the primary site of viral replication is the liver. Virus excretion may
commence up to a week before symptoms are apparent, making control difficult.

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Hepatitis E
Hepatitis E has been associated with large water-borne outbreaks in some developing
countries, notably in Asia. Africa and Central America. Food-borne transmission has been
suggested, but not proved conclusively. Illness appears more severe than hepatitis A,
particularly in pregnant women where a death rate of 17-33% has been observed. The
primary source of infection appears to be contaminated water rather than person-to-
person spread. Secondary person-toper son transmission is estimated at only 0.7-8%.

Some Ways of Preventing Food Poisoning

• Good personal hygiene; such as thoroughly washing and drying hands when handling
food.
• Avoid cross-contamination; such as keeping raw foods and ready-to-eat foods
separate and using separate and clean utensils, containers and equipment.
• Cook foods thoroughly; make sure foods such as meats and poultry are cooked until
core temperature reaches 75°C.
• Avoid the Temperature Danger Zone; keep chilled foods cold at 5°C or colder, and hot
food hot at 60°C or hotter.
• Avoid spoiled foods; foods past their use-by dates or food in damaged containers or
packaging.
• If working in a food business: Follow the business Food Safety Program.
• Follow the advice given by the Food Safety Supervisor.
• Be trained in safe food handling.

FOOD HYGIENE
Food is a potential source of infection and is liable to contamination by microbes, at any
point during its journey from the producer to the consumer. Food hygiene may be defined
as the sanitary science which aims to produce food which is safe for the consumer and of
good keeping quality. It covers a wide field and includes the rearing, feeding, marketing
and slaughter of animals as well as the sanitation procedures designed to prevent bacteria
of human origin reaching foodstuff. Food hygiene, in its widest sense, implies hygiene in
the production, handling, distribution and serving. WHO (1984) has defined Food Hygiene
or Food Safety as all conditions and measures that are necessary during the production,
processing, storage, distribution and preparation of food to ensure that it is safe, sound,
wholesome and fit for human consumption. The primary aim of food hygiene is to prevent
food poisoning and other food-borne illness. The objective of food control has three
aspects-economic, aesthetic and public health. The laws and regulations are intended to
protect the public against injury to health and fraud and deceit. The laws and regulations
restrain the sale of foods which are decomposed, adulterated, improperly preserved or
misbranded. They provide specifications for safe handling of such perishable and
potentially dangerous foods such as milk or milk products and meats. Methods and

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procedures have been developed to minimize the danger of contamination of foods with
poisonous substances or with pathogenic microbes.

DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF FOOD HYGIENE INCLUDE

1. Milk hygiene
2. Meat hygiene
3. Fish hygiene
4. Egg hygiene
5. Hygiene of vegetables and fruits
6. Food-handlers hygiene
7. Sanitation of eating place

(i). Milk Hygiene

Milk is an efficient vehicle for a great variety of disease agents. Milk gets contaminated
by various sources like udder, utensils, personel hygiene of the handlers, storage
environment, water etc., This may lead to various milk-borne diseases that may affect the
population. Requisites in the production of clean and safe milk are-
1. Healthy and clean animal - Milk from a healthy udder contains only few
microorganisms.
2. Sanitary conditions of the dairy farm i.e., the premises where the animal is housed and
milked should be sanitary.
3. Containers and equipment should be sterile and kept covered.
4. Water supply should be bacteriologically safe.
5. Milk handlers must be free from communicable diseases and before milking they
must wash their hands and arms. Milking machines should be used as far as
possible.9
6. Milk must be cooled immediately to 10°C after it is drawn to retard bacterial
growth.
7. Milk should be properly pasteurized to increase shelf life.

(ii). Meat Hygiene

A number of diseases are transmitted through meat and meat-based foods since animal
tissues are important vehicles for transmission of various protozoan diseases like
Taeniasis, Trichinellosis and a number of bacterial infections. Meat inspection is a very
important process before being accepted or rejected. Two types of inspection, i. e., Ante-
mortem and post-mortem inspection are being carried out.
Ante-mortem rejection: It is based on emaciation, exhaustion, pregnancy, sheep-pox,
foot-rot actinomycosis, brucellosis, febrile conditions, diarrhea and other diseases.
Post-mortem rejection: It is based on Cysticercus bovis, liver fluke, abscesses,
sarcocystis, hydatidosus, septicaemia, parasitic and nodular infection of liver and lungs,
tuberculosis and Cysticercus cellulosae.
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Good meat qualities: The meat should be firm and elastic to touch, not be pale pink or
deep purple color.
Slaughter house hygiene: Hygiene of slaughter house is of paramount importance to
prevent the contamination of meat during the process of dressing. There is a Model Public
Health Act (1955) in India, which standardizes on the location, structure, disposal of
wastes, water supply, examination of animal, storage of meat, transportation of meat and
miscellaneous other activities connected with meat processing.

(iii). Fish Hygiene

Fishes are also important agents for disease transmission since they are perishable foods.
It is an intermediate host of tapeworm and consumption of spoilt fishes may lead to fish
poisoning. Fresh fish is in a state of stiffness or rigor mortis with bright red gills, and clear
and prominent eyes. Fishes also get contaminated through various means during
catching, transporting and processing. Prevention of contamination is of utmost
importance at each level of processing for increasing the shelf life and quality of fish.

(iv). Egg hygiene

Majority of freshly laid eggs are sterile. Shells of eggs become contaminated by faecal
matter from the hens or ducks. The microorganisms can penetrate the shell of the egg,
cross the various chemical barriers to reach the yolk leading to spoilage of the egg. Eggs
must be stored in a dry condition for preventing spoilage. Eggs can also be pasteurized to
increase the shelf life.

(v). Vegetable and Fruit Hygiene

Vegetable and fruits host many pathogens like bacterial, fungal, protozoan which can
enter the plant materials during or after their harvest. Standards have been laid down for
effective storage of the vegetable and fruits to prevent their spoilage and further disease
transmission.

(vi). Hygiene for Food-Handlers

Food sanitation rests directly upon the state of personal hygiene and habits of the person
working in food industries. They may transmit infections like diarrhea, dysenteries,
typhoid, enteroviruses, viral hepatitis, protozoan cysts, eggs of helminths,
staphylococcus/streptococcal infections. Simple rules to be followed in food handling are
given below:
Medical examination to be carried out at the time of employment, Persons with above
diseases or communicable diseases (TB) are not to be employed. Persons with wounds,
otitis media, skin infections, etc., should not be permitted to handle food or utensils. The
day-to-day health appraisal of food-handlers is important. Those who are ill should be
excluded from food handling. Any illness which occurs in a food-handler’s family, should
be at once notified. Education of food-handlers in matters of personal hygiene, food
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handling, utensil/dishwashing and insect or rodent control is the best mean of promoting
food hygiene.
20161
(vii). Personal hygiene to be promoted
1. Hands – scrubbed and washed with soap and water immediately after visiting
Lavatory and as often as necessary at other times. Nails to be kept trimmed and
free from dirt.
2. Hair – to provide covering to the head.
3. Overalls – clean white overalls to be worn by all food-handlers.
4. Habits – coughing and sneezing in the vicinity of food, licking the fingers before
picking up an article of foods, smoking on food premises are to be avoided.

(viii). Hygiene in Public Eating Places

The principles of food hygiene in public eating or drinking places are the same as in any
other type of food handling activity. The complexity of the problem is mainly due to the
ever increasing number of establishments which requires some supervision. At one time,
public eating was restricted to special occasions, to the traveler, patient, boarding
schools, etc., Due to increased urbanization, distance of working places, mobility and
employment, many resort to dining in public eating places. The six minimum essentials
for cleanliness and sanitation for public eating or drinking places are as follows:

1. Avoid hand contact with food as far as possible.

2. Keep perishable food below 40°F or above 140°F.
3. Keep food protected from personal contact and contaminating insects, dust and
animals.
4. Discard all food and food products which are not in good quality.
5. Clean and disinfect equipment that comes into direct contact with food.
6. Keep premises presentable and in a sanitary manner at all times.
Sanitation of eating establishments is a challenging problem in India. The Model Public
Health Act, Govt. of India (1955) has suggested the following minimum standards for
restaurants and eating places in India.
(a). Location: Shall not be near any accumulation of filth or open drain, stable, manure pit
and other sources of nuisances.
Floors: To be higher than the adjoining land, made with impervious material and easy to
keep clean.62
(b).Rooms: Rooms where meals are served shall not be less than 100 sq. feet and shall
provide accommodation for a maximum of 10 persons. Walls up to 3 feet should be
smooth with rounded corners and should be impervious and easily washable. Lighting and
ventilation should be ample with natural and artificial lighting systems along with a good
circulation of air.

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(c).Kitchen: It should be with ample floor space, window opening, proper flooring and
ventilation.
(d).Storage of Cooked Food: Separate rooms to be provided for storing cooked foods. For
long storage, control of temperature is necessary.
(e).Furniture: Furniture should be reasonably strong and easy to keep clean and dry.
(f).Disposal of refuse: Refuse to be collected in covered and impervious bins and
disposed-off twice a day.
(g).Water Supply: It should be an independent source, adequate, continuous and safe.
(h).Washing Facilities: Cleaning of utensils or crockery to be done in hot water and
followed by disinfection.

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FOOD ALLERGENS AND ALLERGENCITY
INTRODUCTION
Humans require food to survive. In addition to basic nutrition, food consumption provides
a sense of satisfaction and culinary pleasure and also serves as a source of social
entertainment. However, for a small percentage of the population, consumption of
certain foods even in small quantities can result in life-threatening allergic reactions.
Approximately 4–8% of young children and 2–4% of adults in developed countries suffer
from food allergies (Kanny et al. 2001, Munoz-Furlong et al. 2004, Sampson 2004, Sicherer
et al. 2004, Breiteneder and Mills 2005). Although over 170 foods are known to cause
food allergies, nine foods (and their derived products) are today considered to be major
allergens accounting for over 90% of all food allergic reactions. These priority allergens
include milk, eggs, soya beans, peanuts, tree nuts (e.g. almonds, walnuts, pecans,
cashews, Brazil nuts, hazel nuts, pistachios, pine nuts, macadamia nuts, chestnuts and
hickory nuts), seafood such as fish (i.e. both saltwater and freshwater finfish), crustacea
(e.g. shrimp, prawns, crab, lobster and crayfish) and molluscs (e.g. snails, oysters, clams,
squid, octopus and cuttlefish), glutencontaining cereals (i.e. wheat, rye, barley and their
hybridised strains and products), sesame and mustard.

Food allergy is thus emerging as a growing public health problem. Unfortunately, the
management of food allergens along the food value chain and the diagnosis of food
allergic diseases continue to pose a challenge to the food industry as well as health care
professionals. The factors responsible for this are varied. Multiple foods can induce food
allergic reactions, and the threshold dose required to provoke allergic reaction markedly
varies for different patients; thus, small quantities of foods can cause severe reactions in
sensitised individuals, whereas other sensitised individuals can tolerate quantities of the
allergen that are orders of magnitude higher. Additionally, symptoms of food allergies
vary tremendously among sensitised individuals, and food production practices,
processing conditions and matrix effects can alter the molecular structure of food
allergens and their potential immunogenic properties and detection. In this chapter, we
will provide an overview of the different types of food hypersensitivities, including a
distinction between food allergies and food intolerance, the properties of the nine priority
food allergens, current approaches for the management of food allergens and a summary
of some of the current methods used for food allergen detection.

Food Allergy
Food allergy is an immunological reaction resulting from the ingestion, inhalation or
atopic contact of food. Immunological reactions can be mediated by IgE antibodies or
other immune cells such as T cells. Some workers define food allergy specifically as being
those immunological responses mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies.

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MILK ALLERGENS
Milk is a nutritional biological fluid secreted from the mammary gland of female
mammalians, and it is primarily intended to provide nutritional requirements of neonates.
Human milk and the milks of dairy animals, such as cows, goats, sheep and buffaloes, have
been extensively studied. Humans are the only known mammals that consume the milk
of other mammals, particularly from cows. In fact, cow’s milk and cow’s milkassociated
food have been deeply rooted as an important part of the human diet, and the dairy
industry plays a huge role in supporting nutrition of humans and continues to be a
backbone of the agri-food sector in many countries.

In developed countries, bovine milk and milk-derived products contribute about 19% of
total dietary protein intake and 73% of calcium intake (Tome et al. 2004). However, for
some people, consumption of cow’s milk and cow’s milk-derived food has to be avoided
due to milk allergy. Recent studies have indicated that prevalence and persistence of
cow’s milk allergy (CMA) in industrialised countries may be increasing. In North America,
incidence of CMA is estimated at 2.5% in children and about 1% in the adult population
with a 75% outgrowing rate at the age of 16 (Sicherer and Sampson 2010).

EGG ALLERGENS
Egg protein is used as a protein nutritional standard because it is highly nutritional and
has all the essential amino acids in the right amounts required by the human body.
Moreover, with the exception of vitamin C, eggs serve as a good source of vitamins A, D,
E, K, as well as the B vitamins. Whole egg and eggderived ingredients also possess
excellent functional properties (e. g. gelation, emulsification and foaming), which has
resulted in their extensive use in the formulation of various food products. Egg consists
of the white and yolk, both of which contain allergenic proteins. Whole egg contains 12.8–
13.4% protein, 10.5–11.8% fat, 0.3–1% carbohydrate and 0.8–1.0% ash on a wet basis
(Breeding and Beyer 2000). Proteins found in egg white are ovalbumin, conalbumin,
ovomucoid, lysozyme, ovomucin and other minor albumen proteins such as avidin,
ovoglobulins, flavoprotein and ovoinhibitors. The egg yolk proteins are rich in lipoproteins
and phosophoproteins and primarily comprise of lipovitellin, lipovitellenin, vitellin,
vitellenin, phosvitin, transferrin, γ -globulin, serum albumin and α2-glycoprotein.

SOYA BEAN ALLERGENS

Soya bean (Glycine max) is a legume belonging to the fabaceae family and the glycine
genus. On a dry basis, soya beans contain 35–40% protein, 17–23% lipid, 31%
carbohydrate and 4–5% minerals. Soya bean is considered as one of the most nutritional
plant sources of food providing a well-balanced amino acid profile and good supplies of
omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids. The history of the seed dates as far back as 3000–5000
years, with its origins somewhere in Asia.
Consumption of soya bean and soya bean foods has been linked to many health benefits.
Various studies have reported associations between soya bean consumption and reduced
A Special Book for Food Safety Officer Page 407
risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, bone loss and menopausal symptoms
amongst others (Friedman and Brandon 2001, Hori et al. 2001, Chen et al. 2003, Zhang et
al. 2003, Stephenson et al. 2005, Anderson 2008). These reports have fuelled the growth
of soya foods in Western countries. In October 1999, the Food and Drug Administration
of the United States approved a health claim linking the consumption of 25 grams of soya
protein a day (as part of a diet low in saturated fatty acids) to reduced cardiovascular
disease risk (FDA 1999). For manufacturers to make this claim, products must provide at
least 6.25 grams of soya protein per serving. Soya flour and soya protein ingredients are
therefore increasingly being used in many food products.
Unfortunately, soya bean is listed in Canada, the United States, Australia and the
European Union as a priority allergen, requiring labelling when it is used as an ingredient
in foods. Symptoms of soya bean allergy are similar to the other major allergens and
include cutaneous, respiratory as well as gastrointestinal responses. Although the
majority of allergic responses occur on ingestion, allergic reactions on inhalation of soya
bean and soya bean byproducts has also been reported (Gonzalez et al. 1992, 1995,
Codina et al. 1997).

PEANUT AND TREE NUT ALLERGENS

Peanuts and tree nuts contain some of the most potent food allergens. Prevalence rates
of 0.8–1.5% for peanut allergy in the UK and US population and about 0.6% for tree-nut
allergy in the US population have been reported (Grundy et al. 2002, Sicherer et al. 2003).
Nuts and tree nuts belong to different plant species; however, they are frequently
discussed together as their presence, handling and use in the food chain as well as the
allergic responses they induce are often similar. Peanut (Arachis hypogea) is a legume
belonging to the family Leguminosae. It grows under the ground in peanut pods
containing the peanut seed. Tree nuts, on the other hand, are edible seeds that grow on
trees. Examples of tree nuts that are of most concern as allergens are hazelnut (Corylus
avellana), almond (Prunus dulcis), pistachio (Pistachia vera), macadamia nuts (Macadamia
integrifolia), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), walnut (Juglans regia), pine nut (Pinus
pinea), pecans (Carya illinoinensis) and Brazil nut (Bertholetia excelssa).

FISH AND SHELLFISH ALLERGENS

Fish and shellfish represent one of the most common sources of food allergens in the
adult population. Fish and shellfish species known to cause allergic reactions include but
are not limited to cod, flounder, grouper, haddock, halibut, hake, herring, mackerel, pike,
sole, snapper, trout, crabs, lobsters, prawns, shrimps, crayfish, octopus, squid, clams,
mussels, oysters, scallops and snails. The major allergen in fish is parvalbumin (Gad c 1),
a 12 kDa protein (O’Neil et al. 1993). Tropomyosin, with a MW of ∼36 kDa, is the major
allergen found in shrimp, lobster, crab and molluscs such as squid, oyster, snail, mussels,
clam and scallops (Daul et al. 1993a, 1993b). Both parvalbumin and tropomyosin are
muscle cell proteins. To date, eight major IgE-binding epiopes have been identified in
shrimp tropomyosin (Lehrer et al. 2003).

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Very little work has been done on the effect of processing on the allergenicity of seafood.
As with other allergens, highly refined products from seafoods that do not contain
residual proteins (e.g. refined fish oils, gelatine and isinglass) do not pose a risk to allergic
consumers. However, processing techniques that leave seafood protein fragments in the
finished product may pose serious allergenic risk to sensitised individuals. As consumers
and the food industry become increasingly aware of the health benefits of fish,
consumption and utilisation of fish and fish products is likely to increase, which could
increase the allergen risk for fish- and shellfish-sensitised individuals.

ALLERGENS IN CEREALS
Certain cereal grains contain proteins that induce immunemediated responses in
individuals who are predisposed to CD or who have specific cereal allergy. As the
mechanisms involved in celiac disease are distinctly different from those involved in IgE-
mediated cereal allergy, they will be discussed separately.

SESAME AND MUSTARD ALLERGENS

Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is a herbaceous plant of the Pedaliaceae family originating
from India, which is now grown in many countries. It is also known as Benne, Gingelly, Til
or Teel, Simsim and Ajonjoli and is now a common ingredient used extensively in everyday
foods because of its high nutritional value (Perkins 2000). Sesame proteins are rich in
methionine (Dalal et al. 2002, Wolff et al. 2003). Common sesame products include
biscuits, crackers, breadsticks, rice cakes, etc., as well as prepacked delicatessen and
processed foods such as noodles, dips, soups, sausages, samosas, processed meats,
vegeburgers, chutneys, etc., (Perkins 2000, Allergyexpert 2010).
Sesame seeds, which may be used whole or crushed, are extremely potent allergens,
causing severe allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. The first case of sesame allergy
was reported in 1950 (Gangur et al. 2005). More recently, a study of Australian children
showed that allergic reactions to sesame ranked fourth behind reactions to egg, milk, and
peanuts, and sesame was also found to be the third most common allergyinducing food
in Israeli children (Gangur et al. 2005). Another recent study showed that sesame allergy
in Israeli children was more common than peanut allergy (More 2009). Sesame allergy
seems to affect people of all ages, which imply that this food allergy is not commonly
outgrown. The symptoms of sesame allergy can include urticaria, angioedema, asthma,
atopic dermatitis, oral allergy syndrome, allergic rhinitis and anaphylaxis. One of the
major sesame seed allergens is the 9 kDa, 2S albumin (Pastorello et al. 2001). Beyer et al.
(2002) also identified 10 IgE-binding proteins in sesame, four of which had MWs of 7, 34,
45 and 78 kDa. Wolff et al. (2003) have also reported a 14 kDa sesame allergenic protein
belonging to the 2S albumin family.

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MINOR FOOD ALLERGENS
As previously indicated, over 170 foods are known to provoke allergic reactions in humans
(Taylor 2000). In addition to the nine major priority allergens, other minor food allergens
and/or emerging allergens include lupin, pea, chickpea, lentil, fruits (e.g. apple, apricot,
avocado, banana, cherry, grape, kiwi, mango, melon, peach, pear, pineapple and
strawberry) and vegetables (celery, carrot, eggplant, lettuce, potato, pumpkin and
tomato). The reader is referred to the following references for further reading (Pereira et
al. 2002, Fernandez-Rivas 2003, Fern ´ andez- ´ Rivas et al. 2008, Harish Babu et al. 2008,
Towell 2009, Skypala 2009, Jappe and Vieths 2010).

• A food allergy is an adverse reaction to food involving an immunological mechanism.

• The clinical symptoms of food allergies range from mild discomfort to severe or life-
threatening reactions, which require immediate medical intervention.
• The prevalence of food allergies has been estimated to be around 1-3% in adults and
4-6% in children.
• The only way for allergic individuals to manage food allergies is to avoid eating the
food that causes the allergy.
• The foods, which cause the most severe reactions and most cases of food allergies are:
cereals containing gluten, crustacean, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybeans, milk, and tree
nuts.
• The Codex Alimentarius Commission Committee on Food Labelling recommends
always declaring these foods and ingredients derived from them.
• Awareness about food allergies among public food and health officials, and those
supplying and preparing food is the first step in protecting individuals with food
allergies.
• This note contains links to examples of guidelines with advice to the food industry and
caterers on managing food allergen risks.

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IMPORTANCE OF DIET IN ALLEVIATING HEALTH RISKS, ESPECIALLY
NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), including heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes and
chronic lung disease, are collectively responsible for almost 70% of all deaths worldwide.
Almost three quarters of all NCD deaths, and 82% of the 16 million people who died
prematurely, or before reaching 70 years of age, occur in low- and middle-income
countries. The rise of NCDs has been driven by primarily four major risk factors: tobacco
use, physical inactivity, the harmful use of alcohol and unhealthy diets.

The epidemic of NCDs poses devastating health consequences for individuals, families and
communities, and threatens to overwhelm health systems. The socioeconomic costs
associated with NCDs make the prevention and control of these diseases a major
development imperative for the 21st century.

One of the most important ways of reducing deaths from

noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) is to control unhealthy lifestyle choices that lead to their
development. These include reducing the use of tobacco and the harmful use of alcohol,
maintaining an active lifestyle and developing a healthy diet. Promotional activities towards these
goals are low-cost ways for countries to reduce the number of NCD deaths. Tackling these risk
factors can not only save lives, but also provide a huge economic boost for countries.

Maintaining Healthy Life Style to reduce the risk of Noncommunicable

Disease

What you eat each day affects your health and how you feel now and in the future. Good
nutrition plays a major role in helping you lead a healthy lifestyle. When combined with
physical activity, your diet can help you reach and maintain a healthy weight and reduce
your risk of chronic conditions such as diabetes or heart disease, and promote overall
health and wellbeing.

1. Make half your plate fruits and vegetables

Choose red, orange, and dark-green vegetables along with other vegetables for your
meals. Add fruit to meals as part of main or side dishes or as dessert. The more colorful
you make your plate, the more likely you are to get the vitamins, minerals, and fiber your
body needs to be healthy.

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2. Make half the grains you eat whole grains

Switch from a refined-grain food to a whole-grain food. For example, choose whole-wheat
bread instead of white bread. Read the ingredients list and choose products that list a
whole-grain ingredients first. Look for things like: “whole wheat,” “brown rice,” “bulgur,”
“buckwheat,” “oatmeal,” “rolled oats,” quinoa,” or “wild rice.”

3.Switch to fat-free or low-fat (1%) milk

Both have the same amount of calcium and other essential nutrients as whole milk, but
fewer calories and less saturated fat.

4.Reduce Fat, Salt, and Sugar

• When eating out, choose baked or grilled food instead of fried and do the same at
home.
• Make water your go-to drink instead of soda or sweetened beverages.
• Read labels on packaged ingredients to find foods lower in sodium.
• Reduce amounts of salt added to food when cooking and use herbs and spices
instead to add flavor like paprika, turmeric, black pepper, garlic or onion
powder.

5.Add More Fruits & Veggies

• Mix veggies into your go-to dishes. Swap meat for peppers and mushrooms in your
tacos or try veggie pasta instead of grain pasta like one made out of black beans for
more plant-based protein.
• Use fresh fruits and veggies whenever possible. Watch for sodium in canned
veggies and look for canned fruit packed in water instead of syrup.
• Pack your child’s lunch bag with fruits and veggies: sliced apples, a banana or carrot
sticks.

6. Drink water instead of sugary drinks

Drink water to cut back on unnecessary calories from sugary drinks. Soda, energy drinks,
and sports drinks are a major source of added sugar and calories in American diets. To
add flavor to your water, add a slice of lemon, lime, apple or fresh herbs like mint or basil.

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ADULTRATION
According to Section 3 (1)(a) “adulterant” means any material which is or could be
employed for making the food unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or containing
extraneous matter;

Adulteration of food commonly defined as “the addition or subtraction of any substance

to or from food, so that the natural composition and quality of food substance is
affected". Adulteration is either intentional by either removing substances to food or
altering the existing natural properties of food knowingly. Unintentional adulteration is
usually attributed to ignorance’s, carelessness or lack of facilities for maintaining food
quality. Incidental contamination during the period of growth, harvesting, storage,
processing, transport and distribution of foods are also considered.

Food is declared adulterated if

• A substance is added which depreciates or injuriously affects it.

• Cheaper or inferior substances are substituted wholly or in part.
• Any valuable or necessary constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted.
• It is an imitation.
• It is colored or otherwise treated, to improve its appearance or if it contains any
added substance injurious to health.
• For whatever reasons its quality is below the Standard

Adulterated food is dangerous because it may be toxic and can affect health and it could
deprive nutrients essential for proper growth and development.
Common Adulterated Food
Some of the common adulterated foods are milk and milk products, atta, edible oils,
cereals, condiments (whole and ground), pulses, coffee, tea, confectionary, baking
powder, non - alcoholic beverages, vinegar, besan and curry powder.

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 TYPES OF ADULTERANTS

Intentional Incidental Metallic

Adulterants Adulterants Contaminants

S. Types Substances Added

NO
1 Intentional Sand, marble chips, stones, mud, other filth, talc, chalk powder,
Adulterants water, mineral oil and harmful colour.

2 Incidental
Adulterants Pesticide residues, droppings of rodents, larvae in foods.

3 Metallic Arsenic from pesticides, lead from water, effluent from

Contaminants chemical industries, tin from cans.

Poisonous or Deleterious Substances

Generally, if a food contains a poisonous or deleterious substance that may render it
injurious to health, it is adulterated. For example, apple cider contaminated with E.coli
O157:H7 and Brie cheese contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes are adulterated.
If a food contains a poisonous substance in excess of a tolerance, regulatory limit, or
action level, mixing it with "clean" food to reduce the level of contamination is not
allowed. The deliberate mixing of adulterated food with good food renders the finished
product adulterated.

Filth and Foreign Matter

Filth and extraneous material include any objectionable substances in foods, such as
foreign matter (for example, glass, metal, plastic, wood, stones, sand, cigarette butts),
undesirable parts of the raw plant material (such as stems, pits in pitted olives, pieces of
shell in canned oysters), and filth (namely, mold, rot, insect and rodent parts, excreta,
decomposition

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Economic Adulteration
A food is adulterated if it omits a valuable constituent or substitutes another substance,
in whole or in part, for a valuable constituent (for instance, olive oil diluted with tea tree
oil); conceals damage or inferiority in any manner (such as fresh fruit with food coloring
on its surface to conceal defects); or any substance has been added to it or packed with
it to increase its bulk or weight, reduce its quality or strength, or make it appear bigger or
of greater value than it is (for example, scallops to which water has been added to make
them heavier).

Microbiological Contamination and Adulteration

The fact that a food is contaminated with pathogens (harmful microorganisms such as
bacteria, viruses, or protozoa) may, or may not, render it adulterated. Generally, for ready
-to-eat foods, the presence of pathogens will render the food adulterated. For example,
the presence of Salmonella on fresh fruits or vegetables or in ready-to-eat meat or poultry
products (such as luncheon meats) will render those products adulterated.
Ready -to- eat meat and poultry products contaminated with pathogens, such as
Salmonella or Listeria monocytogenes, are adulterated. For raw meat or poultry products,
the presence of pathogens will not always render a product adulterated (because raw
meat and poultry products are intended to be cooked and proper cooking should kill
pathogens).

DETECTION MECHANISMS OF ADULTERATED FOOD

CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL METHODS

There are different designed chemical and biochemical methods for detection of
adulterants which can be categorized as chromatography based, spectroscopy and
immunology based and electrophoresis based (Bansal et al., 2015). According to these
authors, the basic analytical approach involves various steps including extraction with a
suitable solvent, clean up for removal of interfering matrix components, chromatographic
separation and selective detection.
These and other methods of detection of adulterants can be done by following the
respective procedures of each of the methods. HPLC can be used as a quality control tool
as it can separate various chemical constituents from mixtures; it is also used for
characterizing food products or to detect adulteration (Bansal et al., 2015). That mean, its
use in adulterant detection lies in its capacity to separate mixture of chemicals. For
example, among the analytical techniques of adulterant detection HPLC (High-
performance liquid chromatography) is the most widely used technique and the
procedures will follows the normal procedure of chemical determination by this
instrument.

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 Gas chromatography (GC) is an extra apparatus for
identification of adulterants and is used for separating volatile organic compounds. GC
along with mass spectroscopy (MS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
has been widely used for adulterant detection as these are non-destructive techniques
with respect to the sample (Bansal et al., 2015). Gas chromatography is generally used to
discriminate among different varieties of the same product, adulteration detection, and
organic compound authentication and identification.

Among the spectroscopic techniques, near infrared spectroscopy

(NIR) helps in rapid detection of adulterants in raw material but is unable to identify the
contaminant (Bansal et al., 2015). The authors further stated another detection method;
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) which will not only detects an adulterant but also
provides structural identification of the contaminant. According to FAO/WHO, 2014,
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry can be utilized as validation method for analysis of lead
in all foods except oils, fats and extremely fatty products. A combination of
chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques has also shown a high potential for
detection of adulterants, for example, GC-MS has shown potential to detect honey
adulteration with commercial syrups (Matute et al., 2007).
The indirect enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA) was
also developed for the detection and quantification of bovine milk adulteration in goat’s
milk (Xue et al., 2010). It has been observed that ELISA can be successfully used to
determine adulteration of milk samples and thus ELISA kits will help in routine inspection
of milk.

LISTS THE COMMON ADULTERATED FOOD STAFFS AND SIMPLE METHODS TO IDENTIFY

FOOD PRODUCT ADULTERANTS DETECTION METHODS

Mustard Argemone seeds Argemone seeds have rough surface & on pressing is
white inside. Mustard is yellow inside
Ice Cream Washing Powder Put some lemon juice, bubbles are observed if
washing powder is present
Honey Water A cotton wick dipped in pure honey burns when
ignited with a matchstick. Presence of water will not
allow the honey to burn, and
if it does, it will produce a cracking sound.
Red Chilli Brick Powder Brick powder settles fast chilli, powder settles slowly
Powder in water.
Red Colour dye Sprinkle some Chilli powder on the surface of water in
a glass beaker. Artificial colorants will descend as
coloured streaks.

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ANALYTICAL METHODS OF DETECTION
PRODUCTS COMMON ADULTERANTS COMMON DETECTION METHODS
Berry jam Addition of cheaper berries HPLC
Fruit juice Dilution with water Brix
Meat Addition of cheaper meat Electrophoresis, immunoassay
Vegetable oil Addition of cheaper seed Chromatography & mass
oil spectroscopy
Natural aroma non-natural aroma Chiral chromatography
Natural vanilla Addition of artificial vanilla IRMS and SNIF-NMR
extract
Soybean Genetic modification DNA methods

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CHAPTER

CHEMISTRY OF FOOD
18
HISTORY OF FOOD CHEMISTRY
The scientific approach to food and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural
chemistry in the works of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, and others. For example, Davy
published Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of
Agriculture (1813) in the United Kingdom which would serve as a foundation for the
profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition. Earlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm
Scheele who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785.
In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical
methods to the benefit of the public. Its early experiments were based on bread, milk and
wine.

It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food
adulteration and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional
contamination to later with chemical food additives by the 1950s. The development of
colleges and universities worldwide, most notably in the United States, would expand
food chemistry as well with research of the dietary substances, most notably the Single-
grain experiment during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at the United
States Department of Agriculture during the late 19th century would play a key factor in
the creation of the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1906. The American
Chemical Society would establish their Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division in 1908
while the Institute of Food Technologists would establish their Food Chemistry Division in
1995.

Food chemistry concepts are often drawn from rheology, theories of transport
phenomena, physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds and interaction
forces, quantum mechanics and reaction kinetics, biopolymer science, colloidal
interactions, nucleation, glass transitions and freezing/disordered or non-crystalline
solids, and thus has Food Physical Chemistry as a foundation area.

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 FOOD CHEMISTRY
Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and
non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as
meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main
components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as
water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors.

Or
As the name implies, food chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the
chemistry behind the biochemical nature of food, their properties and how they are
processed in the body. It involves the study of chemical components from proteins to
carbohydrates and more. In food chemistry, we learn how different processing
techniques affect a certain type of food and also for ways to enhance the quality of food.

This discipline (Food Chemistry) also encompasses how products

change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to
prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process would be to encourage
fermentation of dairy products with microorganisms that convert lactose to lactic acid; an
example of preventing a process would be stopping the browning on the surface of freshly
cut apples using lemon juice or other acidulated water.

Examples of Food Chemistry

There are certain food technologies which we experience in our daily lives which we do
not know are the results of innovations in food chemistry. Some examples are:

1. Fermentation of dairy products: Apart from natural fermentation, to speed up the

process we use microorganisms which aid the process of conversion from lactose to lactic
acid.
2. Fat & Sugar Substitutes: We know how fat & sugar cause different ailments, but with
the help of food chemistry, chemists are coming up with substitutes which offer the same
taste without the bad effects.

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 COMPONENTS OF FOOD
Foods are made of energy and non-energy components. The energy is obtained in the
form of calories that are required by our body cell.
There are 6 food components also called nutrient that the body required to do function
properly.

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids (fats)
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water

1.CARBOHYDRATES

A carbohydrateis a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the
empirical formula Cm(H2O)n .
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the
storage of energy (e. g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e. g. cellulose
in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important
component of coenzymes (e. g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic
molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides
and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in
the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and
development.
Carbohydrates are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a
polysaccharide. It is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed
food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet
mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose
(abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many
fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey are often added to drinks and
many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in
the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber.
Although it is not digestible, insoluble dietary fiber helps to maintain a healthy digestive
system by easing defecation. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include
resistant starch and inulin, which feed some bacteria in the microbiota of the large
intestine, and are metabolized by these bacteria to yield short-chain fatty acids.

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❖ CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE:
Generally, carbohydrate has classified into three major groups. They are as follows:
1.MONOSACCHARIDES:
Monosaccharides are simple sugars. They cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler form. The
simplest carbohydrates are the three carbon dihydroxyacetone and trioses
glyceraldehyde. They are further classified into glucose, fructose, galactose, and
mannose.

i).Glucose:
Glucose can be seen generally in the fruit juices and formed in the body by hydrolysis of
cane sugar, starch, lactose, and maltose. Glucose is said to be the sugar of the body.
Glucose structure can be depicted in the form of a ring or chain. It is found in blood,
fruits, honey and under abnormal conditions, in urine.

ii).Fructose:
Fructose can be seen naturally in honey, tomatoes, and apples. Hydrolysis of cane sugar
in the body can also give up fructose. CsH1206 is the molecular formula for fructose.
Generally, fructose is the sweetest monosaccharide and is prepared by Sucrose
hydrolysis.

iii).Galactose
An element of glycoproteins and glycolipids is the galactose. It is produced in the
mammary glands and hydrolyzed to make the lactose of milk.

iv). Mannose
On the hydrolysis of plant gums and mannosans, mannose is obtained. A constituent
of the prosthetic polysaccharide of albumins, mucoproteins, and globulins is a mannose.
Hexoses and pentoses exist in both ring and open chain forms.
According to the number of carbon atoms they possess, simple sugars might be further
divided into tetroses, trioses, hexoses or heptoses, pentoses and as ketoses or aldoses
based on whether the ketone or aldehyde groups are present. For example:

Sugar Aldoses Ketoses

Trioses Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose
Pentoses Ribose Ribulose
Hexoses Glucose Fructose

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2.DISACCHARIDES:
Disaccharides comprise of two monosaccharides connected by a glycosidic linkage (C-0-
C). Cn(H,O)n-1 is the general formula for disaccharides. The most common disaccharides
forms are lactose, sucrose, and maltose.

i). Maltose:
Maltose is formed as a transitional product of the action of amylases on starch and it
contains two glucose residues in 1, 4 linkages. It can be seen in a detectable amount in
many germinating tissues and seeds where starch is being broken down.

ii). Lactose:
Lactose can be found in milk. On hydrolysis, it produces D-galactose and D-glucose.it is a
reducing disaccharide, as it has a free anomeric carbon on the glucose residue.

iii). Sucrose:
Cane sugar or sucrose is a disaccharide of fructose and glucose. The hydrolysis of Sucrose
to D-glucose and D-fructose is often known as inversion as it is accompanied by a net
change in optical rotation from dextro to levo as the equimolar mixture of fructose and
glucose is formed and this mixture is known as invert sugar. Certain enzymes like
invertases catalyze this reaction. Sucrose is tremendously abundant in plants and is
commonly known as table sugar.

3.POLYSACCHARIDES:
Majority of the carbohydrates that can be found in nature take place as polysaccharides
of high molecular weight. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are formed by
the method of polymerization of a huge number of monosaccharide monomers. The
other name for polysaccharides is also known as glycans.

They are lengthy which might be unbranched or branched. After the completion of
hydrolysis with specific enzymes and acid, the polysaccharides give up simple
monosaccharide derivatives and/ or monosaccharides. Depending upon the composition,
polysaccharides can be classified into two types: Homopolysaccharides and
heteropolysaccharides.

A. Homoglycans or homopolysaccharides are the complex carbohydrates that are

formed by the method of polymerization of only one type of monosaccharide monomers.
Example: glycogen, starch, and cellulose are composed of a single type of monosaccharide
known as glucose.

B). Heteroglycans or heteropolysaccharides are the complex carbohydrates that

are made by the process of condensation of either one type of monosaccharide
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 monomer or monosaccharide derivatives. Example: agar, chitin, arabanogalactans,
peptidoglycan, arabanoxylans, etc.

Some Sources of Carbohydrate

2.PROTEIN
Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. They are one
of the building blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins
provide as much energy density as carbohydrates:4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast, lipids
provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of
protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.
Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. During
human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via
hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the absorption of the essential
amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body.

Apart from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein
can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the
body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are also used
in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as
precursors to nucleic acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair, and
other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells.

Proteins carry out a variety of functions, including:

• Ensuring the growth and development of muscles, bones, hair, and skin
• Forming antibodies, hormones, and other essential substances
• Serving as a fuel source for cells and tissues when needed.
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There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to
prevent protein–energy malnutrition and resulting death. They are phenylalanine, valine,
threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine. There has been
debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino acids. The consensus seems to lean
towards 9 since histidine is not synthesized in adults. There are five amino acids which
humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine,
glutamic acid and serine. There are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis
can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant
or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine,
proline and tyrosine. Dietary sources of protein include meats, dairy products, fish, eggs,
grains, legumes, nuts and edible insects.

Some Sources of Plant and Animal Protein

❖ DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro-intestinal
tract

Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the
action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small
intestine. Before the absorption in the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced
to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four
amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end.
There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids.

Absorption of the amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded
is done by the gastrointestinal tract. The absorption rates of individual amino acids are
highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino
acids in humans, the difference between soy and milk proteins and between individual
milk proteins, beta-lactoglobulin and casein. For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested
protein is absorbed between the stomach and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the

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time the digested food reaches the ileum. Biological value (BV) is a measure of the
proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins
of the organism's body.

3.LIPID
Lipids Include Fats, Oils, Hormones, And Structural Molecules

A lipid is an organic molecule that can only dissolve in nonpolar solvents and will not
dissolve in water. Lipids include hormones, fats, and oils and sometimes refer to fatty
acids or derivatives of fatty acids. Lipids play key roles in the function of the body in both
health and disease. The measurement of lipids in the blood helps determine health risks.

TYPES OF LIPID
The three primary types of lipids are phospholipids, sterols, and triglycerides (also known
as triacylglycerols). Although the term "lipid" is sometimes used as a synonym for fats,
fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides.

Lipids are also classified into eight categories—fatty acids, glycerolipids,

glycerophospholipids, polyketides, prenols, saccharolipids, sphingolipids, and sterols.

I.Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major components of animal and human cells, specifically the
outermost layer of these cells. They aid the maintenance of a cell’s integrity.

Phospholipids have a hydrophilic (water-loving, attracted to water molecules) portion

that holds a phosphate group and a hydrophobic (water-fearing, repelled by water
molecules) portion made of fatty acid derivatives. They are held together by an alcohol.

II.Sterols
Sterols are steroids, featuring chemical structures that are quite different from those of
phospholipids and triglycerides. A sterol has a hydroxyl group on the A-ring at 3-position.
This is what makes it stand out from other steroids which typically feature a structure of
four fused rings.

Cholesterol is the primary steroid in the human body. When cholesterol is synthesized in
the liver, it leads to many important functions including the production of hormones,
vitamin D, and bile salts (compounds that help emulsify fats to be absorbed by cells).

III.Triglycerides
The fats and oils that you are familiar with in foods are triglycerides. A triglyceride
(triacylglycerol) is an ester composed of three fatty acids bound to a glycerol. Fatty acids
have different lengths of chains of hydrocarbons, from four to 36. Triglycerides can be

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saturated or unsaturated, which refers to whether they have double bonds between
carbon atoms (unsaturated) or not (saturated). This has a variety of effects, including
whether they are liquid or solid at room temperature.

The distinction between a fat and an oil is that oils are unsaturated fats that exist in liquid
form at room temperature. Most but not all unsaturated fats meet these criteria and are
categorized as oils, including canola oil, corn oil, and olive oil.

Omega fatty acids are essential to the human body and must be sourced through diet
such as from certain fatty fish including tuna and salmon, but also through certain nuts,
seeds, and leafy vegetables. These fats reduce inflammation, blood pressure, and
triglyceride levels. They reduce the risk of sudden death by a heart attack and prevent
thrombosis, the formation of blood clots.

Trans fats are fats that have been artificially hydrogenated to achieve a consistency
desired in processed food production. Consuming foods containing trans fats can lead to
high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), called "the bad cholesterol."

▪ FUNCTION OF LIPID
The functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural
components of cell membranes. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food
industries as well as in nanotechnology.

I.Chemical messengers:
All multicellular organisms use chemical messengers to send information between
organelles and to other cells. Since lipids are small molecules insoluble in water, they are
excellent candidates for signalling. The signalling molecules further attach to the
receptors on the cell surface and bring about a change that leads to an action.

The signalling lipids, in their esterified form can infiltrate membranes and are transported
to carry signals to other cells. These may bind to certain proteins as well and are inactive
until they reach the site of action and encounter the appropriate receptor.

II.Storage and Provision of Energy

Storage lipids are triacylglycerols. These are inert and made up of three fatty acids and a
glycerol. Fatty acids in non-esterified form, i. e. as free (unesterified) fatty acids are
released from triacylglycerols during fasting to provide a source of energy and to form the
structural components for cells. Dietary fatty acids of short and medium chain size are not
esterified but are oxidized rapidly in tissues as a source of ‘fuel”. Longer chain fatty acids
are esterified first to triacylglycerols or structural lipids.

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III.Maintenance of temperature
Layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin also help in insulation and protection from cold.
Maintenance of body temperature is mainly done by brown fat as opposed to white fat.
Babies have a higher concentration of brown fat.

IV.Membrane lipid layer formation:

Linoleic and linolenic acids are essential fatty acids. These form arachidonic,
eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. These for membrane lipids. Membrane
lipids are made of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are important
as constituents of the phospholipids, where they appear to confer several important
properties to the membranes. One of the most important properties are fluidity and
flexibility of the membrane.

V.Cholesterol formation:
Much of the cholesterol is located in cell membranes. It also occurs in blood in free form
as plasma lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are complex aggregates of lipids and proteins that
make travel of lipids in a watery or aqueous solution possible and enable their transport
throughout the body.

The main groups are classified as chylomicrons (CM), very low density lipoproteins (VLDL),
low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density lipoproteins (HDL), based on the relative
densities

Cholesterol maintains the fluidity of membranes by interacting with their complex lipid
components, specifically the phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine and
sphingomyelin. Cholesterol also is the precursor of bile acids, vitamin D and steroidal
hormones.

VI.Prostaglandin formation and role in inflammation:

The essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids are precursors of many different types
of eicosanoids, including the hydroxyeicosatetraenes, prostanoids (prostaglandins,
thromboxanes and prostacyclins), leukotrienes (and lipoxins) and resolvins etc. these play
an important role in pain, fever, inflammation and blood clotting.

4.VITAMINS
A vitamin is an organic molecule (or a set of molecules closely related chemically, i.e.
vitamers) that is an essential micronutrient which an organism needs in small quantities
for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized
in the organism, either at all or not in sufficient quantities, and therefore must be
obtained through the diet.

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Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it is not a vitamin in the
first instance but is in the second. The term vitamin does not include the three other
groups of essential nutrients: minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.

Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers.
For example, there are eight vitamers of vitamin E: four tocopherols and four
tocotrienols. Some sources list fourteen vitamins, by including choline, but major health
organizations list thirteen: vitamin A (as all-trans-retinol, all-trans-retinyl-esters, as well
as all-trans-beta-carotene and other provitamin A carotenoids), vitamin B1 (thiamine),
vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6
(pyridoxine), vitamin B7 (biotin), vitamin B9 (folic acid or folate), vitamin B12 (cobalamins),
vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D (calciferols), vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols),
and vitamin K (phylloquinone and menaquinones).

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Vitamin A acts as a regulator of cell and
tissue growth and differentiation. Vitamin D provides a hormone-like function, regulating
mineral metabolism for bones and other organs. The B complex vitamins function as
enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them. Vitamins C and E function as
antioxidants. Both deficient and excess intake of a vitamin can potentially cause clinically
significant illness, although excess intake of water-soluble vitamins is less likely to do so.

Anti-Vitamins
Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins.
For example, avidin is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin;
it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular
structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B1, and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine.

SOME IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

Vitamin A – Hardening of the cornea in eye, night blindness.

Vitamin B1 – Deficiency may cause beriberi, dwarfism.

Vitamin B2 – Deficiency can cause disorders in the digestive system, skin burning
sensations, cheilosis.

Vitamin B6 – Deficiency of B6 causes convulsions, conjunctivitis, and sometimes

neurological disorders.

Vitamin B12 – Its deficiency can cause pernicious anemia and a decrease in red blood
cells in hemoglobin.

Vitamin C – It is a water-soluble vitamin, its deficiency causes bleeding in gums and

scurvy.
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 Vitamin D – It is obtained by our body when exposed to sunlight. Its deficiency causes
improper growth of bones, soft bones in kids, rickets.

Vitamin E – Deficiency of vitamin E leads to weakness in muscles and increases the

fragility of red blood cells.

Vitamin K – It plays an important role in blood clotting. The deficiency of vitamin K

increases the time taken by the blood to clot. Severe deficiency may cause death due to
excessive blood loss in case of a cut or an injury.

Some Source of Vitamin A Some Source of Vitamin C

Some Source of Vitamin B Some Source of Vitamin D

❖ CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
Vitamins are generally classified as water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins.

1.Fat-Soluble Vitamins:
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose tissues and hence are called
fat-soluble vitamins.
2.Water-Soluble Vitamins:

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Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and cannot be stored in our bodies as
they pass with the water in urine. These vitamins must be supplied to our bodies with
regular diets.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS

Vitamins

Water Soluble Fat Soluble

Vitamin C B-Complex
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Pantothenic acid
(B5)
Pyridoxine (B6)
Biotin
Folic acid
Cobalamin (B12)

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 VITAMINS AND THEIR SCIENTIFIC NAME

Vitamin Scientific Name

FAT-SOLUBLE
Vitamin A Retinol
Vitamin D2 Ergocalciferol
Vitamin D3 Cholecalciferol
Vitamin E Alfa-tocopherol, tocopherol
Vitamin K1 Phylloquinone, Phytomenadione
Vitamin K2 Farnoquinone,menaquinone
Vitamin K3 Menadione
WATER-SOLUBLE
Vitamin B1 Thiamin
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxal, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine
Vitamin B12 Cobalamins, cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin

Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid

Folic acid/folates Folacin , (vitamin M)
Biotin Vitamin H
Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid
Niacin Nicotinic acid (vitamin PP), Niacinamide,
Nicotinamide

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SOME IMPORTANT VITAMINS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND DEFICIENCY

Fat Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E & K)

Vitamins Characteristics Dietary Sources Deficiency Disease

Vitamin A or Pro-vitamin A (beta Milk, fish and fish oil, Night blindness,
Retinal carotene), constituents butter, cheese, green permanents
of rhodopsin (visual vegetables, fortified Blindness, stunted
pigments), Soluble in oil margarine. It can also be growth, xerosis,
and fats but insoluble in synthesized in the body xerophthalmia
water, stable to heat. from carotenoids
Promotes growth and present in carrot,
vision. Increase immunity tomato, ripe mangoes
against disease. etc.
Vitamin D or Promotes growth and Cod liver oil, eggs, dairy Rickets (bones and teeth
Ergocalciferol mineralization of bones, products, fortified milk deformation) in children.
increase absorption of margarines. Vitamin D2 Is Osteomalacia in adults.
calcium, stable to heat produced by plants from
and resistant to Ergosterol. when
oxidation. exposed to light. Vitamin
D3 is produced in skin on
exposure to sunlight.
Vitamin E It is a mixture of 4 Seeds, green leafy Anaemia, hair loss,
(tocopherol) vitamins called – α, β, γ vegetables, margarines, muscle weakness, dry
and δ tocopherol. Stable shortening, eggs, milk, skin, leg cramps,
to heat, light and fish, wheat germ oil, blindness, Cancer,
oxidation. Function as cotton seed oil peanut Fertility problems
antioxidants to prevents oil etc.
cell-membrane damage.
Vitamin K or A mixture of two Green leafy vegetables, Severe bleeding anemia,
Phylloquinone vitamins called K1 and margarines, shortening, fault in blood clotting.
K2. Sensitive to light. eggs, eggs, milk, fish, Internal hemorrhages. It
Important in blood wheat germ oil, cotton restores normal clotting.
clotting. seed oil peanut oil etc.

Water Solution Vitamins B & C

Vitamins Characteristics Dietary Sources Deficiency Disease
Vitamin B1 Destroyed by heat Pork, organ meats, Beriberi
Riboflavin above 310 K. whole grains, egg yolk,
Coenzyme (thiamin legumes, milk, green.
pyrophosphate) in Vegetable and fruits.
reactions involving the
removal of C02

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Vitamin B2 sensitive to light but Widely distributes in Causes pellagra
Riboflavin stable to heat. foods. Milk, yeast, (shriveled skin disease
Essential for growth green, and anemia
and general health Vegetables, meat, (bloodlessness) in man.
Constituents of two liver, kidney Effects central nervous
Flavin nucleotide Etc. system. Causes general
coenzyme involved in weakness, insomnia and
energy metabolism irritability.
(FAD and FMN)
Niacin or constituents of two It is found in foods Pellagra, vomiting and
Vitamin B3 coenzyme involved in such as yeast, meat, diarrhea, disorientation,
oxidation reaction fish, milk, eggs, green depression
(NAD and NADP) vegetables, and cereal
grains. Niacin is also
produced in the body
from tryptophan,
which is found in
protein-containing
food.
Vitamin B6 or it is a mixture of three Rice bran, yeast, meat Pernicious anaemia,
Pyridoxin substances-pyridoxine, fish, whole cereals, inflammation of
pyridoxal and Vegetables
tongue and mouth,
pyridoxamine.
Coenzyme (pyridoxal irritability,
phosphate involved in convulsions,
amino acid muscular twitching.
metabolism) dermatitis near eye,
kidney stones
Pantothenic Constituents of Widely distributed in Fatigue or extreme
acid coenzyme A, which foods tiredness, stomach
plays a central role in
pain, vomiting &
energy metabolism
diarrhea

Folacin Coenzyme Legume, green Anemia,

(reduced form) vegetables, whole gastrointestinal,
involved in transfer wheat products. disturbances,
of single carbon diarrhea, red tongue.
units in nucleic
acid metabolism.
Vitamin B12 or It contains cobalt. Muscle meats, Pernicious anemia,
cyanocobalamin Coenzyme involved in eggs dairy neurological disorders.
transfer of single
products, (not
carbon units in nucleic
acid metabolism resent in plant
foods).
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 Biotin Coenzyme Legumes, vegetables, Fatigue, nausea,
required for fat meats. depression,
synthesis, amino dermatitis, muscular
acid metabolism pains
glycogen (animal
starch) formation.
Vitamin C or Destroyed by Citrus fruits Scurvy, weight loss,
Ascorbic Acid cooking or (oranges, mon, skin rash & anaemia
prolonged grape fruit, lime).
exposure to air. It aonla, cabbage,
increases guava green
resistance of the peppers, salad
body against green.
diseases.

5.MINERALS

“Minerals in food are the elements present in food that are required by our body to
develop and function properly.”

Minerals are important for your body to stay healthy. Your body uses minerals for many
different jobs, including keeping your bones, muscles, heart, and brain working properly.
Minerals are also important for making enzymes and hormones.

Types of Minerals in Food

Our body requires minerals in specific quantities. Some of them are required in large doses,
while others may be required only in traces. Hence, based on the requirement of the body,
minerals in food are classified into two types:

I.Macrominerals
• Macro-minerals are those minerals which are required in relatively large doses.
Therefore, they are also called major minerals.
• Macro-minerals include sodium, calcium, chloride, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus,
and sulfur. These minerals are vital for the proper functioning and metabolism of the
body. Our body cannot produce these minerals; hence, they need to be obtained from a
food source.
• The deficiency of these minerals results in severe ramifications for health. For example,
calcium deficiency weakens the skeletal system, thereby increasing the risk of fractures.
The deficiency of Iodine results in goiter and other hormonal disorders, and
the deficiency of sodium results in hyponatremia.

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II.Microminerals
• Also called trace minerals, these are minerals which are required in small amounts.
Therefore, they are also called minor minerals. Trace minerals include iron, copper,
iodine, zinc, manganese, fluoride, cobalt and selenium.
• If these trace minerals are taken in excessive quantities, mineral toxicity is induced. For
instance, acute selenium toxicity is observed if an individual overdoses on dietary
supplements. It can cause nausea, nail discoloration or brittleness, hair loss,
and diarrhoea.

The minerals (inorganic) elements constitute only a small proportion of the body weight.
There is a wide in their body weight. For instance, calcium constitutes about 2% of body
weight while cobalt about 0.0004%. Mineral perform several vital functions which are
absolutely essential for the ver. existence of the organism. These include calcification of
bone, blood coagulation, neuromuscular irritability, acid-base equilibrium, fluid balance
and osmotic regulation.

Certain mineral are integral components of biologically important compounds such as

haemoglobin (Fe), thyroxine (I), insulin (Zn) and vitamin B12Co), Sulphur is present in
thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid and coenzyme A. Several minerals participate as cofactors for
enzymes in metabolism (e.g. Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn, K) Some elements are essential constituents
of certain enzymes (e.g. Co, Mo, Se).The minerals are classified as principal elements and
trace elements.

There are many examples of minerals in food; these include:

• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Potassium
• Sodium
• Iodine
• Iron
• Magnesium

Functions of Minerals in Food

The following are some of the common minerals in food and their functions in the body.

Calcium
Helps blood clotting.
Helps muscle contraction and nerve function.
Essential for building strong and healthy bones.
Chloride

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Maintains proper blood volume, blood pressure, and pH of our body fluids.

Copper
Formation of red blood cells.
Helps with the functioning of the nervous system.

Iodine
Promotes the normal functioning of the thyroid gland.
Helps in the proper functioning of brain functions.
Promotes normal growth and development of cells.

Iron
Helps in transporting oxygen to all parts of the body.

Produces and stores the energy for further metabolisms.

Magnesium
Provides structure for the healthy bones.
Produces energy from the food molecules.
Maintains proper functioning of muscle and nervous system.

Manganese
Helps maintain water balance.
Controls nerve impulse transmissions.

Sodium
Maintains cellular osmotic pressure.
Helps in maintaining blood volume and blood pressure and the fluid balance in the body.

Sulfur
Involved in protein synthesis.
Protects your cells from damage.
Helps in promoting the loosening and shedding of Skin.

Phosphorus
Helps the body to store and use energy.
Works with calcium in the formation of strong, healthy bones and teeth.

Potassium
Controls nerve impulses and muscle contractions.
Helps in maintaining fluid balance in the body.
Maintains proper functioning of muscle and nervous system.

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 Zinc
Aids in wound healing.
Supports the immune system.
Helps in the formation of strong bones.
Controls the functioning of the sense organs in the nervous system.
Important and the essential process of cell division and reproduction.

❖ SOURCES OF MINERALS
1. Calcium: Almonds, Carrots, Milk, Broccoli, Canned Fish, Papaya, Garlic, and Cashew

2. Chloride: Table Salt, Soy Sauce, liver Unprocessed Meat, Milk and Peanuts

3. Copper: Crab, Lobster, Mussels, Oysters, Nuts, Wholegrains and Yeast extract

4. Iodine: Seafood, Seaweed and Iodized salt

5. Iron: Meat, Eggs, Beans, Baked Potato, Dried Fruits, Green Leafy Vegetables, Whole
and Enriched Grains

6. Magnesium: Honey, Almonds, Seafood, Tuna, Chocolates, Pineapple, Pecans,

Artichokes, and Green Leafy Vegetables

7. Manganese: Cereals, Nuts, Oils, Vegetables and Wholegrains

8. Sodium: Table Salt, Cheese, Milk, Soy Sauce, and Unprocessed Meat

9. Sulfur: Cheese, Eggs, Nuts, Turnips, Onions, Fish, Wheat Germ, Cucumbers, Corn,
Cauliflower, and Broccoli

10. Phosphorus: Mushrooms, Meat, Cashews, Oats, Fish, Beans, Squash, Pecans, Carrots,
and Almonds

11. Potassium: Spinach, Apples, Oranges, Tomatoes, Papaya, Bananas, Lemons, Celery,
Mushrooms, Pecans, Raisins, Pineapple, Rice, Cucumbers, Strawberries, Figs, Brussels
Sprouts, and Legumes

12. Zinc: Beef, Pork, Dark Meat, Chicken, Cashews, Almonds, Peanuts, Beans, Split Peas,
and Lentil.

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 Some Food Source of Minerals

6.WATER
Water is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical
substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all
known living organisms (in which it acts as a solvent).

It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or organic
nutrients. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that each of its molecules contains one
oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds. Two hydrogen atoms are
attached to one oxygen atom at an angle of 104.45°.

Water is the major constituent of the human body. The latter cannot produce enough
water by metabolism or obtain enough water by food ingestion to fulfil its needs. As a
consequence, we need to pay attention to what we drink throughout the day to ensure
that we are meeting our daily water needs, as not doing so may have negative health
effects.
Water is the main constituent of cells, tissues and organs and is vital for life (Lang and
Waldegger, 1997). Despite its well-established importance, water is often forgotten in
dietary recommendations, and the importance of adequate hydration is not mentioned.
As a consequence, health professionals and nutritionists are sometimes confused and
question the necessity of drinking water regularly: how much should we drink, and how
to know whether patients are well hydrated or not. The purpose of this paper is to review

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the main functions of water and the mechanisms of daily water balance regulation, which
constitute a clear evidence of how much water we really need.

Water as A Vital Nutrient: A Multifunctional Constituent of The Human Body

1.Water as a building material

Water, present in each cell of our body and in the various tissues and compartments, acts
first as a building material. This primary function leads to nutritional recommendations,
as water needs are higher during the growth period of the body.
2.Water and thermoregulation
Water has a large heat capacity, which contributes to limiting changes in body
temperature in a warm or cold environment. Water has a large capacity for vaporization
of heat, which allows a loss of heat from the body even when ambient temperature is
higher than body temperature (Montain et al., 1999). When sweating is elicited,
evaporation of water from the skin surface is a very efficient way to lose heat.

3.Distribution of body water

Water is the main constituent of our body, as about 60% of our body weight is made of
water. This water content varies with body composition (lean and fat mass) (Dietary
Reference Intakes, 2006). In infants and children, water as a percentage of body weight is
higher than in adults. This is mainly due to higher water content in the extracellular
compartment, whereas the water content in the intracellular compartment is lower in
infants than in older children and adults. Body composition changes rapidly during the

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first year of life, with a decrease in the water content of the fat-free mass and an increase
in the content of protein and minerals.
In adults, about two-thirds of total water is in the intracellular space,
whereas one-third is extracellular water. A 70-kg human has about 42 L of total body
water, of which 28 L is intracellular water and 14 L is extracellular fluid (ECF) (Wang et al.,
1999). Of the latter, 3 L is in blood plasma, 1 L is the transcellular fluid (cerebrospinal fluid,
ocular, pleural, peritoneal and synovial fluids) and 10 L is the interstitial fluid, including
lymph, which provides an aqueous medium surrounding cells.

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 CHAPTER

ENZYMES IN FOOD
19
“Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.”

The human body is composed of different types of cells, tissues and other
complex organs. For efficient functioning, our body releases some chemicals to accelerate
biological processes such as respiration, digestion, excretion and few other metabolic
activities to sustain a healthy life. Hence, enzymes are pivotal in all living entities which
govern all the biological processes.

Majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform different
processes. Metabolic processes and other chemical reactions in the cell are carried out by
a set of enzymes that are necessary to sustain life.

The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with a
molecule and is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct
molecules and are called the products.

The regulation of enzymes has been a key element in clinical diagnosis because of their
role in maintaining life processes. The macromolecular components of all enzymes consist
of protein, except in the class of RNA catalysts called ribozymes. The word ribozyme is
derived from the ribonucleic acid enzyme. Many ribozymes are molecules of ribonucleic
acid, which catalyze reactions in one of their own bonds or among other RNAs.

Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions taking
place in metabolic pathways are carried out by intracellular enzymes. The enzymes in
plasma membrane govern the catalysis in the cells as a response to cellular signals and
enzymes in the circulatory system regulate clotting of blood. Most of the critical life
processes are established on the functions of enzymes.

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 ENZYMES CLASSIFICATION

According to the International Union of Biochemists (I U B), enzymes are divided into six
functional classes and are classified based on the type of reaction in which they are used
to catalyze. The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases,
transferases, ligases and isomerases.

Types Biochemical Property

The enzyme Oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation reaction where
Oxidoreductases
the electrons tend to travel from one form of a molecule to the other.
The Transferases enzymes help in the transportation of the functional
Transferases
group among acceptors and donor molecules.
Hydrolases are hydrolytic enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis
Hydrolases
reaction by adding water to cleave the bond and hydrolyze it.
Adds water, carbon dioxide or ammonia across double bonds or
Lyases
eliminate these to create double bonds.
The Isomerases enzymes catalyze the structural shifts present in a
Isomerases
molecule, thus causing the change in the shape of the molecule.
The Ligases enzymes are known to charge the catalysis of a ligation
Ligases
process.

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1.Oxidoreductases

These catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions, e. g. pyruvate dehydrogenase,

catalyzing the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.

2.Transferases

These catalyze transferring of the chemical group from one to another compound. An
example is a transaminase, which transfers an amino group from one molecule to
another.

3.Hydrolases

They catalyze the hydrolysis of a bond. For example, the enzyme pepsin hydrolyzes
peptide bonds in proteins.

4.Lyases

These catalyze the breakage of bonds without catalysis, e.g. aldolase (an enzyme in
glycolysis) catalyzes the splitting of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.

5.Isomerases

They catalyze the formation of an isomer of a compound. Example: phosphoglucomutase

catalyzes the conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate (phosphate
group is transferred from one to another position in the same compound) in
glycogenolysis (glycogen is converted to glucose for energy to be released quickly).

6.Ligases

Ligases catalyze the association of two molecules. For example, DNA ligase catalyzes the
joining of two fragments of DNA by forming a phosphodiester bond.

❖ COFACTORS
Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A cofactor is
essential for the functioning of an enzyme. An enzyme without a cofactor is called an
apoenzyme. An enzyme and its cofactor together constitute the holoenzyme.

There are three kinds of cofactors present in enzymes:

• Prosthetic groups: These are cofactors tightly bound to an enzyme at all times. A fad is
a prosthetic group present in many enzymes.

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• Coenzyme: A coenzyme binds to an enzyme only during catalysis. At all other times, it
is detached from the enzyme. NAD+ is a common coenzyme.
• Metal ions: For the catalysis of certain enzymes, a metal ion is required at the active
site to form coordinate bonds. Zn2+ is a metal ion cofactor used by a number of
enzymes.

❖ Mechanism of Enzyme Reaction

Any two molecules have to collide for the reaction to occur along with the right
orientation and a sufficient amount of energy. The energy between these molecules
needs to overcome the barrier in the reaction. This energy is called activation energy.

Enzymes are said to possess an active site. The active site is a part of the molecule that
has a definite shape and the functional group for the binding of reactant molecules. The
molecule that binds to the enzyme is referred to as the substrate group. The substrate
and the enzyme form an intermediate reaction with low activation energy without any
catalysts.

reactant(1)+reactant(2)→productreactant(1)+enzyme→intermediateintermediate+react
ant(2)→product+enzyme

▪ ENZYME-SUBSTRATE INTERACTIONS
Enzymes are the biocatalysts with high molecular weight proteinous compound. It
enhances the reactions which occur in the body during various life processes. It helps the
substrate by providing the surface for the reaction to occur. The enzyme comprises
hollow spaces occupying groups such as -SH, -COOH, and others on the outer surface. The
substrate which has an opposite charge of the enzyme fits into these spaces, just like a
key fit into a lock. This substrate binding site is called the active site of an enzyme (E).

The favorable model of enzyme-substrate interaction is called the induced-fit model. This
model states that the interaction between substrate and enzyme is weak, and these weak
interactions induce conformational changes rapidly and strengthen binding and bring
catalytic sites close enough to substrate bond

▪ FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

The conditions of the reaction have a great impact on the activity of the enzymes.
Enzymes are particular about the optimum conditions provided for the reactions such as
temperature, pH, alteration in substrate concentration, etc.

Typically, enzyme activities are accelerated with increasing temperatures. As

enzymes are functional in cells, the feasible conditions for nearly all enzymes are

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temperatures that are moderate. At higher temperatures, given a specific point, there is
a drastic decrease in the activity with the denaturation of enzymes. In diluted solutions,
purified enzymes denature quickly compared to enzymes in crude extracts. Denaturation
of enzymes can also take place when enzymes are incubated for long durations. More
appropriate is to utilize a shorter time duration when it comes to incubation time to gauge
the starting velocities of such enzyme reactions.

The International Union of Biochemistry suggests the standard assay temperature to be

30 °C. Almost all enzymes are extremely sensitive to pH change. Just some enzymes
feasibly operate with pH above 9 and below 5. Most enzymes have their pH – optimum
near to neutrality. Any alteration of pH causes the ionic state of amino acid residues to
change in the whole protein and in the active site. The modifications in the ionic state can
modify catalysis and substrate binding. The preference of substrate concentration is
critical as at lower concentrations, the rate is driven by concentration, however, at high
concentrations, the rate does not depend on any increase in the concentration of the
substrate.

1.Active site
Enzymatic catalysis depends upon the activity of amino acid side chains assembled in the
active centre. Enzymes bind the substrate into a region of the active site in an
intermediate conformation.

Often, the active site is a cleft or a pocket produced by the amino acids which take part in
catalysis and substrate binding. Amino acids forming an enzyme’s active site is not
contiguous to the other along the sequence of primary amino acid. The active site amino
acids are assembled to the cluster in the right conformation by the 3-dimensional folding
of the primary amino acid sequence. The most frequent active site amino acid residues
out of the 20 amino acids forming the protein are polar amino acids, aspartate, cysteine,
glutamate, histidine, Serine, and lysine. Typically, only 2-3 essential amino acid residues
are involved directly in the bond causing the formation of the product. Glutamate,
Aspartate, and histidine are the amino acid residues which also serve as a proton acceptor
or donor.

2.Temperature and pH
Enzymes require an optimum temperature and pH for their action. The temperature or
pH at which a compound shows its maximum activity is called optimum temperature or
optimum pH, respectively. As mentioned earlier, enzymes are protein compounds. A
temperature or pH more than optimum may alter the molecular structure of the enzymes.
Generally, an optimum pH for enzymes is considered to be ranging between 5 and 7.

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3.Concentration and Type of Substrate
Enzymes have a saturation point, i.e., once all the enzymes added are occupied by the
substrate molecules, its activity will be ceased. When the reaction begins, the velocity of
enzyme action keeps on increasing on further addition of substrate. However, at a
saturation point where substrate molecules are more in number than the free enzyme,
the velocity remains the same.

The type of substrate is another factor that affects the enzyme action. The chemicals that
bind to the active site of the enzyme can inhibit the activity of the enzyme and such
substrate is called an inhibitor. Competitive inhibitors are chemicals that compete with
the specific substrate of the enzyme for the active site. They structurally resemble the
specific substrate of the enzyme and bind to the enzyme and inhibit the enzymatic
activity. This concept is used for treating bacterial infectious diseases.

4.Salt concentration
Changes in salinity: Adds or removes cations (+) & anions (–)

• Disrupts bonds, disrupts the 3D shape

• Disrupts attractions between charged amino acids
• Affect 2° & 3° structure
• Denatures protein
• Enzymes intolerant of extreme salinity
• The Dead Sea is called dead for a reason

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❖ FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include:

1. Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of proteins.
2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed
by the body.
3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzymes involved in
the synthesis of energy.
4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.
5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.
6. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular
activities.

APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL ENZYMES IN FOOD INDUSTRY

S. No. Enzyme Application

1. α-Amylase Baking, brewing, starch liquefaction
Bread quality improvement
Rice cakes
Clarification of fruit juice
2. Glucoamylase Beer production
Bread quality improvement
High glucose and high fructose syrups
3 Protease Brewing
Meat tenderization
Coagulation of milk
Bread quality improvement
4 Lactase(β-galactosidase) Lactose intolerance reduction in people
Prebiotic food ingredients
5 Lipase Cheese flavour development
Cheddar cheese production
6 Phospholipase Cheese flavour development
Production of lipolyzed milk fat
7 Esterase Enhancement of flavour and fragrance in fruit juice
De-esterification of dietary fibre
Production of short chain flavour esters
8 Cellulase Animal feed
Clarification of fruit juice
9 Xylanase Clarification of fruit juice
Beer quality improvement
10 Pectinase Clarification of fruit juice

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 11 Glucose oxidase Food shelf life improvement
Food flavour improvement
12 Laccase Polyphenol removal from wine
Baking
13 Catalase Food preservation (with glucose oxidase)
Removal of hydrogen peroxide from milk prior to cheese
production
14 Peroxidase Development of flavour, colour and nutritional quality of
food
15 α-Acetolactate Shortening maturation of beer
dehydrogenase
16 Asparaginase Reduction of formation of acrylamide during baking
17 Debittering enzymes Removal of bitter taste in fruit juice
Wine aroma enhancement
naringinase

DIGESTION OF FOOD
The digestive system is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the
mouth to the anus (see Figure 1). Inside this tube is a lining called the mucosa. In the
mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce juices
to help digest food.

Two solid organs, the liver and the pancreas, produce digestive juices that reach the
intestine through small tubes. In addition, parts of other organ systems (for instance,
nerves and blood) play a major role in the digestive system.

❖ Importance of Digestion
Digestion involves the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract, and the
chemical breakdown of the large molecules of food into smaller molecules. Digestion
begins in the mouth, when we chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine.
The chemical process varies somewhat for different kinds of food.

Movement of Food Through the Digestive System

The large, hollow organs of the digestive system contain muscle that enables their walls
to move. The movement of organ walls can propel food and liquid and can mix the
contents within each organ.

Typical movement of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine is called peristalsis. The
action of peristalsis looks like an ocean wave moving through the muscle.

The muscle of the organ produces a narrowing and then propels the narrowed portion
slowly down the length of the organ. These waves of narrowing push the food and fluid
in front of them through each hollow organ.
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The first major muscle movement occurs when food or liquid is swallowed. Although we
are able to start swallowing by choice, once the swallow begins, it becomes involuntary
and proceeds under the control of the nerves.

The esophagus is the organ into which the swallowed food is pushed. It connects the
throat above with the stomach below. At the junction of the esophagus and stomach,
there is a ring like valve closing the passage between the two organs. However, as the
food approaches the closed ring, the surrounding muscles relax and allow the food to
pass.

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 The food then enters the stomach, which has three mechanical tasks to
do. First, the stomach must store the swallowed food and liquid. This requires the muscle
of the upper part of the stomach to relax and accept large volumes of swallowed material.

The second job is to mix up the food, liquid, and digestive juice produced by the stomach.
The lower part of the stomach mixes these materials by its muscle action. (The mixture is
referred to as chyme.)

The third task of the stomach is to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine.
Several factors affect emptying of the stomach, including the nature of the food (mainly
its fat and protein content) and the degree of muscle action of the emptying stomach and
the next organ to receive the contents (the small intestine).

As the food is digested in the small intestine and dissolved into the juices from the
pancreas, liver, and intestine, the contents of the intestine are mixed and pushed forward
to allow further digestion.

Finally, all of the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal
walls. The waste products of this process include undigested parts of the food, known as
fiber, and older cells that have been shed from the mucosa. These materials are propelled
into the colon, where they remain, usually for a day or two, until the feces are expelled
by a bowel movement.

▪ The Small Intestine/Bowel

The mixture of food, liquid, and digestive juice (chyme) that passes out of the stomach, in
a regulated controlled manner, enters into the small intestine/bowel. The average total
length of the normal small bowel in adults is about 7 meters/22 feet. The small intestine
has 3 segments:

• the duodenum,
• the jejunum, and
• the ileum.

Each part or section performs an important role in nutrient absorption.

Duodenum – The chyme first enters into the duodenum where it is exposed to secretions
that aid digestion. The secretions include bile salts, enzymes, and bicarbonate. The bile
salts from the liver help digest fats and fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamin A, D, E, and K).
Pancreatic enzymes help digest carbohydrates and fats. Bicarbonate from the pancreas
neutralizes the acid from the stomach.

Jejunum – The chyme is then further transited down into the second or middle part of
the small intestine, the jejunum. Mainly in the first half of the jejunum, the majority
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(about 90%) of nutrient absorption occurs involving proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins,
and minerals.

Ileum – The ileum is the last section of the small intestine and leads to the large intestine
or colon. The ileum mainly absorbs water, bile salts, and vitamin B12.

The ileocecal valve is a one-way valve located between the ileum and the cecum, which
is the first portion of the colon. This valve helps control the passage of contents into the
colon and increases the contact time of nutrients and electrolytes (essential minerals)
with the small intestine. It also prevents back-flow (reflux) from the colon up into the
ileum, and helps minimize the movement of bacteria from the large intestine up into the
small bowel.

▪ The Large Intestine/Bowel, or Colon

The primary function of the large intestine or colon is to absorb fluids and electrolytes,
particularly sodium and potassium, and to convert remaining luminal contents into more
solid stool.

The colon absorbs on average 1–1.5 liters (about 1–1.5 quarts) of fluid every day and has
a capacity to adapt its fluid absorption to as much as 5 liters/quarts per day if needed.

Another function of the colon is to break down (ferment) dietary fiber to produce short
chain fatty acids – substances that can be absorbed and provide added nutrition.

The first portion of the colon, the cecum, is shaped like a pouch, and is the area of storage
for the contents arriving from the ileum. The second portion is the ascending colon, where
fluids are absorbed and where some stool formation begins.

▪ Production of Digestive Juices

The glands that act first are in the mouth – the salivary glands. Saliva produced by these
glands contains an enzyme that begins to digest the starch from food into smaller
molecules.

The next set of digestive glands is in the stomach lining. They produce stomach acid and
an enzyme that digests protein. One of the unsolved puzzles of the digestive system is
why the acid juice of the stomach does not dissolve the tissue of the stomach itself. In
most people, the stomach mucosa is able to resist the juice, although food and other
tissues of the body cannot.

After the stomach empties the food and juice mixture into the small intestine, the juices
of two other digestive organs mix with the food to continue the process of digestion.

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One of these organs is the pancreas. It produces a juice that contains a wide array of
enzymes to break down the carbohydrate, fat, and protein in food. Other enzymes that
are active in the process come from glands in the wall of the intestine or even a part of
that wall.

The liver produces yet another digestive juice - bile. The bile is stored between meals in
the gallbladder. At mealtime, it is squeezed out of the gallbladder into the bile ducts to
reach the intestine and mix with the fat in our food.

The bile acids dissolve the fat into the watery contents of the intestine, much like
detergents that dissolve grease from a frying pan. After the fat is dissolved, it is digested
by enzymes from the pancreas and the lining of the intestine.

❖ ENZYME USE IN DIGESTION

Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules
into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body.
Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in
the tracts of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside
cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival.
Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary
glands, in the secretions of cells lining the stomach, in the pancreatic juice secreted by
pancreatic exocrine cells, and in the secretions of cells lining the small and large
intestines.

Digestive enzymes are classified based on their target substrates:

• Lipases split fatty acids off of fats and oils.

• Proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids.
• Amylases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars such as
glucose.
• Nucleases split nucleic acids into nucleotides.

Digestive enzymes are released, or secreted, by the organs of the digestive

system. These enzymes include proteases that digest proteins, and nucleases that digest
nucleic acids. Examples of digestive enzymes are:

In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the mouth, stomach, and
small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by different exocrine glands including:

• Salivary glands
• Gastric glands in the stomach
• Secretory cells (islets) in the pancreas
• Secretory glands in the small intestine

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 Digestive enzymes are released, or secreted, by the organs of the digestive
system. These enzymes include proteases that digest proteins, and nucleases that digest
nucleic acids. Examples of digestive enzymes are:

• Amylase, produced in the mouth. It helps break down large starch molecules into
smaller sugar molecules.
• Pepsin, produced in the stomach. Pepsin helps break down proteins into amino acids.
• Trypsin, produced in the pancreas. Trypsin also breaks down proteins.
• Pancreatic lipase, produced in the pancreas. It is used to break apart fats.
• Deoxy-ribonuclease and ribonuclease, produced in the pancreas. They are enzymes that
break bonds in nucleic acids like DNA and RNA.

Bile salts are bile acids that help to break down fat. Bile acids are made in the liver. When
you eat a meal, bile is secreted into the intestine, where it breaks down the fats.

Digestive hormones are made by cells lining the stomach and small intestine. These
hormones cross into the blood where they can affect other parts of the digestive system.
Some of these hormones are listed below.

• Gastrin, which signals the secretion of gastric acid.

• Cholecystokinin, which signals the secretion of pancreatic enzymes.
• Secretin, which signals secretion of water and bicarbonate from the pancreas.
• Ghrelin, which signals when you are hungry.
• Gastric inhibitory polypeptide, which stops or decreases gastric secretion. It also causes
the release of insulin in response to high blood glucose levels.

❖ ROLE OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

1. In Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates in the chime are hydrolyzed by pancreatic amylase
into disaccharides.
Polysaccharides(starch) Amylase Disaccharides

2.In Proteins: Proteins, proteases and peptones (partially hydrolyzed proteins) in the
chime reaching the intestine are acted upon by the proteolytic enzymes of pancreatic
juice. Proteins

Peptones Trypsin/Chymotrypsin Dipeptides

3.In Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids in the pancreatic juice acts on nucleic acids to form
nucleotides and nucleosides.

Nucleic acids Nuclease Nucleotides Nucleosides

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ENZYMES INVOLVED IN DIGESTION OF FOOD
Substrate/Food Enzyme Breakdown into Source of Site of
Enzyme Reaction
Digestion of Carbohydrate
Polysaccharide Salivary Amylase Disaccharide Salivary gland Mouth
Polysaccharide Pancreatic Amylase Disaccharide Pancreas Small
Disaccharides Disaccharidases Monosaccharides Small Intestine Intestine
Small
intestine
Digestion of Protein
Protein Pepsin Peptide fragments Stomach Mucosa Stomach
Polypeptide Trypsin Peptide fragments Pancreas Small
Peptide Carboxypeptidase Amino Acid Pancreas intestine
Peptide Amino Peptidase Amino Acid Stomach Mucosa Small
intestine
Small
intestine
Digestion of Fat
Triglycerides Lipase Monoglycerides Pancreas Small
intestine
Digestion of Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA Pancreatic Nucleases Nucleotide Pancreas Small
Nucleotides Intestinal Nucleases Nucleotide bases Intestinal Mucosa intestine
Small
intestine

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CHAPTER 20
FOOD NUTRITION
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses food to
support its life. It includes ingestion, absorption, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.
Balanced Diet
A balanced diet is one that fulfills all of a person’s nutritional needs. Humans need a
certain amount of calories and nutrients to stay healthy. A balanced diet is defined as the
diet which contains different types of food, possessing the nutrients-carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins and minerals in a proportion to meet the requirements of the body.

Mode of Nutrition
There are two types of nutrition among living organisms, namely:
A). Autotrophic mode
B). Heterotrophic mode

These are mainly two types of nutrition for obtaining food.

A). Autotrophic mode
In the autotrophic mode, organisms use simple inorganic matters like water and carbon
dioxide in the presence of light and chlorophyll to synthesize food on their own. Plants,
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algae, and bacteria (cyanobacteria) are some examples where autotrophic nutrition is
observed.

B). Heterotrophic Nutrition

Every organism is not capable of preparing food on its own. Such organisms depend on
others for their nutrition. The organisms which cannot produce food on their own and
depend on other sources/organisms are called heterotrophs. This mode of nutrition is
known as heterotrophic nutrition.
Heterotrophs are classified into different categories based on their mode of nutrition.
They are:
Holozoic (e.g. humans, dogs)
Parasites (e.g. leeches, ticks)
Saprophytes (e.g. mushrooms)

I. Holozoic Nutrition:
Holozoic nutrition is the process of nutrition that takes place in organisms which take solid
or liquid food inside their body. This process found in three types of organism:
Herbivores (Consume plant)
Carnivores (Consume meat)
Omnivores (Meat + Plant)

II. Parasites Nutrition:

Parasitic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which the organisms live on or inside the body
of their host and derive their food from them.
Parasitic mode of nutrition is seen in several fungi, bacteria, a few plants like cuscuta and
animals like plasmodium.

III. Saprophytic Nutrition:

The mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on dead and decaying matter. Example
fungi. In saprotrophic mode of nutrition, the vital nutrients required for their body are
collected from dead and decaying matter. The other organisms which are saprotrophic is
Rhizopus, Yeast, and Mushroom.

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 NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are compounds or substances in foods which are essential to life and health.
These are the organic substances which are required for regulating body functions.

There are 6 essential nutrients that the body needs to function properly.
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids (fats)
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water

Not all nutrients provide energy but are necessary for some form or the other.
These nutrients are divided into two categories.

1. Macronutrients (required by the body in large amounts)

2. Micronutrients (required by the body in small amounts)

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1.Macronutrients

I. Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are the body’s primary fuel. They provide energy for your muscles and the
central nervous system during movement and exercise. Carbohydrates are the sugars,
starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products.

II. Protein
Protein is essential to many processes in the body. It provides structure to the tissue. That
includes cell membranes, organs, muscle, hair, skin, nails, bones, tendons, ligaments and
blood plasma.
Proteins are involved in metabolic, hormonal and enzyme systems and help maintain acid-
base balance in our bodies.
III. Fat
Fat is vital for the body as an energy reserve, for insulation and protection of your organs,
and for absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.
Most of the nutrients in food fall into three major groups: proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates. The body uses fat as a fuel source, and fat is the major storage form of
energy in the body.
Some examples of foods that contain fats are butter, oil, nuts, meat, fish, and some dairy
products.

2.Micronutrients

IV. Vitamin
A vitamin is an organic molecule that is an essential micronutrient which an organism
needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism. Most vitamins
need to come from food because the body either does not produce them or produces
very little. Each organism has different vitamin requirements.

V. Minerals
Minerals are those elements on the earth and in foods that our bodies need to develop
and function normally. Minerals are essential for health include calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium, iron, zinc, iodine, chromium, copper, fluoride,
molybdenum, manganese, and selenium. Minerals do not produce energy.

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 VI. Water
Water, a vital nutrient, has numerous critical roles in the human body. All biochemical
reactions occur in water. Water is also required for digestion, absorption, transportation,
dissolving nutrients, elimination of waste products and thermoregulation.

FOOD

What is Food?
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is
usually of plant, animal or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an
organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or
stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that
satisfy the needs of their unique metabolisms, often evolved to fill a specific ecological
niche within specific geographical contexts.

❖ Function of Food
Our body uses food to perform four main function:
1.Energy
Food supplies the fuel or energy needed to perform the many tasks of everyday living. We
need energy to think, breath, walk, sit, speak, workout and even sleep. We get energy from
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It is important that we eat enough food to supply all our
needs. If we eat more energy food than our body needs, this energy will be stored in the
body as fat. Too much accumulation of fat will result in the body becoming overweight
or obese.

2.Growth and Repair

Food provides material needs to build, repair and maintain body tissues. Protein fats and
minerals are the best nutrients for growth. Growing bodies need extra amounts of these
nutrients. Every person whether growing or not, is going through a continual repair process
of replacing injured or dead cells. It is food that supplies the nutrients necessary for this
process.

3.Regulation
Food supplies the substances and compounds that help to regulate the body’s processes.
Water, vitamins and minerals help regulate breathing, the nervous system, digestion, blood
circulation and the elimination of waste products from the body. They help keep all the
system in the body working properly.

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4.Protection
Foods rich in vitamins and minerals are referred to as protective foods as they provide
immunity and protect our body from various diseases and infections. Vitamins, mineral and
protein keep the body’s tissue and organs healthy. Healthy organs are less likely to be
attacked by disease.

❖ SOURCES OF FOOD
Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even
animals that are used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants.
Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other
type of crop. Maize, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties -account for 87% of all grain
production worldwide. Most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock.

Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, especially
mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and
pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt.
Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina. Inorganic substances such as salt,
baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient.

Plant and animal are the main source of food for all the organism on earth. Food obtained
from animal is the main source of protein and include fish, milk, meat, poultry, and cheese.
Whereas plants provide us fruits and vegetables, which are an important source of fiber,
protein and carbohydrate.

1.Plants:
Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are
cultivated for food. Many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars.

Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they
contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats,
such as omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-
based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans,
peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils -
sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil), sesame, etc.

Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health
food. However, not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a
choking hazard, while seeds from cherries and apples contain cyanide which could be
poisonous only if consumed in large volumes.

Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and
animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food source to
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the latter, because animals that eat the fruits may excrete the seeds some distance away.
Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical
fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. (For more
information, see list of fruits.)

Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These
include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), leafy vegetables
(spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables (bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence
vegetables (globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such as cabbage or
cauliflower).

2.Animals
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat
is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from muscle systems
or from organs (offal).

Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in
many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.).

In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce
honey, a reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures.
Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for
sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews
such as jugged hare.

Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural,
dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from
animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain
ingredients from an animal source.

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OVER VIEW OF ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS AND THEIR REMOVAL FROM FOODS
Introduction
Anti-nutritional factors are compounds which reduce the nutrient utilization and/or food
intake of plants or plant products used as human foods. They play a vital role in
determining the use of plants for humans. Plants evolved these substances to protect and
prevent themselves from being eaten. However, if the diet is not varied, some of these
toxins build up in the body to harmful levels. Some vitamins in food may be destroyed by
anti-nutritional substances. These anti-nutritional factors must be inactivated or
removed, if values of food substances are to be fully maintained. Plants which produce
seeds rich in energy supplies (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins) usually accumulate potent
chemical defence compounds. This also applies to grain legumes with comparably large
and protein-rich seed which often contain substantial amounts of "anti-nutritive" factors
(ANF), such as lectins, protease inhibitors, non-protein amino acids (NPAAs), alkaloids,
cyanogenic glycosides, pyrimidine glycosides, saponins, tannins, isoflavones, oligo-
saccharides, erucic acid, or phytates. Anti-nutritional factors are present in different food
substances in varying amounts, depending on the kind of food, mode of its propagation,
chemicals used in growing the crop as well as those chemicals used in storage and
preservation of the food substances.

The most widely studied antinutrients include:

Phytate (phytic acid): Mainly found in seeds, grains and legumes, phytate reduces the
absorption of minerals from a meal. These include iron, zinc, magnesium and calcium.

Tannins: A class of antioxidant polyphenols that may impair the digestion of various
nutrients.

Lectins: Found in all food plants, especially in seeds, legumes and grains.
Some lectins may be harmful in high amounts, and interfere with the absorption of
nutrients.

Protease inhibitors: Widely distributed among plants, especially in seeds, grains and
legumes. They interfere with protein digestion by inhibiting digestive enzymes.

Calcium oxalate: The primary form of calcium in many vegetables, such as spinach. The
calcium bound to oxalate is poorly absorbed.

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A Special Book for Food Safety Officer Page 463
Method used to removal of Antinutritional Factor from Food
(i) Milling
Milling is the most traditional method to separate the bran layer from the grains. It is a
process by which grains are ground into flour. The milling technique removes anti-nutrients
(e.g. phytic acid, lectins, tannins), which are present in the bran of grains, but this technique
has a main disadvantage that it also removes important minerals (Gupta et al. 2015). For
example, research on millet milling reported that the chemical composition of pearl millets
was changed due to milling process. On the other hand, no much change was observed in
pearl millet flour when processed through baking. However, milling and heating process
during making of chapatti reduced the phytic acid and polyphenol contents in addition to
significant improvements in starch and protein digestion (Chowdhury and Punia 1997). In
another research, two varieties of pearl millets were used for evaluating their nutrients, anti-
nutrients, and mineral bioavailability after milling them into whole flour, bran rich segment
and semi-refined flour. The results of nutrient composition showed that no difference was
found in semi-refined flour and whole flour except fat content, which was 1.3%. However,
the contents of phytate and oxalate were found to be low in semi-refined flour when
compared with whole flour, due to removal of the bran fraction (Suma and Urooj 2014).

(ii) Soaking
Soaking is an attractive method for removing anti-nutrient content of foods because it also reduces
cooking time. Soaking also enhances release of enzymes (e.g. endogenous phytases), which are present
in plant foods like almonds and other nuts and grains. Soaking generally provides essential moist
conditions in nuts, grains and other edible seeds, which are required for their germination and associated
reductions in level of enzyme inhibitors as well as other anti-nutrients to enhance digestibility and
nutritional value (Kumari 2018). Soaking is also commonly required for fermentation, which can also be
used to reduce the level of various anti-nutrients in foods (Gupta et al. 2015). Many of the anti-nutrients
are water soluble in nature, which enhance their removal from foods through leaching. Soaking generally
increases the hydration level of legumes and cereals, which make them soft and also activate an
endogenous enzyme like phytase to enhance ease of further processing such as cooking or heating. A
previous study stated that 6 h soaking reduced 27.9% and 24 h of soaking reduced 36.0% of phytic acid
at room temperature in Mucana flagellipes (Udensi et al. 2008).

(iii) Autoclave and cooking

Autoclave is an application, which is generally used for heat treatments. When this
application is used on cereals and other plant-based foods, it activates the phytase
enzyme as well as increases acidity (Ertop and Bektaş 2018). Most of the foods showed
health benefits when consumed after autoclaving. For example, boiling of food grains
reduced anti-nutrients content, which improved their nutritional value (Rehman and
Shah 2005). Soaking and cooking also greatly decreased the phytic content in legume
grains (Vadivel and Biesalski 2012). Food legumes are generally cooked by boiling or by
using a pressure cooker prior to consumption. Previous studies also reported that boiling
or cooking highly improved the nutritional value of foods by reducing their anti-nutritional
(e.g. tannins and trypsin inhibitors) contents (Patterson et al. 2017).
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(iv) Fermentation
Fermentation may be a useful strategy for reducing bacterial contamination of foods. For
treating diarrhea in young children, fermented millet products are recommended as
probiotics (Manisseri and Gudipati 2012; Nduti et al. 2016). Fermentation is a metabolic
process in which sugars are oxidized to produce energy; it also improves the absorption
of minerals from the plant-based foods. Fermentation is one of the processing methods,
which is used in Africa to made cereals crops edible and also increase the nutritional
quality as well as safety aspects of these foods, because cereals are not easily consumed
in natural/raw forms (Galati et al. 2014). In cereals, phytic acid normally forms complexes
with the metal cations including iron, zinc, calcium and proteins. These complexes are
generally degraded by enzymes, which require an optimum pH maintained by
fermentation. Thus, this kind of degradation decreases the phytic acid content and
liberates soluble iron, zinc and calcium, which enhance the nutritional level of food grains
(Gibson et al. 2010). Fermentation of cereals by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has been
reported to increase free amino acids and their derivatives by proteolysis and by
metabolic synthesis. Fermentation has been shown to improve the nutritional value of
grains by increasing the content of essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine and
tryptophan (Mohapatra et al. 2019).

(v) GERMINATION

Germination is also considered as a highly suitable method for reducing the anti-nutrient
components of plant-based foods (Nkhata et al. 2018). Germination of seeds generally
activates the enzyme phytase, which degrades phytate and leads to decreased phytic acid
concentration in the samples. Germination commonly changes the nutritional level,
biochemical property and physical features of the foods. For reduction of cereals anti-
nutritional content, this method is most frequently used (Laxmi et al. 2015; Oghbaei and
Prakash 2016; Onyango et al. 2013). Germinated cereals showed enhanced activity of
phytase-degrading enzyme while in non-germinated cereals the endogenous activity of
phytase enzyme was observed in diminished amounts (Vashishth et al. 2017). After
malting of millet samples for 72 h and 96 h, it was found that phytic acid content was
reduced 23.95 and 45.3%, respectively (Makokha et al. 2002; Coulibaly et al. 2011).

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 MALNUTRITION

Malnutrition refers to when a person's diet does not provide enough nutrients or the
right balance of nutrients for optimal health. Causes of malnutrition include
inappropriate dietary choices, a low income, difficulty obtaining food, and various
physical and mental health conditions.
Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet which does not supply a healthy
amount of one or more nutrients. This includes diets that have too little nutrients or so
many that the diet causes health problems. The nutrients involved can include calories,
protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins or minerals. A lack of nutrients is called
undernutrition or undernourishment while a surplus of nutrients cases over-nutrition.

Malnutrition

Malnutrition is most often used to refer to undernutrition - when an individual is not

getting enough calories, protein, or micronutrients. If undernutrition occurs during
pregnancy, or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical
and mental development. Extreme undernourishment, known as starvation or chronic
hunger, may have symptoms that include: a short height, thin body, very poor energy
levels, and swollen legs and abdomen. Those who are malnourished often get infections
and are frequently cold. The symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on the
micronutrient that is lacking.

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CHAPTER 21
FOOD PROCESSING
FOOD PROCESSING

“Food processing is the transformation of agricultural products into food, or one form
of food into other forms.”

Food Processing is the process of transforming food items into a form that
can be used by consumer. It can cover the processing of raw materials into food via
different physical and chemical processes. Various activities covered in this process are
mincing, cooking, canning, liquefaction, pickling, macerating and emulsification.
In Food Processing it takes clean, harvested crops, or butchered and slaughtered animal
products to produce attractive, marketable, and in several cases, life-long food products.
However, food processing can also lower the nutritional value of the food and might
include additives that might adversely affect health.
Food technology is a very vast domain concerning with the production and processing of
food.
Food processing has certain objectives,
• It boosts the shelf life of food products.
• Prevent food-contamination.
• Food storage and Transportation.
• Turns raw food materials into attractive, marketable products.
• Provide employment to a large population.

MILK AND MILK PROCESSING

Milk can be defined as a complex consisting of fat, proteins lactose,
minerals in continuous phase of water, as major constituents, and vitamins, enzymes
pigments, gases and several other organic and inorganic substances. The milk fat exists in
the form of emulsion which is stabilized by the presence of phospholipid membrane on
the surface of the fat globules. Protein, particularly casein is found in the form of colloidal
dispersion. lactose and certain minerals are present in true solution.
or
"Milk could be defined as fresh clean lacteal secretion obtained by complete milking of
one or more healthy milk animals, properly fed and kept excluding that obtained within

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15 days before and 5 days after calving" India is now the largest producer of milk in the
world with a production of 176.3 million tons in 2017-18 with a percent share of 21.32%
in the world production. Per capita availability of milk in India in the year 2017-18 was
375 gm/person/Day.

❖ NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MILK

Milk contains several substances which could be classified under two major heads viz,
liquid and solid.
Water in milk forms the liquid base in which all the solids are dissolved. Milk solid such as
fat, protein, lactose and minerals, all taken together are termed as total solids (TS) in milk
The solids can be regrouped as fat and solid-non-fat. The fat consists of true fat and
substances associated with fat viz. lecithin, carotene, cholesterol. glycerides and vitamins
like A, D, E and K. The SNF can be grouped as lactose (alpha and beta); protein like casein
(alpha, beta gamma and Koppa), lactalbumim and actoglobulin; minerals like phosphates,
citrates and chlorides of Na, Ca and Mg With traces of Fe, Cu and iodine and minor
constituents of importance like vitamins, B1, B2 and B6 dissolved gases enzymes and
microorganism. It is a well-known fact that the composition of milk varies from species to
species.

❖ ROLE OF MILK’S CONSTITUENTS

1. Water: The water in the milk is the same as any other water. Its function is to hold the
solids of the milk partly in solution and partly in suspension.
2.Milk Fat: Fat is a mixture of the glycerides of certain fat, acids. Milk fat contains 19 or
more fatty acids. Mil fat is the lightest portion of milk. It is because of this fact that the
cream, which contains most of the milk fat in milk, rises to the top to form the cream
layer. It is very rich sources of energy & also a good source of vitamin A and D. The size of
fat globules in milk varies from 0.1 to 2 mm.
3. Protein: The Principal classes of proteins of milk are casein, lactoglobulin and
lactalbumin. The casein account for 80% of total protein content, lactalbumin and
lactoglobulin (whey proteins).

i.Casein: casein is a phospho-protein which is found only in milk. It exists in milk in

combination with calcium, hence is often spoken as calcium caseinate phosphate
complex. The casein is precipitate by acids at its iso-electric point of pH 4.6. It is
precipitated out of milk, when the milk sources or when acid or rennet is added to it.
Because casein is a protein, it supplies the body with muscle-building material. Casein,
when converted in to sodium caserinate, is used as source of protein in many of the
imitation milk products.
ii.Whey protein: The proteins, lactalbumin and lacto globulin are present in small
amounts, dispersed in the water of milk. The whey protein that remain in solution or

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 suspension after the precipitation of the casein by acid or rennet may be salted out by
various combination of inorganic salts.
4. Lactose: Lactose is a disaccharide carbo hydrate found only in milk in the form of
glucose and galactose, which are liberated when lactose is hydrolyzed either by the
enzyme lactose of the digestive tract or by lactose of bacterial origin. Lactose serves the
body as a source of energy, but is not as rich as butterfat. Lactose is easily changed by
bacterial action to lactic acid. A change causes milk to taste sour.
5. Minerals Constituents: The mineral constituents or salt of milk constitute 0.6 to 0.8
% of the total weight. The potassium and chlorides of milk are in solution whereas the
calcium, phosphorus and magnesium are partly in solution and partly in colloidal
suspension.
Minerals of milk are very essential as a food for young, as they help to build bone and
promote the proper development of the teeth. Although the average minerals content in
milk is 0.7%.
6. Minor Constituents: The water, milk fat, protein, lactose and minerals are termed
the major constituents of milk because they are present in comparatively large quantity
and makeup the bulk of the product, while other substances present in milk are called
minor constituents.

i.Pigments: Milk contains two fat soluble pigments "carotene" and "xanthophylls"
and one water soluble "lactoflavin" (Lactochrome). Carotene is mainly responsible for
yellow color of cow milk.
ii.Cholesterol: The amount of cholesterol in milk varies directly with the butter fat
content of the milk. It is a yellow white fatty chemical compound found in such food as
eggs, meats and dairy products.
iii.Phospholipids: The principal phospholipids found in milk is called "lecithin".
Lecithin is a fat like substance containing nitrogen and phosphorus. The lecithin is
closely associated with milk fat.
iv.Enzyme: Enzyme are complex organic compound which initiate the chemical
reaction. Lipase acts only upon fat, and proteins acts only upon protein decomposition
products. High temperature, unfavorable pH, light and certain chemicals tends to
inactivate them.
(a) Catalase: This enzyme, which splits hydrogen peroxide into water and molecular
oxygen, is detected by the liberation of oxygen in a fermentation tube. A
temperature of 65°C to 67°C for 30 min destroys this enzymes.
(b) Amylase: Amylase, a starch splitting enzyme is considered to be the least
variable in quantity of all the enzymes in normal milk.
(c) Phosphatase: Alkaline Phosphatase is an enzyme which is naturally present in
milk, but is destroyed at a temperature just near to the pasteurization temperature.
(d) Lipase: Lipase is an enzyme in milk fat then causing a strong or "rancid" flavor.

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 (e) Galactase: It slowly reduces milk protein to simple compounds, hence it plays a
part in the "ripening" of some cheeses.
(f) Lactase: Lactase hydrolyzen lactose into simpler sugar like glucose and galactose.
(g) Olienase: It plays a part in the development of oxideized or cappy flavor of milk.

❖ PROPERTIES OF MILK

A. Chemical Properties

1. Chemical reaction: Freshly drawn milk normally shows an amphoteric reaction, that
15, it turns red litmus blue, and blue litmus red. This property in milk of different amino-
acids in milk protein. Amino-acids consist of NH2+ as well as COOH group which show
alkaline as well as acidic reactions.

2. Acidity: The acidic nature of milk is due to the presence of phosphates, protein, citrates
and dissolved dioxide. This acidity is called in milk is called natural acidity and range from
0.13% to 0.21%. This is always expressed as percent lactic acid. When milk is kept under
atmospheric conditions for some time, an increase in acidity in milk is noticed. This
increase in acidity known as developed acidity is due to production of lactic acid as well
as a result of microbial activity.

3. pH of milk: Normal fresh milk has a hydrogen in concentration of approx. pH 6.5-6.7,

which indicates that the milk is slightly acidic.

4. Buffering action of milk: Fresh milk acts as a complex buffer because it contains several
substances which contribute to this property of milk. CO2, protein, phosphate citrates and
a number of minor constituents are responsible for buffering capacity of milk.
5. Oxidation-Reduction Potential: In practice, the potential difference created by
platinum electrode in a solution of an oxidant or reductant is measured by completing a
circuit through calomel half-cell and a potentiometer. In this measured potential is called
oxidation- reduction potential or Redox-potential. It is noted by Eh of milk about +0.2 to
+0.3 volt.

(B) Physical Properties

1. Taste and odor: Normal milk tastes slightly sweet and has a milk aromatic flavor and
aroma. The sweet taste comes from the flavor and aroma principally from milk sugar and
buffer fat.
2. Color: Cow milk is always yellow in color due to the carotene. Buffalo milk is white due
to absence of carotene and white opaque color seen in reflected light is caused by the

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interference with passage of light caused by fat and colloidal dispersed substances.
Buffalo have a tendency to convert all carotene into vitamin A.
3.Specific Gravity: It means the weight of given volume of milk compared with the weight
of the same volume of water at the same Temperature. Sp. gravity of milk is determined
at 15°C. Lactometer is used to determine the sp. gr. of milk. Milk contains many
constituents whose sp. gr. is less than one. Increase in the fat content of milk results in
lowering of sp. gr. and decrease in fat content of milk, causing increase in sp. gr. of milk.
Milk normally varies in sp. gr. between 1.028 to 1.034. Generally cow milk has 1.028-1.032
and Buffalo milk 1.030 to 1.034 of specific gravity.

Sp. gravity = 1+ CLR/1000

CLR = Corrected Lactometer reading at 15.5°C.

4. Boiling point: Water boils at 100°C under normal ambient temperature and pressure.
The presence of dissolved substances increases the boiling point of a solution. Since milk
contains several dissolved substances it has higher boiling temperature than that of
water. The boiling. point of both cow and buffalo milk ranges from 100.2°C to 101°C with
an average of 100.5°C.
5. Freezing point: The (FP) of milk of cow or buffalo ranges from -0.535°C to - 0.550°C
with an average of -0.545°C. The addition of 1% water to milk will raise the FP by 0.006°C.
Milk freezes at temperature slightly lower than that of water due to soluble constituents
such as lactose, soluble salt etc. which lower or depress the freezing point.
6. Refractive Index: The refractive index of milk is sometimes used to indicate
adulteration, especially watering. It is the refractive index of solvent plus the indices of
the solutes. The RI of the milk ranges from 1.3440 to 1.3485. The freezing point
determination is more reliable than RI for detecting added water. It can be used to
estimate total solids.
7. Electrical Conductivity: In a pure solution, the conductivity is a function of
concentration. It increases with increase in temperature. The average values at 300C a
milli-mhos per centimeter, 3.67 for buffalo milk and 4.67 for cow milk.
8. Specific heat: The specific heat of milk usually ranges between 0.920 and 0.930. It
changes with change in temperature. Milk has highest specific heat, 0.938 at 15°C.
9. Coefficient of thermal expansion: Milk expands when heated and contracts when
Cooled, the ratio of increase in volume per ° of increase in temperature is known
"coefficient of expansion".
10. Viscosity: The viscosity of a substance refers to its resistance to flow. The viscosity of.
heterogeneous substance such as milk at given temperature depends upon its
composition and the physical state of its colloidally dispersed substances, including milk
fat, The viscosity decrease with increase in temperature, that is, it has a negative
temperature coefficient. At normal temperature, viscosity of milk varies from 1.5 to 2

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centipoises (m pas). The viscosity of milk is always higher than the viscosity of water. This
is due to the pressure of dissolved solids in the milk. Homogenization increases the
viscosity of milk viscosity of milk is important in determining:
(a) The rate of creaming,
(b) Rates of mass and heat transfer,
(c) The flow conditions in dairy processes.
11. Surface Tension: The surface tension of milk at 20°C is 54.5 dynes/cm. It decreases as
the temperature is raised, at 60°C it is about 40 to 50 (dynes/cm). The presence of fat
lowers surface tension, whole milk has a slightly lower surface tension than skim milk and
that of cream is still lower. Milk and cream on again undergo a slight decrease a surface
tension. Surface tension of milk varies with temperature and total solids. Development of
acidity and churning lower the surface tension of milk.

C. Germicidal Property of Milk

Fresh milk exhibits quality to retard the growth of microorganisms of milk. This property
milk last on heating the milk. The germicidal effect is conducted by lactenin work against
organism. This property varies with the milk of different animals and also with the milk of
same animal at different times.

❖ COLLECTION OF MILK
Milk may be supplied to the dairy in milk cans (churns) or by a tanker,
after it has been stored at cold temperature. During transport, milk in cans usually has a
temperature of >10°C, but may vary between 0 and 40°C according to the climate.
Consequently, bacterial growth often occurs between milking and the milk's arrival at the
dairy, as this may take as long as a day. Spoilage of the milk is mainly by mesophilic
bacteria and usually involves lactic acid fermentation; heavy contamination with polluted
water (mainly pseudomonads) may cause a non-souring spoilage. On reception at the
dairy plant, milk is cooled to < 6°C, which helps to more or less stabilize its bacteriological
quality for at most 2 days.
On reception, the quantity of milk is recorded first. At the dairy, milk in cans is weighed
by a platform balance. The quantity of tank milk is determined by metering the intake line
of the milk tanker. Milk volume is then converted to weight. It is advisable that the
reception of milk in cans at the dairy occur as soon as possible after milking. This implies
twice-a-day milk collection. Often this is not practical, and the evening milking is cooled
by mains or well water. Once a-day collection may, however, seriously impair the milk
quality in cans. Tank milk should be refrigerated to <4° C. After 4 or 5 days storage,
substantial growth of psychrotrophs (cold-tolerant bacteria) may occur. Consequently,
tank milk can normally be kept on the farm for 3 days.

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❖ COOLING OF MILK
A food is generally cooled or frozen to retard spoilage. Fresh milk is routinely cooled to
about 5°C in many regions of the world. For liquid milk products cooling may extend the
shelf life by days or weeks. Cooling of milk is also applied for specific purposes, such as
inducing fat crystallization or enhancing the creaming tendency. Freezing is mostly done
to make a specific product, such as ice cream, and occasionally as a concentration process.
Freezing is sometimes used to substantially retard deterioration of fresh milk or liquid
milk products. Cooling of milk causes several changes, the most important ones are:

a) The growth of most microorganisms is much slower, if not stopped, and so are the
changes induced in milk by their metabolism.
b) Nearly all chemical and enzymic reactions are retarded.
c) Autoxidation of lipids, whether induced by light or Cu?", is enhanced, presumably
because the activity of the enzyme superoxide dismutase is decreased.
d) Changes in solubility and association of salts occur. The amount of micellar calcium
phosphate decreases and the pH increases.
e) The casein micelles attain a higher voluminosity and part of the casein, especially a-
casein, goes into solution. This results in an increased viscosity and an enhanced
susceptibility to attack by plasmin.
f) The fat globule membrane loses some components, and its structure is altered.
These changes are irreversible.
g) Cold agglutination (clumbing of particles) of fat globules occurs, e.g., enhancing
creaming rate.
h) The triglycerides in the fat globules will partly crystallize.

Cooling of packaged products can also take a long time, especially if it

involves viscous products. For the most part, air cooling is used. It is better to package
the product after cooling, if possible.

❖ PASTEURIZATION OF MILK
"Pasteurization of milk is a heat treatment process in which to
partially kill the microorganisms or harmful pathogens present in milk at predetermined
time and temperature"
The pasteurization is the heating of every particle of milk or milk product to at
least 63°C and holding at such temperature continuously at least 30 min or heating it to
at least 71.5°C and holding at such temperature continuously for at least 15 sec or an
approved temperature time combination that will serve to give a negative phosphatase
test. The time and temperature treatment used in pasteurization depends upon.

• The heat resistance of the particular vegetative or pathogenic microorganisms.

• The sensitive of product quality to heat.

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▪ Main objectives of pasteurization
• To make milk safe for human consumption
• To increase the keeping quality of milk

Normally, milk develops acidity which causes spoilage of milk

within 4-5 h of milking. In order to improve the shelf life of this milk, it is necessary that
the milk is properly pasteurize. Heating process destroys most of the organisms and the
growth of those microorganisms which survive heat treatment is retarded due to proper
cooling. When the milk is properly pasteurized and the bacterial load is controlled for
nearly 48-50 hr.

▪ Disadvantages
1. The nutritive value of milk is to some extent adversely affected.
2. It affects the cream line.
3. Adversely affects clotting of milk with rennet.
4. Increase the cost of milk due to processing changes
5. This process does not destroy bacterial toxins in milk
6. The process masks inferior quality milk

❖ Time-temperature combination: The temperature-time for pasteurization process is

principally based on the thermal death point of the pathogenic organisms particularly.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the most heat resistant
pathogenic organisms which might be present will be destroyed. The phosphatase
enzyme requires slightly higher temperature time treatment for its inactivation than the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis does for its destruction. The temperature time combination
should therefore be slightly higher than required for inactivation of phosphatase
enzyme. The various temperature time combinations for pasteurization process as
effective against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and phosphatase enzymes are as below:

Operation Name Temperature Time

Low temperature longtime (LTLT) 62.8°C or 63° 30 min
Higher temperature short time (HTST) 71.17°C or 72°C 15 sec
Ultra-high temperature (UHT) 89°C 1 sec
90°C 0.5 sec
94°C 0.1 sec
95°C 0.05 sec
100°C 0.001 sec

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❖ METHODS OF PASTEURIZATION

1.In Bottle Pasteurization

Raw milk is filled in glass milk bottles which are tightly seal with special caps. These
bottles are subjected to heat treatment ranging from 63-66°C for a period of 30 min.
Later on, they are passed through a spray of cold water which cools the milk to 5-T.

▪ Demerits
(a) More chances of bottles breakage
(b) Heat transfer during heating as well as cooling is very low.
(c) Special caps/machines are required
(d) Oversized bottles, are required to allow expansion of milk during heating.

2. Batch Pasteurization
This method is also called vat pasteurization, holding method or low temperature
longtime (LTLT) pasteurization method. In this, milk is heated to 63°C for 30 min.
immediately after heating milk is cooled to 4-5°C. The process of heating as well as cooling
maybe done in the same vat. During heat transfer milk is agitated mechanically. The vat
pasteurizer consists agitator and thermometer with the provision of hot water and chilled
water inlets and outlets.

▪ Advantages
• Suitable for small operation
• Does not involve sophisticated equipment
• Process is simple
• Technically trained person not required
• No milk is lost during pasteurization process

▪ Disadvantages
• Time taken for pasteurization is too long.
• There are no automatic controls to check the operation
• The growth of thermophilic organisms is encouraged
• Involves cleaning of vat after pasteurization of each lot
• In-place-cleaning is not convenient
• Operating cost per liter of milk handled is more
• Can’t handle large quantity of milk

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3. High Temperature Short Time (HTST) Pasteurization

Process involves heating of milk to 71.5°C. This process of pasteurization of milk is most
commonly practiced in modern dairies particularly where large volume of milk is handled.
This process is also called continuous process or plate pasteurization process. In this
process, milk is pumped either from the dump tank or from the storage tank to float
control tank from where it is pumped to the pasteurizer.
Pasteurizer has four different sections through which milk passes during pasteurization.
First of all, milk enters into the regeneration section where its Temperature is raised to
about 45°C by out -going heated milk on the other side of the plates and then it goes
either to filters or clarifier as the case may be for removal of extraneous materials if
present. Then milk comes to the heating section where the temperature of milk is raised
to at least 71.5°C by hot water or intermittent steam and this hot milk enters in the
holding section or the pasteurizer. At the end of the holding section, a flow diversion valve
(FDV) is fixed to control Proper heating and holding and milk passes through the valve.
FDV automatically checks the flow of milk; if it has not been properly heated to the
required temperature then FDV diverts the milk to the flow control tank and milk comes
to the regeneration and follows the same path again.
In case milk has been properly pasteurized then through the FDV milks enters the
regeneration section where its heats the incoming raw milk and its temperature is
reduced (partial cooling) and finally this process of the cooling section where it is cooled
about 4°C-5°C. Thus, the milk is pasteurized and it is now ready for packing, storage or
conversion into other products.

▪ Advantages
1.Large volume of milk can be pasteurized without interruption.
2.Milk is readily available for packing or further processing, once the operation has
started, milk can be filled in bottles or sachets within 15 min.
3. Less flour space is required because this equipment is compact with increasing or
decreasing the plates.
4 Heating, holding and cooling are done in the same unit
5 Provides economy of operation because of regeneration

▪ Disadvantages
1.Initial cost is higher
2.Requires an experienced and technical operator
3.Some milk is lost in the pipe lines which gets dilated due to flushings
4.Gaskets used in pasteurizer (HTST) are damaged and require replacement more
frequently.
5.Due to higher heating temperature more chilled water is required for cooling of milk
which in turn increases the cost of refrigeration.
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4.Vacuum Pasteurization
This process of pasteurization is also called vacreation. The advantages of pasteurizing
milk by this process is to remove off flavor from milk as well as from cream. Machine used
for New Zealand by M/s Murray Deodorizers Ltd.
The principal of vacuum pasteurization is mixing milk with pressure steam
and immediately followed by sudden and spontaneous expansion into a finely divided
state with a chamber maintained at reduced pressure. This effects separation of off-
flavors along with water vapour (which acts as a carrier) state to the expansion state.
transition from a compression state to the expansion state. At the same time
instantaneous cooling effect upon the product is an important factor in preserving the
desirable characteristics of the product, even when high temperature is adopted.
Vaporization removes the off-flavors effectively.
Vacreator is an equipment generally used for vacuum treatment of milk or
cream. Due to time lapse between the production stage in the farm and processing in
dairy plant, the cream quality deteriorates and pasteurization in vat or HTST unit is not
found satisfactory. This led to the adoption of processing the aged, sour cream under
vacuum condition.

5.Flash Pasteurization
This process is similar to HTST but in this method temperature of milk is raised to 80°C for
practically no holding period. This process destroys all the pathogens organisms that
might be present in milk and makes it safe for human consumption. The major advantages
of this process are:

(i) The reduction in nutritive value of milk due to heat treatment is less in this
process than other methods.
(ii) Time taken for pasteurization is less as compared to other methods of
Pasteurization.

6.Ultra-High Temperature Pasteurization (UHT Process)

In the UHT process, milk is heated either by direct steam injection, swept surface, heat
exchanger or turbulent heat exchanger. Milk is heated to about 135-150°C for practically
no holding time fraction of a second). Heating of milk is usually done in two stages. The
second stage is being UHT process under pressure etc. Milk is aseptically packed while it
is still hot. Milk pasteurization by UHT process has additional advantages such as
maintaining the nutritive value, color and flavor similar to that raw milk.

❖ Effect of Pasteurization on Nutritive Value of Milk

Heating process destroys certain vitamins, reduces cream line and causes partial
precipitation of certain minerals. It has been found that in the holding method of
pasteurization, destruction of vitamin C between 5 to 10%. Cream line is reduced by 5-
A Special Book for Food Safety Officer Page 477
10%. Cream line refers to the amount of fat which has risen to the top of a bottle of milk.
Cream line is usually regarded as important criteria for judging the compositional quality
of milk. However, the advantages of pasteurization of milk are more important than the
slight reduction in the nutritive value of milk.

❖ STERILIZATION OF MILK
Sterilization is heat treatment in which to destroy the microorganism and harmful
pathogens completely from food material at specified time and temperature
combination. 121.1°C for 2-5 min.
▪ Concept: The term sterilization, when used in association with milk means heating
milk continuously to a temperature of 115°C for 15 min or 145°C for 3 sec. or equivalent
approved temperature time combination to ensure preservation at room temperature
for a period of not less than 15 days from the date of manufacture. Sterilized milk shall
show absence of albumin by a negative turbidity test. Sterilized milk shall be sold only
in the containers in which the milk was sterilized. Strictly speaking the term sterilization
means making it sterile. Any substance could be considered sterile when it is
completely free from living organism. If milk becomes sterile and there is no
subsequent contamination it should be understood that such milk can be kept for a
long period without having any change due to microbial activities. This concept of
making the milk sterile may be practically possible because such milk may not be
suitable for human consumption. Therefore, commercial sterilized milk will always
have limited shelf life. The basic requirement for sterilized milk should therefore be
free from spoilage type of microorganisms and fairly acceptable flavor and color. In
order to achieve both the above objectives prevention of Food Adulteration Act has
prescribed a minimum of 15 days keeping quality at room temperature.

❖ METHODS OF PRODUCING STERILIZED MILK

There are different methods of producing sterilized,
(i) In bottle sterilization
(ii) Ultra-high temperature short time (UHT ST) process
(iii) Sterilization by the two stage methods.

(i) In Bottle Sterilization

The flow diagram of manufacture includes receiving milk, cooking to 115°C and bulk
storage preheating (38-40°C) filtration /clarification, cooling to 50°C standardization and
storage (5°C), preheating (60°C), Homogenization, clarification, filling and capping (In
cleaned and sanitized bottles) sterilizing (108-111°C 125-30 min) cooling milk is heated
(room temperature) storage (room temperature). In this process the milk is heated in a
bottle by system at a temperature between 110-120°C the temperature of milk rises
slowly due to slow heat transfer especially when the bottles are not agitated in the
sterilizers. The glass milk bottles used for preparation of sterilized milk do not with stand

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 sudden and extreme temperature change. It is advisable to sterilize milk by a time
temperature combination in which the temperature is low and time is long. This process
causes changes in flavor as well as color of milk. Milk normally develops strong cooked or
burnt flavor and brownish color which is not linked by the consumers.

(ii) Sterilization by UHTST Method

In this method milk in heated to 135-150°C for a few seconds. The holding period may
range from 1-20 seconds. The process of sterilization is generally carried out in a plate or
a tubular heat exchanger. This process of sterilization has been found to be most effective
in destroying the heat resistant spores such as bacillus subtilis spores. Due to higher
temperature treatment the color of milk is not impaired whereas it acquires cooked or
burnt flavors. After heat treatment milk should be filled in containers aseptically. The
keeping quality of the product is fairly long provided proper precautions are taken during
filling or packing.

(iii) Sterilization by two stage process:

In this process the milk is sterilized in two stages. Milk is first treated by UHTST process
and then filled in bottles which are further subjected to in bottle Sterilization process. The
process has been found to be most effective and the keeping quality of the product has
been found to fairly long. The best result can be obtained only if the inbottle treatment is
as mild as possible to avoid impairing the taste and color of milk.
The taste and color of the product prepared by this process is better
than those of milk sterilized, according to complete in bottle sterilization. The capacity of
the equipment for in bottle treatment is greater when used for two stage method than
the complete in bottle method. This method has greater reliability as compared with
complete in bottle treatment.

❖ TYPES OF STERILIZERS
Generally two types of sterilizers are in use. They are the batch type and the continuous
type:

1. BATCH TYPE
batch type sterilizer is either an autoclave or steam cabinet. In the simplest type of
sterilizers the bottles are not agitated, as a rule treatment is carried out by steam and
temperature of milk increase slowly. The process involves heating of milk at relatively
low temperature which greatly impairs the color and taste of the product. The batch
sterilizers may be rotary or stationary; rectangular, horizontal, bailer shaped with
provision of steam inlet and condensate outlet fitted with clampdown covers into which
steam is adjusted for the required temperature and time for sterilization. The capacity of
batch sterilizer is generally small and the process is considered suitable for a small scale
operation.

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▪ Advantages of Batch sterilizers:
(1) The operation of batch sterilizers is simple,
(2) Initial capital investment is less.
(3) Recurring expenditure is less, and
(4) Floor space required is less.

Disadvantages of Batch Sterilizers:

(1) The quality of sterilized milk is generally inferior. The color of milk is decidedly
brownish and has pronounced cooked flavor
(2) The process is time consuming, and
(3) Suited only for small scale operation.

2. CONTINUOUS STERILIZERS
Continuous sterilizers are most for suited for large scale operation. There is variation in
the capacity of different plants ranging from 500 bottles of one 1 per h to about 6000
bottle per h. The continuous sterilizers may operate with steam or hot air.
After filling (providing enough head space for expansion) and crown corking the hot milk
bottle are transferred to the conveyor system of the sterilizer. Then vertical sterilizer is
an insulate lower with 3 or 4 internal chambers for pre-heating sterilizing and stepwise
cooling. The conveyor in the vertical loop passes through the chambers having loaded
milk bottles which are in horizontal position. In the upward movement, milk bottles which
are in horizontal position. In the upward movement, milk gets heated by vapour as it
reaches the top of the chambers. When it travels in the downwards direction, milk gets
heated to around 80°C at the top and 90°C at the bottom thorough water heated by steam
pressure from the second chamber. The bottles then move up in the first cooling chamber
containing water and by time they come down the temperature may be around 55°C. The
bottles are then cooled by a spray of water to around 35°C. The bottles are then come
back through the conveyor to the unloading platform.

❖ HOMOGENIZATION OF MILK
Homogenization refers to the process of forcing the milk through a homogenizer with the
object of subdividing the fat globules.
Homogenization offers a permanent emulsification because as the surfaces of many new
fat globules are formed, each fat globule becomes coated with a part of the lipoprotein
membrane and additional proteins from casein and whey. Thus, these proteins adsorb
onto the freshly created oil surface, preventing globules from reuniting or coalescing, and
the fat remains homogeneously distributed throughout milk. Milk may be homogenized
prior to or subsequent to pasteurization. The homogenization process is completed at a
fast rate to ensure the control of bacteria and loss of quality.

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Some characteristics of homogenized milk include the following:
• No creaming or separation of cream to the top of the container.
• Whiter milk due to a finer dispersions of fat. There is an increase in the absorption and
reflection of light due to the smaller fat particles.
• More viscous and creamy milk due to a greater number of fat particles.
• More blend due to smaller fat particles.
• Decreased fat stability as fat globule membranes are broken.
• Less stable to light and may exhibit light-induced favor deterioration by sunlight or
fluorescent light. Thus, paperboard cartons and clouded plastic bottles are used for milk.

Sequence of various processes involved in production of homogenized milk. The

possible sequences are:

1 Clarification, pre-heating, homogenization, pasteurization, cooling.

2 Clarification, pre-heating, pasteurization, homogenization, cooling.
3 Pre-heating, homogenization, clarification, pasteurization, cooling.
(for Indian condition)
4 Pre-heating, clarification, homogenization, pasteurization, cooling.
5 Pre-heating, clarification, homogenization, pasteurization, cooling.

❖ DIFFERENT TYPE OF MILK

i.STANDARDIZED MILK
The milk whose fat and /or solid non-fat content have been adjusted to a certain
predetermined level. The standardization on can be done by partially skimming the fat
in the milk with a cream separator, or by admixture with fresh or reconstituted skim
milk in the proper proportions. Under the PFA Rules (1976), the standardized milk or
liquid consumption should contain a minimum of 4.5 percent fat and 8.5 percent solid
non-fat throughout the country. The initial reaction of the consumer may be that the
standardized milk is 'thinner' than whole milk.

ii.TONED MILK
Toned milk (also called single toned milk) refers to milk obtained by addition of water
and skim milk powder to whole milk and increase the quantity of availability milk and
tone up the nonfat solids level to the original amount. It should contain minimum milk
fat 3% and minimum milk SNF of 8.5%. In practice, whole buffalo milk is admixed with
reconstituted spray dried skim milk for its preparation. Toned milk is the brainchild of
D.N. Khurody (India) in 1946 in the Central dairy of Aarey milk colony and marketed in
Mumbai city. Under PFA Rules.

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 iii. DOUBLE TONED MILK
Same as toned milk except that the PFA Rules (1976), double toned milk should contain
a minimum of 1.5 percent fat and 9.0 percent solid non-fat throughout India.
Manufactured same as toned milk.

iv. RECONSTITUTED /REHYDRATED MILK

This refers to milk by dispersing whole milk powder (also called dried whole milk) in
water approximately in the proportion of 1part powder to 7-8 part water. (Usually spray
dried powder is used. since it is more soluble and produces less sediments.

V.RECOMBINED MILK
This refers to the product obtained when butter oil (also called dry/anhydrous milk fat),
skim milk powder and water are combined in the correct proportions to yield fluid milk.
The milk fat may also be obtained from other sources, such as unsalted butter or plastic
cream. Under the PFA rules (1976), recombined milk should contain a minimum of 3.0
percent fat and 8.5 percent solid non-fat throughout the country.

VI.FLAVORED MILK
Flavored milks are milks to which some flavors have been added. When the 'milk' is used,
the product should contain a milk fat percentage at least equal to the minimum legal
requirement for market milk. But when the fat level is lower (1-2 percent), the term
'drink' is used. In this case, milk is to make more palatable to those who do not relish it
as such; to stimulate the sale of milk, and put skim milk to profitable use. The main types
of flavored milk are-
(i) chocolate milk/drinks.
(ii) fruit flavored milk/drinks, and
(iii) sterilized flavored milk/drinks.
Flavored milk is subjected to heat treatment as prescribed in sub-regulation 2.1.1.
(General standards for milk and milk products of FSSA).

VII.ACIDOPHILUS MILK
Acidophilus milk is produced by fermentation of milk by Lactobacillus acidophilus. This
product possesses therapeutic value. Its therapeutic properties are attributed to the
ability of the organisms to become transplanted in the intestinal tracts. Lactobacillus
acidophilus is a slow and to get a reasonably fast growth rate it is customary to ultra-heat
milk (98°C for 30 min or 145°C for 2-3 sec) before incubation. Continued incubation may
result in 1% or more acidity. Acidophilus milk should be cooled to 5°C immediately. Fresh
acidophilus milk contains in excess of 500 million cells/ml, although the viable count
decreases rapidly with storage.

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VIII.KOUMISS
Koumiss is similar to kefir except that mare's milk is used in its manufacture. Russians use
koumiss for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in doses of 1.4 litre per day for 2
months. The product is alcoholic and produces slight intoxication. The alcoholic content
of koumiss may vary from to 2.5 % depending upon whether the product is of the weak
or strong type. Corresponding to the alcoholic content, the titrable acidity varies from 0.7
to 1.8 % lactic acid. Mare's milk is low in casein content and does not curdle like cow's
milk. Accordingly, koumiss is a grayish white wholesome drink.
The starter for koumiss consists of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
lactose fermenting yeast, Torulopsis holmii. Lactic acid, ethanol and carbon dioxide are
the major products giving koumiss a sour alcoholic flavor and fizzy appearance. In view of
the production of CO, in the product, appreciably pressure is developed in the capped
bottles.

IX.CULTURED BUTTER MILK

Cultured butter milk is produced from pasteurized skim milk or part skim milk cultured
with lactic and aroma producing organism. Streptococcus lactis and/or Streptococcus
cremoris, S. lactis subsp diacelylactis and Leuconostoc cremoris are frequent cultures. The
term butter milk is also used for a phospholipid rich fluid fraction obtained as a by-product
during the churning of cream in butter manufacturing. Cultured butter milk is viscous
cultured, fluid milk, containing characteristics pleasing aroma and flavor.
The processes used in the manufacture of cultured butter milk include
pasteurization, homogenization and culturing system. The ingredients are skim milk, low
fat milk. cream. Condensed skim milk, non-fat dry milk, cultured and salt. The addition of
0.20-0.25 % sodium citrate to milk provides a precursor to enhance flavor production by
culture. Milk fat level ranges from 0.5 to 1.8 %.
The standard also requires a minimum titrable acidity of 0.5 % calculated as lactic acid.
Cultured milk shall be obtained from milk containing not less than 2.0% milk fat. For
standardizing the milk solid non-fat level to 8.25 %, butter granules or flakes may be
added to butter milk either by churning 18-20 % fat cream or by spraying melted butter
oil on chilled butter milk. Under refrigeration, the keeping quality of cultured butter milk
is extended to 3-4 weeks.

❖ OTHER MILK PRODUCTS

I.Cream: Cream is known as the fatty layer that rises to the top of milk. Cream is sold in
many varieties. The fat content may range from 10% (half-and half) to 48% (double
cream). Although used for several purposes, it is primarily something of a luxury and,
therefore, an excellent flavor is of paramount importance. Because of the high fat
content, any off-flavor of the fat becomes concentrated. For instance, milk with a fat
acidity of 1 mmol per 100 g fat will not be perceived to have a soapy, rancid flavor by most

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people, but a whipping cream made from it will definitely taste rancid. Therefore, the milk
should be impeccable with regard to lipolysis and fat oxidation. Sometimes anhydrous
milk fat is used in cream products and recombination is applied. Such a fat may have an
oxidation flavor, and even if impeccable in this respect, the taste of the product may be
somewhat less rich because of the absence of components from the milk-fat-globule
membrane.

II.Butter: Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion, wherein milkfat forms the continuous phase.
This 15 in contrast to cream, which is an emulsion of milkfat globules suspended in an
aqueous phase. Thus, an emulsion phase inversion occurs during manufacture of butter.
This happens in churning of cream, as a result, milk fat is concentrated in the product.
Butter contains 80% milkfat (typically 80- 81%). 17% moisture, 1% carbohydrates and
protein, and 1.2-1.5% sodium chloride (with no salt, Milk fat increases to 82-83%). The pH
of sweet cream butter (unfermented) is about 6.4-6.5. Many countries allow sodium
chloride and lactic cultures as the only non-milk additives in butter (Milner 1995). Some
countries allow neutralization of cream and addition of natural coloring agents to adjust
for seasonal variation in colorant in the cream (e.g., carotene, and turmeric).
There are two kinds of butter, sweet cream, which may or may not be salted, and ripened-
cream butter. In ripened cream butter, citrate in cream is fermented by certain lactic acid
bacteria to produce acetoin and diacetyl; the latter imparts a characteristic flavor to the
product.
Ripened-cream butters are more popular in Europe, whereas unripe or
sweet-cream butter is preferred in the United States, Ireland, England, Australia, and New
Zealand. When whey produced during cheese making is passed through a separator, the
result is whey cream. Whey cream is processed into butter, usually as a blend with sweet
cream. Butter from a _20% whey cream and sweet cream blend may be indistinguishable
from that made from 100% sweet cream. Butter is also manufactured from neutralized or
non-neutralized whey cream, usually as a blend with sweet cream.
Thus, butter manufacture involves partial or complete separation of
cream from raw milk, pasteurization, possible fermentation by added lactic acid bacteria
(when ripened-cream butter is manufactured), churning, working, salting. packaging,
storage, and perhaps later repackaging. The skimming is mainly done for economical
reasons:

1. Reduction of fat loss (e.g. the fat content of buttermilk is 0.4% and that of skim milk is
0.05%; this means that removal of 1 kg of skim milk from the liquid to be churned will
result in an additional yield of about 4 g of butter).
2. Reduction of the size of the machinery (especially the churn)
3. Reduction of the volume of buttermilk. Hence, a high fat content of the cream (e.g.,
40%) has advantage, also because it counteracts development of off-flavors.
If a continuous butter-making machine is used, the fat content of the cream is often taken
even higher, for example, up to 50%.
A Special Book for Food Safety Officer Page 484
 Pasteurization serves to kill microorganisms, inactivate enzymes, make
the cream a better substrate for the starter bacteria, and render the butter more resistant
to oxidative deterioration. Over intense heating causes a cooked or gassy flavor.
Sometimes the cream is pasteurized in a vacreator, which involves the hot cream being
put under vacuum to cool, due to which some compounds causing off flavors are
removed.
The starter should produce lactic acid and "aroma' (i.e., primarily diacetyl).
Moreover, the starter should not be strongly reducing, because this causes loss of diacetyl
(by reduction to acetoin and 2,3- butanediol). Use is made of a mesophilic mixed-strain
starter culture, containing the acid producers Lactococcus lactis sspp. lactis and cremoris;
and the aroma producers Leuconastoc mesenteroides Ssp. cremoris and Lactococcus lactis
ssp. lactis biovar. diacetylactis. Moreover, a careful selection of strains is needed, with
respect to the reducing capacity of the starter, and the formation of acetaldehyde by the
diacetylactis strains, because too much of it causes a yogurt-like flavor. The starter is
usually Cultured from a frozen concentrate. The inoculum percentage is high because the
bacteria have to grow at a sub-optimal temperature.
The purpose of ripening is to sour the cream and to crystallize fat.
Without solid fat, churning is impossible, and too little solid fat goes along with excessive
fat loss in the buttermilk. The method of cooling (temperature sequence) affects the
butter consistency.
The churning is in most cases achieved by beating in of air It can be done
in a churn, mostly consisting of a large vessel (tub, cylinder, cube, or double-ended cone)
with so-called dashboards, which is partly (at most half) filled with cream, and which is
rotated at several revolutions per minute (rpm.). The churning then takes, say, 20 min.
There are also churns with a rotary agitator (for example, 20 rpm). The churning should
proceed rapidly and completely (low fat content in the buttermilk), and the formed butter
grains should have the correct firmness to allow for efficient working. The size of the
butter grains can be varied by continuing the churning for various lengths of time after
grains have formed. Very fine butter grains (on the order of 1 mm) are hard to separate
from the buttermilk especially in continuous machines. If the butter grains are not too
large, their firmness can to some extent be affected by washin8 that is, via the wash-water
temperature. The washing consists of mixing the butter grains with cold water, after
which the water again is drained off. This reduces the dry-matter content of the butter
moisture. Formerly, washing was done to improve the keeping quality of the butter, but
nowadays it is only done to control the temperature, if needed.
The working (kneading) is done by,
(1) to transform the butter grains into a continuous mass
(2) to finely disperse the moisture in the butter;
(3) to regulate the water content; and
(4) if desired, to incorporate salt. Working consists of deforming the butter. This can, for
instance, be achieved by squeezing the butter through rollers, by allowing it to fall from a

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height, or by squeezing the butter through perforated plates (in the continuous
machines).
III. BUTTER OIL/GHEE
Conversion of butter or cream into Butter oil/ghee is a convenient method for the
preservation of fat in the absence of refrigerated storage. Ghee, also called desi
(indigenous) ghee, is the most widely used milk product in the Indian subcontinent.
Beginning from almost Vedic times (3000 to 2000 BC), there is ample recorded evidence
to show that makkhan (indigenous butter) and ghee were extensively used by the early
inhabitants of India both in their dietary and religious practices Codex Alimentarius
(FAO/WHO, 1997, 2006) defined ghee as a product exclusively obtained from milk, cream
or butter by means of processes, which result in almost total removal of water and non-
fat solids, with an especially developed flavor and physical structure. Since ghee is
primarily distinguished from butte roil by its flavor characteristics. the definition proposed
by Codex Alimentarius (FAO/ WHO, 1997, 2006) describes the product more closely.
However, considering ghee as a product in its own right, it can more appropriately be
defined as a pure clarified fat exclusively obtained from milk, cream or butter, by means
of processes involving application of heat at atmospheric pressure, which result in the
almost total removal of moisture and SNF and which gives the product a characteristic
flavor and physical structure and texture.
A major portion of ghee is utilized for culinary purposes, for example, as a
dressing for various foods and for cooking and frying of different foods. h is considered as
the supreme cooking or frying medium. In the Indian context, ghee is a product of the
sacred cow, "born of fire', and hence pure and confers purity to other foods when used
in making them. Almost the entire range of Indian sweets, prepared with admixtures of
milk, cereals, fruits, vegetables and nuts, are preferably cooked using ghee as the
medium. Ghee is one of the four basic elements in the Indian cooking. Sweets and meals
cooked in ghee enjoy special status and are recognized for their distinguished flavor
attributes derived from ghee. Meals for special occasions are cooked in ghee. Butter
oil/ghee contains butter fat (99.5 to 99.8%), moisture (0.1 to 0.3%), acidity (0.2 to 0.5 %
as oleic acid) and peroxide value (0.0 to 0.1%).

IV.CHEESE
Over 400 different varieties of cheese have been recognized throughout the world. The
wide diversity in the flavor, texture, and appearance of these cheeses is attributed to
differences in the milk Source, starter cultures, ripening conditions, and chemical
composition. Cheeses are frequently classified based on moisture content, method of
precipitation of the cheese proteins, and the ripening process. he coagulation of the
casein proteins, separation of the curds from the whey, and ripening of the Curd are the
primary steps involved in the processing of cheese. The resulting product is a highly
nutritious product in which the casein and fat from the milk are concentrated. The fat
plays a critical role in the texture of the cheese by preventing the casein molecules from

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associating to form a tough structure. In general, most cheeses can be classified as natural
or processed cheeses. The natural cheeses include ripened or unripened cheeses.

V.YOGHURT
Generally, the definition of yogurt requires that it is a milk product that is fermented by
the action of both Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. The milk fat
content of yogurt is regulated by the CFR with definitions for yogurt, low fat yogurt, and
nonfat yogurt.

The basic steps required for manufacture of yogurt include:

1. Raw ingredient receiving and quality inspection
2. Milk standardization
3. Culture handling
4. Yogurt mix blending
5. Mix homogenization and pasteurization
6. Inoculation, fermentation, and cooling
7. Fruit, flavor, and/or color addition
8. Packaging and storage
The general goal of yogurt production is to create a semisolid, long shelf-
life food from perishable, fluid milk. Development and retention of the appropriate
texture is critical to good yogurt quality. Yogurt mix preparation (particularly heat
treatment and fortification), fermentation conditions (particularly culture type), and post-
fermentation handling all have a great impact on product texture. The milk is initially
standardized to the desired fat (0.5-3.5% fat) and milk solids-not-fat (12.5%) contents.
The increase in the protein content is most commonly achieved through the addition of
nonfat milk powder and improves the body and decreases syneresis of the final product.
The denaturation of the whey proteins and subsequent interactions between the whey
proteins and casein and/or fat globules improves the stability of the gel and increases
water-binding capacity of the caseins to decrease syneresis. Following heat treatment,
the milk is cooled to 43-45°C for inoculation of the starter cultures. The fast acid-
producing thermophilic lactic acid bacteria, Streptococcus salivarius ssp. Thermophilus
and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus are the primary microorganisms used in the
production of yogurt. These bacteria have a synergistic effect on each-others' growth and
should be present in approximately equal numbers for optimal flavor development. Lb.
delbruecki ssp. bulgaricus has important protease activity and hydrolyzes the milk
proteins to small peptides and amino acids.
Two types of yogurt, set-style and stirred-style are produced. Set-style
yogurt is fermented following packaging, with color and. flavors added to the container
prior to the addition of the inoculated milk, resulting in a gel that forms a firm, unbroken
coagulum. Stirred-style yogurt is fermented in vat prior to packaging, with the gel
structure broken following fermentation during the addition of flavors and colors, cooling

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and packaging stage. For both types of yogurt, either a short incubation period at 40-45°C
for 21/2-3 hours or a long incubation period at 30°C for 16-18 hours may be used to attain
a pH of 4.5 or titratable acidity of 0.9% lactic acid prior to cooling, The metabolism of the
yogurt cultures contributes to the characteristic flavor of yogurt. Both bacteria are hetero
fermentative and produce lactic acid from glucose, yet are unable to metabolize
galactose. Acetaldehyde, a key flavor component of yogurt described as having a fruity
aroma, is produced by the degradation of threonine to acetaldehyde and glycine by the
enzyme threonine aldolase. Although S. thermophilus forms a majority of the
acetaldehyde produced, the proteolytic activity of Lb. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus
generates the precursors for the formation of acetaldehyde.

VI.CURD (DAHI)
It is the major product obtained from milk in India. Milk is fermented by Lactobacillus and
streptococcus bacteria which convert the lactose in milk to lactic acid responsible for sour
taste of curd. The difference in the flavor of the curds is believed to be due to
microorganisms involved in fermentation. The preparation of curd is a way of preserving
milk. The growth of acid forming bacteria prevents the growth of other microorganisms
which cause milk to spoil. During curd formation, the lactose of milk is converted into
lactic acid. There is some breakdown of protein increasing the non-protein nitrogen. The
fat globules coagulate and distribute themselves on the top physically during curd
formation. Milk proteins are jellied and thin exudates of clear serum on the curd is seen.

VII.ICE CREAM
The Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR135.110) specifies both compositional and
manufacturing requirements for a product to be called ice cream. The compositional
requirements state that the product cannot contain less than 20% total milk solids
including 10% milk fat. No more than 25% of the nonfat milk solids can be derived from
whey, and caseinates may be used only after reaching the 20% milk solids minimum. Some
allowances are made for bulky flavors such as chocolate and certain fruit flavors, and the
requirements for milk solids level is reduced by 20%. The manufacturing requirements
defined in law are that the freezing should occur under agitation; the mix should be
pasteurized, may contain safe and suitable non-milk derived ingredients, may be
sweetened with safe and suitable sweeteners, and may be flavored.
The term ice cream" in its generic sense includes all whipped dairy products that are
manufactured by freezing and are consumed in the frozen state, including ice cream that
contains either dairy or non-dairy fats, premium (higher-fat) versions, "light" (lower-fat)
versions, ice milk, sherbet and frozen yogurt. Ice cream mix formulations specify the
content of fat, milk solids-not-fat, sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers and water that are
desired. Dairy and other ingredients used to supply these components are chosen on the
basis of availability, cost, legislation, and desired quality. Common ingredients include:
cream, butter or vegetable.

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VIII.EVAPORATED MILK
Evaporated milk is sterilized, concentrated, homogenized milk. The product can be kept
without refrigeration and has a long shelf life: it is completely safe for the user. After
dilution, flavor and nutritive value of the product are not greatly different from that of
fresh milk. A major problem with sterilization is the heat stability; the higher the
concentration of the milk, the lower its stability. That is why concentrating cannot be by
more than about 2.6 times, which corresponds to a level of about 22% solids-not-fat in
the evaporated milk. Currently, bottled evaporated milk is often used in coffee in certain
countries. It can be added while cold because a fairly small amount is involved as
compared to non-evaporated milk. After the bottle has been opened, the milk can be kept
in a refrigerator for up to 10 days because it initially contains no bacteria at all and
because contaminating bacteria grow somewhat more slowly owing to the reduced water
activity, which is about 0.98. Several variations are possible. Some process steps are
discussed in more detail in the following text.
Preheating serves to enhance the heat stability of the evaporated milk, inactivate
enzymes, and kill microorganisms, including a significant proportion of the bacterial
spores present. Currently, UHT treatment is generally preferred. It reduces the number
of spores in the milk considerably, and therefore a less intensive sterilization suffices.

IX.SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK

Sweetened condensed milk is milk that is concentrated by evaporation, to which sucrose
is added to form an almost saturated sugar solution, after which it is canned. The high
sugar concentration is primarily responsible for the keeping quality of the product and for
its fairly long shelf life, even after the can has been opened, although it then will
eventually become moldy. The product is somewhat glassy in appearance-because the fat
globules show little light scattering as the refractive index of the continuous phase is
almost equal to that of fat. The turbidity of the product is largely due to lactose crystals.
Most of the lactose crystallizes because of its supersaturation. The process steps are
briefly discussed in the following text-
Heating: Pathogens and potential spoilage organisms must be killed. Among the
enzymes, milk lipase should primarily be inactivated; bacterial lipases are not inactivated
and, if present, can cause severe rancidity. UHT heating at about 130 to 140°C is
commonly applied.
Homogenization: Creaming is often not a major problem, and therefore
homogenization is not always done. Currently, however, sweetened condensed milk is
made less viscous (and exhibits less thickening) than previously.
Addition of Sugar: This can simply be added to the original milk. The amount added
can be adjusted readily, and the sugar is pasteurized along with the milk. The sugar should
be refined and be devoid of invert sugar to prevent excessive Maillard reactions.
Concentration: This is usually done by evaporation. A falling-film evaporator is
generally used to remove the bulk of the water and a circulation evaporator to remove
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the remainder. Relatively high temperatures (up to 80°C) are often applied, which implies
a lower viscosity in the evaporator but a higher initial viscosity of the final cooled product.
The low water content of the sweetened condensed milk implies a high viscosity and
boiling point.
Cooling and seeding: In these steps, formation of large lactose crystals must be
avoided. Consequently, seed lactose is added. Before that, the condensed milk must be
cooled to a temperature at which lactose is supersaturated so that the seed lactose does
not dissolve.
Packaging: Packaging in cans is common. The cans are then covered with a lid and the
seams are sealed. Cans and lids are first sterilized, e.g., by flaming. The packaging room is
supplied with air purified through bacterial filters.

Sweetened condensed milk is not sterile. It contains living microbes and spores.
The low water activity (about 0.83) or, rather, the high sugar content prohibits growth of
most but not all microorganisms. Deterioration usually occurs by osmophilic yeasts, most
of which belong to the genus Torulopsis. The yeasts often cause gas formation (bulging
cans), a fruity flavor, and coagulation of protein. Some molds, especially strains of
Aspergilus repens and A. glaucus, can grow as long as oxygen is present. If so, fairly firm
colored lumps are formed and an off-flavor develops. One spore in one air bubble can
cause such a lump.
The main change in sweetened condensed milk during storage is presumably age
thickening and. finally, gelation. Sweetened condensed milk is far more concentrated
than evaporated milk. Nevertheless, it does not thicken markedly faster with age. It is
usually assumed that added sucrose inhibits age thickening, other sugars or hexitols have
a similar effect. A difference with evaporated milk is that an initial decrease in viscosity
before age thickening is not observed. The viscosity increases almost linearly with time.

❖ MILK POWDER
The main purpose of the manufacture of milk powder is to convert the liquid perishable
raw material to a product that can be stored without substantial loss of quality, preferably
for some years. Decrease in quality mainly concerns formation of gluey and tallowy flavors
(due to Maillard reactions and autoxidation, respectively) and decreasing nutritive value
(especially decrease in available lysine). If the water content becomes very high and the
storage temperature is high, caking (due to lactose crystallization) and enzymic and even
microbial deterioration can occur; however, such problems are avoidable.
After adding water powder should be reconstituted completely and readily to
a homogeneous mixture, similar in composition to the original product. Complete
reconstitution means that no undissolved pieces or flakes are left and that neither butter
grains nor oil droplets appear on top of the solution. 'Readily reconstituted' means that
during mixing of powder and water no lumps are formed, because these are hard to
dissolve. In the ideal situation the powder will disperse rapidly when scattered on cold

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water; this is called instant powder. Special processing steps are needed to achieve this
property. The importance of instant properties closely depends on the kind of application.
Many steps involved will be self-evident. Intense pasteurization is
needed to obtain resistance to autoxidation. The concentrate is not always homogenized,
especially if atomization is done by means of a nozzle, because the fat globules are
effectively disrupted in the nozzle. Homogenization of highly concentrated milk
considerably increases its viscosity (because the transfer of large casein micelles to the
fat globules gives the latter such an irregular shape as to increase the effective volume
fraction of fat globules plus casein micelles). This increase leads to coarser droplets during
atomization, with all drawbacks involved.
For the manufacture of skim milk powder the pasteurization can be less
intense (at least phosphatase negative), according to the intended application.
Homogenization is omitted, and the milk can be concentrated to a somewhat higher solids
content. Nor are lecithinizing and gas flushing carried out. Sometimes vitamin
preparations are added, especially vitamin A. This can be achieved by dry mixing
afterward, or by emulsifying a concentrated solution of vitamin A in oil into a part of the
skim milk.
The manufacture of whey powder is largely similar to that of skim milk powder. At first,
curd fines should be removed from the whey by filtration or by means of a hydrocyclone,
and the whey should be separated. A problem is the processing of sour whey, which
causes rapid fouling of the machinery. Sour whey (or skim milk) can be neutralized with
alkali.
Whey can be evaporated to at least 60% dry matter, but then crystallization of
lactose readily occurs. An alternative operation is to allow the lactose in the evaporated
whey to crystallize as completely as possible, e.g., by keeping it for 3 h at 25°C while
stirring. If the dry-matter content is over 60%, seeding with lactose crystals is not
necessary. Atomization should be with a disk, as a spray nozzle would become blocked.
The pre-crystallized whey powder then obtained has some attractive properties,
especially in regard to caking. An additional advantage for the manufacturer is the higher
yield: The conventional methods for determining the water content of powders do not
remove the bulk of the water of crystallization of a-lactose monohydrate; crystallization
of 80% of the lactose yields up to a maximum of 3% more whey powder. In this way pre-
crystallized skim milk powder also can be made, but then a longer crystallization time and
seeding with lactose crystals are needed.

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❖ CONCENTRATION
Concentration of the milk is usually done by evaporation. Standardization to a desired dry
matter content is of much concern. A higher concentration causes a lower yield and a
poorer heat stability. After concentrating, the manufacturing processes for in-bottle-
sterilized and UHT-sterilized evaporated milk differ.

❖ HOMOGENIZATION
Homogenization serves to prevent creaming and coalescence. It should not be too
intensive because the heat stability becomes too low stabilization. To ensure that the
evaporated, homogenized milk does not coagulate during sterilization and at the same
time does acquire a desirable viscosity, a series of sterilization tests is often done on small
quantities of the evaporated milk to which varying amounts of a stabilizing salt (for the
most part, Na2HPO4) are added. The stabilizing salt is added as an aqueous solution, which
dilutes the evaporated milk slightly. There for the milk is often concentrated somewhat
too far and is re-standardized to the correct dry-matter content during stabilization.

❖ PACKAGING
Packaging in cans is common, the tin plate of the cans is coated (provided with a
protective layer of a suitable polymer) to prevent iron and tin from dissolving in the
product. After filling, the cans may be closed by soldering, but mechanical sealing is
currently preferred. Evaporated milk intended for use in coffee is usually packaged in
bottles that are closed with a crown cork or a screw cap.

❖ STERILIZATION
Sterilization in-bottle or in-can sterilization can be applied batch-wise (in an autoclave) or
continuously. Machines that have rotary air locks (to maintain the pressure) may be
applied for cans and hydrostatic sterilizers for bottles. The sterilization is primarily aimed
at killing all bacterial spores reduction to, say, 10-3 spores/ml-and inactivating plasmin. If
the sterilizing effect is adequate for B. stearothermophilus, then B. subtilis, Clostridium
botulinum, and C. perfringens are also absent. UHT sterilization kills bacterial spores more
effectively than in-bottle sterilization.

❖ MANUFACTURING OF LACTOSE
Lactose is the principal carbohydrate in the milks of all mammals; non-mammalian
sources are very rare. Milk contains only trace amounts of other glucosamine,
galactosamine and neuraminic acid neutral and acidic oligosaccharides. The lactose
contents of cow’s milk varies with the breed of cow, individuality factors, udder infection
and especially stage of lactation. The concentration of lactose decreases progressively
and significantly during lactation. Lactose, along with sodium, potassium and chloride
ions, plays a major role in maintaining the osmotic pressure in the mammary system.

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 Thus, any increase or decrease in lactose content (a secreted constituent, i.e. formed
within the mammary gland) is compensated for by an increase or decrease in the soluble
salt (excreted) constituents. This osmotic relationship partly explains why certain milks
with high lactose content have low ash content and vice versa. Lactose plays an important
role in milk and milk products:

• it is an essential constituent in the production of fermented dairy products;

• it contributes to the nutritive value of milk and its products; however, many non-
Europeans have limited or zero ability to digest lactose in adulthood, leading to a
syndrome known as lactose intolerance;
• It affects the texture of certain concentrated and frozen products;
• It is involved in heat-induced changes in the color and flavor of highly heated milk
products.

❖ PRODUCTION OF LACTOSE
Production of lactose essentially involves concentrating whey or ultrafiltration permeate
by vacuum concentration, crystallization of lactose from the concentrate, recovery of the
crystals by centrifugation and drying of the crystals. The first-crop crystals are usually
contaminated with riboflavin and are therefore yellowish; a higher grade, and hence more
valuable, lactose is produced by re dissolving and recrystallizing the crude lactose. Lactose
may also be recovered by precipitation with Ca (OH) especially in the presence of ethanol,
methanol or acetone. Lactose has several applications in food products, the most
important of which is probably in the manufacture of humanized infant formulae.
It is used also as a diluent for the tableting of drugs in the pharmaceutical industry (which
requires high-quality, expensive lactose) and as the base for plastics. Among sugars,
lactose has a low level of sweetness, which is generally a disadvantage but is
advantageous in certain applications. When properly crystallized, lactose has low
hygroscopicity, which makes it an attractive sugar for use in icings for confectionary
products.

❖ Food Applications of Lactose are as follows,

• Humanized baby foods

• Instantizing free-flowing agent in foods
• Confectionery products
• Determineralized whey powder or lactose
• Agglomeration due to lactose crystallization
• Improves functionality of shortenings
• Anticaking agent at high relative humidity
• Certain types of icing
• Maillard browning, if desired
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• Accentuates other flavors (chocolate)
• Flavor absorbant
• Flavor volatiles
• Flavor enhancement
• Sauces, pickles, salad dressings, pie fillings

❖ MANUFACTURING OF CASEIN
Normal bovine milk contains about 3.5% protein. The concentration changes significantly
during lactation, especially during the first few days post-partum, the greatest change
occurs in the whey protein fraction. The natural function of milk proteins is to supply
young mammals with the essential amino acids required for the development of muscular
and other protein-containing tissues, and with a number of biologically active proteins,
e.g. immunoglobulins, vitamin-binding, metal-binding proteins and various protein
hormones. Skim milk prepared by mechanical separation is used as the starting material
for the preparation of casein and whey proteins.
Acidification of milk to about pH 4.6 induces coagulation of the casein. Casein
may be coagulated and recovered as rennet casein by treatment of milk with selected
proteinases (rennets). Rennet casein, which contains the colloidal calcium phosphate of
milk, is insoluble in water at pH 7 but can be dissolved by adding calcium sequestering
agents, usually citrates or polyphosphates. It has desirable functional properties for
certain food applications, e.g. in the production of cheese analogues. All the caseins are
relatively small molecules, ranging in molecular weight from about 20 to 25 kDa. About
95% of the casein exists in milk as large colloidal particles, known as micelles. On a dry
matter basis, casein micelles contain 94% protein and 6% low molecular weight species
referred to as colloidal calcium phosphate consisting of calcium, magnesium, phosphate
and citrate. About 20% of the total protein of bovine milk belongs to a group of proteins
generally referred to as whey or serum proteins or non-casein nitrogen. Acid and rennet
whey also contain casein-derived peptides; both contain protease-peptones, produced by
plasmin, mainly from p-casein, and the latter also contains (glyco) macro-peptides
produced by rennet from K-casein.

❖ DEFECTS IN DAIRY PRODUCTS

The goal of any dairy processing operation is to assure uniform, high-quality products that
satisfy market demand. Dairy processors are faced with a variety of quality issues from
safety concerns about contaminants to less tangible issues about how production and
storage methods affect the final product that reaches the consumer. Quality can be
defined as fitness for purpose', the interpretation of which depends on the buyer, the
user of the product and the agency that regulates the product. In relation to dairy
products this generally involves availability, safety (chemical and microbiological),
convenience, freshness, integrity and nutritional value. The quality of all dairy products
at the end-point of the handling chain depends on all stages along the chain from milking

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to processing and finally to the consumer. The end-point of the handling chain is where
the consumer makes the final assessment of quality, judging the product, largely on its
sensory properties of smell, sight, touch and taste. Off-flavors in milk are a major problem
for dairy producers and processors. Potentially, these off-flavors can result in the final
manufactured dairy product being rejected at great expense to the processor. An
understanding of potential of-flavors in milk provides an insight into how they impact on
the quality of manufactured dairy products.

(i).Transmitted flavors: Off-flavors in milk caused by the transfer of substances from

the cow's feed or environment into the milk while it is in the udder are known as
transmitted flavors. They include flavors commonly described as 'feed', 'weed', 'cowy' and
"barny". The compounds causing the off-flavors may enter the milk through the
respiratory tract and/or digestive system and bloodstream.

(ii).Feed flavors: Undesirable feed flavors can enter milk and cause taints through the
cow's consumption of certain types of feed or through the inhalation of the aroma of such
feeds. The problem can be controlled by withholding such feeds for 4 to 5 hours before
milking. Thus, a feeding regime which restricts the intake of noxious and odorous weeds
(e.g. wild garlic, onion weed, carrot weed) and roughage is essential for the production of
milk free of undesirable feed taints.

(iii).Cowy, barny and unclean flavors: The term 'cowy' is often used to describe an
'unclean flavor usually associated with barn odour and poor ventilation. The 'barny' or
'unclean' odours are transferred to the milk through the cow's respiratory system in the
same manner as feed flavors. The physical condition of the cow may also contribute to
off-flavors in milk. Cows suffering from ketosis or acetonemia produce milk with a 'cowy'
odour.

(iv).Chemical flavors: Chemical flavors in milk may result from the contamination of
milk through various environmental sources during milking and processing. These include
sanitizers in improperly rinsed equipment, usually chlorine, iodine-based and quaternary
ammonium salt compounds. Some dairy producers and processors have had difficulties
when using phenols and chlorine compounds in combination. These can react to form
chlorophenols, which produce a flavor taint with much lower flavour thresholds than
either phenols or chlorine alone.

(v).Flavors associated with heat treatment:

The primary purpose of heat treatment of raw milk is to destroy pathogenic
microorganisms including Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Yersinia
enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes, Cryptosporidium parvum, Streptococcus spp.,
Staphylococcus aureus, Brucella abortus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, to make it safe
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for human consumption. At the same time, heat treatment prolongs shelf-life by
destroying spoilage micro-organisms and enzymes.
However, off flavors may be produced by heat processing, the time
and temperature of which govern the nature and intensity of the flavors. Heat-induced
flavors have been described as cooked' or sulphurous', 'heated', 'scorched' and
caramelised". The slight "cooked' or sulphurous' flavor of pasteurised milk results from
the formation of such volatile substances as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans,
and volatile phosphorus compounds that occur with protein breakdown reported that a
lactoglobulin degradation accounts for practically all of the free SH groups in heated milk
and is the source of the cooked' flavor. The sweet caramel flavor of heat-treated milk has
been attributed to non-enzymic browning while a scorched flavor is due to localised
overheating in a heat exchanger creating excessive "burn on'.

(vi).Bacterial flavors:
The fresh milk from a healthy cow drawn aseptically contains only a few bacteria (102-
103cfu mL-1). Off-flavors in the milk from bacterial metabolism can occur at any stage of
production or processing. They are not detectable until large numbers of bacteria are
present, usually millions per milliliter. Off-flavors of bacterial origin in raw milk are an
indication of inadequate hygiene and sanitation, or of the milk having been stored for too
long or at too high a temperature. The flavor defects from bacterial growth in both raw
and pasteurised milk are described as 'acidic', 'sour', 'malty', 'fruity', 'unclean', bitter and
putrid. The production of lactic acid or a combination of other acids by the principal acid-
producing bacterial species in milk, such as Streptococcus, Pedicoccus, Leuconostoc,
Lactobacillus, and members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, cause an acidic flavor in
raw and pasteurised milk. A 'malty' flavor in milk, sometimes described as cooked,
'caramelised' and 'burnt' can be associated with the metabolism of Lactococcus lactis
biovar maltigenes while a fruity flavor inpasteurised and processed dairy products is
associated with post-pasteurisation contamination by Pseudomonas fragi producing ethyl
esters. Spoilage by psychrotrophic organisms often produces "unclean, "bitter', 'putrid'
and 'rancid' flavors.

vii. Lipolysed flavor:

Hydrolysis of milk fat, or lipolysis, catalysed by lipases, is a major dairy industry problem
because of the production of flavor defects in milk, cream and manufactured dairy
products. The flavors produced are often described as 'soapy, 'rancid "butyric', 'bitter',
'unclean' and "astringent'. Lipolysis produces free fatty acids (FFA) and mono- and
diacylglycerols. Short-chain free fatty acids, particularly butyric acid (C4) and caprylic acid
(C6), are mostly responsible for the unpleasant rancid. The lipases responsible for lipolysis
in milk and milk fat products are of two types, the endogenous milk lipase and exogenous
bacterial lipases

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 MEAT PROCESSING
Meat is the edible portion of mammals-the flesh of animals used for food. "Meat" may
include rabbit, venison, and other game, as well as the non-mammal poultry and fish,
various animal flesh may be used as food throughout the world. Red meat is the meat
from mammals including beef and veal, lamb, mutton, and pork. White meat refers to
meat from poultry. Seafood is derived from fish and game is from non -domesticated
animals. In addition to being sold fresh or frozen, meat also is available in processed or
manufactured products. Red meat refers to the meat from mammalian skeletal muscle
tissue with distinctive red color including beef, pork, and lamb. Although muscle and meat
are used interchangeably on many occasions, there are differences between the two
terms. Muscle refers to a tissue responsible for contraction and movement in live animals,
while meat is a broad term referring to edible tissues from animals consisting of muscle,
adipose, and other connective tissues. The major components of meat include water,
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, soluble non-protein substances, vitamins, and
some incidental compounds such as feed additives or contaminants. The composition of
meat is dependent on the species, breed, sex, age, activity, the anatomical location of the
cut, the relative proportions of tissues in the retail cut, and other factors. However, the
composition of lean meat is fairly consistent even across different species.
Meat is composed of three major parts: muscle, connective tissue, and adipose tissue
(fat). Lean meats contain less adipose tissue than well-marbled cuts of meat. The location
of the cut of meat on the animal, muscle contraction, and postmortem changes all
influence the degree of meat tenderness. Individual cuts vary in inherent tenderness,
requiring different cooking methods All meat is subject to mandatory inspection by the
USDA and voluntary grading. After inspection, alteration may occur by processing
methods including curing, smoking, restructuring, and tenderizing. Kosher and Halal
inspections mean much more than having a religious official blessing. Incomplete plant
proteins of animal feed are resynthesized in meat and it is important to know that only
animal protein is a complete protein. Thus, if meat consumption is minimized or omitted
from the diet, for any number of reasons, an individual must obtain similar nutrients from
a nonmeat source, such as combination of various plants. At the turn to this century, beef
demand was on the upswing for the first time in two decades. Yet, some individuals may
have environmental, religious, vegetarian, health, or other concerns related to the
consumption of meat; thus, they might choose to avoid meat products or consume meat
minimally. Meat must satisfy the requirements of appearance texture, and flavor, as well
as nutrition, safety, and convenience. Therefore, if eating meat, it becomes important to
know the effects of cooking meat on its various components.
Meat is composed of three tissues:
i. Muscle tissue
ii. Connective tissue
iii. Adipose or fatty tissue

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i. Muscle Tissue: Muscle tissue is referred to as the lean tissue of meat. It includes
cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle is located in the heart. Skeletal
muscle, the primary component of the carcass, provides support for the weight of the
body and movement, or locomotion. When a muscle is used, it serves to strengthen the
bone to which it is attached (true in humans, too). Smooth muscle is the visceral muscle
located, for example, in the digestive tract, reproduction system, and throughout the
blood vessels of the circulatory system. Inside the muscle cell membrane, there are
myofibrils containing alternating thin and thick protein filaments, namely, the actin and
myosin, which contract and relax in the living animal. They are varied in length, perhaps I
or 2 inches long, and are very small in diameter. Each fiber is cylindrical with tapered ends
and is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called endomysium. Small bundles of
20-40 fibers make up one primary bundle that represents the "grain" of meat. This
primary bundle is surrounded by perimysium connective tissue.

ii. Connective Tissue: This meat component is made up of protein and mucopoly
saccharides. t is located throughout the muscle and determines the degree of meat
tenderness. Less is more tender. As mentioned, muscle bundles are surrounded with
various types of connective tissue endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium-structures
that bind muscle fibers in bundles to form muscle. The connective tissue extends beyond
the muscle fibers to form tendons, which attach the muscle to bones and hold and
connect various parts of the body. Connective tissue also forms ligaments, attaching one
bone to another. Additionally, the tough skin or hide of an animal is connected to
underlying animal tissue by connective tissue. Collagen is the most abundant protein
found in mammals-in bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligament, enveloping muscle groups,
and separating muscle layers. It also is in horns, hooves, and skin.
Collagen is a triple-coil protein structure that is white in color and
contracts to a thick mass when heated. Yet, it becomes tenderized when cooked with
moist heat. This tenderization may be referred to in several manners. For example,
collagen may be "converted to," "solubilized to," or "gelatinized to" water-soluble gelatin.
(This is the same gelatin that may in turn be used for edible gels. in the diet.) In older
animals, the collagen is increased and may form many cross linkage, thus preventing
solubilization of collagen to the tenderer gelatin. The meat from older animals therefore
is tough.

iii. Adipose or fatty tissue: Meat provides important nutrients for the human diet,
including vitamin B, minerals such as iron, and the essential fatty acids. The fat deposition
in muscles and the meat fatty acid (FA) composition are factors that affect the meat
quality and primarily influence flavor, juiciness, and tenderness therefore, they are
important in meat industry. The fat also assists in the transport and absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K by the intestine and plays an important role in the immune
response, both in humans and in animals

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❖ CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEAT
The chemical composition of meat varies to a large degree. Meat may contain 45-70%
water 15-20% protein, and anywhere from 5 to 40% fat, depending on the cut and trim.
Meat contains ne carbohydrate (except for the liver, which stores glycogen).

❖ SLAUGHTERING OF MEAT
One common human method of rendering an animal insensible is by striking it on the
head with air or gunpowder driven blunt or penetrating device. This has largely replaced
stunning with a sledge hammer. Another method employs electric shock, and a third uses
a tunnel filled with carbon dioxide through which the animal passes. Each pf these various
methods can differently affect blood hormone levels, muscle chemistry, and meat
properties.

After stunning, hoisting and blooding a modern slaughter house is an efficient

continuous disassembly line. Virtually every component of the animal body is utilized
including the hide, viscera, blood and carcass. The skinned, washed and eviscerated
carcass is then moved by monorail into chill room, where the deepest part of the meat is
chilled to 2°C in about 36 h. This prevents rapid bacterial spoilage.
The practice of resting animals before slaughter can help delay bacterial spoilage
of meat. Animals store glycogen in their muscles as a source of reserve energy. After an
animal killed, this glycogen in converted under the anaerobic condition in the muscles
into lactic acid which lowers the pH and acts as mild preservatives. But, if animals are
excited or exercised before slaughter, the glycogen is largely consumed and there is very
little left to be converted to lactic acid in the post mortem tissues.

❖ TENDERIZING OF MEAT
Tenderizing meats may be desirable prior to cooking. Young animals are naturally tender
and do not need artificial tenderizing. Recall that the connective tissue of older animals
contains more covalent cross-links, is less soluble, and less readily converted to gelatin.
Therefore, meat from older animals may require tenderization. In addition to the age, the
origin of the cut on the animal also is a factor influencing tenderness.
The less tender cuts of meat may be artificially tenderized to break down the proteins of
muscle or connective tissue. This may be achieved by mechanical, electrical, or enzymatic
treatment as discussed below.
The mechanical tenderization includes chopping, cubing, and grinding. Meat may cubed,
ground, or pounded prior to stuffing or rolling or used in a recipe. These techniques break
the surface muscle fibers and connective tissue. A special instrument that pierces the
meat with multiple thin, tenderizing needles is involved in the "needling" or "blade
tenderizing" of meat.

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 Electrical stimulation such as ultrasonic vibration indirectly tenderizes
meat by the physical vibrations that stimulate muscles to breakdown ATP to lactic acid. It
also decreases the pH. The electrical stimulation of a carcass tenderizes without
degrading the muscle fibers and texture of meats to a mushy state. Natural enzyme
tenderizers derived from tropical plants are available as powders or seasoning
compounds that may be applied by dipping or spraying meat. They are more effective in
tenderizing than marinades, which only penetrate approximately one-fourth inch into the
interior of the meat. Enzymes include papain from the papaya plant, bromelain from
pineapple, and ficin from figs. Some of these enzymes treat the muscle tissue and others
treat the connective tissue. For example, the enzymes chymopapain, or papain, and ficin
exert a greater effect on tenderizing muscle fibers than connective tissue, while
bromelain degrades connective tissue more than the myofibrils. Any over application of
natural enzyme tenderizers to meat surfaces or allowing the treated meat to remain at
temperatures conducive to enzymatic activity could produce an overly soft meat
consistency.
The natural enzyme tenderizer papain also may be injected into the jugular vein
(bloodstream) of an animal a few minutes before slaughter. It is distributed throughout
the animal tissue. The enzyme is heat activated [by cooking at 140-160°F (6071°C) and
eventually denatured in cooking.

❖ MEAT PRODUCTS
Numerous processed meat products in the form of convenience foods", ready to- cook
or ready-to-eat items are available in retail stores. Meat products can be divided into
several groups based on their product characteristics and processing procedures, viz.,
canned meats, frozen meats, dry preserved meats, cured meats, sausages, frozen dinner
meats, fermented meats and luncheon meats:

(I) Canned meats: Canning is a thermal process employing steam to sterilize the food
material in a sealed container. Pasteurized canned products have to be kept refrigerated
while sterilized products can be kept at room temperature. Processing procedure involves
commercial sterilization in retorts at 121°C. Product may be fully cooked, cured or non -
cured. Cured products are usually pasteurized at 65-75°C. Metal cans are coated with
Sulphur resistant resins and nylon cans are used for packing. Examples of canned meats
are canned ham, corned beef, beef stew, beef in chili sauce, etc.

(II) Frozen meats: Frozen meat products may be prepared from cooked or raw meat.
Products are quick frozen at -20 to - 40°C by blast freezing and vacuum packaged to
prevent development of rancidity. Some of the products include e.g., home meal
replacement I and breakfast items like meat loaf, breaded boneless pork/beef cutlet, pork
sausage, meat ball, etc.

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(III) Dry preserved meat:
Drying of meat is an old process to keep meat at ambient temperature for longer time.
Sun drying and hot air drying is prevalent commercially. Ethnic dried meat is available in
some states especially buffalo meat, ostrich, etc. Dried beef item, biltong, is a popular
product from South Africa. It is dried after marination with salt, seasoning and spices or
after cooking. The reduced water activity increases shelf life. The dried meat is smoked to
impart flavor and to increase shelf life. But texture will be hard.

(IV) Cured meats:

Meat cured with salt, sodium nitrite/nitrate, other adjuncts like ascorbate, erythorbate,
alpha tocopherol, sugar/corn syrup and polyphosphates by injection or dry rub or as
immersion pickle for preservation and getting desirable color and flavor. They include
pork products such as ham and bacon and beef product such as corned beef. Corned beef
is being exported in bulk from India. The domestic consumption of the traditional
products ham and bacon is comparatively higher although innumerable cured sliced
restructured ready-to-eat products are in the retail stores and restaurants.

❖ FERMENTED MEAT PRODUCTS

Fermented meat products, very popular with European consumers, are prepared by
microbial fermentation and dehydration to develop specific flavor and texture. Selected
bacterial starter cultures like Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Lactococcus and Micrococcus
are added to the minced meat in the preparation of such products. Meats which are most
commonly used for fermented products are pork and beef. The minced meat-bacterial
mixture is kept at specific temperature and humidity for specified period. This allows the
maximum growth of the added bacteria.
During the fermentation, the bacteria utilizes the sugar and produce lactic acid, which
causes decrease in pH. After completion of fermentation, the product is dried to specific
moisture level
.After drying , products are cooked and/or smoked as per requirement. Lower moisture
content, lower water activity and low pH do not allow spoilage bacteria to grow. Based
on the pH level, the fermented meat items can be divided into two groups: low acid and
high acid products. Fermented dry sausages do not require refrigeration for storage.
However, semi-dry sausages require refrigeration temperature to prevent microbial
spoilage during storage. Fermented sausages are very popular in Goa.

1.HAM
Ham is from pork thighs while conventional bacon is from pork bellies. boneless hams or
bacon are cured by injection followed by immersion in pickle in stainless steel vats at 4°C.
Hardwood or liquid smoke is used for smoking and cooking of cured products. Ham slices
and bacon rashers must be cooked to ensure destruction of possible microorganisms.

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Corned beef is prepared using thin strips of precooked beef cured and cooked in cans and
is the major value added meat product that is exported.

2.SAUSAGES
Traditionally, this term means a product consisting of a mince of ground meat and fat,
which is stuffed into a casing. It also involves the use of a curing salt (sodium chloride þ
nitrate/nitrite) that contributes to its characteristic color and flavor. Basically, sausages
can be arranged into several groups based on the main preservation practices of
fermentation, drying, or cooking.

i.Fresh Sausages: Fresh sausage may also be known as moist sausage, because its
moisture content is high, at between 50 and 60%. These sausages are stored for a few
days under refrigeration and are cooked before eating. Fresh sausages can differ in
texture, seasoning, type of casings, and meat content. Some of the most well-known are
mettwurst and bockwurst, which were originally, but more recently are cooked. Others,
like country-style sausages, may be smoked.

ii.Raw Fermented Sausages: These sausages are fermented at high temperatures so

that lactic acid bacteria may grow and drop the pH towards acid values. Merguez-type
sausages are produced in North African countries and Southern European countries and
can be briefly dried after fermentation. Raw fermented sausages can be smoked (e.g.
Lebanon Bologna) or cooked. They are preserved under refrigeration and are cooked
before eating.

iii.Semidry Sausages: There are many varieties of semidry sausages. As their

denomination indicates, their moisture content is intermediate, between 35 and 50%, as
a result of a mild drying and short ripening step. The water activity is above 0.86 and pH
near 5.0. These sausages are fermented rapidly for a few hours in the United States or
more slowly in Europe. They are smoked and can be cooked for pasteurization. The
summer sausage is quite popular in the United States. Longaniza is typical in Spain and
France. Semidry sausages are preserved under refrigeration unless the combination of
low pH (below 5.0), and a moisture to protein ratio of less than 3.1:1 are achieved to
guarantee the shelf life.

iv.Dry Sausages: There are many dry types of sausage. In general, they have a moisture
content below 35%. The denominations may vary according to the geographical area
where they are produced. In other cases, the names may be applied depending on the
physical or chemical characteristics of the sausages like form, diameter, size of fat
particles, application of smoking, addition of specific spices, presence of molds on the
external surface, and so on.

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v.Cooked Sausages: There are also many types of cooked sausages, including garlic
sausages, frankfurters, mortadella, and so on. Italian mortadella, or Bologna sausage, is
fermented at 30-38°C for 2-7 days. Then, it is cooked until it reaches an internal
temperature of 65-70°C, cooled, and dried for maturation. German Bruhwurst is smoked
and scalded. Kochwurst is also scalded and may contain large chunks of meat; it is eaten
either sliced or spread. Frankfurters, wieners, and hot dogs are coarsely minced or finely
chopped. Cotton salami is cooked, contains peppercorns, and may be smoked. This type
of cooked salami is refrigerated before eating.

❖ INGREDIENTS AND PROCESSING OF SAUSAGES

Pork meat, either alone or in combination' with beef, is the main ingredient of sausages.
In other products like poultry sausages, the main ingredient is poultry. It is important to
control the characteristics of all these raw meats, in particular hygienic quality. Beef meat
contributes to a better red color of the product. The other main ingredient is fat which
must be fresh or stored under frozen storage. Salt is an essential ingredient of sausages,
usually added at 2-3%. It contributes to the technological and sensory quality through:

• Selection of the microbial flora by inhibition of the growth of undesirable

microorganisms;
• A characteristic salty taste of the sausage;
• An increase of myofibrillar protein (actin and myosin) solubility
• Control of enzyme activity

Nitrite constitutes an essential additive for sausage preservation. Sodium nitrite

is formulated in a curing salt. In some cases, potassium nitrate can also be added in the
formulation when sausages are ripened for a long time. Nitrite is very reactive and
interacts rapidly with proteins, such as myoglobin, and inhibits the growth of undesirable
microorganisms, in particular Clostridium botulinum.
Ascorbic and erythorbic acids or their sodium salts are used to accelerate the reduction
of nitrite to nitric oxide, assuring the absence of residual nitrite in the products and thus
avoiding the risk of nitrosamine formation. Carbohydrates are added as the substrate for
microbial fermentation. Lactic acid is the main compound resulting from fermentation by
lactic acid bacteria. If an excessive amount of carbohydrates is added, pH can drop to
values below 4.7 and most of the enzymes responsible for the generation of flavor
compounds can be inhibited and the sensory quality seriously affected.
There is a wide variety of spices and flavorings that can be used for seasoning the
sausages. Spices can also contribute to a specific flavor or color. This includes mustard,
oregano, rosemary, garlic, onion, pepper, or paprika. Spices can be used either in a natural
form (whole or ground) or as flavoring extracts (essential oils and oleoresins). Flavoring
agents and flavor enhancers may be used to accentuate a specific flavor. Smoke flavoring
may be applied on the surface as an oil o solution to give, a smoke flavor.

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❖ POULTRY MEAT PROCESSING
Poultry, especially chicken broilers and turkey, is one of the most widely consumed
muscle foods in the world. It is an important source of dietary energy and nutrients, such
as high quality proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamins and highly bio-available minerals.
Poultry refers to any domesticated avian species, and poultry products can range from
whole to cut-up carcasses, portions, boneless meat, or any further processed meat.
Poultry production and consumption all over the world has increased considerably during
recent years. Several variables influence buying decisions and eating patterns in the short
or long term, including ethics or religious traditions, diet have been greatly influenced in
relation to the saturated fat and cholesterol intake and their contribution to
arteriosclerosis and heart attacks. Additionally, recent outbreaks of bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) and foot-and-mouth disease have modified consumer’s attitudes
against red meats.
Poultry meat has a high protein content varying from 18-25 percent and is comparable in
quality and nutritive value to other meats. It contains all essential amino acids required
for body building. Chicken fat is more unsaturated than the fat of red meat and this has
nutritional advantage. Poultry flesh is a good source of vitamin B and minerals. The dark
meat of chicken is richer in riboflavin than the light, but the light color meat is richer in
niacin. Processed meats, including canning products, now contain less fat (under 25% or
lower), where poultry, especially chicken and turkey, are popular as an alternative for
manufacturing healthy low fats meat products.
Raw chicken has little or no flavor, it develops during cooking. The cooking method is
selected on the basis of the tenderness of poultry and its fat content. Moist heat methods
are applied to older and tougher birds in order to them tender and palatable. Dry heat
methods are applied to young tender birds. Young tender poultry is cooked by broiling,
frying, baking or roasting.

❖ POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTS

Further processing of dressed poultry includes portioning (making cut up parts). seasoned
cut, batter-breaded patties and nuggets, sliced meat for delis in fast food outlets and
restaurants, luncheon meats for sandwiches, varieties of cooked, cured items like turkey
ham and turkey bacon, frankfurters, bologna, etc. Processed whole chicken will be either
halved or quartered. Various cut- up- parts of poultry are wings, breast, leg (thigh and
drumstick), back and neck.
Normally only the breast and thighs are hand deboned from chilled carcass. Chicken and
turkey are deboned mechanically, as well.

❖ MARINATED POULTRY PRODUCTS

New poultry products have been evolved on marination, curing cooking. Marination is by
soaking/rubbing salt, vinegar/lemon juice/wine, oil in combination with spices to improve

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flavor and yield and to increase tenderness and other eating quality. All types of poultry
whole birds, cut up parts, boneless meat, chopped and formed items can be marinated.
Some pieces of the product may pick-up more ingredients and produce detectable
variations in flavor and juiciness and may exceed the permissible levels. Good
manufacturing practices have to be adopted to maintain consistency in the product.
Vacuum tumbling enables commercial marination.

❖ FISH PROCESSING
Seafood species come in a bewildering variety of shapes and forms which are the product
of a long period of evolution. They can be grouped in various ways. The first and most
obvious division is between fish and shellfish, where the main biological difference is the
position of the skeleton. True fish possess a recognized internal skeleton and swimming
is the usual method of locomotion, whereas shellfish species are without a backbone and
have a hard externals shell or exoskeleton to compensate. Most shellfish, with the
exception of the crustacea and cephalopods, remain stationary throughout their adult
life. Fish can be differentiated according to whether they live in salt water (marine) or
fresh water, whether they live on the bottom or near the surface of the sea and whether
or not the flesh is fatty. These oily fish are normally not eaten fresh in western Europe
and the USA, but are sold preserved in some way such as smoked, cured, marinated or
canned.

i. Chilling: One of the most perishable of all foods, fish begin to deteriorate immediately
they are caught. The prime method of retarding this process is to reduce the temperature
by chilling or freezing, as soon as possible after capture. The simplest way is to surround
the fish with ice, but mechanical refrigeration is now widely used and there is some usage
of refrigerated sea water, particularly for pelagic species such as mackerel. The bacteria
responsible for fish spoilage are psychrophilic, i. e. cold loving, and even if fish are kept
chilled at 0°C (32°F) under the best conditions of handling, the activities of these bacteria
result in severe of palatability. Species such as cod and haddock approach inedibility after
about 14-16 days. At 5-6°C (42°F), a temperature at which many domestic refrigerators
operate, spoilage will be about twice as fast, whereas at UC (52°F) it will be 4-5 times
faster. Chilled temperatures much below 0°C are to be avoided because of the
detrimental effect of slow freezing on the texture of the flesh. The most satisfactory
storage temperature is -20C which results in an extension of the shelf life of white fish by
several days.

ii. Freezing
Freezing as a general preservation process is dealt with elsewhere. It is now well
known that rapid freezing is essential for good quality. This is defined as taking no more
than 2 h to pass from 0 to -5°C (32 to 23°F) in the thickest part of the fish, and freezing at
this rate or faster is now normal good commercial practice. Most fish begin to freeze at

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about - 1°C (30°F), but multiplication of the putrefactive bacteria is only completely
arrested at about - 9°C (15°F). Although bacterial spoilage is then suspended and there is
some reduction in bacterial numbers, not all the bacteria are destroyed by freezing. The
quality of the frozen product is closely related to the freshness of the raw fish: the fresher
the fish before freezing the better it keeps in frozen storage. Whole fish of age equivalent
to 3-4 days in ice will show some signs of deterioration on thawing and the staler the fish
the more noticeable are the deteriorative changes that occur on storage.

❖ FISH PRODUCTS
An extremely diverse range of products can be manufactured from fish and shellfish,
depending on the species and the method of preservation of the raw material.

i.Fish Oil
Oils can be extracted both from whole fish as body oil and from liver as liver oil. Body oil
is used for both edible and industrial purposes whereas liver oil, being a rich source of
vitamin A is exclusively of medicinal values, Fish oil contains cholesterol, other alcohols in
the unsaponifiable matter include pigments, vitamin A and D, glycerol ethers and fatty
alcohols. Vitamin E may be present in small form. Sardine, salmon, herring, mackerel,
anchovy, white fish and cat fishes are important for fish oil. Fish liver oil is very rich in
Vitamin A and Vitamin D.
The percentage of two main constituents of liver i.e., oil and Vitamin A varies
in different fishes. For example cod, halibut and hammer-headed shark yield oil 60-75%;
4-28% and 25-75% respectively and vitamin A potencies varies from 500—20,000 iu/g;
25,000—6,00,000 iu/g and 3,00,000 iu/g respectively. Besides vitamin A and oil, Vitamin
D, Vitamin E, hydrocarbons, cholesterol, pigments, fatty alcohols and glycerol ethers are
found in liver.
* iu = is an internationally accepted amount of a substances.

ii.Fish Flour
It is similarly prepared as fish meal but here the fishes used are of high nutritive value and
are fit for human consumption. Fish flour is rich in protein and easily digestible. It is to be
used along with wheat or maize flour. Addition of more than 10% fish flour with other
edible flour may not be acceptable to all due to its disagreeable taste, but a lesser amount
does not bring any change to the taste.
iii.Fish pickles:
These include traditional craft products such as herring marinades, rollmops, pickled
cockle and mussels, etc. In general, they are made by marinating in an acetified brine prior
to packing in vinegar with appropriate spicing. Their microbial stability is related to the
salt and acid contents (acetic with possibly some lactic acid); the general principles
covering vegetable pickles apply. Acid hydrolysis of the protein during storage and the

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cooking effects of pasteurization may tend to shorten shelf life, but there is still a high
demand for these products.

iv. Fish Sausage

In Japan, fish hams and fish sausages are popular products. The sausage typically contains
minced fish flesh with 10% pork fat, 10% starch and 2.5% salt, seasoning and
preservatives. Chemical preservatives, such as furyl furamide and nitrofurazone, have
been used to give a storage life at ambient temperature of a month or more. Fish sausages
were originally made from fish species such as tuna, but there was a switch to lower
priced Alaska pollack surimi when tuna became expensive due to a combination of lower
catches and an upgrading in quality which led to its use as sashimi. As well as the slicing
sausage, the product could be canned after the fashion of frankfurters.

❖ EGG PROCESSING
Most freshly laid eggs are sterile, at least inside, but the shells soon become contaminated
by fecal matter from the hen, by the cage or nest, by wash water if the eggs are washed,
by handling, and perhaps by the material in which the eggs are packed. The total number
of microorganisms per shell of a hen's egg has been reported to range from 102 to 107
with a mean of about 105. The types of microorganisms recovered from the shell are
diverse. Salmonella spp. may be on the shell or in the egg as laid, build up during
processing, and appear in significant numbers in frozen or dried eggs. On average, a hen
lays more than 260 eggs per year.
Eggs contain about two parts white to one part yolk by weight. The
whole mixed egg contains about 65% water, 12%% protein and 11% fat. The yolk is rich in
fat soluble vitamin A, D, E and K and in phospholipids including the emulsifier lecithin.
Nutritionally, eggs are a good source of fat, protein, vitamins and minerals, especially iron.
Eggs also contain about 240 mg of cholesterol which is all contained in the yolk. The most
common method of egg grading is by candling, in which the egg is held up to a light source.
Candling well reveal many defects- a cracked shell, a fertilized egg yolk, a blood spot, an
enlarged air cell, firmness of white which become thinner on ageing, and a position of
yolk which tends to drift off centre when the eggs becomes stale. Storage of egg is best
at a temperature slightly above the freezing point of the egg. A temperature of -1°C in
warehouse is ideal; to minimize moisture loss from eggs, the relative humidity may be as
high as 80%. In proper cold storage, Grade A quality can be maintained for as long as 6
months.

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CHAPTER

FOOD PRESERVATION
22
INTRODUCTION
Food preservation involves the action taken to maintain foods with the desired properties
or nature for as long as possible. The process is now moving from an art to a highly
interdisciplinary science. This chapter provides an overview of food preservation methods
with emphasis on inactivation, inhibition, and methods of avoiding recontamination.

Preservation of Food

Preservation methods start with the complete analysis and

understanding of the whole food chain, including growing, harvesting, processing,
packaging, and distribution; thus an integrated approach needs to be applied. It lies at the
heart of food science and technology, and it is the main purpose of food processing. First,
it is important to identify the properties or characteristics that need to be preserved. One
property may be important for one product, but harm to others. For example,
Collapse and pore formation occur during the drying of foods. Foods are made from
natural materials, and, like any living matter, will deteriorate in time. The deterioration of
food, or food spoilage, is the natural way of recycling, restoring carbon, phosphorus, and
nitrogenous matters to the good Earth. However, spoilage (deterioration, putrefaction)
will usually modify the quality of foods from good to bad, in the form of poor appearance
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(discoloration), offensive smell, and inferior taste. Food spoilage could be caused by a
number of factors, chiefly biological, but also by chemical and physical factors,
consumption of spoiled foods can cause sickness, and even death, thus food safety is the
major concern in spoiled foods.
Food processing techniques dates back to the prehistoric ages
when crude processing techniques incorporated slaughtering, fermenting, sun drying,
preserving with salt, and various types of cooking (such as roasting, smoking, steaming,
and oven baking). Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted
warrior and sailors' diets, up until the introduction of canning methods. Modern food
processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely developed to serve
military needs.

Preservation of Food for long time

In 1809 Nicolas Appert invented a vacuum bottling technique that would

supply food for French troops, and this contributed to the development of tinning.
Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans,
canned goods would later become a staple around the world. Pasteurization, discovered
by Louis Pasteur in 1862, was a significant advance in ensuring the micro-biological safety
of food. In the 20th century, World War 1, the space race and the rising consumer society
in developed countries (including the United States) contributed to the growth of food
processing with such advances as spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the
introduction of artificial sweeteners, coloring agents, and preservatives such as sodium

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benzoate. In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted
fruits and juices, and self-cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed.

WHY PRESERVATION IS ESSENTIAL?

(a) Prevention of post-harvest losses occurring in grains, field crops, fruits, vegetables
and spice crops by introducing improved, cost effective technologies so that the
incomes of the rural farming sector will be increased as results of the increase in their
marketable surplus. At national level, such measures would increase the quantity of
essential foods items available for consumption.
(b) Prevent the deterioration quality occurring in grains, other field crops, fruits,
vegetables and spice crops due to adoption of improper post-harvest handling,
storage and processing techniques so that the quality of these essential food
commodities reaching the market is significantly improved. Improvement of product
quality will enable the farmers to sell their value added' produce at an attractive price
in the competitive market and thereby increase their income agriculture.
(c) Prevent the nutritional losses due to use of improper food processing techniques
occurring in food crops and spice crops and thereby increase the nutritional status of
the country.
(d) Improper farm level storage and preservation facilities to enable the farmers and
processors to sell their commodities during off seasons at attractive prices and
thereby increase their incomes.
(e) Introduce improved techniques that utilize minimum labour in order to reduce
production costs of food commodities.
(f) Develop and transfer viable agro-based industries at rural level in order to increase
income and employment opportunities of the rural farming sector and thereby
improve their living standard and food habits.
(g) Popularize the use of foods prepared from cereals grains, fruits, vegetables and spices
crops among the consumers order to create a higher market demand.
(h) Provide food with attractive packaging and nutrients required for enhancing good
health, strengthening bodies and empowering minds.
(i) Help to build communities and generate income for farmers and manufactures.

There are many types of techniques used to preserve food, such as

legal food additives, varying levels of food ingredients or components, traditional and new
technologies. Legal food additives, among other functions, can prevent oxidation and
inhibit or destroy harmful microorganisms (molds and bacteria). Vitamin E or vitamin C
can serve as antioxidants in many food products and benzoate in beverages can act as an
antimicrobial agent. We can preserve food by manipulating the levels of food ingredients
or components to inhibit the growth of microorganisms or destroy them, for example, by
keeping the food low in moisture content (low water activity), high in sugar or salt
content, or at a low pH (less than pH 5). Other traditional technologies such as canning

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(thermal processing), fermentation, refrigeration, and freezing are well-established
preservation methods. Recently, new or alternative technologies have become available
to preserve food. Because they are new, their applications are carefully monitored.

IMPORTANT METHOD OF FOOD PRESERVATION/PROCESSING

Preservation or processing by heat, cold refrigeration, freezing temperature,
or other means and application of the preservation techniques are introduced in this
chapter. Preservation from microbial, Preservation from microbial chemical, and physical
contamination, as well as enzymatic activity, is necessary for preserving and extending
the shelf life (the time a product can be stored without significant change in quality) of
food. Adequate packaging is important in preserving foods. Preservation and processing
of foods make food last, look good, and taste good. The major food processing techniques
are utilized to maintain quality, prevent spoilage and reduce risk of food poisoning and
health hazard to a greater or lesser degree. There are various food
processing/preservation technology employed in food i.e.

A. Slowing down or inhibition of growth of microorganisms

a) Lowered temperature
• Chill storage
• Freezing and frozen storage
b) Reduced water activity (aw)/Raised osmolality
• Drying and freeze drying
• Curing and salting
• Conserving with added sugar
c) Nutrient restriction
• Compartmentalization of aqueous phases in water-in-oil emulsion
d) Increase carbon dioxide (C02)
• Controlled atmospheric storage
• Modified atmospheric storage
e) Acidification
• Addition of acids
• Lactic or acetic fermentation
f) Alcoholic fermentation
• Brewing, vinification, fortification
g) Chemical preservatives
• Inorganic - sulphites, nitrites
• Organic- propionates, sorbates, benzoate, parabens
• Antibiotics- nisin, pimaricin

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B. Inactivation of microorganisms
a) Heating
• Pasteurization
• Sterilization
b) lonizing radiation
• Redurization
• Radicidation
• Radappertization

C. Restriction of access of microorganisms to foods

a) Decontamination
• Treatment of ingredients (e. g. with ethylene oxide)
• Treatments of packaging material (e. g. with H, O, and or heat irradiation)
b) Aseptic processing
• Aseptic thermal processing and packaging without recontamination

CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD PRESERVATION METHOD

Preservation methods are classified in two categories,

(A) Traditional methods

(B) Modern or advanced methods
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi,
and other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause
rancidity. It also includes processes to inhibit natural ageing and discoloration that can
occur during food preparation such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples which
causes browning when apples are cut. Some preservation methods require the food to be
sealed after treatment to prevent recontamination-with microbes; others, such as drying,
allow food to be stored without any special containment for long periods. Common
methods of applying these processes include drying, spray drying, freeze drying, freezing,
vacuum packing, canning, and preserving in syrup, sugar crystallization, food irradiation,
and adding preservatives or inert gases such as carbon dioxide. Other methods that not
only help to preserve food, but also add flavor, include pickling, salting, smoking,
preserving in syrup or alcohol, sugar crystallization and curing. Preservation processes
include:
• Heating to kill or denature micro-organisms (e. g. boiling)
• Oxidation (e. g. use of sulphur dioxide)
• Toxic inhibition (e. g. smoking, use of carbon dioxide, vinegar, alcohol etc.)
• Dehydration (drying)
• Osmotic inhibition (e. g. use of syrups)
• Low temperature inactivation (e. g. freezing)

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 • Ultra-highwater pressure (e. g. fresherized, a kind of cold) pasteurization, the
pressure kills naturally occurring pathogens, which cause food deterioration and
affect food safety.)
• Many combinations of these methods (Hurdle technology)
• Chelation.

❖ Traditional Method for Food Preservation

1.COOKING
Cooking is a heating process, the primary object of which is to produce a more palatable
food. The word "cooking" is broad term embodying at least six form of heating including;
baking, broiling roasting, boiling, frying and stewing. The method of applying heat energy
and the duration differ somewhat for each of these processes. Baking, broiling and
roasting usually required dry heat at relatively high temperature greater than 100°C),
boiling and stewing are done by placing the product in boiling water and frying involves
cooking oil and temperatures much greater than 100°C. Two preservative changes occur
in food as a result of cooking:
(i)destruction or reduction of microorganisms and
(ii) Inactivation of undesirable enzymes
(III) Destruction of potentially hazardous toxin present naturally or through micro
organisms
(IV) Alteration of color, flavor and texture and
(V) Improve digestibility of food.
Undesirable changes also may occur such as degradation of nutritive component
and sensory attributes. Principles which can be applied to describe the effect of cooking
on reduction of microorganisms and enzymes also can be applied to other changes
occurring during cooking.

2.BLANCHING
Blanching of fruits and vegetables is done by immersing them in hot/boiled water or
steam by exposing them to live steam or hot air for a proper period (2-5 min) of time
followed by cooling. The extent of blanching varies with food. Fruits are generally not
blanched leaving the oxidizing enzyme system active. Blanching is a thermal treatment to
be done prior to freezing, drying and canning for the following purposes:

(a) It inactivates most of the plant enzymes which cause harness, discoloration
(polyphenol oxidase), off flavor (peroxidase), softening and loss of nutritive value.
(b) The reduction of area of leafy vegetables and facilitate their easy handling.
(c) Removes tissue gases which reduce Sulphides.
(d) To destroy the microorganisms to about 99%.
(e) Enhance green color of vegetables like peas, broccoli and spinach.
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(f) To remove undesirable acids and astringent taste of the peel and spinach.
(g) Removes the skin of vegetables such as beetroot and tomatoes which helps in their
peeling.
Two of the most heat resistant and widely distributed enzymes in plant tissues are
peroxidase and catalase. Activity of these enzymes, therefore, can be used to evaluate
the effectiveness of a blanching treatment. The heating time necessary to destroy
catalase or peroxidase depends on the type of fruits and vegetables, the method of
heating medium, the size of the fruit and vegetables and the temperature of heating
medium. Heating media other than water (e.g. steam, hot air, and microwave) and at
temperatures other than 100°C can be used blanching time should not be more than 5
minutes.

3.PASTEURIZATION
The pasteurization is thermal process in which the harmful pathogen/ microorganism are
partially destroyed at predetermined time and temperatures. The high temperature and
short time (HTST) method involves a comparatively high temperature for a short time
(71.6°C for 15 second for milk), whereas the low temperature and long-time procedure
involves, relatively low temperature for longer time (e.g. 62.7°C for 30 minutes for milk).
Optimization process depends on the relative destruction rate of organisms as compared
to quality factors, but generally the HTST process results in maximum product quality. The
time temperature treatment used in pasteurization depends on:

(i) The heat resistance of the particular vegetative or pathogenic microorganism. The
process is designed to destroy, and
(ii) The sensitivity of product quality to heat.

4.STERILIZATION
Sterilization refers to complete destruction of microorganisms. Because of the resistance
of certain bacterial spores to heat, this frequently requires a treatment of at least 121°C
of wet heat for 15 min or its equivalent. It also means that every particle of the food must
receive this heat treatment.
If a can of food is to be sterilized, then immersing it at 121°C into pressure cooker or retort
for 15 min will not be sufficient because of the relatively slow rate of heat transfer through
the food into the can. Depending on the size of the can, effective time to achieve true
sterility may be several hours. During this time there can be many changes in the food
which reduce its quality. Fortunately, many foods need not be completely sterile to be
safe and have keeping quality.

5.CANNING AND BOTTLING

Canning process was first developed by Nicholas Appert in France in the year 1809.
Canning involves cooking fruits or vegetables, sealing them in sterile cans or jars, and

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boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of pasteurization.
Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may
require that the final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries
require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits
such as tomatoes require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Many
vegetables require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at
immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened. Lack of quality control
in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such failures
are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes gas production and the can
will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture and poor
hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate, Clostridium botulinum
which produces an acute toxin within the food leading to severe illness or death. This
organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell.
Food contaminated in this way has included Corned beef and Tuna.

6.DRYING
Drying is thermo-physical and physio-chemical operation by which the excess moisture
from a product is removed. It is defined as a process of moisture removal due to
simultaneous heat and mass transfer. Drying is the process of removal of moisture from
the agricultural product to a safe level for preservation of quality, quantity, nutritional
value and viability. It refers to removal of moisture from grains and other products to a
predetermined level, whereas dehydration means removal of moisture to very low levels
usually to bone dry condition. Drying makes the food grains and other product suitable
for safe storage and protects them against attack of insects, molds and other
microorganisms during storage.
Drying makes the food grains and other products suitable for safe
storage and protects them against attack of insects, molds and other micro-organisms
during storage During drying, the moisture from solid gets vaporized and diffused in dilute
environment. Removal of moisture takes place by high pressure or high temperature
conditions.
The main purpose of drying is to enhance storability and minimize packaging cost. The
quality of product and its cost are greatly influenced by the drying operation. The quality
of dried product is judged by the amount of physical and biochemical degradation which
occurs during dehydration process. The pretreatment, drying temperature, time and
moisture content influence the final product quality. Low temperatures generally have a
positive influence on the quality but require longer processing time. Low water activity
retards or eliminates the growth of microorganism and increase storability of food
products but result in higher lipid oxidation rates. Many fruits can be dried, for example,
the process is often applied to apples, pears, bananas, mangoes, papaya, apricot and
coconut. Zante currents, sultanas and raisins are all forms of dried grapes. Drying is also

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the normal means of preservation for cereal grains such as wheat ,maize, oats ,barley,
rice, millet and rye.

DRYING METHODS:
The agricultural product drying methods can be broadly grouped into two,
(1) sun/solar drying,
(2) artificial drying with mechanical means.

i.Sun drying: Sun drying is the most popular traditional method of drying. A major
quantity of grain is still dried by the sun in most of the developed countries. This drying
has several advantages and disadvantage:

Advantages:
• No fuel or mechanical energy is required
• Operation is very simple
• Viability, germination, baking qualities is fully preserved.
• Microbial activity and insect/pest infestation are reduced.
• Labour oriented
• No pollution

Disadvantages:
• Completely dependent on weather.
• Not possible round the clock and round the year
• Excessive losses occur due to shattering, birds, rodents etc.
• Requires specially constructed large floor area, restricting the capacity of mill to a
certain limit.
• The entire process is unhygienic.
• Unsuitable for handling of large quantity of grain within a short period of harvest.

ii. Mechanical drying

• It is the process of utilizing mechanical means for drying of grains by ventilating natural
or heated air through the grain mass to accomplish removal of moisture from it.
Mechanical drying system has the following features.
• Rate of drying of grains can be controlled by controlling the temperature of hot air
ventilating through grain mass.
• Grains can be dried in all seasons and also during night.
• The process is automatic and requires a small number of unskilled labourers, however,
a trained person is required to operate the dryer.
• Losses due to insects, birds and rodents are avoided.

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• The process requires fuel or electrical or mechanical power to drive the air and their
accessories. Cost of drying per unit mass is comparatively higher than sun drying.
• The process requires little space for operation and is suitable for big mills.
• Mechanical drying in conjunction with early harvest improves the milling quality of
grains.

The amount of moisture removed from the grain is dependent upon following factors
i.e.
• the moisture level and the temperature of the food material
• the temperature and relatively humidity of the ventilating air, and
• the quantity of air flowing around the food material

(iii).Contact drying: In this method of drying, heat is supplied to wet material by

conduction. For heat transfer, a heated surface like plate, cylinder, dryer wall is used. The
rate of heat transfer is dependent upon the thermal conductivity of the heated surface
and also depends on the heat transfer coefficient from the heating medium to the surface.
The common heating medium in conduction drying for any food materials used are steam,
organic liquids, metals and other materials with high values of heat transfer coefficient.
Since all the heat, which passes through the material is utilized for moisture evaporation;
thermal efficiency of contact drying is higher.

(iv).Convective drying: In this method, the sensible heat of heated air is transferred to
the wet product by convection. Heated gaseous medium (usually air) is ventilated through
a mass of wet materials and carries with it the water vapour evaporated from the
material. To save energy, some- time the exit air from dryer is re-circulated. Sometimes,
the partially dried material is re-circulated for further drying. In such situation the system
is known as re-circulatory dryer.

(v).Freeze drying: This method of drying is based on the sublimation of frozen moisture
from the wet product placed in a drying chamber. The pressure in the drying chamber is
low. Heat is supplied by radiation from heated trays and the temperature of product is
not raised above 0°C. The sublimated moisture is condensed on refrigerated plates in the
drying chamber but these plates do not come in contact with products.

(vi).Radiation Drying: Heat energy can be supplied to wet products by elector-

magnetic waves. The wave length of the electromagnetic radiation lies between 0.76 to
400nm. The radiation within this wavelength is also called infra-red radiation. The infra-
red penetrates the surface of wet material and causes vibrations of molecules, which
creates thermal effect. Since the penetration depth of infrared waves is relatively small,
this method of drying is commonly used for drying of thin material. The moisture

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migration inside the material and diffusion of vapour follows the same laws as in
convective or contact drying.

(vii).Super-heated Steam drying: In this method of drying, first of all the drier is filled
with hot air and normal convection drying takes place. The water vapour evaporated
during drying operations starts to circulate with hot air. Over pressure is released by a
pressure control valve and the air is gradually replaced by water vapour. At the end of
drying, water vapour with a small amount of air is circulated.

(vii).Osmotic drying: This method can be successfully applied to dewatering of cellular

products such as fruits, vegetables, meat etc. For the moisture removal,
Osmo-active substances like 60% aqueous solution of saccharose or 25% aqueous
solution of Nacl is used. The difference in osmotic pressure on both sides of the cell wall
having properties of a semi-permeable membrane causes moisture removal from the
products. The semi-permeable property o cell wall permits migration of water and low
molecular molecules to the osmo-active liquid having higher osmotic of the medium.
pressure. Thus, thinner cell sap causes increase in water activity of the medium.

(viii).Fluidized bed drying: The products are being dried under fluidized condition in
a dryer. The products are fluidized by drying air with sufficiently high velocity to cause
suspension. In this drying process, higher rate of moisture migration takes place. Every
surface of product is contact with drying air, so that uniform drying of products take place.
This method is normally used for the materials which have high initial moisture content
and are lighter and at the same time requires to be dried quickly such as vegetable seeds.
(ix).Desiccated air drying: In this method of drying, the ambient air is passed through
a desiccated medium or source e.g. silica gel. The desiccator absorbs moisture from air,
as a result, the relative humidity of air is reduced and at the same time there is an increase
in its temperature. When such air comes in contact with wet grains, transfer of moisture
from wet grains to drying air takes place. The drying action occurs due to convective heat
transfer.

7.FREEZING
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and domestically
for preserving a very wide range of food including prepared food stuffs which would not
have required freezing in their unprepared state. Cold stores provide large volume, long-
term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many
countries. e. g. Potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require
only a cool dark place to ensure many months storage. Microbial growth is prevented for
most completely action of enzymes of fruit and vegetables greatly retarded. The lower
the storage temperature, the slower will be the rate of biochemical and enzymatic
reaction, but most of them will still continue at any temperature. Therefore. it is a
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common practice to inactivate the enzymes in vegetables by scalding or blanching the
latter before freezing practicable. The rate of freezing on food depends upon a number
of factors such as the method employed, the temperature, circulation of air or refrigerant,
size and shape of package, kind of foods etc. Freezing is cheaper than canning and frozen
products are better in quality than the canned products, but for storage of frozen
products, uninterrupted supply of electricity is essential, which is a problem at least in
homes. There are various methods of freezing:

i.Slow or sharp freezing: in this method, time required is to achieve frozen condition
of produce is large. The techniques involved in freezing by circulation of cold air either
natural air or with the aid of fans. The temperature of air may vary from -15°C to -30°C,
and freezing may take place from 3 to 72 hr. Due to larger time freezing, the ice crystals
formed bigger in size that is cause of rupture of cell of food materials. At thawing of fruits
frozen by this method can’t be regain their original moisture and texture due to this
reason. Nowadays, freezer rooms are maintained at 23 to -29°C or even lower.
ii. Quick Freezing: In this process the food attains the temperatures of maximum ice
crystal formation (0 to -4°C) in 30 min or less. Such a speed results in formation of very
small ice crystal and hence minimum disturbance of cell structure. The yield of a good
quality product after thawing, to achieve quick freezing. The temperature to which
product is exposed is much lower. This may be achieved by one method of following
methods.

• By direct immersion
• By indirect contact with refrigerant
• By air blast

(a) By direct immersion: Since liquids have good heat conductivity, food can be frozen
rapidly by direct immersion in a liquid such as a brine or sugar solution at low
temperature. Solution works as a refrigeration medium. The condition required is that the
product could be frozen at this temperature. The immersion freezing is done at the
temperature of - 18°C or below varying from seconds to one minute. This method has
several merits and demerits.

Merits
a) There is perfect contact between the refrigerating medium and product; hence the
rate of heat transfer is very high.
b) Fruits and vegetables are frozen with a coating of syrup or brine which preserves
the color and flavor during storage.
c) The frozen product is not a block because each piece is separated when immersed.;

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Demerits
a) Refrigerant may enter the food products causing adverse changes in its quality
b) The refrigeration temperature must be carefully controlled, as at high temperature
the medium will enter the product by osmosis and at low temperature the medium
may freeze solid.
c) It is very difficult to keep the medium at a definite concentration and also keep it
free from dirt and contamination for longer period.
d) It is difficult to make syrup that will not become viscous at low temperature.

(b).By Indirect contact with refrigerant

Indirect freezing may be defined as freezing by contact of the product with metal surface
which itself cooled by freezing brine or refrigerant media. This is an old method of freezing
in which the food in block or in packages is kept in contact with the passage through which
the refrigerant at - 18 to - 47°C flows. This method is popular more in form in plate freezer
consisting of two parallel plates, one of which in movable and both are cooled to very low
temperature. Plate freezers are often used to the freezing packed food.

(c).By Air Blast:

In this method refrigerated air between the temperature (- 18 to-34°C or even less is
blown through the material to be frozen. If the air velocity is so high, it may cause
fluidization of the product (more than the terminal velocity of the product). In freezing of
each piece of product takes place separately. This method of freezing is better known as
1QF (Individual Quick Freezing). The requirement of this method is that velocity of air
blast should be very high and the product should not be large in size. The freezing of
pieces as diced carrot, diced onion, diced potato, by this method is becoming increase DIE
popular.

iii. Cryogenic freezing:

The cryogenic is a method in which the temperature of freezing medium is very low and
could as well as - 76°C. Although most foods retain their quality by quick frozen, a few,
such mushroom, sliced tomatoes, whole strawberries and raspberries require ultra-
freezing which can be achieved by cryogenic freezing .The freezers are used for cryogenic
freezing at very low boiling point .The liquid nitrogen ,liquid air, liquid and solid carbon
dioxide are the refrigerant used for this freezing .Freezing is done by immersing the
product in liquid or by spraying refrigerant over the product or by circulating air at ultra-
low temperature around product.

iv.Dehydro-freezing:
It is an adjunct to freezing in which a food is first dehydrated to a desirable moisture
content and the frozen. It is particularly suited to fruits and vegetables, since fresh fruits

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and vegetables contain more water than other types of foods, like meat and cereals and
their cellular structure is less elastic, they are prone to more damage during freezing than
meat etc. Removing some of the water prior to freezing theoretically allows the ice
crystals to form and expand without damaging the cellular structure of the produce.
Reducing the water content prior to freezing also has the potential to reduce the freezing
time, the initial freezing point, and amount of the ice formed within the product. The
concept of dehydration was developed in 1940s. This process is commercially successful
as applied to potatoes, carrots and others. This process is hard to perform at home.
i)Saving the packaging, storage, handling and transportation cost.
ii) Reduction in thawing and dripping losses
iii) Increase freezing capacity of freezer.

v. Freeze drying:
In this method, food is first frozen at -18°C on trays in the lower chamber of a freeze drier
and then frozen material dried (initially at 30°C for 24 hrs. and then at 20°C) under high
vacuum (0.1 mm Hg) in the upper chamber. Direct sublimation of ice takes place without
passing through intermediate liquid stage. The product is highly hygroscopic, excellent in
taste and flavor and can be reconstitute readily, mango pulp, orange juice concentrate,
passion fruit and guava pulp are dehydrated by this method.

8.CHILLING
Chilling is the unit operation in which the temperature of a food is reduced to between -
1°C and 8°C. It is used to reduce the rate of bio-chemical and microbiological changes. and
hence to extend the shelf life of fresh and processed foods. It causes minimal changes to
sensory characteristics and nutritional properties of foods and, as a result, consumers as
being convenient, easy to prepare. high quality and "healthy", perceive chilled foods,
natural and fresh.
Chilling is often used in combination with other unit operations i.e. fermentation or
pasteurization to extent the shelf life of mildly processed foods. There is a greater
preservative effect when chilling is combined with control of the composition of storage
atmosphere than that found using either unit operation alone. However, not all foods can
be chilled and tropical, subtropical and some temperature fruits. e.g. suffer from chilling
injury at 3-10°C above their freezing point.
Chilling equipment are refrigerators and cryogenic systems. Chilling foods are grouped
into three categories according to their storage temperature range as Follows:
1. -1°C to +1°C (fresh fish, meats, sausages and ground meats, smoked meats and
breaded fish.)
2. 0°C to + 5°C (pasteurized canned meat, milk, cream, yogurt, prepared salad,
sandwiches, baked foods, fresh soups and sauces, pizza, pastries and unbaked
dough).

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 3. 0° to + 8°C (fully cooked meats and fish pies, cooked or uncooked cured meat,
butter margarine, hard cheese, cooked rice, fruit juice and soft fruits).

i. CRYOGENIC CHILLING
A cryogen is a refrigerant that changes phase by absorbing latent heat to cool the food.
Cryogenic chillers use solid carbon dioxide (CO2) or liquefied N2. Solid CO2, removes latent
heat of vaporization (352 KJ/kg at -78°C), and liquid cryogens remove latent heat of
vaporization (358 KJ/KP at 196°C) for liquid N2; liquid CO2 has a similar latent heat to the
solids.
The gas absorbs sensible heat as it warms from -78°C (CO2) or from -196°C (liquid N2)
to give a total refrigerant effect of 565 KJ/Kg and 690 KJ/Kg, respectively. The advantages
of CO2 include:
I. A higher boiling and sublimation point than N2 and therefore a less severe effect on
the food.
II. Most of heat capacity arises from the conversion of solid or liquid to gas.

Other applications of cryogenic chilling include sausage manufacture, where CO2

snow remove the heat generated during size reduction and mixing and cryogenic grinding
where the cryogen reduces dust levels, prevents dust explosive and improves the through
out of mills. In spice milling, cryogen also prevents the loss of aromatic compounds. In the
production of multilayer chilled foods (e.g. triffes and other desserts) the first layer of
product is filled and the surface is hardened with CO2. The next layer can then be added
immediately. without waiting for the first layer to set, and thus permit continuous cooling
the case hardening of hot bakery products and chilling flour to obtain accurate and
consistent flour temperature for dough preparation.

9.SMOKING
Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to the
smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often wood. Meats and fish are
the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to
make beverages such as whisky. Rauchbier, and lapsang souchong tea are also smoked.
Smoke is an antimicrobial and antioxidant, but smoke alone is insufficient for preserving
food in practice.
i. Hot smoking exposes the foods to smoke and heat in a controlled environment.
Although foods that have been hot smoked are often reheated or cooked, they are
typically safe to eat without further cooking.
ii. Smoke-roasting or "Smoke-baking" refers to any process that has the attributes of
smoking with either roasting or baking.
iii. Cold smoking can be used as a flavor enhancer for items such as pork chops, beef
steaks, chicken breasts. salmon and scallops.

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Eating a diet high in smoked, cured, or salted meats has been shown to be a risk factor in
stomach cancer. In addition to sugar and salt exposure, smoking can directly create
compounds known to have long-term health consequences, namely polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, or PAHs, many of which are known or suspected carcinogens.

10.PRESERVATION BY SALT OR SALTING/PICKLING

Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis. Pickling,
also known as brining or corning, is the process of preserving food by anaerobic
fermentation in brine (a solution of salt in water) to produce lactic acid, or marinating and
storing it in an acid solution, usually vinegar (acetic acid). The resulting food is called a
pickle. This procedure gives the food a salty or sour taste. In South Asia edible oils are
used as the pickling medium instead of vinegar. Table salt, which consists primarily of
sodium chloride, is the most important ingredient for curing food and is used in relatively
large quantities. Salt kills and inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing water out
of the cells of both microbe and food alike through osmosis. Concentrations of salt up to
20% are required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria. Pickling is a method of
preserving food in an edible anti-microbial liquid. Pickling can be broadly categorized as
chemical pickling (for example, brining) and fermentation pickling (for example, making
sauerkraut).

i.) Chemical pickling- The food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria
and other micro-organisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar,
alcohol, and vegetable oil, especially olive oil but also many other oils. Many chemical
pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved
becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include
cucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well mixed vegetables such as
piccalilli, chow-chow, giardiniera, and achar.
ii. Fermentation pickling- The food itself produces the preservation agent, typically by
a process that produces lactic acid. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke,
kimchi, surstromming, and curtido. Some chemically pickled cucumbers are also
fermented.
iii. Commercial pickles-A preservative like sodium benzoate or EDTA may also be
added to enhance shelf life. Example: Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination
of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are also often used to cure meat and contribute the
characteristic pink color, as well as inhibition of Clostridium botulinum. Sauerkraut and
Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water.

11.PRESERVATION BY SUGAR
Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches,
apricots, plums or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to
the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is

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used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel). angelica and ginger. A modification of this
process produces glazed fruit such as glazed cherries where the fruit is preserved in sugar
but, is then extracted from the syrup and sold, the preservation being maintained by the
sugar content of the fruit and the superficial coating of syrup. The use of sugar is often
combined with alcohol for preservation of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other
spirits. These should not be confused with fruit flavored spirits such as cherry brandy or
Sloe gin.

12.PRESERVATION BY LYE
Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats
in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk (Norweigan dish) for
preserving fish uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for
century eggs also call for lye. Masa harina and hominy use lye in their preparation, but
not for preservation. Lye is also work as de-emulsifier.

❖ ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR FOOD PRESERVATION

1.HURDLE TECHNOLOGY
Shelf stability of minimally processed food products can be enhanced by using a
combination of treatments such as blanching, osmo-dehydration, addition of chemical
preservatives, modification of pH and appropriate packaging. This technology is known
as Hurdle technology. The different treatments called as hurdles are used in preventing
the chemical as well as microbiological deterioration of the foods products. A
combination of these hurdles is very effective, while individually each hurdle is
ineffective in protecting food from deterioration.

2.MINIMAL PROCESSING
Minimal processing is used for the preservation of short shelf life of fruits and vegetables,
and meat products, with minimum damage to the freshness of the products. Minimal
processed foods retain their freshness and they are more acceptable to consumer than
conventionally processed products.
Minimal processing can be achieved by using of a combination of mild processing
methods, which control the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms (hurdle
technology), without serious damage to the product quality. Hurdles (obstacles) used in
food preservation include temperature, water activity, pH, preservatives and competing
microorganisms (e g. lactic acid bacteria). Recent non thermal preservation methods such
as irradiation, high pressure and pulse electric field may also be used. Minimal processed
fruits can be produced using the following hurdles: steam blanching for 1- 3 min,
reduction of water activity (a) to 0.98-0.93 by sugar addition, lowering the pH to 4.1-3.0
by addition of citric acid or phosphoric acid, and addition of antimicrobials e.g. 1000 ppm
of sorbate and sulfite. The treated fruits can be packaged and stored at ambient (room)
temperature (up to 35°C) for about 4 months. Minimal processed raw vegetables can be
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produced by modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and storage at 1-8°C for 5-7 days.
Vegetables and potato dishes (salads), vacuum packaged (sous vide) and heated mostly
at 65-95°C, can be stored under refrigeration (1-8°C) for about 42 days.
The growth of anaerobic microorganisms such as toxin producing Clostridium botulinum
should be prevented by some additional hurdles. Development of minimally processed
foods by hurdle technology should be combined with GMPs (good manufacturing
practices) and HACCP (hazard analysis) for better process control.

3.NON-THERMAL PROCESSING
Non-thermal processes for the preservation of foods are under intense research to
evaluate their potential as alternative or complementary processes to traditional
methods of food preservation.
Traditionally most preserved foods are thermally processed by subjecting the food to high
temperature of 60-100°C for a few seconds to minutes to transfer energy to foods. This
energy may trigger unwanted reactions in the foods leading to certain undesirable
changes as milk so processed may have a cooked flavor accompanied by a loss of certain
vital nutrients and flavors. It is no the shelf-life of food but it's the quality that give with
the non-thermal method which avoid quality degradation of foods that results from
thermal processing. In these the losses in quality degradation expected from high
temperature is minimum and utilize less energy as compared to high temperature
processing. Although, these technologies for inactivating microorganisms without relying
on the heat are no new concepts, but there developments for use as food preservation
treatments has received considerable attention recently. These techniques have the
ability to inactivate the microorganisms at ambient temperatures, thereby, avoiding the
deleterious effects that heat has on the flavor, color, and nutrient content. The term 'non-
thermal processing' is more pity for novel non-thermal techniques such as high intensity
ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric fields, ultra violet light, pulsed light
and oscillating magnetic fields which are intending for applications as microbial
inactivation processes during food manufacture.

3.1 High Pressure Processing

High Pressure Processing (HPP) is a method of food processing where food is subjected to
elevated pressures (up to 87,000 pounds per square inch or approximately 6,000
atmospheres), with or without the addition of heat, to achieve microbial inactivation or
to alter the food attributes in order to achieve consumer-desired qualities. Pressure
inactivates most vegetative bacteria at pressures above 60,000 pounds per square inch.
HPP retains food quality, maintains natural freshness, and extends microbiological shelf
life. High (hydrostatic) pressure in the range of 1-8 k bar (100-800 MPa) can inactivate
vegetative cells of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms without heat damage to the
quality of sensitive foods. High pressure processing (HPP) can be applied to pasteurization

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and minimal processing. Destruction of microbial spores any require combined heat and
HPP treatment.
The process is also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) and ultra-high-
pressure processing (UHP). Most processed foods today are heat treated to kill bacteria,
which often diminishes product quality. High pressure processing provides an alternative
means of killing bacteria that can cause spoilage or food-borne disease without a loss of
sensory quality or nutrients. In a typical HPP process, the product is packaged in a flexible
container (usually a pouch or plastic bottle) and is loaded into a high pressure chamber
filled with a pressure-transmitting (hydraulic) fluid. The hydraulic fluid (normally water)
in the chamber is pressurized with a pump, and this pressure is transmitted through the
package into the food itself. Pressure is applied for a specific time, usually 3 to 5 min. The
processed product is then removed and stored/distributed in the conventional manner.
Because the pressure is transmitted uniformly (in all directions simultaneously), food
retains its shape, even at extreme pressures. And because no heat is needed, the sensory
characteristics of the food are retained without compromising microbial safety. High
pressure processing causes minimal changes in the 'fresh' characteristics of foods by
eliminating thermal degradation. Comparison between thermal processing and HPP, HPP
results in foods with fresher taste, and better appearance, texture and nutrition.

High pressure processing can be conducted at ambient eliminating

thermally induced cooked off-flavors. The technology is especially beneficial for heat
sensitive products, like any other processing method, HPP cannot be universally applied
to all types of foods. HPP can be used to process both liquid and solid foods. Foods with
a high acid content are particularly good candidates for HPP technology. At the moment,
HPP is being used in the United States, Europe, and Japan on a select variety of high-value
foods either to extend shelf life or to improve food safety. Some products that are
commercially produced using HPP are cooked ready-to- eat meats, avocado products
(guacamole), tomato salsa, applesauce, orange juice, and oysters. HPP cannot yet be used
to make shelf-stable versions of low-acid products such as vegetables, milk, or soups
because of the inability of this process to destroy spores without added heat. However, it
can be used to extend the refrigerated shelf life of these products and to eliminate the
risk of various food. borne pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Listeria.
Another limitation is that the food must contain water and not have internal air pockets.
Food materials containing entrapped air such as strawberries or marshmallows would be
crushed under high pressure treatment, and dry solids do not have sufficient moisture to
make HPP effective for microbial destruction.

3.2 Oscillating Magnetic Field Processing

Inactivating microbes has the potential to pasteurize food with an improvement in the
quality and shelf-life compared to conventional pasteurization processes. Strong static or
oscillating fields (5-50 Tesla) have the potential to inactivate vegetative microorganisms.

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The impulse duration is in between 10 us and several milliseconds and the frequencies
are maximally 500 MHz because above this items begin to warm up noticeably. The
preservation of foods with oscillating magnetic field (OMF) involves sealing of foods in a
plastic bag and subjecting it to 1-100 pulses in can OMF at temperatures of 0°C to 50°C
for a total exposure time ranging from 25 to 100 minutes. Therefore, no special
preparation is required. Magnetic field treatments are carried out atmosphere pressure
and at a temperature that stabilizes the food material. It does not have any influence on
the organoleptic properties as the temperature raises only 2-5°C.

3.4 Pulsed Electric Fields Processing

Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing is a non-thermal method of food preservation that
uses short bursts of electricity for microbial inactivation and causes minimal or no
detrimental effect on food quality attributes. PEF can be used for processing liquid and
semi-liquid food products. PEF processing offers high quality fresh-like liquid foods with
excellent flavor, nutritional value, and shelf-life. Since it preserves foods without using
heat, foods treated this way retain their fresh aroma, taste, and appearance. PEF
processing involves treating foods placed between electrodes by high voltage pulses in
the order of 20-80 kV (usually for a couple of microseconds). The applied high voltage
results in an electric field that causes microbial inactivation.
The electric field may be applied in the form of exponentially decaying, square wave,
bipolar, or oscillatory pulses and at ambient, sub ambient, or slightly above-ambient
temperature. After the treatment, the food is packaged aseptically and stored under
refrigeration. Application of PEF technology has been successfully demonstrated 10r the
pasteurization of foods such as juices, milk, yogurt, soups, and liquid eggs. Application of
PEF processing is restricted to food products with no air bubbles and with low electrical
conductivity. The maximum particle size in the liquid must be smaller than the gap of the
treatment region in the chamber in order to ensure proper treatment. PEF is a continuous
processing method, which is not suitable for solid food products that are not pumpable.
PEF is also applied to enhance extraction of sugars and other cellular content from plant
cells, such as sugar beets. PEF also found application in reducing the solid volume (sludge)
of wastewater. PEF treatment has lethal effects on various vegetative bacteria, mold, and
yeast. Efficacy of spore inactivation by PEF in combination with neat or other hurdles is a
subject of current research.

A series of short, high-voltage pulses breaks the cell membranes of

vegetative microorganisms in liquid media by expanding existing pores (electroporation)
or creating new ones. Pore formation is reversible or irreversible depending on factors
such as the electric field intensity, the pulse duration, and number of pulses. The
membranes of PEF-treated cells become permeable to small molecules; permeation
causes swelling and eventual rupture of the cell membrane. In general, the shelf-life of
PEF-treated and thermally pasteurized foods is comparable. PEF pasteurization kills
microorganisms and inactivates some enzymes and, unless the product is acidic, it
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requires refrigerated storage. For heat-sensitive liquid foods where thermal
pasteurization is not an option (due to flavor, texture, or color changes), PEF treatment
would be advantageous. PEF pasteurized products currently are stored refrigerated. In
some cases (for example, milk), this is necessary for safety (to prevent the growth of
spores in low-acid foods). For acid foods, refrigeration is not necessary for microbial
stability, but is used to preserve flavor quality for extended periods of time.
Three types of factors that affect the microbial inactivation with PEF have been identified
factors depending on:
1. The process (electric field intensity, pulse width, treatment time and temperature,
and pulse wave shapes),
2. Microbial entity (type, concentration, and growth stage of microorganism),
3. Treatment media (pH, antimicrobials, and ionic compounds, conductivity, and
medium ionic strength).

3.5 Ohmic Heating Processing

Ohmic heating is an advanced thermal processing method wherein the food material,
which serves as an electrical resistor, is heated by passing electricity through it. Electrical
energy is dissipated into heat, which results in rapid and uniform heating. Ohmic heating
is also called electrical resistance heating, Joule heating, or electro-heating, and may be
used for a variety of applications in the food industry. During conventional thermal
processing, either in cans or aseptic processing systems for particulate foods, significant
product quality damage may occur due to slow conduction and convection heat transfer.
Ohmic heating is a food processing method in which an alternating electrical current is
passed through a food sample. This results in internal energy generation in foods. This
produces an inside-out heating pattern, which is much faster than conventional outside-
in heating. Ohmic heating is somewhat similar to microwave heating but with very
different frequencies. The advantage of ohmic heating is that it uniformly heats foods
with different densities, such as chicken noodle soup, for example. On the other hand,
ohmic heating volumetrically heats the entire mass of the food material, thus the resulting
product is of far greater quality than its canned counterpart. It is possible to process large
particulate foods (up to 1 inch) that would be difficult to process using conventional heat
exchangers. Additionally, ohmic heater cleaning requirements are comparatively less
than those of traditional heat exchangers due to reduced product fouling on the food
contact surface. Ohmic heating can be used for heating liquid foods containing large
particulates, such as soups, stews, and fruit slices in syrups and sauces, and heat sensitive
liquids. The technology is useful for the treatment of proteinaceous foods, which tend to
denature and coagulate when thermally processed. For example, liquid egg can be
ohmically heated in a fraction of a second without coagulating it. Juices can be treated to
inactivate enzymes without affecting the flavor. Other potential applications of ohmic
heating include blanching. thawing, on-line detection of starch gelatinization,
fermentation, peeling, dehydration, and extraction.

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 The shelf life of ohmically processed foods is comparable to that of canned
and sterile, aseptically processed products. Ohmic heating saves significant time and
energy in hot air and freeze drying of foods and enhances extraction yields in some
processing operations. The parameters used during ohmic heating, such as frequency of
alternating current, applied voltage and the temperature to which the sample is heated,
have a significant effect on its success. The electrical conductivity of the food or food
mixture is a significant factor, too. Ohmic heating is a useful tool for value-added
processing, and it has great potential for use in a wide variety of food processing
operations involving heat and mass transfer.

3.6 Osmotic Dehydration (OD)

OD is a useful technique for the production of safe, stable, nutritious, tasty, economical
and concentrated food obtained by placing the solid food, whole or in sliced in sugar or
salt aqueous solutions of high osmotic pressure. The principle underlying osmotic
dehydration is that water diffuses from dilute solution (Hypotonic solution) to
concentrated solution (Hypertonic solution) through a semi-permeable membrane till
equilibrium is established. The driving force for water removal is the concentration
gradient between the solution and the intracellular fluid. If the membrane is perfectly
semi-permeable, solute is unable to diffuse through the membrane into the cells.
However, it is the difficult to obtain a perfect semi-permeable membrane in food systems
due to their complex internal structure and there is always some solid diffusion into the
food which means that osmotic dehydration is actually a combination of simultaneous
water and solute diffusion process. Osmotic dehydration process is mainly used in fruit
and vegetable industries and in fish or seafood industries for salting.
The solute penetration during osmosis first takes place at slow rate but increases with
time. Large amount of solute penetration takes place if osmotic dehydration time is long.
Osmotic dehydration process has been applied to many fruits and vegetables viz. apple,
apricot, banana, carrot cherry, Citrus fruits, grapes, guava, papaya, mango, potato etc.
The advantages of osmotic dehydration are as under:

i. Quality improvement like color, flavor or aroma and texture.

ii. Energy efficient as compared to other dehydration techniques namely air, vacuum
and tray drying as it can be conducted at low or ambient temperatures
iii. Reduction in packaging and distribution costs.
iv. Reduces enzymatic browning.
v. More product stability during storage due to low water activity by solute gain and
water loss.
vi. Flavor retention is also more when sugar or sugar syrup is used as an osmotic agent.
vii. There is minimum loss of color, flavor and nutrients as it is low temperature process.

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3.7 Membrane Processing
This is a technique that permits concentration and separation without the use of heat.
Particles are separated on the basis of their molecular size and shape with the use of
pressure and specially designed semi-permeable membranes. Membrane separation
processes are based on the ability of semi permeable membranes of appropriate physical
and chemical nature to discriminate between molecules primarily on the basis of size, and
to lesser extent, on shape and chemical composition. Depending on the chemical/physical
properties of the membrane (primarily pore size distribution) concentration or
dewatering (reverse osmosis, RO), fractionation of components in solution (ultrafiltration,
UF) and clarification of slurries or removal of suspended matter (microfiltration, MF) are
accompanied. Membrane filtration is a pressure driven technology with pore sizes ranging
from 100 molecular weight to 5 microns.

3.7.1 Reverse Osmosis/Hyper-filtration

RO is a process where the fluid is passed through a semipermeable
membrane with very small pores that permit only the transfer of water from other
solutes. Most systems consist a membrane cast on a solid porous backing-usually in the
form of a tube. High pressure is applied to force the water (called permeate) through the
membrane the concentrated fluid (called retentate) is retained in the tubing. The rate of
water removal decreases, as the fluid is concentrated, until it is no longer economically
feasible to remove more water. Reverse osmosis (RO) designates a membrane separation
process, driven by a pressure gradient, in which the membrane separates the solvent
(generally water) from other components of a solution. The membrane configuration is
usually cross-flow. With reverse osmosis, the membrane pore size is very small allowing
only small amounts of very low molecular weight solutes to pass through the membranes.

3.7.2 Ultrafiltration:
Ultrafiltration is a fractionation process separating molecular species on the basis of size
using a membrane, which retains the larger molecules and allows water and smaller
molecules to pass. Ultrafiltration, UF has membranes with larger pores and will retain
protein, lipids and. colloidal salts, while allowing smaller molecules to pass through to the
permeate phase. It designates a membrane separation process, driven by a pressure
gradient, in which the membrane fractionates components of a liquid as a function of
their solvated size and structure. The membrane configuration is usually cross-flow. In UF,
the membrane pore size is larger allowing some components to pass through the pores
with the water.
It is a separation/ fractionation process using a 10,000 MW cutoff, 40 psi, and
temperatures of S0-60°C with polysulfone membranes. In UF milk, lactose and minerals
pass in a 50% separation ratio; for example, in the retentate would be 100% of fat, 100%
of protein, 50% of lactose, and 50% of free minerals.

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3.7.3 Diafiltration
It is a specialized type of ultrafiltration process in which the retentate is diluted with water
and re-ultra-filtered, to reduce the concentration of soluble permeate components and
increase further the concentration of retained components. It is more or less a
purification process in producing milk enriched in protein and fat, and very low in lactose
and salt content. This efficient diafiltration, is carried out by adding water at the same
rate as the permeate is removed.

3.7.4 Microfiltration
Microfiltration (MF) designates a membrane separation process similar to UF but with
even larger membrane pore size-allowing particles in the range of 0.2 to 2 micrometers
pass through, the pressure used is generally lower than that of UF process. The membrane
configuration 1S usually cross-flow. MF is used in the dairy industry for making low-heat
sterile milk as proteins may pass through but bacteria do not. Microfiltration with pores
> 0.1 micron is used to separate fat from protein and to reduce microorganisms from fluid
food system.

4.EXTRUSION COOKING
Extrusion is a thermo-mechanical processing operation in which the raw
material is fed into a hopper and forced through the passage between a rotating screw
and a stationery barrel. The processed material comes out through a die of specific shape.
The extrusion cooking technology is one process where starch foods can be processed at
higher temperatures within short time so as to reduce the anti-nutritional factors without
affecting quality of other constituents. Single and twin-screw extruders are widely used
in the food industry for production of shaped and cooked products. The higher shear and
temperature environment inside the screw channel results in mixing in the material and
leads to chemical reactions that constitute the cooking process. Extrusion cooking is an
emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end
products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy
digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or
hazardous materials. Extrusion cooking is a specialized form of processing, which is unique
in food and feed processing because of the conditions that are used to transform the raw
materials. The extruder consists of following main important components describe
below:

i)Barrel: The barrel of an extruder is often manufactured in sections which are bolted or
clamped together. Usually the inner surface of the barrel is grooved to reduce slippage.
Internal operating pressures in the extruder barrel normally range from 15 to 70 atm with
dry extrusion these pressure may exceed 700 atm.

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(ii) The Screw: The Central part of a food extruder is the screw. Typical screw can be
divided into three sections. The section of the screw where the feed enters is commonly
called the feed section and normally has deeper flights or flights of greater pitch. The
section of the screw where the feed material is compacted and converted from a flowing
granular sticky mass to relatively uniform plasticised dough is called the transition or
compression section. After the material leaves the transition section and before it enters
a die, a metering section of the screw with relatively shallow flights for increased
restriction of the channel area is used to increase the temperature of the material for
cooking. Screw with relatively long metering sections tends to produce products with the
greatest uniformity and with fewer fluctuations in the extrusion output. The extrusion
screw consists of a central shaft upon which a helical flight is wrapped, compression in
the extruder screw result from several designs.

(iii) The Die: The extruder is normally equipped with a series of shaped holes where the
extrudate emerges from the extruder. Die effects can be considered independently from
the type of extruder used to form the dough. Die shape influences the shape and texture
of the end product.
(iv) Feed hopper: Function of the hopper is to feed the raw material to extruder screw.
Many time the hopper is equipped with agitators to reduce bridging of the feed and
increase the ease for entry into the extruder screw. Usually fine flours are more difficult
to feed because of bridging and clumping, while course grits tend to move quickly and
easily into the extruder.
(v) Thrust bearing: Extrusion screw is supported with a bearing at only the driven end
to absorb the rearward force imparted to the extruded food material as it is being moved
forward along the length of the screw.
(vi) Breaker plate assembly: Breaker plates are perforated metal discs which are
inserted between the end of the screw and die. The primary functions of the breaker plate
are to stop any hard, uncooked pieces of extrudate, which would cause plugging, prior to
their entry into the die. It also ensures back mixing in the screw and assures a uniform
pressure behind the die.
(vii) Other parts: They include arrangements for barrel temperature control,
temperature sensing at the die and pressure sensing.

Advantages of extrusion
Extrusion technology provides several advantages over traditional methods of
food and feed processing, including the following:

i Versatility: Options for processing a variety of food products by changing a minor

ingredient and/or processing conditions on the machine.
ii. Product shape: Different shapes, textures, colors, and appearances obtained by minor
changes in hardware and processing conditions.
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iii. Low cost: Energy efficient processing, and often lower in cost compared to other
options.
iv. Production of new food: Availability of automation with most new extruders, which
can increase productivity.
v. High product quality: Improved product quality over other processes because cooking
is done in a very short time and less destruction of heat sensitive ingredients occurs.
vi. Easy scale up: Easy scale-up of extrusion processes from pilot plant to commercial
production.

Extruded Products:
• Snack foods
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals
• Texturized vegetable proteins
• Pasta
• Dal analogue
• Biodegradable packaging made from starch
• Aqua feed
• Animal feed
• Poultry feed

Examples;
• Soy nuggets/granules
• Cheese balls
• Kurkure
• Soy fortified breakfast cereals

5. IRRADIATION
Food irradiation is a physical treatment in which food is exposed to
ionizing radiation, I e. radiation of high energy to expulse electrons from atoms and to
ionize molecules. It is used to destroy the bacteria and parasites that cause human illness.
It can also make food last longer by destroying or inactivating insects, molds and yeasts
that spoil food, delaying the ripening of fruits and vegetables, and limiting unwanted
spouting of potatoes and other similar vegetables. Food irradiation is safe and keeps the
food in fresh condition. The process is quite simple and technical. The irradiation process
involves passing of food through a radiation field allowing the food to absorb desired
radiation energy. The food itself never comes in contact with the radioactive materials.

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 Irradiation of Food

Food irradiation is a physical process like drying, freezing, thermal

processing (canning and pasteurization) that can be used to disinfest, sterile and preserve
food. The use of chemical preservatives to inhibit the growth of spoilage bacteria in
modern food system has been recognized as deterrent to health. The present day,
customer demands food products with no chemical preservatives, free from additives,
natural with assured safety and better long shelf life. The deterioration in foods during
storage may include loses in organoleptic desirability, nutritional value, safety and
aesthetic appeal. Food is subjected to physical, chemical and biological deterioration.
Heat, cold, light, humidity, other radiation, gas composition, moisture, dryness, natural
food enzymes, micro and macro organism, and industrial contaminants are adversely
affect the food quality and their shelf life. The practice of drying, curing and fermentation
are among the conventional methods of preservation used for thousand years.

Gamma rays are electro-magnetic radiations of very short wave

length in the same family as x-rays, ultra violet, visible, infra-red, microwaves and radio
waves. The electro-magnetic energy used in food irradiation is similar to x-rays but has
shorter wave length, producing grater energy and penetration. So, food processed by
irradiation is not in any way made radioactive, regardless of dose absorbed or length of
time the food is exposed to. Three types of ionizing radiation can be used for the
treatment of food;
1) gamma rays from Cobalt-60 (Co60) or cesium-137 (Ce137) with respective energies of
1.33 and 0.67 million electrons volts,
2) Electronic generated from machine sources operated at maximum energy of 10 MeV,
and

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3) x-rays generated from machine sources operated a maximum energy of 5 MeV. In 1981,
a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO expert Committee on Food Irradiation (JECFI) states that the
irradiation of food up to an overall average absorbed dose of 10 kilo Gray (kGy) =
1000Gy (gray), which is in SI unit of energy absorbed (1joule/kg) from ionizing &
radiation. 1Gy = 100 rad (1 rad = 100 erg/g), and 1kGy = 100 k rad present no
toxicological hazards and introduce on special nutritional or microbiological problems.
Ionizing radiation may have applications in food processing and other related activities.
Among the potential application are as:

I. Sterilization of foods in hermetically sealed containers. The process is called

“Radappertizing” and is directed to production of foods stable at room temperature
conditions for a long period of time. It may be preferable to canning for the foods
which are adversely affected by heating but can tolerate sterilizing doses of radiation.
II. Extension of shelf life of various foods to be distributed and stored at refrigerated
temperature. These include fresh fruits and vegetables, milk. egg. fish, meat and also
their products. This shelf life can be extended by reducing the microbial load and/ or
preventing potentially harmful pathogenic microorganis1ms. Irradiation with higher
doses could allow a much longer shelf life at refrigerator temperatures for fish and
other sea foods and could improve the safety of poultry by eliminating potential
dangerous organisms. In case of fresh fruits and vegetables, irradiation can destroy
surface molds and yeast and thus make the commodities more safe and stable.
III. Treatment of water, sewage and food processing industries wastes. A number of
application are possible in which the food itself is not treated by radiation. some
materials involved in the food processing plants or in the waste disposed system are
so treated.
IV. Disinfestations of grain or dried fruits and of other commodities subjected to insect
attack. Doses of 25krad kill the adults and larvae of major insects infe_ ting grain and
cereals. To prevent recontamination disinfestation can be an extremely useful step in
preserving grain supplies and in preventing insect infestation of the other products
V. Disinfestation; it is a physical or chemical process to destroy or remove small
undesirable animal forms particularly anthropods, or rodents present in food product.
VI. Sprouting in onion, garlic, potatoes and carrot are major problems during storage at
ambient temperature for long period of time. This can be prevented by chemical
treatments, but an alternative method is provided by ionizing radiation. Only about
15 krad is required and the chemical effects of these low does are negligible.
VII. Irradiation at low doses levels can delay ripening and over ripening of tropic fruits like
banana, mangoes and papaya which treated mature but unripe. The shelf life of
irradiated fruits can be further extended by combining with other post-harvest
methods such as waxing, packaging in perforated or closed poly bags, refrigeration
and modified atmosphere.
VIII. Low doses of irradiation when combined with hot water dip treatment (50-55°C for
5-10 min) are found to improve the shelf life as well as reduce fungal decay in fruits.

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IX. Fruit spoilage results principally from infection by the filamentous fungi and yeast
whereas bacterial infection is of minor importance in fruits spoilage. Redurization of
fresh fruit is aimed at control of these spoilage microorganisms.
X. Irradiation is most effective method to sanitize spices. The processing of spices to
reduce the microbial contamination, which often are of the 108 cfu/g in common
spices. This facility has though out of 12000 tonnes per year at an average dose of I0
KG.

IRRADIATION DOSES FOR SOME FOOD

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6.ULTRASOUND METHOD
Ultra sound is probably the most simple and most versatile method for
the destruction of cells and for the production of extracts. It is efficient safe and reliable.
Ultrasound technology have the advantage of relatively low cost and robust process and
associated electronics, a reasonably well establish theory of the interaction between
acoustic fields and materials properties, difference to hostile environments e. g. corrosive
or hot materials, and accessibility to materials opaque to light. In 1959, Mayer and
Tiedemann had made first attempt at ultrasonic non-destructive testing of complex food
system- whole egg. Other application included cell disruption, degassing of liquid,
homogenization of emulsions, and dispersion of aggregated materials, cleaning, animal
back fat thickness estimation low energy ultra-sonification for accelerating aging of wine
and distilled liqueurs and agitation of thixotropic fluids.

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CHAPTER 23
Proximate Analysis of Foods Products

Proximate analysis refers to the quantitative analysis of macromolecules in

food. A combination of different techniques, such as extraction, Kjeldahl, NIR are used to
determine protein, fat, moisture, ash and carbohydrates levels.

1.Determination of moisture content:

A thin layer of finely divided asbestos (gooch grade) is spread over a
flat bottom metallic dish and dried at 110°C in hot air oven for one hour then covered,
cooled and weighed. Sample of 20 g was taken and its weight is recorded as initial weight
of sample (M). The samples are spread uniformly over the asbestos layer in a metallic dish
and weight was recorded as M1. Weighing is done quickly as possible to avoid of moisture.
The dish- containing sample was then placed in the hot air oven maintained at 100 + 1°C
temperature for 16-18 hours. The cover of dish is removed before placing the dish. The
drying is conducted up to 16-18 hours. After drying, the dish is taken out of the oven,
covered with lids and cooled into the desiccators containing activated silica gel. When
dish get cool to the room temperature which generally took about one hour. It is weighed
and its weight was recorded as M. The moisture content tests are carried out in triplicate
and weighing was done to the nearest +1mg. Moisture content of sample was calculated
using following equation.

M1-M0
Moisture content (%)= X100
M0

where,
MC = Moisture content of sample, % (wb)
Mo = Initial weight of sample taken, 20 g
M1 = Weight of sample before oven drying and weight of dish with cover, g
M2 = Weight of the dish with cover containing dried and desiccated sample, g

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2.Determination of total soluble solids (TSS):
Among the various constituents of fresh fruits and vegetables, minerals, acids, sugars,
vitamins B and constitute 80-85 percent of the soluble in water. Sugars constitute 80-85
percent of the soluble solids. The TSS value is defined as the amount of sugar and soluble
minerals present in fruits and vegetables. The method for its determination by means of
a hand refractometer is given below. A hand refractometer is based on the principle of
total refraction. The refractometer should be checked for accuracy before use.
This is done by placing a few drops of distilled water on the prism in
the specimen chamber of the back the cover. By looking through the eye-piece with the
projection inlet facing towards light the point on the scale is noted when the boundary
line of the shaded area eyepiece is rotated to either side for clear reading. The distilled
water reading should be zero. If it is not so, it should be set to zero with the scale
correction knob. The specimen chamber is now cleaned with muslin cloth or tissue paper.
For determining the TSS, a drop of sample (juice, syrup, etc.) is placed on the prism and
the percentages of dry substances in it read directly at temperature of 20°C for proper
accuracy.

3.Determination of acidity as (citric and acetic acids)

Citric acid: Dissolve a known volume or weight of sample in a known volume of distilled
water. From this, take an aliquot and titrate with 0.1 N NaOH using phenolphthalein as
indicator.
The end point is denoted by the appearances of pink colour.

Acetic acid: Dilute 10 ml of sample with water in a porcelain dish (about 5 inches in
diameter). All phenolphthalein as indicator and titrate with 0.5 NaOH.

Calculation

ml NaOH X N NaOH X meq. weight of acid X 100

Titrable acidity =
ml juice titrated

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Note:
meq = milli equivalent
meq wt. of citric acid = 0.06404
meq wt. of acetic acid = 0.0600s
meq wt. of malic acid = 0.067
meq wt. of tartaric acid = 0.075

4. pH Measurement: It is important to accurately measure and control the acidity or

alkalinity of any solution. The degree of acidity and/or alkalinity of a solution are denoted
by using a scale, termed as pH scale. The pH value is based on the actual measurement of
the hydrogen ion concentration in gm/litre of the solution. Example, the hydrogen ion
concentration for pure water, which is neutral solution at 25°C,is 0.0000001 or 1x10 -7
gm/litre. The pH is the measurement of the reciprocal logarithm of hydrogen ion
concentration in a solution. It may be noted that the acid solution increase is strength as
the pH value increase in value above 7.00.

pH = 1/log (H+) or pH = -log (H+)

where,

(H+) is hydrogen ion concentration (g/lit)

pH = 1/log (10-7) = log (107) = 7 log 10 =7x1 = 7

Procedure:
The digital pH meter is kept at stand by position firstly then calibrating the pH 7 and pH 4
standard buffer solutions. The electrode of pH meter is dipped in test solution and the
temperature knob was placed at 0°C control to the temperature of test solution. The
function selector switch is set to pH and reading of digital display was allowed to stabilize
before it was grinds with 100 ml water and filtered through what man filter paper No.1.
The filtered sample is used for pH measurement.

5.Fat Estimation
Apparatus used: Soxhlet apparatus
Solvent Used: Petroleum ether as extraction medium (b. p. 46-60°C)

Procedure: A 15 g of sample is taken in a thumble, which is of porous paper for fat

estimation. The thumble is placed in the extracting tube is connected with the weighed
flask and the condenser too. The heat vaporizes the volatile solvent, which passes up the
side arm and is condensed in the condenser. The condensed solvent fell drop by drop into
the thumble. When sufficient amount of solvent had thus been transferred to the

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extracting tube to fill the siphon arm, it siphoned back over into the weighed flask. This
processed was continued for 20 hr until extraction was completed.
Then the bottom flask was removed, the volatile solvent was evaporated and fat
extracted was obtained as residue. The following formula was used to express fat content
of then sample.

Titre X Weight or Volume of food sample

Fat content (%) = X100
taken x 1000 Initial weight of the food
sample

6.Protein estimation: In this method protein is analytically estimated by determining the

amount of total nitrogen in the samples.

Reagent used:

• Mixed indicator: Prepare 0.1% bromocresol green and 0.1% methyl red indicators in
95% alcohol separately. Mix 10 ml of the bromocresol green with 2 ml of the methyl
red solution in a bottle provided with a dropper which will deliver about 0.05 ml per 4
drops.
• 2% Boric acid: Dissolve 10 g of boric acid (crystal) in 500 ml of boiling distilled water.
After cooling, transfer the solution into glass stoppered bottle. It keeps indefinitely.
• 0.01 N Hydrochloric acid: Check the concentration of the final solution against pure
sodium carbonate.
• 30% Sodium hydroxide: Dissolve 150 g of sodium hydroxide pellets in 350 ml of
distilled water. Store the solution in a bottle closed with a rubber stopper.
• Catalysts for digestion: Mix 2.5 g of powdered selenium dioxide (Se0,); 100 g of
potassium sulphate (K2SO4) and 20 g of copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H20).
• Conc. Sulphuric acid: 98 % pure

Apparatus used: Kjel-dahl apparatus

Procedure:
A 5 g of product sample and 2 g of catalyst mixture is taken into a digestion flask. Then 10
ml Conc. H2SO4 is poured into the mixture and kept for gently heating. The heating was
continued until frothing was ceased and the mixture become light greenish coloured
liquid. The complete digestion required at least 2 hours, The flask is cooled after digestion
and the digestion liquid is maintained up to 100 ml with DMU in a standard 100 ml flask.

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 A 10 ml aliquot of sample is taken and transferred into the digestion flask through
the small funnel and 30 ml of 30% NaOH is also added into the digestion flask and now
again heat the two liquid mixture which evolves. Nitrogen gas which is collected into a
small 100 ml conical flask which contains 100 ml of 2% boric acid and one or two drops of
mixed indicator. This process continued until the bubble formation stops in the boric acid
solution. This process is repeated at least three times.
Now this collected solution is titrated against 0.1 N HCI. The blank is run in the
second test of the experiment and the titration is done in a similar way.

Calculations:

(Sample titre -Blank titre) x N NCIx14x Volume made up of digest X 100

Nitrogen (%) =
Aliquot of digest taken x Weight of the food sample taken X 1000

Protein (%) = Nitrogen (%) x 6. 25

7.Estimation of sugars by Shaffer-Somogyi micro method Reagents

• Copper sulphate solution (10%): Dissolve 100g of copper sulphate in water and
• make up to 1000 ml.
• Potassium iodate solution (0.1 N): Dissolve 0.567 g of potassium iodate in water and
make up to 1000 ml.
• Shaffer-Somogyi carbonate reagent: Dissolve 25 g each in approximately 500 ml of
water in a beaker. Add with stirring 75 ml of copper sulphate solution and 20 g of
sodium bicarbonate. After dissolving, add 5 g of potassium iodide. Transfer the
solution to a I litre volumetric flask; add 250 ml of 0.1 N potassium iodate solution.
Make up to volume, filter and store overnight before use.
• lodide-potassium oxalate solution: Dissolve 2.5 g each of potassium iodide and
potassium oxalate in water and dilute to 100 ml. Prepare afresh every week.
• Thiosulphate solution (0.005 N): Prepare daily from standard stock of 0.1 N solutions.
• Sulphuric acid solution (2 N)
• Potassium oxalate solution (22%)
• Lead acetate solution 45
Procedure
(I) Preparation of sample:
Take 2.5 to 5.0 g sample in a 250 ml of beaker, add about 50 ml of water. Heat to boiling,
cool and transfer to a 250 ml volumetric flask. Add 2 ml lead acetate solution, shake and
allow standing for 10 minutes. Precipitate excess lead by adding 2 ml of potassium oxalate
solution. Make up the volume with water and filter.
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(II) Reducing sugars:
Take 5 ml of filtrate in a test tube, add 5 ml of Shafer Somogyi reagent and mix well.
Simultaneously prepare blank using 5 ml of water and 5 ml of reagent. Place the two tubes
in a water bath for 15 minutes. Remove the tubes carefully without disturbing the
contents and cool in running water for 4 minutes. Along the side of each tube, add 2 ml
of iodide - oxalate solution and then 3 ml of 2 N sulphuric acid and allow both tubes to
stand in cold water for 5 minutes. Then titrate against 0.005 N thiosulphate solution using
starch as indicator. Subtract the titre value of the test solution from that of a blank and
determine the amount of dextrose in 5 ml of solution from the table given below.

(III)Total sugars:
Take 25 ml of filtrate in a 50 ml volumetric flask and add 5ml of HCL (1:1) Allow to stand
for 24 hours at room temperature. Neutralize exactly with NaOH using phenolphthalein
as indicator and make up to volume with water. Take an aliquot and determine the total
invert sugars as in case of reducing sugars.

Calculation

mg of Dextrose Volume made up X 100

Reducing sugar (%) =
5xWeight of food sample taken X 100

Total sugar as invert sugar (%) =

mg of Dextrose X Volume made up X 100

Titre X Weight or Volume of food sample taken x 1000

Sucrose (%) = (% Total invert sugars-% Reducing sugar originally present)x 0.95 % Total
sugars = % Reducing sugars +% Sucrose.

8.Estimation of starch:
After the sugars present in the sample have been leached out, starch is hydrolysed and
estimated as invert sugars.

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Reagents
i. Ethanol (95%)
ii. Ethanol (50%)
iii. HCI
iv. NaOH4

Procedure: To a weighed sample (100 g in case of barley water) add a little water and
heat to 60°C.Allow to stand for some time, add about 100 ml of 95% ethanol and
centrifuge till the precipitate settles at bottom, and filter. Wash the residue with 50%
ethanol and transfer to a 500 ml conical flask with about 100 ml of water. Add 20 ml of
concentrated HCI and place a funnel in the neck of the flask to prevent evaporation and
heat in a boiling water bath for 2% hours. Cool, neutralize with NaOH using
phenolphthalein as indicator and make up to a definite volume with water. Determine
the reducing sugars as described earlier.

Calculation
Starch (%) = Reducing sugars (%) x 0.90

9.Determination of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) by titration

In the absence of interfering substance that may reduce the dye of oxidize ascorbic acid
during sample preparation. The capacity of a sample is to reduce a standard dye solution.
As determined by titration, is directly proportional to the ascorbic acid content.

Reagents
(I). Meta phosphoric acid (HPO3) solution (3%)

(II). Dye solution: Dissolve 50 mg of mately 150 ml of hot distilled water containing 42
mg of sodium bicarbonate. Cool and dilute with distilled water to 200 ml. Store solution
in brown bottle in a refrigerator at about 3°C, standardize every day and prepare a fresh
every week.

(iii). Standard ascorbic acid solution: Dissolve 100 mg of L-ascorbic acid in a small
volume of 3% meta phosphoric acid solution and make up to 100 ml with same solution.
Dilute 10 ml this of stock solution to 100 ml with 3% metaphosphoric acid (0.1 mg ascorbic
acid per ml.)

Procedure

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(i). Standardization of dye: Dilute 5 ml of standard ascorbic acid solution with 5 ml of
solution till pink colour persists for 10 seconds. Calculate the dye factor (mg of ascorbic
acid per ml of dye) as follows:

Dye Factor (D.F) = 0.50/titre

(ii) Preparation of sample and titration:

In case of a liquid or juice sample, take 10 ml sample and make up to 100 ml with 3% HPO3
and filter. In case of a semi-solid or solid product, blend 10 g of sample with 3% HPO, and
then make up to 100ml and filter. Pipette 10 ml of filtrate in to a conical flask and titrate
with the standard dye to a pink end point. If a sample contains sulphur dioxide which
reduces the dye and thus interferes with the ascorbic acid estimation, the following
procedure is followed.

Take 10 ml of filtrate; add 1 ml of 40% formaldehyde and 0.1 ml of HCI. Allow to stand for
10 minutes and then titrate.

Calculation
Ascorbic Acid = (mg/100g) =
Titre X Dye factor X Volume made up X 100

10. Estimation
Volume ofof ash content
filtrate in foodorsamples
taken X Weight volume of sample taken

Procedure: Weigh 2-3 g of food sample in a previously weighed, silica crucible. Heat
crucible first over a low flame to volatilize as much of the organic matter as possible (until
no more smoke is given off by the material), and then heat in a muffle furnace
(temperature controlled) at about 600 C for 3-4 hours. Cool in desiccators and weigh. To
ensure complete ashing, the crucible is again heated in the furnace for 30 minutes, cooled
and weighed.

Calculation

Weight of ash
Percentage of Ash (total minerals)= X100
Initial weight of the sample

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10.Determination of Non-enzymatic browning

Preparation of sample

(i). Liquids and juices: Centrifuge the sample at 4000 rpm for 15 minutes. To 20 ml of
centrifugate add 30 ml of 60 percent alcohol mix thoroughly and filter.

(ii).Semi-solids and solids (pulp, jam, etc.): Blend the sample and to 10 g of blended
sample add 10 ml of distilled water and 30 ml of 60 ml percent alcohol. Mix thoroughly
and filter.

(iii). Dried fruits and vegetables: Soak 5 g of sample in 100 ml of 60 percent alcohol 1or
12 hours and filter.
In the case of chlorophyll containing sample, shake filtrate thrice with 50 ml of
benzene each time to remove chlorophyll, before measurement.

Observation: Record the absorbance of the filtrate at 440 nm using 60 percent alcohol as
blank and express as optical density (O.D.).

11. Determination of pigments in food

(1) Chlorophyll II

Reagent: Acetone (80%)

Procedure: Take 1 g of fresh sample, cut into small pieces, add about 5 ml of water and
homogenize in blender. Make up homogenate to 10 ml with water and centrifuge
solution. Take 0.5 ml aliquot and add 4.5 ml of 80% acetone to it to extract pigments.
Centrifuge, remove the supernatant and record its optical density (O.D.) at 480, 645 and
663 nm, and using 80% acetone as a blank.

Calculation
Total chlorophyll (g/litre) = (0.0202) (O.D. at 645) + (0.00802) (O.D. at 663)
Chlorophyll a (g/litre) = (0.0127) (O.D. at 663) (0.00269) (O.D. at 645)
Chlorophyll b (g/litre) = (0.0229) (O.D. at 645) - (0.00488) (O.D. at 663)
Carotene (g/litre) = (O.D. at 480) - (0.114) (O.D. at 663) (0.638) (O.D. at 645)

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(2) Lycopene

Procedure:
Take of 5 to 10 g of sample and crush repeatedly in acetone in a pestle and mortar
until the residue is colourless. Transfer the acetone extracts to a separatory funnel
containing 10 to 15 ml of petroleum ether. Mix gently to take up the pigments in to the
petroleum ether phase. Transfer the lower (acetone) phase to a 100 ml volumetric flask
and extract it repeatedly with petroleum ether until colourless. Combine the petroleum
ether extracts and dry over a small quantity of anhydrous sodium sulphate. Make up to
100 ml with petroleum ether and measure the O.D. of the solution at 503 nm using
petroleum ether as blank.

Calculation
O.D. of 1.0 = 3.1206 µg of lycopene /ml

3.1206 X O.D. of sample X Volume made up X Dilution

Lycopene (mg/100g) =
Weight of sample X 1000

(3) Beta - carotene

Reagents: Acetone, anhydrous sodium sulphate, petroleum ether.

Procedure
Take 5 g of fresh sample and crush in 10-15 ml acetone, adding a few crystals of anhydrous
sodium sulphate, with the help of pestle and mortar. Decant the supernatant in to a
beaker. Repeat the process twice and transfer the combined supernatant to a separatory
funnel add 10-15 ml petroleum ether and mix thoroughly, two layers will separate out on
standing. Discard the lower layer and collect upper layer in a 100 ml volumetric flask,
make up the volume to 100 ml with petroleum ether and record optical density at 452 nm
using petroleum ether as blank.

Calculation

O.D X 13.9 X 104

Beta-Carotene (u g/100g) = X100
Weight of sample X 560 X 1000

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Vitamin A (I.U.) = Beta-Carotene (µg/100g)

0.6
(4) Anthocyanin

(i) In skins
Reagents
(i) Ethanal (95%)
(ii) HCI

Procedure: 10 discs of S mm each are taken in a screw cap culture tube containing 20 mi
of 95 percent ethanol to which 0.1 ml of concentrated HCI is added. Tubes are tightly
capped, placed in a water bath for 5 minutes and then kept in the dark for 2 hours. Now
record the absorbance at 530nm as O.D. /10 discs.

(ii) In Pulp

Reagents
Ethanolic HCI solution: Prepare by mixing 95% ethanol and 1.5 N HCI in the ratio of 85:15.

Procedure: Blend 10 g of sample with 10 ml of ethanolic HCI and transfer to a 100 ml

volumetric flask and make up to volume. Store overnight in a refrigerator at 4°C, filter
through Whatman No. 1 filter paper and record optical density (0.D.) of filtrate at 535 nm.
Calculation

Total O.D./100g = O.D. X Volume made up X 100

Weight of sample

Total Anthocyanins (mg/100g) = Total O.D./100g

98.2

12. Determination of total pectin as calcium pectate:

Pectin extracted from the plant material is saponified with alkali and precipitated from an
acid solution as calcium pectate by the addition of calcium chloride.

Reagents

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(i). 1 N acetic acid: Prepared by dissolving 30 ml of glacial acetic acid in a little water a
making up the volume to 500 ml with water.

(ii) 1 N calcium chloride: Prepared by dissolving 27.5 g of anhydrous calcium chloride in

water and making up to 500 ml volume.
(iii) 0.05 N HCI
(iv) 1 N NaOH
(v) Phenolphthalein indicator.

Procedure: Take 50 g of blended sample in 1000 ml beaker. Add about 400 ml of 0.05 N
HCI and heat the contents for 2 hours at 80-90°C (in case of jam, jelly and marmalade.
acid is not added, the sample is boiled in 400 ml of water only with stirring). Replace water
lost by evaporation. Cool and transfer to a 500 ml volumetric flask, make up the volume
and filter.

Pipette a 100 ml aliquot into a conical flask and add 250 ml of distilled water.
Neutralize the acid with 1N NaOH using phenolphthalein as indicator. Add another 10 ml
of 1 N NaOH and allow standing overnight. Now add 50 ml of IN acetic acid followed by
25 ml of 1 N calcium chloride. Allow to stand for 1 hour, boil for 1-2 minutes and filter
through a previously weighed filter paper (wet the filter paper in hot water, dry in oven
at 100°c for 2 hours, cool in desiccator and weigh). Wash the precipitate free of chloride
with hot water. Dry the precipitate, cool in desiccator and weigh again.

Calculation

Weight of precipitates X 500 X 100

% Pectin (as Calcium pectate) =
ml of filtrate X Weight of sample estimation

13. Determination of rehydration ratio:

According to Ranganna (1994), there is no standard time for rehydration of dried fruits
and vegetables. It varies from product to product. Rehydration time was, therefore,
standardized through trial runs. Dehydrated material weighing 5 g was placed in 500-ml
beaker containing 150 ml of boiled distilled water. Beaker was covered with a watch glass
and continued to boil for 20 min. 1hen samples were transferred into a 7.5 cm Buchner
funnel covered with a coarsely porous Whatman filter paper No.4. After filtration,

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samples were removed from funnel and weighed immediately. Rehydration ratio was
calculated using the following equation.

Rehydration Ratio = A/B

where,

A = Weight of mushrooms samples after rehydration, g

B = Weight of dehydrated mushrooms samples before rehydration, g

14. Determination of browning index:

Browning index (OD) of dehydrated mushroom sample was determined by using method
recommended by Srivastava and Kumar (1994). A brief description is given below:
A 5 gm of dried sample was soaked in 100 ml of 60% ethyl alcohol solution
for 12 hours and filtered through what man No.1 filter paper. After the filtration,
absorbance of the filtrate was measured at 440 nm by the digital spectrophotometer
using 60% ethyl alcohol as blank and expressed as optical density.

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