Physics (Extended)

Date @February 14, 2023

Code 0625/42

Day Tuesday

Duration 1h 15m

Session PM

Status Not started

Time 2:00 - 3:15

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to the observer

In a U-tube manometer:

The height difference formed by the medium = difference in air pressure of the gases being tested.

If Pa ir > P g as : Pg as = Pa ir − P dif f e r e nce

If Pa ir < P g as : Pg as = Pa ir + P dif f e r e nce
For circular motion:

F ∝v
F ∝ 1/r

F∝m

F = mv2 /r

Friction reduces motion and causes heating

An object is in equilibrium when it has no resultant moment or force acting on it

F = ∆p/∆t
Kinetic energy = Ek

Potential energy / Gravitational potential energy = Ep

Energy maybe stored as

i. Kinetic energy

ii. G.P.E

iii. Chemical energy

iv. Electrostatic energy

v. Strain energy

vi. Internal (Thermal) energy

Energy is transferred by:

Physics (Extended) 1
 forces (mechanical work
done)

electrical currents (electrical work done)

heating

by electromagnetic waves - including light

by sound and other waves

Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy transferred

It is always thermal energy not heat energy.

Eg. Kinetic energy is reduced, and other forms of energy, such as thermal energy, is increased.

Always write energy changes as positive

Infrared and other electromagnetic waves from the Sun are the source of wind energy

T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

At absolute zero, particles have least kinetic energy

The random motion of microscopic particles in a suspension is evidence for the kinetic particle model of matter

Microscopic particles move because of collisions with light fast-moving molecules

Temperature = Average Ek (K.E) of all the particles

Internal Energy = Total Ek of all the particles

Thermal Energy is the energy that is released by a hot object

Specific Heat Capacity: Energy required per unit mass per unit temperature increase

To demonstrate properties of good and bad thermal conductors - Wax and nail test with different material base rod

Thermal radiation is infrared radiation emitted by all objects

For an object to be at a constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away from the object at the same rate that it
receives energy

Comparing emitters of radiation: A metal cube is filled with boiling water which heats the surfaces to the same temperature.
A thermal detector is placed in turn at the same distance from each surface and the meter readings are compared.

Positive charges never move, only negative charges move

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter

It is a line on which the particles transmitting the wave are vibrating in phase (unison)

Seismic waves:

Waves produced by earthquakes, volcanoes and explosions

Two types

i. P-waves

Longitudinal

Faster

Through solids and liquids

ii. S-waves

Transverse

Slower

Through solids only

Seismometer used to detect waves.

Detection of waves used to analyse internal structure of the earth

Selective travelling of P and S-waves

Physics (Extended) 2
 Can be:
✅ Reflected
✅ Absorbed
✅ Transmitted (Refraction)
➖ Change in direction as they move from one medium to another because of different densities of medium (layers
of earth).
➖ They curve because of constant bending through different mediums.

Only true for P-waves because S-waves cannot pass through liquid layers

➖
Transverse wave:

eg. Electromagnetic radiation, water waves and seismic S-waves (secondary)

Wavelength is the distance between two crests or two troughs

Refractive index, n, is the ratio of the speeds of a wave in two different regions

n = sini/sinr = 1/sinc = v/c = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium

Refractive index not same back and forth from one medium to another

Consider the angle of incidence as angle of refraction when going backwards to refractive index given

Total Internal Reflection is reflection in a more dense medium where there is no refracted ray.

Short sightedness - concave: push focal point back, closer to retina

Long sightedness - convex: pull focal point further onto retina

When light enters a curved transparent surface, it is always perpendicular.

Angle − of − incidence = Angle − of − refraction = 0°

All of the wavefronts hit the curved surface at the same time, so all of it is slowed down equally at the same time,
hence the light does not bend.

For convex lens:

Object distance (u) Type of image Image distance (v) Uses

Infinity (Beyond 2F) - inverted - real - diminished At F’ - object lens of a telescope

Beyond 2F - inverted - real - diminished Between F’ and 2F’ camera eye

At 2F - inverted - real - same size At 2F’ - photocopier making same-sized copy

Between F and 2F - inverted - real - magnified Beyond 2F’ - projector - photograph enlarger

Physics (Extended) 3
 at F - - upright - virtual - magnified Infinity (Beyond 2F) - to produce a parallel beam of light, e.g. a spotlight
Less than F - upright - virtual - magnified Behind the Object - magnifying glass

After refraction, wavelength and speed both decrease — frequency remains the same

Energy of waves α frequency

Harmful effects:

Microwaves - Internal heating of body cells

Infrared - skin burns

UV - Damage to surface cells and eyes —> skin cancer

X-rays and Gamma - Mutation or cell damage

Communication with artificial satellites is using microwaves

Satellite phones use low orbit artificial satellites or geostationary satellites

Direct broadcast television uses geostationary satellites

Microwaves used in mobile communication because they can penetrate some walls, can be transmitted and recepted over
a short area

Bluetooth uses low energy radio or microwaves because they can pass through walls, but not for too long.

Optical fibres use visible light or IR because glass is transparent to them (the rays experience less resistance to
movement) and they can carry high speed data.

Light can transfer energy from place to place

Diffraction of waves:

Wavelength Diffraction

Wavelength < Barrier gap size / Edge width Very little

Wavelength = Barrier gap size / Edge width Maximum

Wavelength > Barrier gap size / Edge width No diffraction, only reflection

Important for high flying waves to reach lower lying receivers in hilly regions

Mountains act as barriers, they diffract the waves and make them reach longer distance and also lower because of
curved shape after diffraction

Analogue signal is continuous electrical signal.

Digital is non-continuous electrical signal.

It can be 1s and 0s or Highs and Lows or Ons and Offs

Physics (Extended) 4
 Graph of a digital signal

An echo is a reflection of sound waves

Ultrasound is used in non-destructive testing of materials, medical scanning of soft tissue and sonar to calculate depth

Signals for speech or music are made up of varying frequencies

In order to make out the information clearly, the signal needs to be transmitted with as little interference as possible

The key advantages of transmission of data in digital form compared to analogue are:

The signal can be regenerated so there is minimal noise

Due to accurate signal regeneration, the range of digital signals is larger than the range of analogue signals (they
can cover larger distances)

Digital signals enable an increased rate of transmission of data compared to analogue

Extra data can be added so that the signal can be checked for errors

Resistance of LDR ∝1/ Light intensity

R ∝V
Scattering of alpha (α) particles by a sheet of thin metal supports:

Small nucleus surrounded by empty space

Nucleus containing most mass

Nucleus (+ve) charged

In both nuclear fission and fusion, mass decreases as it is lost as energy

The sun mostly emits UV, IR and visible light.

Background radiation is the radiation that we are exposed to generally in the environment because of several natural
sources such as radon in air, rocks and buildings, cosmic rays from atmosphere etc.

Emission of radiation is spontaneous and random

Radioactive decay produces α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation

Property ⍺ rays β rays ɣ rays

Helium nucleus - He They are

They are electrons (1e), basic elementary particle in all
What are they? consisting of two protons and electromagnetic waves
atoms.
two neutrons. consisting of photons.

Positively charged particles. Neutral particles.

Negatively charged particles. Charge of each beta particle
Charge Charge of each alpha particle Charge of each gamma
= -e
= +2e particle = zero

High 100x Beta 10,000x

Ionising power Low Very low
Gamma
Penetrating
Low penetrating power / Paper High Penetrating Power
power / Medium penetrating power / Aluminium Foil (mm)
(mm) / thick lead block (cm)
Stopped By
Effect of Deflected by both the fields. Deflected by both the fields; but the direction of deflection
They are not deflected
electric and (in accordance with Fleming's is opposite to that for alpha rays. (in accordance with
by both the fields.
magnetic field left hand rule) Fleming's left hand rule)
Magnetic field Attracted to South pole Attracted to North pole Not deflected by any

Electric field Attracted to negative Attracted to positive Not deflected by any

Their speed ranges from 1/10

They travel with the
Speed to 1/20 times the speed of Their speed can go up to 9/10 times the speed of light.
speed of light.
light.

Physics (Extended) 5
 Distance 5cm 15cm Several Metres
Travelled

Isotopes are radioactive and unstable because of excess of neutrons

Ratio of count rates = 2no .  o f  hal f  l iv e s

Background radiation = value where graph becomes constant / straight line

Total time ÷ No. of half lives = Time for one half life

Decay causes the atom to become stable

Decay equations:
A
ZX → A − 4 Z − 2 Y + 42 He
(or)
A
ZX → A − 4 Z − 2 Y + 42 α
0
A
ZX →A
Z +1Y + −1e
(or)
0
A
ZX →A
Z +1Y + −1β
0
A
ZX →A
Z X + 0γ

Half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half of the nuclei of isotope to decay

Always write in number of days (decimal is fine)

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields

A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic pole experiences a force

The direction of a magnetic field line is the same as the direction of the force a north pole will experience when placed in
the magnetic field line.

Charging by friction only has the transfer of electrons or negative charge

Electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force

Direction of electric field is the same as the direction of force on positive charge

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in moving 1C around a circuit

Voltage (p.d.) is work done by 1C charge in pass through a component

E(e.m.f.) = W /Q
Current-voltage graphs:

For fixed resistor (I α V)

For filament lamp (Resistance increases with temperature → V increases faster than I):

Physics (Extended) 6
 For diode (resistor with high resistance in one direction and low in the other):

To produce these graphs, a variable resistor is used (along with ammeter and voltmeter) to change the current to then
draw graph.

A variable potential divider reduces the voltage from a source, variably (you can choose how much output voltage you
want).

In a potential divider circuit:

R1 (of − fixed − resistor)/R2 (of − variable − resistor) = V1 /V2

V α 1/R(of the variable resistor)

If in a circuit containing a diode, the current flowing in both directions from an alternating source, passes through a
component in one direction, the graph of voltage in the component looks like this:

Physics (Extended) 7
 Symbols:

Current in series circuit is same throughout, voltage is divided based on resistance

V1 + V2 = V
R1 + R2 = R
Voltage in parallel circuit is same throughout, current is divided based on resistance.

I1 + I2 = I
1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/R
In a parallel circuit, all lamps are equally bright. If one breaks, rest will still work. You can also add individual switches to
each bulb.

Physics (Extended) 8
 Mains circuit consists of live wire (brings in electrical current), neutral wire (takes out current) and earth wire (connects to
body of appliance and takes away electrical current to ground in case of breaking of insulation)

Fuse connected to live wire to stop current from entering if it is too big

Switch connected to live wire to stop current from entering.

Appliances can also have insulation for safety.

A fuse with double-insulation can provide enough protection

Field lines of a magnet:

Inducing magnetism:

Magnetising -

1. Place material in solenoid with increasing direct current.

2. Place material next to a magnet

3. Stroke material with one pole of magnet

4. Hammering while in magnetic field (magnetic field going in north-south direction of magnet)

Demagnetising -

1. Hammer magnet while not in magnetic field. If in magnetic field, then place in east-west direction of magnet

Physics (Extended) 9
 2. Heat magnet

3. Place in decreasing alternating current solenoid.

Steel - hard magnetic material. Longer to magnetise, stays for longer

Iron - soft magnetic material. Less time to magnetise, stays for shorter time.

Field lines of charges:

The direction of the induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) opposes the change which produces it.

Magnet moving in electric field or conductor moving in magnetic field or conductor in changing magnetic field induces e.m.f

Direction of induced e.m.f opposes the direction of movement of conductor or magnet

Physics (Extended) 10
 A.C. generator:

Slip ring is there to prevent the wire of the coil from tangling and also to ensure that the terminals are the same
throughout.

When wire parallel to magnetic field, no e.m.f produced

When wire perpendicular to magnetic field, maximum e.m.f produced

Graph:

Induced magnetic field:

In a solenoid:

Strongest near poles/edges

In a wire:

Strongest near wire, decreases away from

Fleming’s left hand rule:

Physics (Extended) 11
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force and hence moves.

Motor:

Split-ring commutator used to swap negative and positive connections every half turn so that direction of
current swaps and the force on the coil is always in the same direction.

Without split-ring commutator, it would oscillate back and forth and would be useless.

Soft-iron core is used in a transformer to reduce losses because it can easily magnetise and de-magnetise transferring the
magnetic field.

VP /Vs = NP /NS
For 100% efficient transformer:

IP VP = IS VS
Electricity is transmitted with high-voltage to reduce power losses because:

In P = IV , V α 1/I
and

P (power) = I 2 R [Only for power losses in cables]

P = V 2 /R
Planets orbit around the sun because it has the highest mass in the universe.

Sun radiates energy as IR, visible light and UV rays.

Redshift is increase in wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from receding stars

H0 = 2.2 ∗ 10− 18 /s
Write all whole number answers or extremely long answers which have a larger whole number part (>1000) with 2 s.f.
accuracy

Write all decimal answers with 1 d.p. accuracy

Kinetic energy decreases because it is lost as other forms of energy, as these other forms of energy increase.

General for energy

When referring to limit of proportionality (L.O.P.) always refer to load as being proportional to extension, instead of force.

Physics (Extended) 12
 Questions to remember
1. The motor M also needs to run on the same 12V car battery, but the relay has to turn it on

2. The circuits are considered as series and parallel

The first two resistors are connected in series. The first two series resistors, are connected to the third resistor in parallel. The parallel connection of
the three resistors is connected to the third resistor in series.

3. Consider moment from the pivot of rope, to connection on human. Consider the distances as forces and calculate using
sin.

Physics (Extended) 13
 Lucius tables:

Approx Approx
Type of
Wavelength Wavelength Uses Extra Danger Mnemonic Mnem
Radiation
Range Range / m

Radio and
Television
Radio / Radio Longest
1 m - km > 0.1 Transmissions Romeo’s Ragin
Waves Wavelength
(Sound, Pictures)
and Astronomy
international
telecommunications
and direct
Internal heating
Microwaves 0.01mm - 1 cm 0.1 to 10 ^ -3 broadcast satellite Majorly Martia
of body cells
television,
microwave ovens,
Radar Detection
Electric grills, short
range
communications,
intruder alarms,
10 ^ -3 to 7 * 10 Radiant Heat,
Infra-Red 0.7µm - 0.01mm
^ -7
thermal imaging,
optical fibres,
℃
500 , Red Hot
Skin Burns Injured Invad

satellite weather
forecasting, drying
paints
Red: 0.0007 mm Vision,
4*10^-7 to
Light Violet: Photography, Sun Leg Venus
7*10^-7
0.0004mm Illumination
security marking, Damage to
High exposure is
detecting fake bank surface cells
Ultraviolet 0.1µm - 0.4µm 10 ^ -7 to 10 ^ -8 harmful, Mercury Used Using
notes, sterilising and eyes, skin
Lamp
water, cancer
Absorbed by
living cells,
medical scanning, Mutation,
X-Rays 1nm - 0.1µm 10^-8 to 10^-13 cannot pass X-ray X-Ray
security scanners Damage to cells
through metals,
X-Ray Tube

Physics (Extended) 14
 Approx Approx
Type of
Wavelength Wavelength Uses Extra Danger Mnemonic Mnem
Radiation
Range Range / m

sterilising food and

medical equipment,
High
detection of cancer
penetrating, Mutation,
Gamma Rays 0.01nm 10^-10 to 10^-16 and its treatment, Grilling Guns
Radioactive Damage to cells
detecting flaws in
Matter
engineering
equipment

Physics (Extended) 15