PART 2
Distance Measurement
Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying
observations. In traditional ground surveys, even though many angles may be read, the length
of at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points. In plane
surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If the points are at
different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length between vertical lines at the points.
Lengths of lines may be specified in different units. In the United States, the foot,
decimally divided, is usually used although the meter is becoming increasingly more common.
Geodetic surveys, and many highway surveys employ the meter. In architectural and machine
work, and on some construction projects, the unit is a foot divided into inches and fractions of
an inch.
SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR MAKING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
Fundamentals of Surveying
In surveying, linear measurements have been obtained by many different methods. These
include (1) pacing, (2) odometer readings, (3) optical rangefinders, (4) tacheometry (stadia), (5)
subtense bars, (6) taping, (7) electronic distance measurement (EDM), (8) satellite systems, and others.
Of these, surveyors most commonly use taping, EDM, and satellite systems today. In particular, the
satellite-supported Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are rapidly replacing all other systems
due to many advantages, but most notably because of
their range, accuracy, and efficiency.
Triangulation is a method for determining positions of points from which horizontal distances
can be computed. In this procedure, lengths of lines are computed trigonometrically from measured
baselines and angles. Photogrammetry can also be used to obtain horizontal distances. Besides these
methods, distances can be estimated, a technique useful in making field note sketches and checking
observations for mistakes. With practice, estimating can be done quite accurately
PACING
Distances obtained by pacing are sufficiently accurate for many purposes in surveying, 1
engineering, geology, agriculture, forestry, and military field sketching. Pacing is also used to
detect blunders that may occur in making distance observations by more accurate methods.
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required distance. The
length of an individual’s pace must be determined first. This is best done by walking with
natural steps back and forth over a level course at least 300 ft long, and dividing the known
distance by the average number of steps. For short distances, the length of each pace is
needed, but the number of steps taken per 100 ft is desirable for checking long lines.
It is possible to adjust one’s pace to an even 3 ft, but a person of average height finds
such a step tiring if maintained for very long. The length of an individual’s pace varies when
going uphill or downhill and changes with age. For long distances, a pocket instrument called
a pedometer can be carried to register the number of paces, or a passometer attached to the
body or leg counts the steps. Some surveyors prefer to count strides, a stride being two paces.
Pacing is one of the most valuable things learned in surveying, since it has practical
applications for everybody and requires no equipment. If the terrain is open and reasonably
level, experienced pacers can measure distances of 100 ft or longer with an accuracy of 1/50
to 1/100 of the distance.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Illustrative Problem:
A 45m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of determining
his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial are taken as shown in the accompanying
tabulation.
PACING DATA
TAPE
TRIAL LINE # OF PACES MEAN
DISTANCE
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
45m 52
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
Requirements:
A. Determine his pace factor
B. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772 and 769 paces in walking an unknown
distance CD, what is the length of the line?
C. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0m, determine the relative precision of
2 the measurement performed.
Solution:
A. Determining Pace Factor
L = 45m (length of line AB)
n1 = 6 (number of trials taken on line AB)
Sum = (50+53+51+53+52+53) = 312 paces
M1 = sum/n1 = 312/6 = 52 paces
PF = L/M1 = 45m/52 paces = 0.865 m/pace
B. Determining Unknown Distance
n2 = 6 (number of trials taken on line CD)
Sum = (771+770+768+770+772+769) = 4620 paces
M2 = 4620/6 = 770 paces
PD = 770 paces x 0.865 m/pace = 666.1m (paced length of line CD)
C. Determining Relative Precision
TD = 667m (taped distance)
PD = 666.1m (paced distance)
RP = (TD-PD)/TD = (667-666.1)/667 = 1/741 say 1/700
Fundamentals of Surveying
TACHEOMETRY
Tacheometry (stadia is the more common term in the United States) is a surveying
method used to quickly determine the horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. Stadia
observations are obtained by sighting through a telescope equipped with two or more
horizontal cross wires at a known spacing. The apparent intercepted length between the top
and bottom wires is read on a graduated rod held vertically at the desired point. The distance
from telescope to rod is found by proportional relationships in similar triangles. An accuracy
of 1/500 of the distance is achieved with reasonable care.
The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a telescope with two horizontal
hairs and a graduated rod called a stadia rod. The telescopes of most surveying instruments
are equipped with stadia hairs which are placed an equal distance on either side of the
horizontal cross hair (Figure 9-a)
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Figure 9-a: stadia hair
The spacing of the stadia hairs is sa designed that at a distance of 100 meters their
intercept on a vertical rod will be about 1 meter. At 200 meters, then, the intercept should be
about 2 meters, and so on. It is important that the line of sight is horizontal and it intersects
Fundamentals of Surveying
the rod at right angles.
From the observed interval read on the rod, the distance from the telescope to the rod
is found by proportional relationships in similar triangles. The equation D = Ks + C is
employed in computing horizontal distances from stadia intervals. The stadia constant C is
the distance from the center of the instrument to the principal focus.Its value is usually equal
to zero for internal focusing telescopes. K is the stadia interval factor of the instrument. Most
instruments are so designed that this value is made equal to 100.The stadia interval, s, is
determined in the field by observing the difference between the upper stadia hair reading and
the lower stadia hair reading. Figure 9-b shows an example of obtaining horizontal distance
by tacheometry.
Figure 9-b: determination of
horizontal distance by
tacheometry
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TAPING
Although most distances are now measured using total stations or other EDM devices,
there are still many applications for the use of fiberglass and steel tapes. Taping is used for
short distances and in many construction applications.
TAPING ON LEVEL GROUND
The subsections that follow describe six steps in taping on level ground using a tape.
1. Lining In
Using range poles, the line to be measured should be marked at both ends, and at intermediate
points where necessary, to ensure unobstructed sight lines. Taping requires a minimum of two
people, a forward tapeperson and a rear tapeperson. The forward tapeperson is lined in by
the rear tapeperson. Directions are given by vocal or hand signals.
Fundamentals of Surveying
2. Applying Tension
The rear tapeperson holding the 100-ft end of a tape over the first (rear) point lines in while
the forward tapeperson, holding the zero end of the tape. For accurate results the tape must be
straight and the two ends held at the same elevation. A specified tension, generally between
10 and 25 lb, is applied. To maintain a steady pull, tapepersons wrap the leather thong at the
tape’s end around one hand, keep forearms against their bodies, and face at right angles to the
line. In this position, they are off the line of sight. Also, the body need only be tilted to hold,
decrease, or increase the pull. Sustaining a constant tension with outstretched arms is difficult,
if not impossible, for a pull of 15 lb or more. Good communication between forward and rear
tapepersons will avoid jerking the tape, save time, and produce better results.
3. Plumbing
Weeds, brush, obstacles, and surface irregularities may make it undesirable to lay a tape on
the ground. In those cases, the tape is held above ground in a horizontal position. Placing the
plumb-bob string over the proper tape graduation and securing it with one thumb, mark each
end point on the tape. The rear tapeperson continues to hold a plumb bob over the fixed point,
while the forward tapeperson marks the length. In measuring a distance shorter than a full
tape length, the forward tapeperson moves the plumb-bob string to a point on the tape over
the ground mark.
4. Marking Tape Lengths 5
When the tape has been lined in properly, tension has been applied, and the rear tapeperson is
over the point, “stick” is called out. The forward tapeperson then places a pin exactly
opposite the zero mark of the tape and calls “stuck.” The marked point is checked by
repeating the measurement until certainty of its correct location is assured. After checking the
measurement, the forward tapeperson signals that the point is OK, the rear tapeperson pulls
up the rear pin, and they move ahead. The forward tapeperson drags the tape, paces roughly
100 ft, and stops. The rear tapeperson calls “tape” to notify the forward tapeperson that they
have gone 100 ft just before the 100-ft end reaches the pin that has been set. The process of
measuring 100-ft lengths is repeated until a partial tape length is needed at the end of the line.
5. Reading the Tape
6. Recording the Distance
HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS ON SLOPING GROUND
Fundamentals of Surveying
In taping on uneven or sloping ground, it is standard practice to hold the tape
horizontally and use a plumb bob at one or perhaps both ends. It is difficult to keep the plumb
line steady for heights above the chest. Wind exaggerates this problem and may make
accurate work impossible.
On steeper slopes, where a 100-ft length cannot be held horizontally without
plumbing from above shoulder level, shorter distances are measured and accumulated to total
a full tape length. This procedure, called breaking tape, is illustrated in Figure 10-a. As an
example of this operation, assume that when taping down slope, the 100-ft end of the tape is
held at the rear point, and the forward tapeperson can advance only 30 ft without being forced
to plumb from above the chest. A pin is therefore set beneath the 70-ft mark, as in Figure 10-
b. The rear tapeperson moves ahead to this pin and holds the 70-ft graduation there while
another pin is set at, say, the 25-ft mark. Then, with the 25-ft graduation over the second pin,
the full 100-ft distance is marked at the zero point. In this way, the partial tape lengths are
added mechanically to make a full 100 ft by holding the proper graduations, and no mental
arithmetic is required. The rear tapeperson returns the pins set at the intermediate points to
the forward tapeperson to keep the tally clear on the number of full tape lengths
established.To avoid kinking the tape, the full 100-ft length is pulled ahead by the forward
tapeperson into position for measuring the next tape length. In all cases the tape is leveled by
eye or hand level, with the tapepersons remembering the natural tendency to have the
downhill end of a tape too low. Practice will improve the knack of holding a tape horizontally
by keeping it perpendicular to the vertical plumb bob string.
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Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 10-a: Breaking Tape
Figure 10-b: Procedure for breaking tape
SLOPE MEASUREMENTS
In measuring the distance between two points on a steep slope, rather than break tape
every few feet, it may be desirable to tape along the slope and compute the horizontal
component.This requires measurement also of either the altitude angle or the difference in
elevation d (Figure 11). Breaking tape is more time consuming and generally less accurate
due to the accumulation of random errors from marking tape ends and keeping the tape level
and aligned for many short sections.
In Figure 11, if altitude angle α is determined, the horizontal distance between points
A and B can be computed from the relation
H = L cos α
where H is the horizontal distance between points, L the slope length separating them, and α
the altitude angle from horizontal, usually obtained with an Abney hand level and clinometer
(hand device for measuring angles of inclination). If the difference in elevation d between the
ends of the tape is measured, which is done by leveling, the horizontal distance can be
computed using the following expression derived from the Pythagorean theorem:
Fundamentals of Surveying
8
SOURCES OF ERROR IN TAPING
There are three fundamental sources of error in taping
1. Instrumental errors. A tape may differ in actual length from its nominal graduated length
because of a defect in manufacture or repair, or as a result of kinks.
2. Natural errors. The horizontal distance between end graduations of a tape varies because
of the effects of temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself.
3. Personal errors. Tapepersons setting pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment.
The most common types of taping errors are discussed in the subsections that follow. They
stem from instrumental, natural, and personal sources. Some types produce systematic errors,
others produce random errors.
Standard Conditions For The Use of Steel Tapes
Because steel tapes can give different measurements when used under various tension,
Fundamentals of Surveying
support, and temperature conditions, it is necessary to provide standards for their use.
Standard taping conditions are shown below:
In the real world of field surveying, the abovenoted standard conditions seldom occur at the
same time. The temperature is usually something other than standard, and in many instances
the tape cannot be fully supported (one end of the tape is often held off the ground to keep it
horizontal). If the tape is not fully supported, the standard tension of 10 lbs does not apply.
When standard conditions are not present, systematic errors will be introduced into the tape 9
measurements. The following sections illustrate how these systematic errors are treated.
Incorrect Length of Tape
Incorrect length of a tape can be one of the most important errors. It is systematic. Tape
manufacturers do not guarantee steel tapes to be exactly their graduated nominal length.The
true length is obtained by comparing it with a standard tape or distance.
An error,caused by incorrect length of a tape,occurs each time the tape is used. If the true
length, known by standardization, is not exactly equal to its nominal value of 100.00 ft
recorded for every full length, the correction can be determined as
where CL is the correction to be applied to the measured (recorded) length of a line to obtain
the true length, l the actual tape length, l’ the nominal tape length, and L the measured
(recorded) length of line.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Example: A measurement was recorded as 171.278 m with a 30-m tape that was only
29.996 m under standard conditions. What is the corrected measurement?
Solution:
Correction per tape length = -0.004
Number of times the tape was used = 171.278/30
Total correction = -0.004 * 171.278/30 = -0.023 m
Corrected distance = 171.278 - 0.023 = 171.255 m
or
= 29.996/30 * 171.278 = 171.255 m
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Temperature Other Than Standard
Steel tapes are standardized for 68°F (20°C) in the United States. A temperature
higher or lower than this value causes a change in length that must be considered. The
coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of steel used in ordinary tapes is
approximately 0.00000645 per unit length per degree Fahrenheit, and 0.0000116 per unit
length per degree Celsius. For any tape, the correction for temperature can be computed as
CT = k ( T1 - T ) L
where CT is the correction in the length of a line caused by nonstandard temperature, k the
coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of the tape, T1 the tape temperature at the
time of measurement, T the tape temperature when it has standard length, and L the observed
(recorded) length of line. The correction CT will have the same units as L, which can be either
feet or meters.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Example #1:
A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/ºC is known to be
50m long at 20ºC. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be 532.28 meters
long when the temperature was 35ºC. Determine the following:
A. Temperature correction per tape length
B. Temperature correction for the measured line
C. Correct length of the line
Solution:
A. CT = CL (T1-T) = 0.0000116 (50) (35-20) = +0.0087m
B. CT = CL (T1-T) = 0.0000116 (532.28) (35-20) = +0.0926m
C. L’ = L +/- CT = 532.28 + 0.0926 = 532.37m
When MEASURING, the correction is ADDED when tape is TOO LONG and
SUBTRACTED when tape is TOO SHORT
Example #2:
A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20ºC, is used in laying out a runway
2,500.00m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/ºC, determine the
temperature correction and the correct length to be laid out when the temperature is 42ºC.
11
Solution:
CT = CL (T1-T) = 0.0000116 (2500) (42-20) = +0.638
L’ = L +/- CT = 2500 - 0.638 = 2,499.36m
When LAYING OUT, the correction is SUBTRACTED when tape is TOO LONG
and ADDED when tape is TOO SHORT
Inconsistent Pull
When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its standard pull (the tension at
which it was calibrated), the tape will stretch and become longer than its standard length.
Conversely, if less than standard pull is used, the tape will be shorter than its standard length.
The modulus of elasticity of the tape regulates the amount that it stretches. The correction for
pull can be computed and applied using the following formula
Fundamentals of Surveying
where CP is the total elongation in tape length due to pull, in feet; P1 the pull applied to the
tape at the time of the observation, in pounds; P the standard pull for the tape, in pounds; A
the cross-sectional area of the tape, in square inches; E the modulus of elasticity of steel, in
pounds per square inch; and L the observed (recorded) length of line. An average value of E
is 29,000,000 lb/in2 for the kind of steel typically used in tapes. In the metric system, to
produce the correction CP in meters, comparable units of P and P1 are kilograms, L is meters,
A is square centimeters, and E is kilograms per square centimeter. An average value of E for
steel in these units is approximately 2,000,000 kg/cm2 .
Example #1: A 100-ft tape is used with a 20-lb force pull, instead of the standard tension of
10 lb. If the cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.003 in., what is the tension error for each tape
length used?
Solution:
If a distance of 421.22 ft had been recorded, the total correction would be:
12 421.22/100 x 0.011 = +0.05 ft
The corrected distance would be 421.27 ft.
Example #2: A 30-m tape is used with a 100-N force, instead of the standard tension of 50 N.
If the cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.02 cm2, what is the tension error per tape length?
Solution:
If a distance of 182.716 m had been measured under these conditions, the total correction
would be:
The corrected distance would be 182.738 m.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Sag
A steel tape not supported along its entire length sags in the form of a catenary, a
good example being the cable between two power poles. Because of sag, the horizontal
distance (chord length) is less than the graduated distance between tape ends, as illustrated in
Figure 11. Sag can be reduced by applying greater tension, but not eliminated unless the tape
is supported throughout. The following formula is used to compute the sag correction:
where in the English system CS is the correction for sag (difference between length of curved
tape and straight line from one support to the next), in feet; LS the unsupported length of the
tape, in feet; w the weight of the tape per foot of length, in pounds; and P1 the pull on the tape,
in pounds. Metric system units for the above equation are kg/m for w, kg for P1, and meters
for CS and LS.
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Figure 11: effect of sag
Fundamentals of Surveying
It is important to recognize that the above equation is nonlinear and thus must be
applied to each unsupported section of the tape. It is incorrect to apply it to the overall length
of a line unless the line was observed in one section.
As stated previously, when lines of unknown length are being measured, sag
corrections are always negative, whereas positive corrections occur if the tension applied
exceeds the standard pull.
Example #1:
A 30m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8kg. If the tape weighs
0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Solution:
CS = [(0.91/30)2 x 303] / (24 x 82) = 0.0162m
L’ = L - Cs = 30 - 0.0162 = 29.9838m
The effect of sag always causes shortening of tape . Hence, the correction length
14 between the tape ends is determined by subtracting the sag correction from the indicated or
nominal length.
Example #2:
A 50m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points and at the 8m and the
25m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the following
A. Correction due to sag between the 0m and 8m mark, 8m and 25m mark, and the 25m and
50m marks.
B. Correction due to sag for one tape length
C. Correction distance between the ends of the tape.
Solution:
A.
CS = [(0.04)2 x 83] / (24 x 62) = 0.0009m (from 0m to 8m mark)
CS = [(0.04)2 x 173] / (24 x 62) = 0.0091m (from 8m to 25m mark)
CS = [(0.04)2 x 253] / (24 x 62) = 0.0289m (from 25m to 50m mark)
B.
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Cs = 0.0009 + 0.0091 + 0.0289 = 0.0389m
C.
L’ = L - Cs = 50 - 0.0389 = 49.9611m
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