Shark

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Shark (disambiguation).

Sharks

Temporal range: Early Jurassic–Present

PreꞒ

Pg

N
 Clockwise from top left: spiny

dogfish, Australian angelshark, whale

shark, great white shark, horn shark, frilled

shark, scalloped hammerhead and Japanese

sawshark representing the orders

Squaliformes, Squatiniformes,

Orectolobiformes, Lamniformes,

Heterodontiformes, Hexanchiformes,

Carcharhiniformes and Pristiophoriformes

respectively.

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Chondrichthyes

Subclass: Elasmobranchii

Infraclass: Euselachii

Superorder: Selachimorpha

Orders

Carcharhiniformes
Heterodontiformes
Hexanchiformes
Lamniformes
Orectolobiformes
Pristiophoriformes
Squaliformes
Squatiniformes

Synonyms
 Pleurotremata
Selachii

Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton,

five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to
the head. Modern sharks are classified within
the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the rays.
However, the term "shark" has also been used to refer to all extinct members
of Chondrichthyes with a shark-like morphology, such as hybodonts and xenacanths.
The oldest modern sharks are known from the Early Jurassic. They range in size
from the small dwarf lanternshark (Etmopterus perryi), a deep sea species that is
only 17 centimetres (6.7 in) in length, to the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), the
largest fish in the world, which reaches approximately 12 metres (40 ft) in
length.[1] Sharks are found in all seas and are common to depths up to 2,000 metres
(6,600 ft). They generally do not live in freshwater, although there are a few known
exceptions, such as the bull shark and the river shark, which can be found in both
seawater and freshwater.[2] Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects
their skin from damage and parasites in addition to improving their fluid dynamics.
They have numerous sets of replaceable teeth.[3]
Several species are apex predators, which are organisms that are at the top of
their food chain. Select examples include the tiger shark, blue shark, great white
shark, mako shark, thresher shark, and hammerhead shark.
Sharks are caught by humans for shark meat or shark fin soup. Many shark
populations are threatened by human activities. Since 1970, shark populations have
been reduced by 71%, mostly from overfishing.[4]

Etymology
Until the 16th century,[5] sharks were known to mariners as "sea dogs".[6] This is still
evidential in several species termed "dogfish," or the porbeagle.
The etymology of the word shark is uncertain, the most likely etymology states that
the original sense of the word was that of "predator, one who preys on others" from
the Dutch schurk, meaning 'villain, scoundrel' (cf. card shark, loan shark, etc.), which
was later applied to the fish due to its predatory behaviour.[7]
A now disproven[original research?] theory is that it derives from the Yucatec
Maya word xook (pronounced [ʃoːk]), meaning 'shark'.[8] Evidence for this etymology
came from the Oxford English Dictionary, which notes shark first came into use after
Sir John Hawkins' sailors exhibited one in London in 1569 and posted "sharke" to
refer to the large sharks of the Caribbean Sea. However, the Middle English
Dictionary records an isolated occurrence of the word shark (referring to a sea fish)
in a letter written by Thomas Beckington in 1442, which rules out a New World
etymology.[9][original research?]

Evolutionary history
Fossil shark tooth (size over 9 cm or 3.5 inches) with crown, shoulder, root and root lobe

A collection of Cretaceous shark teeth

See also: Evolution of fish

Fossil record
Evidence for the existence of shark-like chondrichthyans dates from
the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed
and before a variety of plants had colonized the continents.[10] Only scales have been
recovered from the first supposed elasmobranchians and not all paleontologists
agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually
those of thelodont agnathans.[11] The oldest generally accepted "shark" scales are
from about 420 million years ago, in the Silurian period.[11] Those animals looked very
different from modern sharks.[12] At this time the most common shark tooth is
the cladodont, a style of thin tooth with three tines like a trident, apparently to help
catch fish. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million
years ago.[13] Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and
even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that
sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, which explains the abundant
fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a
shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms.
Preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.
Among the most ancient and primitive shark-like fish is Cladoselache, from about
370 million years ago,[12] which has been found within Paleozoic strata in Ohio,
Kentucky, and Tennessee. At that point in Earth's history these rocks made up the
soft bottom sediments of a large, shallow ocean, which stretched across much of
North America. Cladoselache was only about 1 metre (3.3 ft) long with stiff triangular
fins and slender jaws.[12] Its teeth had several pointed cusps, which wore down from
use. From the small number of teeth found together, it is most likely
that Cladoselache did not replace its teeth as regularly as modern sharks. Its caudal
fins had a similar shape to the great white sharks and the pelagic shortfin and longfin
makos. The presence of whole fish arranged tail-first in their stomachs suggest that
they were fast swimmers with great agility.
Most fossil shark-like fish from about 300 to 150 million years ago can be assigned
to one of two groups. The Xenacanthida was almost exclusive to freshwater
environments.[14][15] By the time this group became extinct about 220 million years ago,
they had spread worldwide. The other group, the hybodonts, appeared about 320
million years ago and lived mostly in the oceans, but also in freshwater.[citation needed] The
results of a 2014 study of the gill structure of an unusually well preserved 325-
million-year-old fossil suggested that sharks are not "living fossils", but rather have
evolved more extensively than previously thought over the hundreds of millions of
years they have been around.[16]

Megalodon (top two, estimated maximum and conservative sizes) with the whale shark, great white shark,
and a human for scale

It appears Selachiimorpha and Batoidea split in the Triassic.[17] Modern sharks began
to appear about 100 million years ago.[13] Fossil mackerel shark teeth date to
the Early Cretaceous. One of the most recently evolved families is the hammerhead
shark (family Sphyrnidae), which emerged in the Eocene.[18] The oldest white shark
teeth date from 60 to 66 million years ago, around the time of the extinction of the
dinosaurs. In early white shark evolution there are at least two lineages: one lineage
is of white sharks with coarsely serrated teeth and it probably gave rise to the
modern great white shark, and another lineage is of white sharks with finely serrated
teeth. These sharks attained gigantic proportions and include the extinct
megatoothed shark, Megalodon. Like most extinct sharks, Megalodon is also
primarily known from its fossil teeth and vertebrae. This giant shark reached a total
length (TL) of more than 16 metres (52 ft).[19][20] Megalodon may have approached a
maxima of 20.3 metres (67 ft) in total length and 103 metric tons (114 short tons) in
mass.[21] Paleontological evidence suggests that this shark was an active predator of
large cetaceans.[21]
Early Miocene extinction event
See also: Miocene and List of extinction events
A study published in 2021 provided evidence for a major shark extinction event that
occurred 19 million years ago. This is 5 million years before the established Middle
Miocene disruption. The cause of this extinction event is not yet known, however, the
study suggests that pelagic shark diversity decreased by over 70% and abundance
by over 90%, and that modern sharks never recovered from this event. The authors
also state that prior to the extinction event, "sharks played a much larger role in the
open-ocean ecosystem than they do today." In present times, only 53 open-ocean
shark species remains.[22][23][24]
Taxonomy
Elasmobranchii
 Batoidea

Selachimorpha Galeomorphii
Lamniformes

Carcharhiniformes

Orectolobiformes

Heterodontiformes

Squalomorphii

Squatiniformes

Pristiophoriformes

Squaliformes

Hexanchiformes

Phylogeny of living shark orders based on mitochondrial DNA[25]

Shark fossil, Lebachacanthus senckenbergianus, at Permian period

Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in

the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the
Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It was thought that the sharks form
a polyphyletic group: some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to
some other sharks,[26] but current molecular studies support monophyly of both
groups of sharks and batoids.[27][28]
The superorder Selachimorpha is divided into Galea (or Galeomorphii), and Squalea
(or Squalomorphii). The Galeans are
the Heterodontiformes, Orectolobiformes, Lamniformes, and Carcharhiniformes.
Lamnoids and Carcharhinoids are usually placed in one clade, but recent studies
show the Lamnoids and Orectoloboids are a clade. Some scientists now think that
Heterodontoids may be Squalean. The Squaleans are divided
into Hexanchiformes and Squalomorpha. The former includes cow shark and frilled
shark, though some authors propose both families to be moved to separate orders.
The Squalomorpha contains the Squaliformes and the Hypnosqualea. The
Hypnosqualea may be invalid. It includes the Squatiniformes, and the Pristorajea,
which may also be invalid, but includes the Pristiophoriformes and the Batoidea.[26][29]
There are more than 500 species of sharks split across thirteen orders, including four
orders of sharks that have gone extinct:[29][30]

• Carcharhiniformes: Commonly known as ground sharks, the order

includes the blue, tiger, bull, grey reef, blacktip reef, Caribbean
reef, blacktail reef, whitetip reef, and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively
called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks,
and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout
and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.
• Heterodontiformes: They are generally referred to as the bullhead or horn
sharks.
• Hexanchiformes: Examples from this group include the cow
sharks and frilled sharks, which somewhat resembles a marine snake.
• Lamniformes: They are commonly known as the mackerel sharks. They
include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth shark, the thresher
sharks, shortfin and longfin mako sharks, and great white shark. They are
distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction. The
Lamniformes also include the extinct megalodon, Otodus megalodon.
• Orectolobiformes: They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks,
including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs, and the whale shark.
• Pristiophoriformes: These are the sawsharks, with an elongated, toothed
snout that they use for slashing their prey.
• Squaliformes: This group includes the dogfish sharks and roughsharks.
• Squatiniformes: Also known as angel sharks, they are flattened sharks
with a strong resemblance to stingrays and skates.
• Echinorhiniformes: This group includes the prickly shark and bramble
shark. Phylogenetic placement of this group has been ambiguous in
scientific studies.[31] They are sometimes given their own order,
Echinorhiniformes.[30]
• † Cladoselachiformes
• † Hybodontiformes
• † Symmoriida
• † Xenacanthida (Xenacantiformes)

Anatomy
General anatomical features of sharks

Main article: Shark anatomy

Teeth
Main article: Shark tooth

The teeth of tiger sharks are oblique and serrated to saw through flesh

Shark teeth are embedded in the gums rather than directly affixed to the jaw, and are
constantly replaced throughout life. Multiple rows of replacement teeth grow in a
groove on the inside of the jaw and steadily move forward in comparison to
a conveyor belt; some sharks lose 30,000 or more teeth in their lifetime. The rate of
tooth replacement varies from once every 8 to 10 days to several months. In most
species, teeth are replaced one at a time as opposed to the simultaneous
replacement of an entire row, which is observed in the cookiecutter shark.[32]
Tooth shape depends on the shark's diet: those that feed
on mollusks and crustaceans have dense and flattened teeth used for crushing,
those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on
larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular
upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as
the basking shark are small and non-functional.[33]
Skeleton
Shark skeletons are very different from those of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates.
Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made
of cartilage and connective tissue. Cartilage is flexible and durable, yet is about half
the normal density of bone. This reduces the skeleton's weight, saving
energy.[34] Because sharks do not have rib cages, they can easily be crushed under
their own weight on land.[35]
Jaw
The jaws of sharks, like those of rays and skates, are not attached to the cranium.
The jaw's surface (in comparison to the shark's vertebrae and gill arches) needs
extra support due to its heavy exposure to physical stress and its need for strength.
It has a layer of tiny hexagonal plates called "tesserae", which are crystal blocks of
calcium salts arranged as a mosaic.[36] This gives these areas much of the same
strength found in the bony tissue found in other animals.
Generally sharks have only one layer of tesserae, but the jaws of large specimens,
such as the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have two to three
layers or more, depending on body size. The jaws of a large great white shark may
have up to five layers.[34] In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and
flexible to absorb the power of impacts.
Fins
Fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named
ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and
feathers.[37] Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects
directly in front of them because their fins do not allow them to move in the tail-first
direction.[35]
Dermal denticles
Further information: Fish scale § Placoid scales

The dermal denticles of a lemon shark, viewed through a scanning electron microscope

Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous
fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an
outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving
energy.[38] Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce
turbulence when swimming.[39] Some species of shark have pigmented denticles that
form complex patterns like spots (e.g. Zebra shark) and stripes (e.g. Tiger shark).
These markings are important for camouflage and help sharks blend in with their
environment, as well as making them difficult for prey to detect.[40] For some species,
dermal patterning returns to healed denticles even after they have been removed by
injury.[41]
Tails
Tails provide thrust, making speed and acceleration dependent on tail shape. Caudal
fin shapes vary considerably between shark species, due to their evolution in
separate environments. Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which
the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is
because the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, providing a
greater surface area for muscle attachment. This allows more
efficient locomotion among these negatively buoyant cartilaginous fish. By contrast,
most bony fish possess a homocercal caudal fin.[42]
Tiger sharks have a large upper lobe, which allows for slow cruising and sudden
bursts of speed. The tiger shark must be able to twist and turn in the water easily
when hunting to support its varied diet, whereas the porbeagle shark, which hunts
schooling fish such as mackerel and herring, has a large lower lobe to help it keep
pace with its fast-swimming prey.[43] Other tail adaptations help sharks catch prey
more directly, such as the thresher shark's usage of its powerful, elongated upper
lobe to stun fish and squid.

Physiology
Buoyancy
Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders for buoyancy. Instead,
sharks rely on a large liver filled with oil that contains squalene, and their cartilage,
which is about half the normal density of bone.[38] Their liver constitutes up to 30% of
their total body mass.[44] The liver's effectiveness is limited, so sharks
employ dynamic lift to maintain depth while swimming. Sand tiger sharks store air in
their stomachs, using it as a form of swim bladder. Bottom-dwelling sharks, like
the nurse shark, have negative buoyancy, allowing them to rest on the ocean floor.
Some sharks, if inverted or stroked on the nose, enter a natural state of tonic
immobility. Researchers use this condition to handle sharks safely.[45]
Respiration
Like other fish, sharks extract oxygen from seawater as it passes over their gills.
Unlike other fish, shark gill slits are not covered, but lie in a row behind the head. A
modified slit called a spiracle lies just behind the eye, which assists the shark with
taking in water during respiration and plays a major role in bottom–dwelling sharks.
Spiracles are reduced or missing in active pelagic sharks.[33] While the shark is
moving, water passes through the mouth and over the gills in a process known as
"ram ventilation". While at rest, most sharks pump water over their gills to ensure a
constant supply of oxygenated water. A small number of species have lost the ability
to pump water through their gills and must swim without rest. These species
are obligate ram ventilators and would presumably asphyxiate if unable to move.
Obligate ram ventilation is also true of some pelagic bony fish species.[46][47]
The respiration and circulation process begins when deoxygenated blood travels to
the shark's two-chambered heart. Here the shark pumps blood to its gills via the
ventral aorta artery where it branches into afferent brachial arteries. Reoxygenation
takes place in the gills and the reoxygenated blood flows into the efferent brachial
arteries, which come together to form the dorsal aorta. The blood flows from the
dorsal aorta throughout the body. The deoxygenated blood from the body then flows
through the posterior cardinal veins and enters the posterior cardinal sinuses. From
there blood enters the heart ventricle and the cycle repeats.[48]
Thermoregulation
Most sharks are "cold-blooded" or, more precisely, poikilothermic, meaning that their
internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of
the family Lamnidae (such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark)
are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding
water. In these sharks, a strip of aerobic red muscle located near the center of the
body generates the heat, which the body retains via a countercurrent
exchange mechanism by a system of blood vessels called the rete
mirabile ("miraculous net"). The common thresher and bigeye thresher sharks have
a similar mechanism for maintaining an elevated body temperature.[49]
Osmoregulation
In contrast to bony fish, with the exception of the coelacanth,[50] the blood and other
tissue of sharks and Chondrichthyes is generally isotonic to their marine
environments because of the high concentration of urea (up to 2.5%[51])
and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), allowing them to be in osmotic balance with the
seawater. This adaptation prevents most sharks from surviving in freshwater, and
they are therefore confined to marine environments. A few exceptions exist, such as
the bull shark, which has developed a way to change its kidney function to excrete
large amounts of urea.[44] When a shark dies, the urea is broken down to ammonia by
bacteria, causing the dead body to gradually smell strongly of ammonia. [52][53]
Research in 1930 by Homer W. Smith showed that sharks' urine doesn't contain
sufficient sodium to avoid hypernatremia, and it was postulated that there must be an
additional mechanism for salt secretion. In 1960 it was discovered at the Mount
Desert Island Biological Laboratory in Salsbury Cove, Maine that sharks have a type
of salt gland located at the end of the intestine, known as the "rectal gland", whose
function is the secretion of chlorides.[54]
Digestion
Digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped
stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs.[55] Unwanted items may never
get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs
inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth.[56]
One of the biggest differences between the digestive systems of sharks and
mammals is that sharks have much shorter intestines. This short length is achieved
by the spiral valve with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a long
tube-like intestine. The valve provides a long surface area, requiring food to circulate
inside the short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass into
the cloaca.[55]
Fluorescence
A few sharks appear fluorescent under blue light, such as the swell shark and
the chain catshark, where the fluorophore derives from a metabolite of kynurenic
acid.[57]

Senses
Smell
The shape of the hammerhead shark's head may enhance olfaction by spacing the nostrils further apart.

Sharks have keen olfactory senses, located in the short duct (which is not fused,
unlike bony fish) between the anterior and posterior nasal openings, with some
species able to detect as little as one part per million of blood in seawater.[58] The size
of the olfactory bulb varies across different shark species, with size dependent on
how much a given species relies on smell or vision to find their prey.[59] In
environments with low visibility, shark species generally have larger olfactory
bulbs.[59] In reefs, where visibility is high, species of sharks from the
family Carcharhinidae have smaller olfactory bulbs.[59] Sharks found in deeper waters
also have larger olfactory bulbs.[60]
Sharks have the ability to determine the direction of a given scent based on the
timing of scent detection in each nostril.[61] This is similar to the method mammals use
to determine direction of sound.
They are more attracted to the chemicals found in the intestines of many species,
and as a result often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as nurse
sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey.
Sight

Eye of a bigeyed sixgill shark (Hexanchus nakamurai)

Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including

similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to
the marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum. This tissue
is behind the retina and reflects light back to it, thereby increasing visibility in the
dark waters. The effectiveness of the tissue varies, with some sharks having
stronger nocturnal adaptations. Many sharks can contract and dilate their pupils, like
humans, something no teleost fish can do. Sharks have eyelids, but they do not blink
because the surrounding water cleans their eyes. To protect their eyes some species
have nictitating membranes. This membrane covers the eyes while hunting and
when the shark is being attacked. However, some species, including the great white
shark (Carcharodon carcharias), do not have this membrane, but instead roll their
eyes backwards to protect them when striking prey. The importance of sight in shark
hunting behavior is debated. Some believe that electro- and chemoreception are
more significant, while others point to the nictating membrane as evidence that sight
is important. Presumably, the shark would not protect its eyes were they
unimportant. The use of sight probably varies with species and water conditions. The
shark's field of vision can swap between monocular and stereoscopic at any
time.[62] A micro-spectrophotometry study of 17 species of shark found 10 had
only rod photoreceptors and no cone cells in their retinas giving them good night
vision while making them colorblind. The remaining seven species had in addition to
rods a single type of cone photoreceptor sensitive to green and, seeing only in
shades of grey and green, are believed to be effectively colorblind. The study
indicates that an object's contrast against the background, rather than colour, may
be more important for object detection.[63] [64][65]
Hearing
Although it is hard to test the hearing of sharks, they may have a sharp sense of
hearing and can possibly hear prey from many miles away.[66] The hearing sensitivity
for most shark species lies between 20 and 1000 Hz.[67] A small opening on each side
of their heads (not the spiracle) leads directly into the inner ear through a thin
channel. The lateral line shows a similar arrangement, and is open to the
environment via a series of openings called lateral line pores. This is a reminder of
the common origin of these two vibration- and sound-detecting organs that are
grouped together as the acoustico-lateralis system. In bony fish and tetrapods the
external opening into the inner ear has been lost.

Electromagnetic field receptors (ampullae of Lorenzini) and motion detecting canals in the head of a shark

Electroreception
Main article: Electroreception
The ampullae of Lorenzini are the electroreceptor organs. They number in the
hundreds to thousands. Sharks use the ampullae of Lorenzini to detect
the electromagnetic fields that all living things produce.[68] This helps sharks
(particularly the hammerhead shark) find prey. The shark has the greatest electrical
sensitivity of any animal. Sharks find prey hidden in sand by detecting the electric
fields they produce. Ocean currents moving in the magnetic field of the Earth also
generate electric fields that sharks can use for orientation and possibly navigation.[69]
Lateral line
Main article: Lateral line
This system is found in most fish, including sharks. It is a tactile sensory system
which allows the organism to detect water speed and pressure changes near
by.[70] The main component of the system is the neuromast, a cell similar to hair
cells present in the vertebrate ear that interact with the surrounding aquatic
environment. This helps sharks distinguish between the currents around them,
obstacles off on their periphery, and struggling prey out of visual view. The shark can
sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz.[71]

Life history

The claspers of male spotted wobbegong

Shark egg

The spiral egg case of a Port Jackson shark

Shark lifespans vary by species. Most live 20 to 30 years. The spiny dogfish has one
of the longest lifespans at more than 100 years.[72] Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus)
may also live over 100 years.[73] Earlier estimates suggested the Greenland
shark (Somniosus microcephalus) could reach about 200 years, but a recent study
found that a 5.02-metre-long (16.5 ft) specimen was 392 ± 120 years old (i.e., at
least 272 years old), making it the longest-lived vertebrate known.[74][75]
Reproduction
Unlike most bony fish, sharks are K-selected reproducers, meaning that they
produce a small number of well-developed young as opposed to a large number of
poorly developed young. Fecundity in sharks ranges from 2 to over 100 young per
reproductive cycle.[76] Sharks mature slowly relative to many other fish. For
example, lemon sharks reach sexual maturity at around age 13–15.[77]
Sexual
Sharks practice internal fertilization.[78] The posterior part of a male shark's pelvic fins
are modified into a pair of intromittent organs called claspers, analogous to
a mammalian penis, of which one is used to deliver sperm into the female.[79]
Mating has rarely been observed in sharks.[80] The smaller catsharks often mate with
the male curling around the female. In less flexible species the two sharks swim
parallel to each other while the male inserts a clasper into the female's oviduct.
Females in many of the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a
male grasping them to maintain position during mating. The bite marks may also
come from courtship behavior: the male may bite the female to show his interest. In
some species, females have evolved thicker skin to withstand these bites. [79]
Asexual
There have been a number of documented cases in which a female shark who has
not been in contact with a male has conceived a pup on her own
through parthenogenesis.[81][82] The details of this process are not well understood,
but genetic fingerprinting showed that the pups had no paternal genetic contribution,
ruling out sperm storage. The extent of this behavior in the wild is unknown.
Mammals are now the only major vertebrate group in which asexual
reproduction has not been observed.
Scientists say that asexual reproduction in the wild is rare, and probably a last-ditch
effort to reproduce when a mate is not present. Asexual reproduction
diminishes genetic diversity, which helps build defenses against threats to the
species. Species that rely solely on it risk extinction. Asexual reproduction may have
contributed to the blue shark's decline off the Irish coast.[83]
Brooding
Sharks display three ways to bear their young, varying by
species, oviparity, viviparity and ovoviviparity.[84][85]
Ovoviviparity
Most sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning that the eggs hatch in the oviduct within the
mother's body and that the egg's yolk and fluids secreted by glands in the walls of
the oviduct nourishes the embryos. The young continue to be nourished by the
remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in viviparity, the young are born alive
and fully functional. Lamniforme sharks practice oophagy, where the first embryos to
hatch eat the remaining eggs. Taking this a step further, sand tiger shark pups
cannibalistically consume neighboring embryos. The survival strategy for
ovoviviparous species is to brood the young to a comparatively large size before
birth. The whale shark is now classified as ovoviviparous rather than oviparous,
because extrauterine eggs are now thought to have been aborted. Most
ovoviviparous sharks give birth in sheltered areas, including bays, river mouths and
shallow reefs. They choose such areas for protection from predators (mainly other
sharks) and the abundance of food. Dogfish have the longest known gestation
period of any shark, at 18 to 24 months. Basking sharks and frilled sharks appear to
have even longer gestation periods, but accurate data are lacking. [84]
Oviparity
Some species are oviparous, laying their fertilized eggs in the water. In most
oviparous shark species, an egg case with the consistency of leather protects the
developing embryo(s). These cases may be corkscrewed into crevices for protection.
The egg case is commonly called a mermaid's purse. Oviparous sharks include
the horn shark, catshark, Port Jackson shark, and swellshark.[84][86]
Viviparity
Viviparity is the gestation of young without the use of a traditional egg, and results in
live birth.[87] Viviparity in sharks can be placental or aplacental.[87] Young are born fully
formed and self-sufficient.[87] Hammerheads, the requiem sharks (such as
the bull and blue sharks), and smoothhounds are viviparous.[76][84]

Behavior
The classic view describes a solitary hunter, ranging the oceans in search of food.
However, this applies to only a few species. Most live far more social,
sedentary, benthic lives, and appear likely to have their own distinct
personalities.[88] Even solitary sharks meet for breeding or at rich hunting grounds,
which may lead them to cover thousands of miles in a year.[89] Shark migration
patterns may be even more complex than in birds, with many sharks covering
entire ocean basins.
Sharks can be highly social, remaining in large schools. Sometimes more than
100 scalloped hammerheads congregate around seamounts and islands, e.g., in
the Gulf of California.[44] Cross-species social hierarchies exist. For example, oceanic
whitetip sharks dominate silky sharks of comparable size during feeding.[76]
When approached too closely some sharks perform a threat display. This usually
consists of exaggerated swimming movements, and can vary in intensity according
to the threat level.[90]
Speed
In general, sharks swim ("cruise") at an average speed of 8 kilometres per hour
(5.0 mph), but when feeding or attacking, the average shark can reach speeds
upwards of 19 kilometres per hour (12 mph). The shortfin mako shark, the fastest
shark and one of the fastest fish, can burst at speeds up to 50 kilometres per hour
(31 mph).[91] The great white shark is also capable of speed bursts. These exceptions
may be due to the warm-blooded, or homeothermic, nature of these sharks'
physiology. Sharks can travel 70 to 80 km in a day.[92]
Intelligence
Sharks possess brain-to-body mass ratios that are similar to mammals and
birds,[93] and have exhibited apparent curiosity and behavior resembling play in the
wild.[94][95]
There is evidence that juvenile lemon sharks can use observational learning in their
investigation of novel objects in their environment.[96]
Sleep
All sharks need to keep water flowing over their gills in order for them to breathe;
however, not all species need to be moving to do this. Those that are able to breathe
while not swimming do so by using their spiracles to force water over their gills,
thereby allowing them to extract oxygen from the water. It has been recorded that
their eyes remain open while in this state and actively follow the movements of
divers swimming around them[97] and as such they are not truly asleep.
Species that do need to swim continuously to breathe go through a process known
as sleep swimming, in which the shark is essentially unconscious. It is known from
experiments conducted on the spiny dogfish that its spinal cord, rather than its brain,
coordinates swimming, so spiny dogfish can continue to swim while sleeping, and
this also may be the case in larger shark species.[97] In 2016 a great white shark was
captured on video for the first time in a state researchers believed was sleep
swimming.[98]

Ecology
Feeding
This section is about shark feeding. For the sport of shark feeding, see Shark baiting.
Most sharks are carnivorous.[99] Basking sharks, whale sharks, and megamouth
sharks have independently evolved different strategies for filter feeding plankton:
basking sharks practice ram feeding, whale sharks use suction to take in plankton
and small fishes, and megamouth sharks make suction feeding more efficient by
using the luminescent tissue inside of their mouths to attract prey in the deep ocean.
This type of feeding requires gill rakers—long, slender filaments that form a very
efficient sieve—analogous to the baleen plates of the great whales. The shark traps
the plankton in these filaments and swallows from time to time in huge mouthfuls.
Teeth in these species are comparatively small because they are not needed for
feeding.[99]
Unlike many other sharks, the great white shark is not actually an apex predator in all of its natural
environments, as it is sometimes hunted by orcas

Other highly specialized feeders include cookiecutter sharks, which feed on flesh
sliced out of other larger fish and marine mammals. Cookiecutter teeth are enormous
compared to the animal's size. The lower teeth are particularly sharp. Although they
have never been observed feeding, they are believed to latch onto their prey and use
their thick lips to make a seal, twisting their bodies to rip off flesh.[44]
Some seabed–dwelling species are highly effective ambush predators. Angel
sharks and wobbegongs use camouflage to lie in wait and suck prey into their
mouths.[100] Many benthic sharks feed solely on crustaceans which they crush with
their flat molariform teeth.
Other sharks feed on squid or fish, which they swallow whole. The viper dogfish has
teeth it can point outwards to strike and capture prey that it then swallows intact.
The great white and other large predators either swallow small prey whole or take
huge bites out of large animals. Thresher sharks use their long tails to stun shoaling
fishes, and sawsharks either stir prey from the seabed or slash at swimming prey
with their tooth-studded rostra.
Many sharks, including the whitetip reef shark are cooperative feeders and hunt in
packs to herd and capture elusive prey. These social sharks are often migratory,
traveling huge distances around ocean basins in large schools. These migrations
may be partly necessary to find new food sources.[101]
Range and habitat
Sharks are found in all seas. They generally do not live in fresh water, with a few
exceptions such as the bull shark and the river shark which can swim both in
seawater and freshwater.[102] Sharks are common down to depths of 2,000 metres
(7,000 ft), and some live even deeper, but they are almost entirely absent below
3,000 metres (10,000 ft). The deepest confirmed report of a shark is a Portuguese
dogfish at 3,700 metres (12,100 ft).[103]

Relationship with humans

Attacks

A sign warning about the presence of sharks in Salt Rock, South Africa
Snorkeler swims near a blacktip reef shark. In rare circumstances involving poor visibility, blacktips may
bite a human, mistaking it for prey. Under normal conditions they are harmless and shy.

Main article: Shark attack

In 2006 the International Shark Attack File (ISAF) undertook an investigation into 96
alleged shark attacks, confirming 62 of them as unprovoked attacks and 16 as
provoked attacks. The average number of fatalities worldwide per year between
2001 and 2006 from unprovoked shark attacks is 4.3.[104]
Contrary to popular belief, only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of more
than 470 species, only four have been involved in a significant number of fatal,
unprovoked attacks on humans: the great white, oceanic whitetip, tiger, and bull
sharks.[105][106] These sharks are large, powerful predators, and may sometimes attack
and kill people. Despite being responsible for attacks on humans they have all been
filmed without using a protective cage.[107]
The perception of sharks as dangerous animals has been popularized by publicity
given to a few isolated unprovoked attacks, such as the Jersey Shore shark attacks
of 1916, and through popular fictional works about shark attacks, such as
the Jaws film series. Jaws author Peter Benchley, as well as Jaws director Steven
Spielberg, later attempted to dispel the image of sharks as man-eating monsters.[108]
To help avoid an unprovoked attack, humans should not wear jewelry or metal that is
shiny and refrain from splashing around too much.[109]
In general, sharks show little pattern of attacking humans specifically. Research
indicates that when humans do become the object of a shark attack, it is possible
that the shark has mistaken the human for species that are its normal prey, such as
seals.[110][111]
In captivity
Main article: Sharks in captivity
Until recently, only a few benthic species of shark, such as hornsharks, leopard
sharks and catsharks, had survived in aquarium conditions for a year or more. This
gave rise to the belief that sharks, as well as being difficult to capture and transport,
were difficult to care for. More knowledge has led to more species (including the
large pelagic sharks) living far longer in captivity, along with safer transportation
techniques that have enabled long-distance transportation.[112] The great white shark
had never been successfully held in captivity for long periods of time until September
2004, when the Monterey Bay Aquarium successfully kept a young female for 198
days before releasing her.
A whale shark in Georgia Aquarium

Most species are not suitable for home aquaria, and not every species sold by pet
stores are appropriate. Some species can flourish in home saltwater
aquaria.[113] Uninformed or unscrupulous dealers sometimes sell juvenile sharks like
the nurse shark, which upon reaching adulthood is far too large for typical home
aquaria.[113] Public aquaria generally do not accept donated specimens that have
outgrown their housing. Some owners have been tempted
to release them.[113] Species appropriate to home aquaria represent considerable
spatial and financial investments as they generally approach adult lengths of 3 feet
(90 cm) and can live up to 25 years.[113]
In culture

Shark-themed nose art, made popular by the Flying Tigers (pictured), is commonly seen on military aircraft.

In Hawaii
Sharks figure prominently in Hawaiian mythology. Stories tell of men with shark jaws
on their back who could change between shark and human form. A common theme
was that a shark-man would warn beach-goers of sharks in the waters. The beach-
goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and get eaten by the shark-man who
warned them. Hawaiian mythology also includes many shark gods. Among a fishing
people, the most popular of all aumakua, or deified ancestor guardians, are shark
aumakua. Kamaku describes in detail how to offer a corpse to become a shark. The
body transforms gradually until the kahuna can point the awe-struck family to the
markings on the shark's body that correspond to the clothing in which the beloved's
body had been wrapped. Such a shark aumakua becomes the family pet, receiving
food, and driving fish into the family net and warding off danger. Like all aumakua it
had evil uses such as helping kill enemies. The ruling chiefs typically forbade such
sorcery. Many Native Hawaiian families claim such an aumakua, who is known by
name to the whole community.[114]
Kamohoali'i is the best known and revered of the shark gods, he was the older and
favored brother of Pele,[115] and helped and journeyed with her to Hawaii. He was able
to assume all human and fish forms. A summit cliff on the crater of Kilauea is one of
his most sacred spots. At one point he had a heiau (temple or shrine) dedicated to
him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Molokai.
Kamohoali'i was an ancestral god, not a human who became a shark and banned
the eating of humans after eating one herself.[116][117] In Fijian
mythology, Dakuwaqa was a shark god who was the eater of lost souls.
In American Samoa
On the island of Tutuila in American Samoa (a U.S. territory), there is a location
called Turtle and Shark (Laumei ma Malie) which is important in Samoan culture —
the location is the site of a legend called O Le Tala I Le Laumei Ma Le Malie, in
which two humans are said to have transformed into a turtle and a
shark.[118][119][120] According to the U.S. National Park Service, "Villagers from
nearby Vaitogi continue to reenact an important aspect of the legend at Turtle and
Shark by performing a ritual song intended to summon the legendary animals to the
ocean surface, and visitors are frequently amazed to see one or both of these
creatures emerge from the sea in apparent response to this call." [118]
In popular culture
Main article: Sharks in popular culture
In contrast to the complex portrayals by Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders, the
European and Western view of sharks has historically been mostly of fear and
malevolence.[121] Sharks are used in popular culture commonly as eating machines,
notably in the Jaws novel and the film of the same name, along with
its sequels.[122] Sharks are threats in other films such as Deep Blue Sea, The Reef,
and others, although they are sometimes used for comedic effect such as in Finding
Nemo and the Austin Powers series. Sharks tend to be seen quite often in cartoons
whenever a scene involves the ocean. Such examples include the Tom and
Jerry cartoons, Jabberjaw, and other shows produced by Hanna-Barbera. They also
are used commonly as a clichéd means of killing off a character that is held up by a
rope or some similar object as the sharks swim right below them, or the character
may be standing on a plank above shark infested waters.[citation needed]
Popular misconceptions
A popular myth is that sharks are immune to disease and cancer, but this is not
scientifically supported. Sharks have been known to get cancer.[123][124] Both diseases
and parasites affect sharks. The evidence that sharks are at least resistant to cancer
and disease is mostly anecdotal and there have been few, if any, scientific
or statistical studies that show sharks to have heightened immunity to
disease.[125] Other apparently false claims are that fins prevent cancer[126] and
treat osteoarthritis.[127] No scientific proof supports these claims; at least one study
has shown shark cartilage of no value in cancer treatment.[128]

Threats to sharks
Further information: List of threatened sharks and Shark sanctuary
The annual shark catch has increased rapidly over the last 60 years.

The value of shark fins for shark fin soup has led to an increase in shark catches where usually only the
fins are taken, while the rest of the shark is discarded, typically into the sea; health concerns
about BMAA in the fins now exists regarding consumption of the soup

A 4.3-metre (14 ft), 540-kilogram (1,200 lb) tiger shark caught in Kāne'ohe Bay, Oahu in 1966

Fishery
In 2008, it was estimated that nearly 100 million sharks were being killed by people
every year, due to commercial and recreational fishing.[129][130] In 2021, it was
estimated that the population of oceanic sharks and rays had dropped by 71% over
the previous half-century.[4]
Shark finning yields are estimated at 1.44 million metric tons (1.59 million short tons)
for 2000, and 1.41 million metric tons (1.55 million short tons) for 2010. Based on an
analysis of average shark weights, this translates into a total annual mortality
estimate of about 100 million sharks in 2000, and about 97 million sharks in 2010,
with a total range of possible values between 63 and 273 million sharks per
year.[131][132] Sharks are a common seafood in many places,
including Japan and Australia. In the Australian state of Victoria, shark is the most
commonly used fish in fish and chips,[citation needed] in which fillets are battered and deep-
fried or crumbed and grilled. In fish and chip shops, shark is called flake. In India,
small sharks or baby sharks (called sora in Tamil language, Telugu language) are
sold in local markets. Since the flesh is not developed, cooking the flesh breaks it
into powder, which is then fried in oil and spices (called sora puttu/sora poratu). The
soft bones can be easily chewed. They are considered a delicacy in coastal Tamil
Nadu. Icelanders ferment Greenland sharks to produce a delicacy
called hákarl.[133] During a four-year period from 1996 to 2000, an estimated 26 to 73
million sharks were killed and traded annually in commercial markets.[134]
Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup. Fishermen capture live sharks, fin them,
and dump the finless animal back into the water. Shark finning involves removing the
fin with a hot metal blade.[130] The resulting immobile shark soon dies from suffocation
or predators.[135] Shark fin has become a major trade within black markets all over the
world. Fins sell for about $300/lb in 2009.[136] Poachers illegally fin millions each year.
Few governments enforce laws that protect them.[132] In 2010 Hawaii became the first
U.S. state to prohibit the possession, sale, trade or distribution of shark fins. [137] From
1996 to 2000, an estimated 38 million sharks had been killed per year for harvesting
shark fins.[134] It is estimated by TRAFFIC that over 14,000 tonnes of shark fins were
exported into Singapore between 2005–2007 and 2012–2014.[138]
Shark fin soup is a status symbol in Asian countries and is erroneously considered
healthy and full of nutrients. Scientific research has revealed, however, that high
concentrations of BMAA are present in shark fins.[139] Because BMAA is a neurotoxin,
consumption of shark fin soup and cartilage pills, therefore, may pose a health
risk.[140] BMAA is under study for its pathological role in neurodegegerative diseases
such as, ALS, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.
Sharks are also killed for meat. European diners
consume dogfishes, smoothhounds, catsharks, makos, porbeagle and also skates
and rays.[141] However, the U.S. FDA lists sharks as one of four fish
(with swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish) whose high mercury content is
hazardous to children and pregnant women.
Sharks generally reach sexual maturity only after many years and produce few
offspring in comparison to other harvested fish. Harvesting sharks before they
reproduce severely impacts future populations. Capture induced premature birth and
abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in
sharks/rays when fished.[78] Capture-induced parturition is rarely considered in
fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing
sharks and rays (88 species to date).[78]
The majority of shark fisheries have little monitoring or management. The rise in
demand for shark products increases pressure on fisheries.[45] Major declines in shark
stocks have been recorded—some species have been depleted by over 90% over
the past 20–30 years with population declines of 70% not unusual.[142] A study by
the International Union for Conservation of Nature suggests that one quarter of all
known species of sharks and rays are threatened by extinction and 25 species were
classified as critically endangered.[143][144]
Shark culling
Main article: Shark culling
In 2014, a shark cull in Western Australia killed dozens of sharks (mostly tiger
sharks) using drum lines,[145] until it was cancelled after public protests and a decision
by the Western Australia EPA; from 2014 to 2017, there was an "imminent threat"
policy in Western Australia in which sharks that "threatened" humans in the ocean
were shot and killed.[146] This "imminent threat" policy was criticized by senator Rachel
Siewart for killing endangered sharks.[147] The "imminent threat" policy was cancelled
in March 2017.[148] In August 2018, the Western Australia government announced a
plan to re-introduce drum lines (though, this time the drum lines are "SMART" drum
lines).[149]
From 1962 to the present,[150] the government of Queensland has targeted and killed
sharks in large numbers by using drum lines, under a "shark control" program—this
program has also inadvertently killed large numbers of other animals such
as dolphins; it has also killed endangered hammerhead
sharks.[151][152][153][154] Queensland's drum line program has been called "outdated, cruel
and ineffective".[154] From 2001 to 2018, a total of 10,480 sharks were killed on lethal
drum lines in Queensland, including in the Great Barrier Reef.[155] From 1962 to 2018,
roughly 50,000 sharks were killed by Queensland authorities.[156]
The government of New South Wales has a program that deliberately kills sharks
using nets.[153][157] The current net program in New South Wales has been described as
being "extremely destructive" to marine life, including sharks.[158] Between 1950 and
2008, 352 tiger sharks and 577 great white sharks were killed in the nets in New
South Wales — also during this period, a total of 15,135 marine animals were killed
in the nets, including dolphins, whales, turtles, dugongs, and critically
endangered grey nurse sharks.[159] There has been a very large decrease in the
number of sharks in eastern Australia, and the shark-killing programs in Queensland
and New South Wales are partly responsible for this decrease.[156]
Kwazulu-Natal, an area of South Africa, has a shark-killing program using nets and
drum lines—these nets and drum lines have killed turtles and dolphins, and have
been criticized for killing wildlife.[160] During a 30-year period, more than 33,000 sharks
have been killed in KwaZulu-Natal's shark-killing program — during the same 30-
year period, 2,211 turtles, 8,448 rays, and 2,310 dolphins were killed in KwaZulu-
Natal.[160] Authorities on the French island of Réunion kill about 100 sharks per
year.[161]
Killing sharks negatively affects the marine ecosystem.[162][163] Jessica Morris
of Humane Society International calls shark culling a "knee-jerk reaction" and says,
"sharks are top order predators that play an important role in the functioning of
marine ecosystems. We need them for healthy oceans."[164]
George H. Burgess, the former[165] director of the International Shark Attack File,
"describes [shark] culling as a form of revenge, satisfying a public demand for blood
and little else";[166] he also said shark culling is a "retro-type move reminiscent of what
people would have done in the 1940s and 50s, back when we didn't have an
ecological conscience and before we knew the consequences of our
actions."[166] Jane Williamson, an associate professor in marine ecology at Macquarie
University, says "There is no scientific support for the concept that culling sharks in a
particular area will lead to a decrease in shark attacks and increase ocean safety." [167]
Other threats
Other threats include habitat alteration, damage and loss from coastal development,
pollution and the impact of fisheries on the seabed and prey species. [168] The 2007
documentary Sharkwater exposed how sharks are being hunted to extinction.[169]

Conservation
Further information: List of threatened sharks and Shark sanctuary
In 1991, South Africa was the first country in the world to declare Great White sharks
a legally protected species[170] (however, the KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board is allowed
to kill great white sharks in its "shark control" program in eastern South Africa).[160]
Intending to ban the practice of shark finning while at sea, the United States
Congress passed the Shark Finning Prohibition Act in 2000.[171] Two years later the
Act saw its first legal challenge in United States v. Approximately 64,695 Pounds of
Shark Fins. In 2008 a Federal Appeals Court ruled that a loophole in the law allowed
non-fishing vessels to purchase shark fins from fishing vessels while on the high
seas.[172] Seeking to close the loophole, the Shark Conservation Act was passed by
Congress in December 2010, and it was signed into law in January 2011.[173][174]
In 2003, the European Union introduced a general shark finning ban for all vessels of
all nationalities in Union waters and for all vessels flying a flag of one of its member
states.[175] This prohibition was amended in June 2013 to close remaining
loopholes.[176]
In 2009, the International Union for Conservation of Nature's IUCN Red List of
Endangered Species named 64 species, one-third of all oceanic shark species, as
being at risk of extinction due to fishing and shark finning.[177][178]
In 2010, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
rejected proposals from the United States and Palau that would have required
countries to strictly regulate trade in several species of scalloped
hammerhead, oceanic whitetip and spiny dogfish sharks. The majority, but not the
required two-thirds of voting delegates, approved the proposal. China, by far the
world's largest shark market, and Japan, which battles all attempts to extend the
convention to marine species, led the opposition.[179][180] In March 2013, three
endangered commercially valuable sharks, the hammerheads, the oceanic whitetip
and porbeagle were added to Appendix 2 of CITES, bringing shark fishing and
commerce of these species under licensing and regulation.[181]
In 2010, Greenpeace International added the school shark, shortfin mako
shark, mackerel shark, tiger shark and spiny dogfish to its seafood red list, a list of
common supermarket fish that are often sourced from unsustainable
fisheries.[182] Advocacy group Shark Trust campaigns to limit shark fishing. Advocacy
group Seafood Watch directs American consumers to not eat sharks.[183]
Under the auspices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, the Memorandum of
Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks was concluded and came
into effect in March 2010. It was the first global instrument concluded under CMS
and aims at facilitating international coordination for the protection, conservation and
management of migratory sharks, through multilateral, intergovernmental discussion
and scientific research.
In July 2013, New York state, a major market and entry point for shark fins, banned
the shark fin trade joining seven other states of the United States and the three
Pacific U.S territories in providing legal protection to sharks.[184]
In the United States, and as of January 16, 2019, 12 states including
(Massachusetts, Maryland, Delaware, California, Illinois, Hawaii, Oregon, Nevada, R
hode Island, Washington, New York and Texas) along with 3 U.S.
territories (American Samoa, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands) have passed
laws against the sale or possession of shark fins.[185][186]
Several regions now have shark sanctuaries or have banned shark fishing — these
regions include American Samoa, the Bahamas, the Cook Islands, French
Polynesia, Guam, the Maldives, the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, the Northern
Mariana Islands, and Palau.[187][188][189]
In April 2020 researchers reported to have traced the origins of shark fins of
endangered hammerhead sharks from a retail market in Hong Kong back to their
source populations and therefore the approximate locations where the sharks were
first caught using DNA analysis.[190][191]
In July 2020 scientists reported results of a survey of 371 reefs in 58 nations
estimating the conservation status of reef sharks globally. No sharks have been
observed on almost 20% of the surveyed reefs and shark depletion was strongly
associated with both socio-economic conditions and conservation
measures.[192][193] Sharks are considered to be a vital part of the ocean ecosystem.
According to a 2021 study in Nature,[194] overfishing has resulted in a 71% global
decline in the number of oceanic sharks and rays over the preceding 50 years. The
oceanic whitetip, and both the scalloped hammerhead and great hammerheads are
now classified as critically endangered.[195] Sharks in tropical waters have declined
more rapidly than those in temperate zones during the period studied.[196] A 2021
study published in Current Biology found that overfishing is currently driving over
one-third of sharks and rays to extinction.[197]

See also
• Fish portal

• Sharks portal

• List of sharks
• List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera
• Osteichthyes
• Marine vertebrate
• Outline of sharks
• Shark meat

Further reading
• Justine Calma (16 August 2021). "How drones are changing our view of
sharks". The Verge.
 • Sharks ‘critical’ to restoring damaged ecosystems, finds study. The
Guardian, 22 March 2021
• Musick, John A and Musick, Susanna (2011) "Sharks" Archived 2016-03-
03 at the Wayback Machine In: Review of the state of world marine fishery
resources, pages 245–254, FAO Fisheries technical paper 569, FAO,
Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-107023-9.
• Sharks Falling Prey To Humans' Appetites National Geographic, 28
October 2010.

References