EEE 305: Power System I

(Part-03)

Instructor:
Dr. Md. Nasim Ahmed Dewan
Professor, EEE

Class Routine:
Sat-9:00, Sun-9:00, Tue-10:00
 Representation of Transmission Lines
The equivalent circuit of a long line:

• The discrepancy between the nominal- and the actual line becomes
larger as the length of the line increases

• It is possible to represent a long transmission line by a network of

lumped parameters accurately, as measurements at the ends of the
line are concerned

Z’

𝒀′ 𝒀′
𝟐 𝟐
 Representation of Transmission Lines
The equivalent circuit of a long line:

For a symmetrical- circuit we have equation for sending end voltage in

terms of series and shunt arms as,
𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = + 1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅
2
By substituting Z’ for Z and Y’ for Y in the above equation,
𝑍′𝑌′
𝑉𝑆 = + 1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍′𝐼𝑅 (1)
2

Previously, we had the exact equation of sending end voltage as,

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 cosh 𝛾𝑙 + 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 (2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2),

𝑧 sinh 𝛾𝑙 sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = sinh 𝛾𝑙 = 𝑧𝑙 =𝑍
𝑦 𝑧𝑦 𝑙 𝛾𝑙
 Representation of Transmission Lines
The equivalent circuit of a long line:

• Series impedance of the nominal- must be multiplied by the factor

sinh 𝛾𝑙
to get the equivalent-
𝛾𝑙

• For small values of 𝛾𝑙, sinh 𝛾𝑙 → 𝛾𝑙, and this fact shows that the
nominal- represents the medium-length line quite accurately, as
series arm is concerned

Equating the coefficient of VR in equation (1) and (2),

𝑌′𝑍′
+ 1 = cosh 𝛾𝑙
2
Replacing Z’ with 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 we have,
𝑌 ′ 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙
+ 1 = cosh 𝛾𝑙
2
 Representation of Transmission Lines
The equivalent circuit of a long line:

𝑌′ 1 cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 1 1 𝛾𝑙
⟹ = = tanh( )
2 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 𝑍𝐶 2

𝑧 𝑧𝑦 𝛾
Now, ZC = = =
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑌′ 1 𝛾𝑙 𝑦𝑙 𝛾𝑙
∴ = tanh = tanh
2 𝛾 Τ𝑦 2 𝛾𝑙 2
𝛾𝑙
𝑌 tanh 2
=
𝛾𝑙
∵ 𝑌 = 𝑦𝑙 = Total shunt admittance of the line
𝛾𝑙
𝑌′ 𝑌 tanh 2
⟹ = 𝛾𝑙
2 2
2
 Representation of Transmission Lines
The equivalent circuit of a long line:

𝛾𝑙 𝛾𝑙
• For small values of 𝛾𝑙, tanh → , the nominal- represents the
2 2
medium length line quite accurately

• An equivalent-T circuit can also be found for a transmission line

Fig. 6.9
 Representation of Transmission Lines

Solution:
For equivalent-:
𝑍 ′ = 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = 406.4∠ − 5.48° 0.4597∠84.93°
= 186.82∠79.45° Ω

𝑌′ 1 cosh 𝛾𝑙−1 0.8902+𝑗0.0209 −1

= = = 0.000599∠89.82° S
2 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 186.82∠79.45°

For nominal-:
𝑍 = 𝑧𝑙 = 0.8431∠79.04° × 230 = 193.9∠79.04° Ω
𝑌 𝑦𝑙 04.105×10−6 ∠90° ×230
= = = 0.000587∠90° S
2 2 2
 Representation of Transmission Lines
• Series impedance of nominal- exceeds that of equivalent- by 3.8%

• Shunt admittance of nominal- is 2.0% less than that of equivalent-

• Conclusion: nominal- may represent long lines sufficiently well if high

degree of accuracy is not required
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
• Power flow at any point along a transmission line can be found if the
voltage, current, and power factor are known

• Very interesting equations for power can be derived in terms of ABCD

constants.

• The equations apply to any network of two ports or two terminal pairs

We have,
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑆 − 𝐴𝑉𝑅
⟹ 𝐼𝑅 =
𝐵

Let, 𝐴 = 𝐴 ∠𝛼, 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∠𝛽
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0°, 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿

So we obtain from above equation of IR,

𝑉𝑆 𝐴 𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑅 = ∠𝛿 − 𝛽 − ∠𝛼 − 𝛽
𝐵 𝐵
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
The complex power at the receiving end,
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 2
𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅∗ = ∠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − ∠(𝛽 − 𝛼) (1)
𝐵 𝐵

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 2
⟹ 𝑃𝑅 = cos 𝛽 − 𝛿 − cos(𝛽 − 𝛼) (2)
𝐵 𝐵
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 2
and, 𝑄𝑅 = sin 𝛽 − 𝛿 − sin(𝛽 − 𝛼) (3)
𝐵 𝐵

• Noting that the expression of complex power shown by equation (1) to

be the resultant of two phasors expressed in polar form, we can plot
these phasors in the complex plane
– whose horizontal and vertical axes are in real and reactive power, respectively.
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 2
𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅∗ = ∠(𝛽 − 𝛿) − ∠(𝛽 − 𝛼) (1)
𝐵 𝐵

𝑷𝑹 + 𝒋𝑸𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹

Fig. 6.11
Fig. 6.10

𝑷𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝑹
𝑸𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝑹
𝜽𝑹 = phase angle by which VR
leads IR.
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
• The sign of Q is consistent with the convention that it is positive when
current lags voltage

• Assume that |VR| and |VS| are fixed with

variation of loads

• Notice that the position of ‘n’ does not

depend on IR, and will not change as long
as VR remains constant

• The distance from ‘n’ to ‘k’ is constant for

fixed values of |VR| and |VS|.

• As the distance ‘0’ to ‘k’ changes with the

changing load, the point ‘k’ is constraint
to move on a circle whose center is at ‘n’

Fig. 6.11
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
• Any change of PR will require a change in QR to keep ‘k’ on the circle

• If a different value of |VS| is held

constant for the same value of |VR|,
the location of point ‘n’ is unchanged
but a new circle of radius ‘nk’ is will be
found

• There is a limit to the power that can

be transmitted to the receiving end, for
specified magnitudes of VS and VR

• An increase in power delivered means

that point ‘k’ will move along the circle
until the angle 𝛽 − 𝛿 becomes zero;
– More power will delivered until 𝛿 = 𝛽
– Further increase in  result in less power
received Fig. 6.11
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
The maximum power received is,
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 2
𝑃𝑅, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐵 𝐵

• The load must draw a large leading

current at maximum power condition R,max

• Usually, operation is limited by

keeping  less than about 35 and
|VS|/|VR| equals to or greater than
0.95

Fig. 6.11
• For short lines thermal ratings limit
the loading
 Power Flow Through a Transmission Line
• |VS| and |VR| are line-to-neutral voltages
and coordinates in Fig. 6.11 are watts and
vars per phase

• If |VS| and |VR| are line-to-line voltages,

each distance in Fig. 6.11 is increased by a
factor of 3, and the coordinates on the R,max
diagram are total three-phase watts and
vars.
– If voltages are kV, the coordinates will be
MWs and MVars

Fig. 6.11
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
• The performance of a transmission line, especially medium length
and longer, can be improved by reactive compensation of a series or
parallel type

• Series compensation consists of a capacitor bank placed in series with

each phase

• Shunt compensation refers to the placement of inductors from each

line to neutral
– Reduce partially or completely the shunt susceptance
– Important at light loads, when the voltage at receiving end may otherwise become
very high

• Series compensation reduces the series impedance of the line,

– which is the principal cause of voltage drop
– and, the most important factor in determining the maximum power which the line
can transmit
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
We know,
2
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅
𝑃𝑅, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐵 𝐵
For nominal-: 𝐵=𝑍
sinh 𝛾𝑙
For equivalent-: 𝐵 = 𝑍( )
𝛾𝑙

• Because the A, C and D are functions of Z, they will also change in value, if
series compensated, but these changes will be small compared to the
change in B

• The reactance of the capacitor bank can be determined by compensating

for a specific amount of total inductive reactance

𝑋𝐶
Compensating factor =
𝑋𝐿
XC = Capacitive reactance of the series capacitor bank per phase
XL = Total inductive reactance per phase
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
• When nominal- circuit is used to represent the line and capacitor
bank, the physical location of the capacitor bank is not taken into
account
– If only sending- and receiving end conditions are of interest, this will not create
any significant error

• When the operating conditions along the line are of interest, the
location of the capacitor bank must be taken into account
– This can be accomplished most easily by determining ABCD constants of the
portion of the line on each side of the capacitor bank, and by representing the
capacitor bank by its ABCD constants
IS IR

Left part Capacitor Right part

VS of the line bank of the line VR
A1, B1, C1, D1 A2,B2,C2,D2 A3, B3, C3, D3
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
• Series compensation is especially important where generators are
hundreds of miles away from the load centers and large amount of
power must be transmitted over long distances

• The lower voltage drop in the line with series compensation is an

additional advantage (along with the maximum power increase)

• Series capacitors are useful in balancing the voltage drop of two

parallel lines
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines

Solution:
Using equivalent- circuit and quantities in Example 6.3 and 6.5,

For uncompensated line,

𝐴 = 𝐷 = cosh 𝛾𝑙 = 0.8904∠1.34°
𝐵 = 𝑍 ′ = 186.78∠79.46° Ω
sinh 𝛾𝑙 0.4596∠84.94°
𝐶= = = 0.001131∠90.42° S
𝑍𝐶 406.4∠−5.48°
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
The series compensation only alters the series arm of the equivalent-
circuit,

After compensation,
𝐵 = 186.78∠79.46° − 𝑗0.7 × 230 0.415 + 0.4127
= 60.88∠55.85° Ω = 𝑍′
𝑍′𝑌′
𝐴=𝐷= + 1 = 60.88∠55.85° 0.000599∠89.82° + 1
2
= 0.970∠1.24°

′𝑌′ ′ ′ 2
𝑍 𝑌 𝑌
𝐶 = 𝑌′ 1 + = 2 + 𝑍′
4 2 2
= 2 × 0.000599∠89.82 + 60.88∠55.85° 0.000599∠89.82° 2

= 0.00118∠90.41°
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
Before compensation:
𝐴 = 𝐷 = 0.8904∠1.34°
𝐵 = 𝑍 ′ = 186.78∠79.46° Ω
𝐶 = 0.001131∠90.42° S

After compensation,
𝐴 = 𝐷 = 0.970∠1.24°
𝐵 = 60.88∠55.85° Ω = 𝑍′
𝐶 = 0.00118∠90.41°

• B has reduced to 1/3 of its value for uncompensated line without

affecting the A and C constants appreciable.

• Maximum power that can be transmitted is increased by about 300%.

Because,
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 2
𝑃𝑅, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐵 𝐵
and, the term before minus sign (‘-’) is much larger than the other term and
dominates to the total value
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
• When a transmission line with or without series compensation has
the desired load transmission capability, attenuation is turned to
operation under light loads or no loads

• Charging current is an important factor to be considered and should

not be greater than the full load current

Total charging current can be given as,

𝐼𝑐ℎ𝑔 = 𝐵𝐶 𝑉
BC = Total susceptance of the line
|V| = The rated voltage to neutral

• Calculation of Ichg using the above equation is not exact, because of

the variation of |V| alone the line
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
• If we connect inductors at various points along the line so that the
total inductive susceptance is BL, then the charging current becomes,
𝐵𝐿
𝐼𝑐ℎ𝑔 = 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐿 𝑉 = 𝐵𝐶 𝑉 1 −
𝐵𝐶

𝐵𝐿
The shunt compensation factor =
𝐵𝐶

• The total benefit of shunt compensation is the reduction of the

receiving end voltage of the line which on long high-voltage lines tend
to become to high at no load.

Previously we saw,
𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 = 𝑉𝑆 / 𝐴
A = 1.0 when shunt capacitance is neglected (short lines), because VR,NL
becomes equal to VS
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
• In medium length and longer lines, the presence of capacitance
reduces A

• The reduction of shunt susceptance to the value (BC - BL) can limit the
rise of the no-load voltage at the receiving end, if shunt inductors are
introduced as load is removed

• By applying both series and shunt compensation to long transmission

lines, we can transmit large amount of power efficiently and within
the desired voltage constraints

• Ideally, the series and shunt elements should be placed at intervals

along the line

• Series capacitors can be bypassed and shunt inductors can be

switched off when desirable
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines

Solution:
From example 6.3 we have,
𝑦 = 𝑗5.105 × 10−6 S/mi

For the entire line,

𝐵𝐶 = 5.105 × 10−6 × 230
= 0.001174 S
For 70% compensation,
𝐵𝐿 = 0.7 × 0.001174 = 0.000822 S

Considering the inductor alone as a two port network we have,

 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
I1 I2
𝑉1 = 𝑉2
= 1 × 𝑉2 + 0 × 𝐼2
V1 V2 𝑉2
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 +
𝑗𝑋𝐿
= −𝑗𝐵𝐿 × 𝑉2 + 1 × 𝐼2

A2 = D2 = 1, B2 = 0 C2 = -jBL = -j0.000822 S

For cascaded two networks in series we get from Table A.6

𝐴𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐶2
Subscripts:
1 → Original line
2 → Shunt inductor

∴ 𝐴𝑒𝑞 = 0.8904∠1.34° + 186.78∠79.46° 0.000822∠ − 90°

= 1.0411∠ − 0.4°
 Reactive Compensation Transmission Lines
So,
𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿 𝑉𝑆 /|𝐴|− 𝑉𝐹𝐿
Voltage regulation= × 100 = × 100
𝑉𝐹𝐿 𝑉𝐹𝐿
137.86Τ1.0411−215 / 3
= × 100 = 6.67%
215 / 3
Remark:
This is a consideration reduction from the value of 24.7% for the
regulation of the uncompensated line.

• We used the same VS for full load condition, that means

compensation is not present at full load condition
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission

±1100 kV, 12 GW HVDC

Zhundong–Wannan (3324 km), China
Completed: Sep 2019
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Introduction:

• Remote generation and system interconnections lead to a search for

efficient power transmission at increasing power levels

• The problems of AC transmission particularly in long distance

transmission, has led to the development of DC transmission

• Generation and utilization of power remain at alternating current

• The DC transmission requires conversion at two ends of the line

– From AC to DC at the sending end
– From DC to AC at the receiving end

• The converters are static, using high-power thyristors connected in

series to provide the required voltage levels
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
• The converter station can switch from rectifier to inverter by simple
control action, thus facilitating power reversal

• The HVDC transmission made a modest beginning in 1954 with 100

kV, 20 MW link established between Swedish mainland and the island
of Gotland

• Until 1970, the converter stations utilized mercury arc valve for
rectification

• The successful use of thyristors for power control in industrial devices

encouraged it adoption in HVDC by development of high-power
semiconductor devices

• The largest transmission voltage reached is 1100 kV

 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Comparison of AC and DC transmission:
The relative merits of the AC and DC transmission need to be considered
on the following factors:
a) Economics of transmission
b) Technical performance
c) Reliability

Economics of power transmission:

• The cost of transmission line includes the investment and operational
costs

• The investment includes

– Costs of Right of Way (RoW)
– Transmission tower
– Conductors
– Insulators
– Terminal equipment
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
• The operation costs include mainly the cost of losses

• The characteristics of insulators very with the type of voltage applied

• For simplicity, it is assumed that the insulator characteristics are

similar for AC and DC, and depend on the peak level of voltage
applied with respect to ground

• It can be shown that the lines designed with same insulation level, a
DC line can carry as much power with two conductors (with positive
and negative polarities with respect to ground) as an AC line with
three conductors of the same size
– DC line require less RoW, simpler and cheaper towers and reduced conductors,
about 67% of that for AC with same current carrying capacity of conductors

• The absence of skin effect with DC is also beneficial in reducing power

losses marginally
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
• The dielectric losses in case of power cables is also very less for DC
transmission

• The corona effects tend to be less significant on DC conductors than

for AC, leads to the choice of economic size of conductors with DC
transmission
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
The line costs are the cost of compensation and terminal equipment
• DC lines do not require compensation but terminal equipment costs
are increased due to the presence of converters and filters

Fig. 1 Variation costs with line length

 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Technical performance:
• DC transmission has some positive features which are lacking in AC
transmission
– These are mainly due to the fast controllability of power in DC lines through
converter control

Advantages of DC transmission:
1. Full control over power transmitted
2. The ability to enhance transient and dynamic stability in associate AC networks
3. Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines
― This makes it feasible to avoid DC breakers in two terminal DC links
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
DC transmission overcomes some the problems of AC transmission.
They are:

Stability limits:
• The power transfer in AC lines depends on the angle difference
between the voltage phasors at the two ends
– For a given power level this angle increases with distance

• The maximum power transfer is limited by the steady state and

transient stability

• Power transfer capability of DC lines

is unaffected by distance of transmission

Fig. 2 Power transfer capability vs. distance

 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Voltage control:
• The voltage control in AC line is complicated by the line charging and
inductive voltage drops

• The voltage profile in an AC line is relatively flat only for a fixed level
of power transfer corresponding to surge impedance loading (SIL)
– For constant voltage at the line terminals, the midpoint voltage is reduced for line
loading > SIL, and increased for loading < SIL.

Fig. 3 Variation of voltage along the line

 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
• The maintenance of constant voltage at the two ends requires
reactive power control from inductive to capacitive as the line loading
is increased

• The reactive requirements increase with the increase in line lengths

• Although DC converter stations require reactive power related to the

line loadings, the line itself does not require reactive power

• The steady-state charging current in AC line pose serious problems in

cables
– This puts the breakeven distance for cable transmission around 40 km
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Line compensation:
• AC lines require shunt and series compensation in long distance
transmission, mainly to overcome the problems of line charging and
stability limitations
– Series capacitors and shunt inductors are used for this purpose

• The increase in power transfer and voltage control is also possible

through the use of Static Var Systems (SVS)

• In AC transmission, it is necessary to provide shunt compensation at

regular intervals, which is a serious problem in underwater cables

Problems of AC interconnection:
• When two power systems connected through AC ties (synchronous
interconnection), the automatic generation control of both systems
have to be coordinated using tie-line power and frequency signals
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Problems of AC interconnection:
• Even with coordinated control of interconnected systems, the
operation of AC ties can be problematic due to-
– The presence of large power oscillations which can lead to frequency
tripping
– Increase in fault level
– Transmission of disturbances from on system to the other

• The controllability of power flow in DC lines eliminates all the above

problems.

• In addition, for asynchronous DC ties, there is no need of coordinated

control

• Two systems having different nominal frequencies cannot be

interconnected directly with AC ties and require DC links
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Ground impedance:
• In AC transmission, the existence of ground current cannot be
permitted in steady-state due to high magnitude of ground
impedance
– Affects efficient power transfer
– Result in telephone interference

• Ground impedance is negligible for DC currents and DC link can

operate using one conductor with ground return (monopolar
operation)
– This is objectionable only when buried metallic structures (such as pipes) are
present and subject to corrosion with DC current flow

• Even in monopolar mode, the AC network feeding the DC converter station

operates with balanced voltages and currents. Hence, single pole operation of
DC transmission system is possible for extended periods
– In AC transmission, single phase operation (or any unbalanced operation) is not
feasible for more than a second
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Disadvantage of DC transmission:
The scope of DC transmission is limited by the following factors:
1. The difficulty of breaking DC currents which results in high cost of DC
breakers
2. Inability of use transformers to change voltage levels
3. High cost of conversion equipment
4. Generation of harmonics that requires AC and DC filters, adding to the cost
of converter stations
5. Complexity of control

Over the year, there have been significant advances in DC technology,

which have tried to overcome the disadvantages listed above except for
(2). These are:
1. Development of DC breakers
2. Modular construction of thyristor valves
3. Increase in the ratings of thyristor cells that make up a valve
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
4. Twelve pulse operation of converters
5. Use of metal oxide, gapless arrestors
6. Application of digital electronics and fiber optics in control of converters

• Some of the above advances have resulted in improving the reliability

and reduction of conversion costs in DC systems

• Complexity of control does not pose a problem and can actually be

used to provide reliable and fast control of power transmission not
only under normal conditions but also under abnormal conditions,
such as line and converter faults

• This has removed the need for DC current interruption in two

terminal links

• Even in multi-terminal operation, the requirement of current ratings

of DC breakers are modest due to effective converter control
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Reliability:
• The reliability of DC transmission is quite good and comparable to
that of AC systems

• The performance of thyristors valves is much more reliable than

mercury arc valves, and further developments in devices, control and
protection is likely to improve the reliability level
– For example, the development of direct light triggered thyristors (LTT) is expected
to improve reliability, because of elimination of high pulse transformers and
auxiliary supplies for turning on the devices

There are two measures of overall system reliability:

𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Energy availability = 1 − × 100%
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
where, equivalent outage time = actual outage time X the fraction of system
capacity lost due to outage
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Transient reliability:
This is a factor specifying the performance of HVDC system during
recordable faults on the associated AC systems

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑

Transient reliability = × 100%
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐶 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠

Recordable AC system faults are those faults which cause one or more AC bus
phase voltage to drop below 90% of the voltage prior to the fault

• Both energy avaiablity and transient reliability of exitsting DC systems

with thyristor valves is 95% or more.
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Application of DC transmission:
The detailed comparison of AC and DC transmission in terms of
economics and technical performance, leads to the use DC transmission
in the following areas of application:
1. Long distance bulk power transmission
2. Underground or underwater cables
3. Asynchronous interconnection of AC systems operating at different
frequencies or where independent control of system is desired
4. Control and stabilization of power flows in AC ties in an integrated
power system

Description of DC transmission system:

Types of DC links:
1. Monopolar link
2. Bipolar link
3. Homopolar link
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Monopolar link:

Fig. 4 Monopolar link in an HVDC system

• It has one conductor and uses either the ground or sea return

• A metallic return can also be used where concerns for harmonic

interference and/or corrosion exist

• In applications with DC cables (i.e., HVDC Light), a cable return is used

 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
• Corona effects in a DC line are substantially less with negative polarity
of the conductor than positive polarity
– A monopolar link is normally operated with negative polarity with respect ground

Bipolar link:

Fig. 5 Bipolar link in an HVDC system

• In this type of link two conductors, one positive and the other
negative.
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
• Each terminal has two sets of converters of equal rating, in series on
the DC side

• The junction between the two sets of converters is grounded at one

or both ends by the use of short electrode line

• Both poles operate with equal currents under normal operation

– There is zero ground current flowing under these conditions

• Monopolar operation can also be used, e.g., under faulty converter

conditions
– The line with the faulty converter may be temporarily used as a metallic return
with the use of suitable switching
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Homopolar link:

Fig. 6 Homopolar link in an HVDC system

• Two conductor having the same polarity (usually negative) operates

with ground or metallic return

• Due to the desirability of operating a DC link without ground return,

bipolar links are mostly used

• Homopolar link has advantage of reduced insulation costs, but the

disadvantage of earth return outweigh the advantages
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
HVDC converter station:

Fig. 7 Simplified diagram of a HVDC transmission system

The major components of a HVDC transmission system includes-

• Converter stations, where conversions from AC to DC (rectifier
station) and DC to AC (inverter station) are performed
– A point to point transmission requires two converter stations

• The role of rectifier and inverter stations can be reversed (resulting in

power reversal) by suitable converter control
 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Other important items for smooth
operation:
a) Smoothing reactors
b) DC filters
c) AC filters
d) High frequency AC filters
e) Reactive power sources
f) DC and AC switchgears

Fig. 8 HVDC converter station

 The Load-Flow Analysis
• Load (power) flow studies are of great importance in-
– planning and designing the future expansion of power systems,
– determining the best operation of existing system

• Principal information from power flow study-

– Magnitude and phase angle of voltage at each bus
– Real and reactive power flowing in each line
– Much additional information of value is provided by printout from computer
programs used by utility companies

The power flow problem:

• Either the bus self- and mutual admittances of Ybus matrix or the
driving-point and transfer impedances of Zbus matrix may be used in
solving the power flow problem
– We will discuss only the method of using admittances
 The Power-Flow Problem
• The starting point in obtaining the data is the single line diagram

• Transmission lines are represented by their per phase nominal-

equivalent circuit

• For each line numerical values for Z and Y (usually in terms of line
charging megavars at nominal voltage) are necessary
– So that computer can determine all the element of the NXN Ybus matrix

Fig. 6.7
 The Power-Flow Problem
• The typical element Yij is,
𝑌𝑖𝑗 = 𝑌𝑖𝑗 ∠𝜃𝑖𝑗 = 𝑌𝑖𝑗 cos 𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗 𝑌𝑖𝑗 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑗 = 𝐺𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗𝐵𝑖𝑗 (1)

• Other essential information includes-

– Transformer ratings and impedances
– Shunt capacitor ratings
– Transformer tap settings

• In advance of power flow study certain bus voltages and power

injection must be given

• The voltage at a typical bus (i) in polar form,

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝛿𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 cos 𝛿𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑉𝑖 sin 𝛿𝑖 (2)
 The Power-Flow Problem
The net current injected at bus (i),
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖1 𝑉1 + 𝑌𝑖2 𝑉2 +. . … … … … … + 𝑌𝑖𝑁 𝑉𝑁 = σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑛 (3)

Let Pi and Qi denote the net real and reactive power entering the
network at bus (i),
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖∗ 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖∗ σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑛 (4)

From Eqs. (1) and (2) we have,

𝑁

𝑃𝑖 − 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠ − 𝛿𝑖 ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑛 ∠𝜃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑛 ∠𝛿𝑛

𝑛=1
= σ𝑁𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 ∠𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 (5)
Separating real and reactive parts,
𝑃𝑖 = σ𝑁𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 cos(𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 ) (6)

𝑄𝑖 = − σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 (7)
 The Power-Flow Problem
• Eqs. (6) and (7) provide the calculate values for the net power flow
equations

Let,
Pgi = scheduled real power being generated at bus (i)
Pdi = scheduled real power demand by load at bus (i)
Therefore, net power being injected at bus (i),
𝑃𝑖, 𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − 𝑃𝑑𝑖

Fig. 9.1
 The Power-Flow Problem
Denoting calculated value of Pi by Pi, calc we have the equation for
mismatch as,
Δ𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − 𝑃𝑑𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 (8)
Likewise,
Δ𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑄𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 𝑄𝑔𝑖 − 𝑄𝑑𝑖 − 𝑄𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 (9)

Fig. 9.1
 The Power-Flow Problem
• Mismatch occur in solving a power flow problem when calculated
values of 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖 do not coincide with the scheduled values

• If the calculated values 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 and 𝑄𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 match with the schedule
values 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ and 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ perfectly, we say Δ𝑃𝑖 and Δ𝑄𝑖 are zero at
bus (i)

We write the power balance equations,

𝑔𝑖′ = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − 𝑃𝑑𝑖 = 0 (10)
𝑔𝑖′′ = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑔𝑖 − 𝑄𝑑𝑖 = 0 (11)

• The functions 𝑔𝑖′ and 𝑔𝑖′′ are convenient for writing certain
equations involving mismatches Δ𝑃𝑖 and Δ𝑄𝑖 .
 The Power-Flow Problem
• If bus (i) has no generator or load, the appropriate terms in Eqs.
(10) and (11) are set equal to zero

• Each bus of the network has two such equations

– Power flow problem is to solve Eqs. (6) and (7) for unknown bus voltages,
which cause Eqs. (10) and (11) to be numerically satisfied at each bus

• If there no scheduled value of 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ for bus (i) then the mismatch
Δ𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 cannot be defined and there is no
requirement to satisfy the corresponding Eq. (10)
– Similarly, if 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ is not specified at bus (i), then Eq. (11) does not have to be
satisfied

• Four potentially unknow quantities associated with bus (i)-

1. 𝑃𝑖
2. 𝑄𝑖
3. Voltage angle, 𝛿𝑖
4. Voltage magnitude, |𝑉𝑖 |
 The Power-Flow Problem
• At most, there are two equations like (10) and (11) available for
each node
– We must consider how the number of unknown quantities can be reduced to
agree with the number of available equations before beginning to solve the
power flow problem

• The general practice is to identify three types of buses in the

network

• At each bus two of the four quantities 𝛿𝑖 , |𝑉𝑖 |, 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖 are

specified and the remaining two are calculated

• Specified quantities are chosen according to the following

discussion:
 The Power-Flow Problem
1. Load buses:

• At each non-generator bus (load bus) both 𝑃𝑔𝑖 and 𝑄𝑔𝑖 are zero

• 𝑃𝑑𝑖 and 𝑄𝑑𝑖 (negative input to the system) are known from historical
record, load forecast, or measurement

• Quite often in practice only real power is known, and the reactive
power is then assumed based on a power factor such as 0.85 or
higher

• A load bus is often called P-Q bus, because the scheduled values
𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = −𝑃𝑑𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = −𝑄𝑑𝑖 are known and mismatches Δ𝑃𝑖
and Δ𝑄𝑖 can be defined
– The corresponding Eqs. (10) and (11) are then explicitly included in the statement
of the power flow problems, and the unknow quantities to be determined are 𝛿𝑖
and |𝑉𝑖 |
 The Power-Flow Problem
2. Voltage-controlled buses:
• A bus at which the voltage magnitude is kept constant

• At each bus to which there is a generator connected the megawatt

generation can be controlled by adjusting prime mover, and the
voltage magnitude can be controlled by adjusting the generator
excitation

• Therefore, each generator bus (i) we may properly specify 𝑃𝑔𝑖 and
|𝑉𝑖 |

• With 𝑃𝑑𝑖 known, we can define mismatch Δ𝑃𝑖 according to Eq. (8)
Δ𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − 𝑃𝑑𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 (8)
 The Power-Flow Problem
• Generator reactive power 𝑄𝑔𝑖 required to support the scheduled
voltage |𝑉𝑖 | cannot be know in advance
– So, Δ𝑄𝑖 is not defined

• At a generator bus (i) voltage angle 𝛿𝑖 is the unknown quantity to be

determined and Eq. (10) for 𝑃𝑖 is the available equation
𝑔𝑖′ = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − 𝑃𝑑𝑖 = 0 (10)

• After the power flow problem is solved, 𝑄𝑖 can be calculated from

Eq. (7)
𝑄𝑖 = − σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 (7)

• For obvious reasons, a generator bus is usually called a voltage-

controlled bus or PV bus
 The Power-Flow Problem
• Certain buses without generator may have voltage control capability
– Such buses are also designated voltage controlled buses
– Here real power generation is zero

3. Slack buses:
• The bus of which the voltage angle serves the reference for the
angles of other bus voltages

• The particular angle assigned to the slack bus voltage is not

important
– Because voltage-angle differences determine the calculated values of Pi and Qi in
Eqs. (6) and (7)

𝑃𝑖 = σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 cos(𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 ) (6)
𝑄𝑖 = − σ𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 (7)
 The Power-Flow Problem
• The usual practice is to set 𝛿1 = 0°

• Mismatches are not defined for the slack bus, and so |𝑉1 | is specified
as the other known quantities along with 𝛿1 = 0°

• There is no requirement to include either Eq. (10) or (11) for the

slack bus in the power flow problem
𝑔𝑖′ = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − 𝑃𝑑𝑖 = 0 (10)
𝑔𝑖′′ = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑔𝑖 − 𝑄𝑑𝑖 = 0 (11)

To understand why P1 and Q1 are not scheduled at the slack bus,

Consider that at each of the N buses of the system an equation similar
to Eq. (10) can written by letting i ranging from 1 to N. By adding all of
them we have,
 The Power-Flow Problem
𝑃𝐿 = σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 = σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑔𝑖 − σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑑𝑖 (12)
Real power loss Total generation Total load

• The term PL in Eq. (12) is the total I2R loss in the transmission lines
and transformers of the network

• The individual current in various transmission lines cannot be

calculated until after the voltage magnitudes and angles are know at
every bus

• Therefore, PL is initially unknow and it is not possible to pre-specify

all the quantities in summation of Eq. (12)

• In formulation of power flow problem we choose one bus, as the

slack bus, at which Pg is not scheduled or otherwise pre-specified
 The Power-Flow Problem
• After the power-flow problem has been solved, the difference (slack)
the total specified P going into the system at all other buses and the
total output P plus I2R losses are assigned to the slack bus
– For this reason a generator bus must be selected as the slack bus

• The difference between the total megavars supplled by the

generators at the buses and the megavars received by the loads is
given by,
σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑄𝑖 = σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑄𝑔𝑖 − σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑄𝑑𝑖 (13)

• This equation is satisfied on an individual bus basis by satisfying

Eq.(11) at each bus (i) in solving the power flow problem

𝑔𝑖′′ = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑖,𝑠𝑐ℎ = 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑔𝑖 − 𝑄𝑑𝑖 = 0 (11)

 The Power-Flow Problem
• Individual Qi can be evaluated from Eq. (7) after the power flow
solution becomes available
𝑄𝑖 = − σ𝑁𝑛=1 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑛 + 𝛿𝑛 − 𝛿𝑖 (7)

• Thus the quantity on the left-hand side of Eq. (13) account for the
combined megavars associated with line-charging, shunt capacitors,
and reactors installed at the buses, and the so called I2X loss in the
series reactance of the transmission lines

• The unscheduled bus voltage magnitudes and angles in the input

data are called state-variable or dependent variables
– Which describe the state of the system
– Depend of the quantities specified at all buses

• The power flow problem is to determine values for all state variables
by solving an equal number of power flow equations, based on the
input data specifications
 The Power-Flow Problem
• If there are Ng voltage control buses (without the slack bus) in the
system of N buses, there will be (2N-Ng-2) equations to solved for
(2N-Ng-2) state variables
 The Power-Flow Problem
• Once the state variables have been calculated, the complete state of
the system is known and all other quantities which depend on the
variables can be determined
– P1 and Q1 at the slack bus
– Qi at each voltage-controlled bus
– The power loss PL

• Pi and Qi of Eqs. (6) and (7) are non-linear functions of the state
variables 𝛿𝑖 and |𝑉𝑖 |

• Power flow calculations usually employ iterative techniques

– Gauss-Seidel method
– Newton-Raphson method

• The Newton-Raphson method solves the polar from of the power

flow equations until Δ𝑃 and Δ𝑄 mismatches at all buses fall within
specified tolerances
 The Power-Flow Problem
• The Gauss-Seidel method solves the power flow equations in
rectangular coordinates until differences in bus voltages from one
iteration to another are sufficiently small

• Both methods are based on bus admittance equations

Solution:
The buses of the system are categorized as follows-
Slack bus: 1
P-V bus: 2, 5 and 7
P-Q bus: 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9
 The Power-Flow Problem
The mismatches corresponding to the specified P and Q are-
P-Q buses:
Δ𝑃3 , Δ𝑄3 ; Δ𝑃4 , Δ𝑄4 ; Δ𝑃6 , Δ𝑄6 ; Δ𝑃8 , Δ𝑄8 ; Δ𝑃9 , Δ𝑄9

P-V buses:
Δ𝑃2 , Δ𝑃5 , Δ𝑃7

and state variables are:

P-Q buses:
𝛿3 , |𝑉3 |; 𝛿4 , |𝑉4 |; 𝛿6 , |𝑉6 |; 𝛿8 , |𝑉8 |; 𝛿9 , |𝑉9 |;

P-V buses:
𝛿2 , 𝛿5 , 𝛿7

Since, N=9 and Ng = 3, there are 2N-Ng-2=13 equations to be solved for

the 13 state variables