Today’s session intends to familiarise you with the origins of the concept of

caste and varna in Indian Society. The Indian Caste System is historically one of
the main dimensions where people in India are socially differentiated through
class, religion, region, tribe, gender, and language. Although this or other forms
of differentiation exist in all human societies, it becomes a problem when one or
more of these dimensions overlap each other and become the sole basis of
systematic ranking and unequal access to valued resources like wealth, income,
power and prestige. The Indian Caste System is considered a closed system of
stratification, which means that a person’s social status is obligated to which
caste they were born into. There are limits on interaction and behaviour with
people from another social status. Its history is massively related to one of the
prominent religions in India, Hinduism, and has been altered in many ways
during the Buddhist revolution and under British rule.
Caste:
Defining the word “caste” itself is harder than thought to be. The word caste
derives from the Spanish and Portuguese “casta”, means “race, lineage, or
breed”. Portuguese employed casta in the modern sense when they applied it to
hereditary Indian social groups called as ‘jati’ in India. ‘Jati’ originates from
the root word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is concerned with
birth.
According to Anderson and Parker, “Caste is that extreme form of social class
organization in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is
determined by descent and birth.”
According to the Britannica Encyclopedia, it means a group of people having a
specific social rank, defined generally by descent, marriage and occupation.
Each caste has its own customs that restrict the occupations and dietary habits
of its members and their social contact with members of other castes.
Anthropologists use the term more generally, to a social group that is
endogamous and occupationally specialized. Caste systems are traditional
hereditary systems of social stratification enforced by common practice and
based on classification such as occupation, race, ethnicity etc.
Caste name is generally associated with a specific occupation and it is a closed
stratification, which makes it endogamous. The Indian caste system is a
classification of people into four hierarchically ranked castes called varnas.
They are classified according to occupation and determine access to wealth,
power, and privilege. Leadership positions in society are monopolized by a few
dominant castes. The two upper castes are ritually considered as superior to the
lower castes.
Origin of Caste System in India: The origin of the Indian caste system has
many theories behind it. Some of them are religious, while others are biological.
The religious theories explain that according to the Rig Veda, which is the
ancient Hindu book, the Four Varnas were created from different parts and
organs of the body of Brahma, who is the creator of the world in Hinduism. The
Brahmins were from his head, the Kshatriyas from his hands, the Vaishyas from
his thighs, and the Shudras from his feet. The Varna hierarchy is determined by
the descending order of the different organs from which the Varnas were
created. For example, Brahmans, who were derived from the head of Purush,
are considered the intelligent and most powerful varna because of their wisdom
and education and are a representation of the brain. In the same way,
Kshatriyas, considered the warrior caste, were created by arms, which represent
strength.
The biological theory claims that all existing things inherit three one of three
categories of qualities. Varna means different shades of texture or color and
represents mental temper. There are three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and Tamas.
Sattva is white, Rajas is red, and Tamas is black. These in combination of
various proportions constitute the group or class of people all over the world
with temperamental differences. Sattva qualities include characteristics related
to wisdom, intelligence, honesty, goodness, and other positive qualities. Rajas
include qualities such as passion, and pride. Tamas are considered to acquire
qualities that include dullness, stupidity, lack of creativity, and other negative
qualities. People with different amounts of these inherent qualities end up
adopting the appropriate occupation. According to this theory, the Brahmans
usually inherit the Sattva qualities. They are serene and self-controlled. They
are considered to have purity, and they have will to acquire knowledge,
wisdom, and faith. The Kshatriyas and Vaishyas inherit the Rajas qualities, and
the Shudras inherit the Tamas qualities. The type of one’s actions, the quality of
ego, the color of knowledge, the texture of one’s understanding, the temper of
fortitude, and the brilliance of one’s happiness defines one’s Varna.
Historically, however, it is believed that the caste system began with the arrival
of the Aryans in India around 1500 BC. Of the many cultures that flourished in
India, the literary records of the Indo-Aryan culture are not the earliest. They
do, however, contain the first mention and a continuous history of the factors
that make up the caste system. The Aryans came from southern Europe and
northern Asia with fair skin that contrasted with the indigenous natives in India.
When they arrived, their main contact was with the Dravidians. The only other
culture whose records are dependable about the origins of the caste system are
the Dravidians.. but when that culture’s documents were put forwards, it had
already been largely influenced by the Indo-Aryan tradition. Unfortunately, the
Aryans completely disregarded their local cultures and began conquering
regions all over north India. At the same time, the local people were pushed
towards jungles of mountains in north India.
The Aryans possessed a particular principle of social ordering called Varna
Vyavastha, which was based on the four hierarchical divisions of function in
society. They were placed in order of decreasing importance: religious and
educational functions, military and political functions, economic functions, and
menial functions were there at the bottom. The Aryans organized themselves in
three groups. The first group, Rajayana (later changed to Kshatriya) were the
warriors, which were followed by the Brahmans, who were the priests. These
two groups constantly struggled for political leadership among the Aryans.
Eventually, the Brahmans became the leaders of the Aryan society. The final
group consisted of the farmers and craftsmen and they were called the Vaishyas.
The Aryan conquerors subdued the locals and made them servants. In this
process, the Vaishyas became the landlords and businessmen of the society and
the locals became the peasants and craftsmen. In order to secure their status, the
Aryans laid out social and religious rules which stated that only they were
allowed to become priests, warriors, and businessmen of the society.
Between the outcasts and the three Aryan varnas were the Shudras, who were
simple workers of the society. The Shudras consisted of two communities: one
community was of the locals who were subdued by the Aryans, and the other
was the mix of Aryan and local descent. One of the main regulations the Aryans
began was the exclusion of these Shudras from their religious worship. Very
early in their Indian history, the Aryans enjoined that the Shudras shall not
practice the religious worship developed by them.

Varna System:
The Sanskrit term varna is derived from the root ‘vri’ which means choice or to
choose. This is contrary to the assumption that ‘varna’ denotes color and hence
signifies qualities of some one. In the context of social hierarchies, it means
social arrangement. At later stages the word ‘varna’ came to be used for the four
social classes i.e. Brahmana (scholarly community), Kshartiya (warriors or
political community), Vaishya (mercantile community) and Shudra (service
providing community). Interestingly, there was nothing like higher or lower
varna in the Vedic period. The divisions of society into four varnas or four
orders were based on the division of labour. Brahman acted as priest, Kshatriyas
as rulers and fighters, Vaishyas as traders and shudras as service class. Each
varna worshipped different deities and followed different rituals. This difference
was because each group had to achieve different object according to its
occupational role. Brahmins wanted maximum holy luster for which they
worshipped agni (fire) and recited gayatri mantras. Kshtriyas wanted physical
strength for which they worshipped Indra and recited Trishubh mantras.
Vaishyas wanted cattle wealth for which they worshipped Visvedevas and
recited Jagati mantras. But there were no restrictions on the matrimonial
alliances or social relations or even on the change of membership from one
varna to another.
Aims and Functions of Four Varnas:
Brahmano’ sya mukham asid bahu rajanyah pritah!
Uru tal asya yad vaisyah padbhyam sudro ajayata!! (Rigveda, X. 90.12)
In the Rigveda, the earliest work in human history three classes of society are
very frequently mentioned, and named Brahma, Kshatra, and Visha. The first
two represented broadly the two professions of the priest and the warrior. The
third division was apparently a group comprising all the common people. It is
only in one of the later hymns of Purushasukta that a reference has been made
to four orders of society. The names of those four orders are given there as
Brahmana, Raajanya, Vaishya, and Shudra, who are said to have come
respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs, and the feet of the Creator.
The particular limbs associated with these divisions and the order in which they
are mentioned probably indicate their status in the society of the time, though no
such interpretation is directly given in the hymn.
The aim of the four fold varna system in India was division of labour. The
theory of division of labour is one of the fundamental theories of social
organization. It propounds that for an orderly progress of work in society, it is
necessary that it be divided into classes according to natural tendencies. Thus
the responsibility of Brahmanas was to see the proper execution of works like
study of knowledge and teaching and other religious activities. The government,
defense and direction of the state were left to the Kshatriyas while the Vaishyas
carried on the agriculture, diary farming and business. The Shudras served the
other three varnas.
The varna system is a developed social system. Social stratification is found in
all societies but it is difficult to find one as systematic as the Indian varna
system. The object of this system was to put the different powers of man to
proper and productive uses in order to maintain the solid, organized and
balanced state of society.
Another major advantage of the varna system was the decentralization of power.
Concentration of all power in the hands of one class may lead to exploitation
and despotism. In the varna system, the power of knowledge, power of arms,
power of wealth and power of labour were evenly distributed among the
Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras respectively. By
keeping respect, authority and wealth separate, the varna system saved the
society from the defects of concentration or localization of power.
Brahmans: The Brahmans, usually priests and scholars, are at the top. Brian K.
Smith, the author of Classifying the Universe, explains his definition of the
Brahman caste:
The Brahmin class is essentially defined by its supposed priority (as the class
created first by the creator god), by knowledge of the Veda, and by the
monopoly this class holds on the operation of sacrifice. These traits justify the
social position of the class vis-à-vis others: they are predominant because they
are prior, and they claim to stand outside of the power relations that govern
social life for others because of their superior knowledge and sole possession of
the ultimate “weapons,” sacrificial techniques.
There are, however, varying “degrees” of Brahmans, such as Kanya-Kubja,
Tamil, Tanjore, and others who are part of numerous villages (Pintane). These
sub-castes, called jatis, are very specifically endogamous, so that a Brahman is
not only restricted to marrying another Brahman, but to marrying a woman of
the same subdivision of Brahmans. Each jati is composed of a group deriving its
livelihood primarily from a specific occupation. People are born into a certain
caste and become members. They then acquire the appropriate occupation
according to their jati. Separation of these Brahmans from others is one of
several indications of social status, which include material goods, social power
or influence, and social skills. In modern India, economic competition and
education are predominate, and the Brahmans occupy this position in both
aspects.
Kshatriyas: Following the Brahmans are the Kshatriyas, or political rulers and
soldiers. They were the ruling class and often times collaborated with the
Brahmans as they reigned over their kingdom. In ancient India, the rulers were
bound by Holy Scriptures to govern their kingdoms with justice. A Hindu ruler
was the protector of his subjects, and in order to protect his subjects the king
needed to be an expert warrior. A Kshatriya is characterized by physical and
martial strength. These qualities determined his relations with others: “the
Kshatriya is charged with the protection of the higher Brahmin class with rule
over (and unrestricted exploitation of) the lower Vaishyas”. The word ‘kshatra’
in Sanskrit means government, power, and dominion. Kshatriyas are considered
to be bold, alert and full of fortitude, generosity, discipline and modesty.
Priests and warriors were said to be “better” than or “superior” to the other
castes, and in general the Brahmans and Kshatriyas were regarded as united into
a ruling class according to the populace at large. But although the Brahmans and
Kshatriyas together proclaimed to be superior to the commoners, the Brahmans
never hesitated to declare their own caste as higher than the Kshatriyas. The
reason of this, according to the Vedas, is that Brahmans have been characterized
as being self-sufficient, whereas the Kshatriyas are dependent on priests. Thus,
it is said that Brahmans can live without rulers, but rulers cannot sufficiently
execute their tasks without the aid of Brahmans.
Vaishyas: Next are the Vaishyas, or merchants. A Vaishya's duty was to ensure
the community's prosperity through agriculture, cattle rearing and trade. The
Vaishyas were considered and expected to be weak in comparison to their
rulers, and were infinitely exploitable and regenerative. These oppressions
however, were usually not boycotted because this was presented as a natural
state of affairs in the social realm. Later, the Shudras took over agriculture and
cattle rearing while the Vaishyas became traders and merchants. However,
though they were “twice-born” and economically strong because they controlled
commerce, Vaishyas were denied a high social status, for which they resented
the upper castes. One expression of this resentment was their support of the
anti-Brahminical sects that developed around the 6th century BC, like
Buddhism and Jainism.
Then come the Shudras, who are usually laborers, peasants, artisans, and
servants. Shudras were thought to not have any special abilities and were
considered only capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes. Shudras
enjoyed no rights or privileges, and were not permitted to perform any sacrifices
or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the mantras (prayer rituals). They
were also not allowed to enter temples and could only serve the upper three
castes as a slave, barber, blacksmith or cobbler. They too supported the anti-
Brahminical groups that came about.
Shudras:
Then come the Shudras, who are usually laborers, peasants, artisans, and
servants. Shudras were thought to not have any special abilities and were
considered only capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes. Shudras
enjoyed no rights or privileges, and were not permitted to perform any sacrifices
or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the mantras (prayer rituals). They
were also not allowed to enter temples and could only serve the upper three
castes as a slave, barber, blacksmith or cobbler. They too supported the anti-
Brahminical groups that came about.
At the very bottom are those considered the “untouchables.” These individuals
performed occupations that were considered unclean and polluting, such as
scavenging and skinning dead animals and are considered outcastes. The Hindu
law books insisted that there were only four varnas and never a fifth, which was
used as a reason to not accept the tribal people of India (Velassery, 8). They
were therefore not considered to be included in the ranked castes. In some
cases, the untouchables could face criminal charges if they polluted certain
things with their presence. For example, it was a criminal offense for a member
of an excluded caste knowingly to pollute a temple by his presence (Hampton).
They were also forbidden to enter the streets in which the houses of the upper
castes were situated, and there were many customs and laws that kept them
beyond the villages and towns. Since they were rated outside the caste system,
they were destined to only in the outskirts of the village and were never an
integral part of village community. Their services, however, were still essential
to the health of the community and therefore still had to be part of the system in
order to serve the upper castes.
Elementary characteristics of varna system:

Caste includes three elements: repulsion, hierarchy, and hereditary

specialization. According to Velassery, “a society is characterized by such a
system if it is divided into a large number of hereditarily specialized groups,
which are hierarchically superposed and mutually opposed. It does not tolerate
the principle of rising in the status of groups’ mixture and of changing
occupation”. There are many rules in the Indian caste system which caste
members must adhere to in order to avoid being shunned from their caste
members or, according to Hinduism, being born less fortunate in their next life.
The two most important characteristics of the Indian caste system have to do
with endogamy and occupational restriction. Every member of a caste or sub-
caste is required to marry within their own caste. Any violation of this results in
excommunication from one’s family and caste. When it comes to occupation,
every caste is associated with a particular one to which its members are required
to follow.
Another characteristic is that every caste imposes restrictions on its members
with regards to diet and has its own laws which govern the food habit of the
members. There are two types of food: Pacca, which is food prepared with ghee
or melted butter, and Kachcha, which is food prepared with water. According to
the castes, only certain kinds of foods can be exchanged between certain castes.
For example, a Brahman can accept only Pacca food from a Shudra, but
Kachcha food can only be accepted from a person of one’s own caste or of a
higher caste.
Another is the social interaction between castes. There are strict barriers when it
comes to the mixing of a superior caste with an inferior caste. Hence, under the
caste system every caste abides by well established customs and well defined
norms of interactions.
A fourth idea is the belief of purity and pollution. Cleanliness is considered to
be a very important value in Hinduism, and the caste system enforces this idea.
Untouchability was thus a means of exclusivism, a social device that became
religious only by being drawn into the pollution-purity complex. Therefore, it
was believed that the higher castes were more pure and less polluted, while the
lower castes were regarded as less pure and more polluted.
A final characteristic that is very important to the stabilization of the Indian
caste system is the restriction of caste mobility, which was mentioned earlier.
Birth in a particular caste confines a person to staying in this caste and restricts
and individual’s mobility up or down the hierarchy.
Caste and Varna: There is relation as well as the difference between the two
concepts of caste and varna, which are discussed below, respectively. Varna and
caste represent two different forms of social stratification of India. Varna and
caste represent two different forms of social stratification of India. Very often,
one is used interchangeably to mean the other. But the distinction between the
two is of great importance in sociology. The following could be referred as the
main differences between the two:
Varnas are four in number whereas jatis are innumerable: According to the
“chaturvarna doctrine”, there existed four varnas during the Vedic and the post-
Vedic period namely which are of course mentioned earlier as Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. These four varnas represented the four-fold
division of the then existing Hindu society, whereas castes are found in a very
large number. It is very difficult to say the exact number of castes existing in
India. It is well known that there are more than 4000 castes and sub-castes in
India.
The caste system is based on birth while the varna system is based on
occupation: Membership in the case of caste is determined based on the birth
of a person. Individuals who are called caste members are invariably born in
one or the other caste. For example, Brahmins are born in Brahmins, Reddys are
born in Reddys, Jats are born in Jats and so on. Varna system which existed
during the Vedic period was based on the occupation, which is also a division of
labour in society. Membership in the Varna system was determined based on
“Karma” or occupation which an individual was pursuing. It was subject to
change. As Bhagavad Gita puts, referring to Lord Krishna, that the membership
of the Varna of an individual was very much dependent on the “Guna” as well
as “Karma” of that individual.
Varna system was more or less an ‘open’ system whereas the caste system
is regarded as a ‘closed’ system: Varna system was regarded as open because
it provided opportunities for the individual to change the membership of the
Varna to which they belonged. For example, a man who belonged to Kshatriya
Varna could become a Brahmin. Similarly, a Vaishya could become a Kshatriya
or a Brahmin. Even the Shudras could become Brahmins. We have an example
of Vishwamitra who was originally a Kshatriya and later on became a Brahmin.
Vedavyasa, the author of “Mahabharata”, originally belonged to a fisherman’s
family of the Shudra Varna, but later on, pursued the Brahmin career. On the
contrary, the caste system is regarded as closed because caste membership
cannot be changed from one group to another. Therefore, opportunities for
moving up and down in the hierarchy are virtually closed.
Varna system has the sanction of the religion, that is, Hinduism, whereas
the caste system does not have the sanction: The origin of the Varna system
throws light on the fact that it was divinely ordained. As it is believed by a large
number of traditional thinkers that four varnas emerged from the four different
organs of the Prajapati Brahma or the divine king, Lord Krishna also says in
Bhagavad Gita that he had created the four varnas. The caste system, on the
contrary, does not have the sanction of any divine force. Caste system can be
regarded as the degenerated form of the Varna system which existed during the
ancient times in India. It means, the origin of the caste system can be traced to
the Varna system itself. Thinkers like Swami Vivekanand and others have said
that the caste does not have the sanction of the Hindu religion. Vivekanand
says, “in religion, there is no caste…the caste system is opposed to the religion
of the Vedanta.
In this way the varna system shows a fine synthesis of the fundamentals of
social organization, division of labour and decentralization. This convention
was not severe and was based on inherent qualities and tendencies. Here we see
the technical skill of the occupation was passed on hereditarily from generation
to generation and because of practicing the same occupation over a long period
of time ‘occupational guilds’ came into existence which later on came to be
known as castes.
But at a later stage, when it became the caste system we see a rigid form which
lost all its good qualities. The caste system which is said to be originated from
the varna system, is very different from it. It lost the advantages of the varna
system and became detrimental to the society. Thus we see that though the caste
system was originally evolved for the necessary classification of human duty in
order to preserve the organic stability of society, its original meaning and
intention were forgotten through the passage of time.
Though people speak of the “Varna system” and the “Varna model” in
theoretical terms, practically they are not in existence. Varna, as a form of
stratification, has become a thing of the past. What is in existence today is the
caste system with all its peculiarities.