Module 1 - Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING:

Engineer
• Derived from the Latin words ingeniare ("to create, generate, contrive, devise") and
ingenium ("cleverness").
• Someone who designs builds or maintains engines, machines, or structures.
• Cleverly uses the available natural resources for the benefit of mankind.

Engineering
● A field of study or activity concerned with modification or development in a particular
area.

Civil Engineering:

• Oldest branch of engineering, next to Military engineering.

• Civil denotes the fact that the facilities designed by civil engineers are primarily for civilian
use.
• Deals with the analysis, design, construction and maintenance of infrastructural facilities
such as buildings, bridges, dams, roads etc.
• John Smeaton was the first self proclaimed Civil Engineer who built Eddystone Light
House in 1771.
• Civil engineering is the profession in which the knowledge of mathematical and physical
sciences gained by the study experience and practice is applied with judgment to develop
ways to utilise economically and materials and forces of nature for the progressive will be
of mankind.

Fields of Civil Engineering:

1. Surveying
2. Structural Engineering
3. Geotechnical Engineering
4. Hydraulics & Water Resources
5. Transportation Engineering
6. Environmental Engineering
7. Construction planning & Project management

1. Surveying

● Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on,
or beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field.
● It is also helpful to collect topographic features of the location also to determine the
boundaries of the district states and countries.
● It also include the details of the different engineering features such as buildings roads
railways dams canals etc.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 ● Primary divisions of surveying includes: a) Plain surveying - effect of curvature of the earth
is not taken into account. b) Geodetic surveying - effect of curvature of the Earth is taken
into account

2. Structural Engineering

● Structural engineering deals with:

o Design of various components of the structure subjected to internal stress due to
loading.
o Analysis of a structure subjected to loading.
● Loads in a building a transferred from slabs to beams, beams to columns, columns to
foundations and foundation to ground.
● I the process of load transfer, each component of the building will be subjective to internal
stress. A good structural design ensures satisfactory functioning of each components and
structure as a whole.
● Structural design involves finding the suitable size of the various components of the
structure and quantity of the materials required.

3. Geotechnical Engineering

● This branch of civil engineering deals with the study of soil, it's behavior on the application
of load and its use as an engineering material in the construction.
● Essential to understand ground behaviour and interaction between soil and structure.
● The properties and strength characteristics of different types of soil are studied in this
subject.

4. Hydraulics & Water Resources

Hydraulics

● Hydraulic deals with the study of water at rest and in motion is carried out.
● At rest the forces exerted by the water on an immersed area are determined.
● At motion - In the design of water supply distribution system, the knowledge of hydraulics
helps to solve the problems encountered in design. i.e, to carry water through closed
conduits or open channels.

Water Resources

● It is defined as a science, which deals with the subject of tapping the water higher from the
surface are sub surface sources of the earth.
● Water resource engineering includes hydrology irrigation hydraulics and water supply.
● Knowledge of this subject helps an engineer to tame the water resource by constructing of
dams, bore wells and hydroelectric plants for the benefits of mankind.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 5. Transportation Engineering

● Application of scientific approach of transportation systems such as roads, railway,

sea/river & air transports.
● It involves planning, design, construction/operation and maintenance of transportation
facility.
● Includes traffic management.

6. Environmental Engineering

● Environmental engineering deals with the technology to save nature from human and
natural abuse and pollution.
● The study involves balanced compromise between environment and safety.
Deals with;
– Technique of water collection, purification and supply
– Waste water collection, treatment and disposal
– Control of all types of pollution

7. Construction planning & Project management

● Deals with planning, scheduling and execution of construction activity related to a project.
● Comprises of men, material, time and money management.
● Code of building and bye laws ensure good and sound construction through regulating the
materials and construction methods.
● Technologies of maintenance and repairs of the buildings.
● Includes study of construction materials and techniques.

BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION:

1. Bricks:

Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by moulding clay
in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these blocks. In order to get a
good quality brick, the brick earth should contain the following constituents.
-Silica, Alumina, Lime, Iron oxide, Magnesia.
Silica:
• Brick earth should contain about 50% to 60% of silica.
• Affects the durability of bricks.
Alumina:
• Should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina
• Responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in moulding operation.
Lime:
• Range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
• Prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
Iron oxide:
• About 5% to 7% of iron oxide.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 • It gives red colour, strength and hardness. It improves impermeability and durability.
Magnesia:
• Less a small quantity of magnesia about 1%.
• Responsible for reducing shrinkage.

Types of bricks:
• Traditional bricks – (23*11.4*7.5) cm
• Standard/Modular bricks – (19*9*9) cm
Bricks are classified as
• Un-burnt or sun-dried bricks
• Burnt bricks
• First class bricks
• Second class bricks
• Third class bricks

Properties of good bricks:

● Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edges.
● Bricks should be of uniform shape and should be of standard size.
● Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
● Brick should not absorb water more than 20% by weight for first class bricks and 22% by
weight for second class bricks when soaked in water for 24 hours.
● Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one
meter.
● No brick should have crushing strength below 35kg/cm2.

2. Cement:

• A very fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), silicon, bauxite
(aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace
slag, slate.
• Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens, also can bind other materials together.
• Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-
hydraulic,
• Depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water.
• Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries
and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air.
• Hydraulic cement allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the
hardened material from chemical attack.

Uses:

● Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 ● Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather-shed, stairs,
columns etc.
● Construction for important engineering structures such as bridge, culverts, dams, tunnels,
light house etc.
● Construction of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.
● Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, artistically designed wens, flower posts, etc.

Types of Cement Used in The Construction Industry:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulfates Resisting Cement
7. Quick Setting Cement
8. Furnace Slag Cement
9. High Alumina Cement
10. White Cement

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

• OPC is a type of cement that is manufactured and used worldwide. It is widely used for all
purposes including concrete, mortar and plastering.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

• PPC has a high resistance to different chemical assaults on concrete. It is widely used in
construction such as., Marine structures, Sewage works, Bridges, Piers, Dams

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

• Rapid Hardening Cement is made when finely grounded C3S is displayed in OPC with
higher concrete. It is commonly used in rapid constructions like the construction pavement.

4. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

• Extra rapid hardening cement gains strength quicker and it is obtained by adding calcium
chloride to rapid hardening cement.
• Extra rapid hardening cement is widely used in cold weather concreting, to set the cement
fast.
• It is about 25% faster than that of rapid hardening cement by one or two days.

5. Low Heat Cement

• Low heat cement that is prepared by keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below
6% and by increasing the proportion of C2S. This low heat cement is used in mass concrete
construction like gravity dams.
6. Sulfates Resisting Cement
• This type of cement is manufactured to resist sulfate attack in concrete.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 • It can also be used in concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying like bridge
piers.

7. Quick Setting Cement

● Special cement formulation which rapidly develops compressive strength and significantly
reduces waiting on cement (WOC) time compared to conventional cement systems.
8. Furnace Slag Cement
• This type of cement is manufactured by grinding the clinker with about 60% slag and it is
similar to Portland cement.
• It is used for constructions where economic considerations are important.

9. High Alumina Cement

• To be considered high alumina cement, the total amount of alumina content should be at
least 32%.
• The most common uses are in constructions that are subject to high temperatures like a
workshop, refractory, and foundries.

10.White Cement
• This type of cement is manufactured by using raw materials that are free from iron and
oxide.
• It is similar to OPC but it is more expensive.
• Applications of white cement include Designer Flooring, Tile Grouting, Sealants

2. Cement Mortar:

Cement + Sand (Fine Aggregate) + Water

• Mortar is a mixture of cementitious :material, aggregate generally with a grain size of less
than 4 mm, water and possibly additives and/or admixtures. Mortar can be classified as
cement-lime mortar, cement mortar, lime mortar or masonry cement mortar.

Mortar is used for the following functions:

• To bind materials together (e. g. masonry mortar and tile adhesive mortar, either non
reinforced or reinforced)
• To serve as a seating and levelling material for the masonry units

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 • To provide aesthetic quality of the structure and a level or smooth finish (e. g. floor screed
mortar, internal plastering)
• To protect against weathering (e. g. external rendering)
• To improve thermal insulation of walls (e. g. external thermal insulation composite
systems, thermal insulation rendering mortar, lightweight masonry mortar)
• To repair and renovate constructions (e. g. concrete repair mortar, damproofing mortar, or
renovation mortar).

3. Concrete:

Cement + Sand (Fine Aggregate) + Course Aggregate + Water

• Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of cement, aggregate, and water. Often,
additives and reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical
properties of the finished material.

4. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC):

● Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate
without steel.
● PCC is an important component of a building which is laid on the soil surface to avoid
direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil and water.
● PCC is allowed to be done by hand-mixing for small-scale works. And machine mixing for
larger works.
● The PCC is laid in the layers and thoroughly vibrated by the means of mechanical vibrators
till a dense concrete is obtained.
● After 24 hours of laying of concrete, the surface shall be cured by flooding with water of
about 25mm depth or by covering with weight absorbent materials.
● Curing shall be done for a minimum period of 14 days.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 5. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):

• Reinforced concrete is a combination of traditional cement concrete with reinforcements

(steel bar).
• The reinforcing steel—rods, bars, or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the
compressive stresses in a concrete structure.
• Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind,
earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces.
• This combination is made to use the compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength
of steel at the same time, hence, work together to resist many types of loading.

Advantages:

• High compressive strength compared to other building materials.

• Reinforced concrete can also withstand a good amount of tensile stress.
• Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
• As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components.
• Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor
for the erection of the structure.
•

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 6. Precast Concrete:
• The concept of precast (also known as “prefabricated”) construction includes those
buildings, where the majority of structural components are standardized and produced in
plants (cast and cured) in a location away from the building, and then transported to the
site for assembly.
• These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on mass production in
order to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost.
• Precast Concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold
or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction
site and lifted into place.

Advantage:

● High efficiency and good quality control.

● Very rapid speed of erection.
● Entire building can be precast walls, floors, beams.
● Rapid construction is easily done.
● Durability & High quality - curing, temperature, mix design, formwork, etc. can be
monitored
● Aesthetic versatility.
● Sustainability.

Disadvantage:

● High initial investment

● Very heavy members.
● Connection may be difficult.
● Limited building design-Difficult to modify the structure
● Skilled workmanship is required.
● Cranes are required to lift panels.

7. Construction Chemicals:
Construction chemicals consist of many allied fields that essentially supports structurally,
its durability, buildability, usage convenience and aesthetic requirements. Construction chemicals
basically consist of the following areas.
• Concrete Curing Compounds - Used to retard the loss of water from concrete during the
early period of setting and hardening.
• Polymer Bonding Agents – Used to provide perfect bond between old concrete and new
concrete.
• Polymer Modified Mortar for Repair and Maintenance – Used to repair the chipped off
concrete surfaces. (The edge of a concrete column may get chipped off; or ceiling of
concrete roof may get peeled off, or a concrete floor may get pitted in course of time.)
• Mould Releasing Agents – Used to remove Wooden planks, ordinary plywood, shuttering
plywood, steel plates etc., when used as shuttering materials.
• Installation Aids – Used to fill left over space in wall after fixing wash basin, lamp shades,
hand rails or gates etc. Also to fill cracks in water storage/carriage units.

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 • Floor Hardeners and Dust-proofers - Used particularly for industrial buildings,
continuously subjected to wear and tear.
• Surface Retarders – Used where it is essential to provide a exposed surface finish (foot
paths and walk ways on either side of roads so that the surface will become non slippery.)
• Bond aid for plastering – On removing the formwork, bond aid (instead of hacking) is
applied on the surface of columns and beams and also on the ceiling of roof, to form a key
between the structure and plaster.
• Ready to Use Plaster – Ready mixed plaster is basically a pre-mixed materials in dry form
consisting of good sand and cement in different proportions for various usage.
• Construction Chemicals for Water-proofing
1. Integral Water-proofing Compounds
2. Membrane Forming Coatings
3. Polymer Modified Mineral Slurry Coatings
4. Protective and Decorative Coatings
5. Chemical DPC
6. Silicon Based Water-repellent Material
7. Waterproofing Adhesive for Tiles, Marble and Granite
8. Injection Grout for Cracks
9. Joint Sealants

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING:

1. Foundation:
● Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level,
which transmits the load of the super-structure to the subsoil.
● Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the
foundation, more stable is the structure.
● The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure
over a large base area and then to the soil underneath.
Types of Foundation:

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 Shallow foundation: Transfers the load to a stratum present in a shallow depth.
● Individual footing or isolated footing
● Combined footing
● Strip foundation
● Raft or mat foundation
Deep foundation: Transfers the load to a deeper depth below the ground surface.
● Pile foundation
● Drilled Shafts or caissons

2. Plinth:
● A plinth beam is a type of beam that is provided at the ground level in a framed structure
and is also known as a Tie Beam as it holds the columns in place.
● Plinth beams are usually designed to withstand their own weight and the load of the
masonry structure above them.
● Plinth beam helps to even out settlement in buildings.
● They provide damp proofing course (DPC) to the building.
● Plinth beam constructed as continuous band at the plinth level in addition to other beams
at lintels and roof level to improve building strength in seismic regions.
● It prevent the development and propagation of cracks due to differential settlement.
● It transfers the incoming load coming from the superstructure to the foundation below.

3. Lintel:

A lintel is a beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings
to support the load from the structure above. The width of lintel beam is equal to the width
of wall, and the ends of it is built into the wall. Lintels are classified based on their material
of construction.
Lintels are classified as:
1. Timber Lintels
2. Stone Lintels
3. Brick Lintels
4. Reinforced Brick Lintel
5. Steel Lintel
6. Reinforced Concrete Lintel

4. Chejja:

Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from
sun and rain. They are usually made with RCC. In low cost houses stone slabs are provided
as chejjas. The projection varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. Sometimes drops are provided
to chejja to improve the aesthetic look and also to get additional protection from sun and
rain.

5. Masonry Wall:

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 ● Masonry is used to indicate the art of building a structure in either stones or bricks.
● Masonry is a building technique in which individual pieces of block, stone, marble,
rock, solid square, tile, and so on are joined together using mortar.
● They provide strength, durability to the structure and also helps to control indoor
and outdoor temperature. It separates a building from outside world.

Masonry can be classified into the following categories:

● Stone masonry
o Stone masonry is the most durable, strong and weather resistant, thanks to the natural
durability of the material.
o It also has a high self-weight, combined with low flexural strength, tensile strength and
seismic resistance.
o Stone masonry is time-consuming and it requires skilled workers, since it cannot be
altered, repaired or relocate easily.
● Brick masonry
o Brick walls are thinner, and units can be adhered with different types of mortar,
depending on structural requirements.
o Compared with stone and concrete blocks, bricks are also less strong and durable, and
limited in sizes and colors.
o Plasterwork is required as finishing, which raises construction costs
● Concrete masonry
o Concrete blocks are resistant against weather, pests, mold, and fire.
o Concrete blocks are available in many sizes, finishes and colors.

5. Column:

● A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a

compressive load.
● A Column transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its own
weight to the foundation.
● In the modern construction industry, Columns are mostly constructed by concrete; apart
from that materials such as Wood, Steel, Fibre-reinforced polymer, Cellular PVC, and
Aluminium too are been used. The type of material is been decided on the scale, coast and
application of the construction.
Types of columns based on materials used
1. Reinforced concrete column.
2. Steel column.
3. Timber column.
4. Stone Column.
5. Brick column.

6. Beam:

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru

 ● A beam is a structural member which spans horizontally between supports and carries loads
which act at right angles to the length of the beam.
● They are small in cross-section compared with their span. The width and depth of a typical
beam are “small” compared with its span.
Types of beams
● Simply supported Beam
● Fixed Beam
● Cantilever Beam
● Continuous Beam
● Overhanging Beam

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru