Contents I Adverbs

Adverbs (Units 1,2, 12) 1. 1 Formation of adverbs from adjectives

2 Articles (definite, indefinite and zero articles) Many adverbs are fo rmed by adding -Iy to the adjective
(Unit4) form of the word, e.g. clear -+ clearly.
3 as/like; as if/os though (Unit 3) For adjectives ending in -y, drop the y and add -ily,
e.g. happy -+ happify.
4 Comparing: comparisons and modifiers (Un its 3, 5)
For adjectives ending in -le, drop t he e and add -y,
5 Conditional forms: alternatives to if(Un lts 9,10,11) e.g. gentle -+ gently.
6 Countable and uncountable nouns; expressions of For adjectives ending in -ic, add -ally,
quanti ty (Unit 5) e.g. automatic -+ automatically.
7 Emphasis with what (Unit 10) 2 Some words end ing in -Iy are adjectives only, not adverbs,
8 Habit in the past: used to/would (Unit 1) e.g. cowardly. friendly, silly. If an adverb is needed, a
phrase must be used:
9 hove/get something done (Unit 12)
They greeted us in a friendly way/ manner.
10 Hypothetica l mean ing: wish and ifonly (Unit 11)
3 Some words ending in -Iy can be used both as adjectives
11 Indirect questions (Unit 11)
and adverbs, e.g. hourly, daify, nightly.
12 it is/there is (Unit 14) Take the medicine twice daify (ad v). There is a daify (adj)
13 Modal verbs: flight to the island
Possibility and certainty (Unit 7) 4 Some adve rbs have the same form as adjectives, e.g.
Obligation, prohibition and necessity (Unit 12) early, fast, hard, still, straight, better, best, worse, worst.
Ab ility (Unit 13)
He's got a fast (adj) cor and he drives it fast (adv).
Advice (Unit 14)
She has straight (adj) hair. He looked straight (adv) at me.
14 Participles (-ing and -ed) (Unit 10)
5 Some adverbs have two forms, one like the adjective and
15 Passive forms/Passive reporting verbs (Unit 5) the other form end ing in -Iy, e.g. clear, close, direct, easy,
16 Relative clauses (Un it 7) free, hard, high, late. There is usual ly a difference
17 Refiexive p ronouns (Unit 13) in meaning.

18 Reported statements, questions and imperatives/

Stand clear of the doors. (~ keep away)
Repo rting verbs (Unit 8)
Try to speak more clearly. (~ so we can understand)
He works very hard (~ he makes a lot of effort)
19 so/such/too/enough/very (Unit 7) He had hardly ony petrol left. (~almost none)
20 Subject/verb agreement (U nit 14) The balloon was high up in the sky. (~a long way up)
21 Verb forms: They think very highly ofyou. (~ have a good opinion)
Present simple and continuous (Unit 1) Children under twelve trovel free. (~don't have to pay)
Present perfect and past simple (Unit 3) You can walk freely in the hotel grounds.
Narrative forms (Un it 4) (~without restr ictions)
Future forms (Unit 6) The troin arrived late. (~after the time it was expected)
22 Verb patterns -ing/lnfinitive (Unit 2) Hes not been very well lately. (~ recently)

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 1.2 Comparison of adverbs 1.5 Other types of adverbs used to
The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives. describe frequency

I
See 4.5. These are common adverbs of frequency:

1.3 Adverbs of manner

These adverbs are used to say how the action of the verb is
~~~
five tImes
a day/weeklmonth/year
several times
carried out.
every day/weeklmonth/moming/aftemoon/evening
Common adverbs of manner include accurately, badly. every three/couple of/few years
carefully. patiently. straight and well. They usually come on Monday/Wednesday/weekdays, ete
in the middle of the sentence, after the main verb. If the
2 These adverbs usually come at the end of the sentence,
verb has an object, the adverb comes after the object.
e.g. I phone my sister several times a day
He spoke (the words) clearly. He goes jogging every morning.
She went straight to the house. They go abroad every few years.
2 Prepositional phrases may also be used adverbially to However, they may come at the beginning for emphasis.
answer the question How? Several times a month, Igo to the cinema.
I ordered the book over the interne!.
He shouted in a loud voice. 1.6 Adverbs of attitude
These adverbs do not modify the verb, but express the
1.4 Adverbs of frequency
speaker's opinion or attitude.
1 These adverbs are used to talk about how often we do 1 The following adverbs explain how he/she is feeling:
things. We can put them in order from most often to least honestly. personally, seriously, ete
often like this:
Personally, I think its wrong to hunt animals.
always most often Seriausly, this is an Important question.
almost always 2 The fo llowing adverbs comment on how likely
generally/normally/regularly/usually something is: actually. certainly, clearly, definitely, maybe,
frequently/often/sometimes obviously. perhaps, possibly, probably. surely, ete.
occasionally Perhaps/ Maybe it will rain tomorrow.
almost /never/hardly ever/rarely/seldom Surely he is going to come'
not ... ever/never least often We'll probably be late.
2 In statements and questions, these adverbs come 3 The fol lowing adverbs explain the speaker's reaction
to some event: annoyingly, hopefully, luckily. naturally.
after be when it is the only verb in the sentence.
surprisingly. understandably, ete
I am always a bit depressed in winter.
Hopefully, we'll win the match.
after the first auxiliary verb when there is more than Annoyingly, I forgot my phone.
one verb.
I have often seen her walking here. 4 Adverbs of attitude usually come at the beginning of
the sentence. However, the adverbs certainly. definitely.
before the main verb when there is only one verb.
possibly and probably usually come in the middle of the
We sometimes watch a video on Friday evenings. sentence, after the verb be. before the main verb, or after
in questions, after the subject. the first auxiliary verb.
Don't you usually work with Jenny? He is definitely not a friend of mine.
3 In negative sentences, not comes before always, generally. /'11 certainly be seeing her tomorrow.
normally. often, regularly and usually
We don't often see him nowadays.
4 With imperatives, always and never come at the
beginning of the sentence.
Always look on the bright side of life.
Never refuse an opportunity

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1.7 Modifiers and intensifiers 2 Articles
USE We can use adverbs to make adjectives, other adverbs 2.1 The definite article: the
and verbs stronger (intensifiers) or weaker (modifiers).
We use th e definite article the
We can use these adverbs before gradable adjectives (i.e.
adjectives that can be used in the comparative) when the person or thing referred to is unique.
and adverbs: The sun came out and soon we were dry.
The President is giving a speech tonight.
very, extremely, really, particularly, terribly (emphatic)
the London Marathon , the Olympic Games
• quite, pretty, fairly, rather (weaker than very)
to talk about specific things when the context makes it
• a bit clear what we are referring to.
I felt terribly upset when I heard the news. Your shoes are in the cupboard.
He drives rather fast. Your dinner's in the fridge.
I thought the story was a bit silly. to talk about previously mentioned things.
Watch out! quite has two meanings. A man and a woman walked into the room. The man was
The picture was quite good. (= good but not very good) wearing sunglasses.
Her cooking was quite wonderful. (= very, very good) with superlatives.
He's the bravest person in the team.
2 Adve rbs such as almost. barely, hard.ly, nearly and scarcely
totalk about a generic class of things.
have a negative meaning. They com e in the middle of
The bicycle was invented about 200 years ago.
the sentence.
The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.
I almost/nearly missed the train.
with oceans, seas, rivers and deserts.
We could barely hear the speaker
He's sailed across the Atlantic and the Pacific.
She hardly knew anyone at the party.
We went by canoe up the Orinoco.
3 Extreme or absolute (non-gradable) adjectives include: She said she'd driven across the Sahara.
amazing, boiling, disastrous, fantastic, freezing, impossible,
with plura l mountain ranges and island groups.
marvellous, superb, wonderful, ete. We can use the
Are the Andes as high as the Himalayas '
following adverbs with extreme adjectives: absolutely,
The British Isles include the Isle of Wight and
really, completely.
the Isle of Man.
The special effects were absolutely amazing.
I've just read a superb new book about Egypt. with continents and countries whose name includes a
I love swimming in the sea, but it's absolutely freezing at common noun.
this time ofyear He's from the Czech Republic, but he's living in the
United States.
4 We can use these adverbs to emphasise both adjectives
and verbs:just, completely, totally (= in every way). with areas.
There is a range of mountains in the north.
I completely/ totally forgot about your birthday.
It's completely impossible to finish in time. with hotels, cinemas, theatres.
You look just fantastic. They had afternoon tea at the Ritz.
Let's just go. That new Polish film is on at the Odeon.
with newspapers.
The Times, The Guardian , The Independent
with national groups.
The English are a mixed race.

2.2 The indefinite article: a/an

We use the indefinite article a/an
with (singular) jobs, ete.
She's an architect.
Is your sister a football fan, too'
with Singular countable nouns (mentioned for the first
time or when it doesn't matter which one).
I'd like a sandwich and a glass of orange juice.
What you need is a rest.

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 2.2 The indefinite article: a/an (continued) 3 as and like; as if/as though
We use the indefinite article a/an 3.1 like
w ith these numbers: 100, 1,000, 1,000,000.
like can be a preposition, meaning similar to or in the
There were over a hundred people at the wedding.
same way as.
He made a million pounds in one year
00 you look like your sister'
in exclamations about singular countable nouns. Like John, I hate cooking.
What an amazing view!
2 We use the question What . . like? when we are asking for
a description of a person. place or thing.
2.3 Zero article 'What' the restauran tlike?' 'Oh, really good'
1 We use no article (zero article) when talking about 3 like ca n mean such as/for example.
uncount able, p lural and abstract nouns used in their Lets buy him something nice like/ such as a CO
general sense. 4 feel like + object/- ing is used to talk about something that
We had awful weather on holiday we want or want to do.
Happiness isn't the only thing in life. I feel like (eating) some crisps.
continen ts and countries. 5 seem/sound/look like + object is used to introduce an idea
They are going to visit Africa. we may not be completely sure about.
Haveyou been to Nepal' It seems like 0 good idea.
mou ntai ns and la kes. 6 like is not used before an adjective on its own.
They are going to climb Mount Everest. They seem happy. It feels cold
Is Lake Titicaca in Peru'
vi llages, towns and cities. 3,2 as
San Marco is a pleasant little fishing village.
as can be a prepOSition, coming before the name of a job
Saffron Walden is 0 small market town near Cambridge.
or a role, or to describe the purpose of somet hing.
Auckland is the biggest city in New Zealand.
She works as a soles manager
streets, roads, etc.
As your father, I can't allow you to do this.
In London, there are some huge shops on Oxford Street.
We use the loft as 0 play room for the kids.
magazines. I think of her as my best friend
00 you read Time magazine? 2 as can be a conjunct ion, followed by subject + verb.
illnesses. You should do as your parents soy.
I've got flu and Sue's got indigestion. I'll do as we agreed earlier
Watch out! I've got a headache and I think I'm getting Watch out! In co lloquial English like is also used as a
a cold. conju nction in t his way, bu t this is regarded as incorrect
2 Also use no article in the follow ing expressions: by some people and is not used in formal writing.
to/at/from school/university/college Like I said, hes 0 really nice guy (colloquial)
athome I want you to do like I tell you. (colloquial)
go home
in/to class 3.3 as if/as though
to/in/into/from church
As if/as though are conj unctions followed by subject + verb.
to/in/int%ut of prison/hospital/bed
They are followed by t he present or present perfect
to/at/from work
when referr ing to something likely.
for/at/to breakfast/lunch/dinner
He looks as if he~ crying.
by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boot
It looks as if it~ stopped raining.
on foot
by accident/chance To show that something is imaginary or unlikely, they
can be followed by the pasttense.
He looked as if he had seen a ghost l
He behaves as if he knew more than us.
Watch out ! In col loquial English like is also used instead
of as if/as though.
You look like you're worried. (colloquial)
It looks like we're going to win. (colloquial)

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4 Comparing 4.4 Irregular comparative and superlative
adjectives
4. 1 Types of comparison
These are the most common irregula r forms:
There are three types of comparison good - better - best
, to a higher degree (comparative form + than) bad ...... worse ...... worst
Mountain climbing is more dangerous than windsurling. little -less - least
The Andes mountains are higher than the Alps. much ...... more ..... most
2 to the same degree (as ... as) far _ further/farther - furthest/farthest
Hiring a car would cost just as much as getting a taxi Jim is a better player than I am but John is the best
I don't enjoy swimming as much as I used to Its the worst game I've ever seen.
3 to a lower degree (with less + than and the least) Its even worse than their last one.
I am less keen on taking risks than I used to be. You live further from the station than I do but Pedro lives the
Antarctica 15 the least densely populated continent. furthest away.

4.2 Comparative and superlative 4.5 Comparing adverbs

adjectives Most adverbs of manner have two or more syllables.
Therefore they form their comparatives and superlatives
With one-syllable adjectives
with mare and most.
Add -er and -est to form the comparative and superlative
If you speak more clearly, everyone will be able to hear you.
of one-syl lable adjectives.
Sami works the most quickly.
Which is the highest mountain in the world?
For one-syllable adjectives ending in a vowel
2 Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their
+ a consonant, double the consonant, e.g. comparatives with -er and -est.
hot _ hotter _ hottest I can run fast, but Toni can run even faster.
We were the earliest people to get to the party.
For one-syllable adjectives ending in -e, add -r and -sf, e.g.
He'll need to work harder if hes going to pass the exam.
fin e - fin er -linest
It'll take much longer if we walk -lets get the bus.
2 With two-sy llable adjectives ending in -y and -ow Whos the quickest at mental arithmetic?
For two-syllable adjectives ending in -y after a consonant, We'll get there sooner if we walk.
drop the -y and add -Ier and -iest.
Childhood 15 the happiest time of your life.
For two-syllable adjectives ending in -ow, add -er and -est
4.6 Irregular comparative adverbs
The road became narrower as we went along. badly and well use the same comparative and superlative
For other two-syllable adjectives see 4.3. forms as bad and good.
I did worse in maths than Id expected, but better in English.
4.3 more and most + adjective The weathers getting better, but I'm wOII/ed it will turn
worse at the weekend.
Use more and most with
2 Othe r irregu lar fo rms incl ude:
two-syllable adjectives (except for tho se listed in 4.2).
late -later - latest
Walking at high altitudes is more tiring than at sea level. much -+ more ...... most
It was the most boring magazine Id ever read. little - less - least
adjectives with three or more syllables. Tom arrived later than Peter but Mary arrived last
This exam was more difficult than the last one. I don't go to the cinema much but Igo more than I used to.
This is the most interesting book I've read. She likes Salf less than Dean but she likes Ali least of all.

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 4.7 Intensifying and modifying 5.2 Zero conditional
comparisons FORM if+ present simple + present simple in the ma in
clause
modifie rs comparative/superlat ive
USE To describe a general truth
(by) far the most/feast expensive
If there is life on other planets, we are not alone.
the cheapest
Alternatives to if
the most time Unless lions are frightened or hungry, they're not dangerous.
much more/less expensive than. When people are under stress, they often perform better.
a/at cheaper
far more time 5.3 First conditional
obit
FORM if ete. + present simple + futu re in th e main clause
just as cheap/expensive as .. USE • To describe w hat is possible or likely in the p resent
almost/nearly as much time or future
not quite 1'1/ be so disappointed if we lose the match on
not nearly Saturday.
We can use the following word s to intensify and modify You can also use if, etc. + present continuous/
compa ratives. prese nt perfect + future/impera tive in the main
cl ause to tal k about possibility/likelihood in the
far/ much/ a lot cheaper/less expensive
p rese nt/future.
very much bigger/better
You won't get an interview unless you've filled in an
rather harder
application form.
a bit/slightly/ a little faster
If you're watching TV, you will see him on the news.
no worse than
not any quicker
just as good as 5,4 Second conditional
almost/ not quite as expensive as FORM if+ past simple/continuous + would/could, etc. +
not nearly as cheap past parti ciple in the main clause
Watch out! You cannot use very on its own with USE 1 To tal k about something
comparatives. • that is contra ry to the present facts, or seen as
very unli kely to happen
I 5 Conditionals If I was/ were twenty years younger, I'd emigrate.
/f/ was/were Prime Minister, I'd make health core free.
5.1 Alternatives to if
which is very unli ke ly to happen in the future
1
Common co nd itiona l linking words are: if, as/so long as, / wouldn't apply forthatjob unless I thought I
unless, even if, whether, providing, provided (that), had a good chance of geWng it.
on condition that 2 To give advice.
When t he clause wi t h the conditional linking word is at I'd write it out again if I were you.
t he beginning of t he sentence, there is a comma. When
I, the main cla use begins the sentence, there is no comma. 5,5 Third conditional
If you give me your number, /'11 phone you tomorrow
As long as you take your mobile, I con phone you FORM if + past perfect + would!could/might have + past
I won't go unless you come with me. (= if you don't participle in t he main clause
come with me) USE To describe something in the past that could have
We're going on the walk even if it rains. happened but did n't, or that shouldn't have happened
/'11 help you provided that you don't tell. but did
in cose is used to describe things w e do as precautions I wouldn't have told her that if I'd known she'd tell
against wha t might happen. everyone else.
/'11 rake the mobile in case I need to phone you. She could have got there on time if she hadn't
missed the bus.
otherwise is used to describe what would happen if we
did th ing s d iffere ntly. It usually begins a new sentence.
I must leave by 3.30. Otherwise I'll get stuck in traffic.

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 2.2 The indefinite article: a/an (continued) 3 as and like; as if/as though
We use the indefinite article a/an 3.1 like
w ith these numbers: 100, 1,000, 1,000,000.
like can be a preposition, meaning similar to or in the
There were over a hundred people at the wedding.
same way as.
He made a million pounds in one year
00 you look like your sister'
in exclamations about singular countable nouns. Like John, I hate cooking.
What an amazing view!
2 We use the question What . . like? when we are asking for
a description of a person. place or thing.
2.3 Zero article 'What' the restauran tlike?' 'Oh, really good'
1 We use no article (zero article) when talking about 3 like ca n mean such as/for example.
uncount able, p lural and abstract nouns used in their Lets buy him something nice like/ such as a CO
general sense. 4 feel like + object/- ing is used to talk about something that
We had awful weather on holiday we want or want to do.
Happiness isn't the only thing in life. I feel like (eating) some crisps.
continen ts and countries. 5 seem/sound/look like + object is used to introduce an idea
They are going to visit Africa. we may not be completely sure about.
Haveyou been to Nepal' It seems like 0 good idea.
mou ntai ns and la kes. 6 like is not used before an adjective on its own.
They are going to climb Mount Everest. They seem happy. It feels cold
Is Lake Titicaca in Peru'
vi llages, towns and cities. 3,2 as
San Marco is a pleasant little fishing village.
as can be a prepOSition, coming before the name of a job
Saffron Walden is 0 small market town near Cambridge.
or a role, or to describe the purpose of somet hing.
Auckland is the biggest city in New Zealand.
She works as a soles manager
streets, roads, etc.
As your father, I can't allow you to do this.
In London, there are some huge shops on Oxford Street.
We use the loft as 0 play room for the kids.
magazines. I think of her as my best friend
00 you read Time magazine? 2 as can be a conjunct ion, followed by subject + verb.
illnesses. You should do as your parents soy.
I've got flu and Sue's got indigestion. I'll do as we agreed earlier
Watch out! I've got a headache and I think I'm getting Watch out! In co lloquial English like is also used as a
a cold. conju nction in t his way, bu t this is regarded as incorrect
2 Also use no article in the follow ing expressions: by some people and is not used in formal writing.
to/at/from school/university/college Like I said, hes 0 really nice guy (colloquial)
athome I want you to do like I tell you. (colloquial)
go home
in/to class 3.3 as if/as though
to/in/into/from church
As if/as though are conj unctions followed by subject + verb.
to/in/int%ut of prison/hospital/bed
They are followed by t he present or present perfect
to/at/from work
when referr ing to something likely.
for/at/to breakfast/lunch/dinner
He looks as if he~ crying.
by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boot
It looks as if it~ stopped raining.
on foot
by accident/chance To show that something is imaginary or unlikely, they
can be followed by the pasttense.
He looked as if he had seen a ghost l
He behaves as if he knew more than us.
Watch out ! In col loquial English like is also used instead
of as if/as though.
You look like you're worried. (colloquial)
It looks like we're going to win. (colloquial)

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 6.3 Expressions of quantity used with 7 Emphasis with what
countable/uncountable nouns This structure is a re lative clause introduced by a wh- word.
We use it to emphasise key informatio n in a sentence. It is
1 lots/a lotof + plural countable and uncountable nouns
(informal) more common in spoken English, but i5 also used in writing.
I've got lots/a lot of homework, so I con't go out. People do not realise that these accidents con be avoided
I've got lots/o lot of brothers and sisters. What people do not realise is that these accidents con be
avoided
2 much + uncountable nouns
We don't have much homework. The authorities are collecting information
How much money do you need' What the authorities are doing is collecting information
3 many + plural countable nouns You should learn to say no
How many bags have you got? What you should learn to do is say no.
There are many interesting places in the world Friends are important to young kids.
What is important to young kids is their friends.
Watch out! In positive statements lotsla lotofis less
forma l and is more commonly used in spoken English.
8 Habit in the past
4 little, a little, a bit of+ uncountable nouns
8.1 Past habit: used to
A a little, a bitof means at least some
Just a little rice, please - not too much. FORM Positive statements: used to + infinitive
I've got a bit of money, but not enough to get a taxi. Negative statements: did/didn't + use to + infinitive
B little without a means almost none. This can be Questions: Old you/she/they, ete. use to + infinitive
emphasised with very. USE We use used to to ta lk about past habits and states
The government has done very little to improve that do not occur now or no longer exist
the situation We used to be driven to school, but now we walk.
S few, a few + plura l countab le nouns (= some but not What did people use to do before electricity was
many) invented' Ken used to be shy, but hes more confident
since he met Cindy
A Before few you can use
the indefin ite article a. Watch out!
There were quite a few people in the room 1 used to is not used to say how often th ings happened
There were only a few people staying at the hotel. or how long they took.
the last, the first, the next, every. 2 Be carefu l not to confuse used to with be/get used to
Over the next few weeks, we have a lot to get ready + noun/-ing). This means be/become accustomed to
For the first few minutes, you may feel a bit nervous. something because you have been doing it for a while.
I phone her every few days. I'm used to making my own meals.
B When few is used without a, it means almost no. This I con't get used to the cold winters.
can be emphasised with very. 00 you think we'll ever get used to eating dinner at 6.00'
(Very) few people know the secret
6 some + uncountable nouns and plural nouns (= between
a little and a lot)
8.2 Past habit: would
Theres some useful information on that website. Would is also used to talk about past habits and repeated
Th ere are some good scenes in that film actions but NOT about past states.
When I was little, I would/ used to ploy with my brothers toys.
Watch out! If some is stressed, it often means not
NOT We wook! live in a small village.
many
I suppose hes written some good books.
8.3 Past habit: past simple
7 hardly any + uncountable nouns and plural
Th is can also be used to describe past habits and states.
countable nouns
When I was a child, I walked to school every day
There were hardly any customers in the shop.
1 8 no, not any + uncountable nouns and plural
countab le nouns
There was no milk left/There wasn't any milk left.
There were no students on the bus/There weren't any
students on the bus.

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9 have/get something done 10.2 if only
FORM have + object + past part iciple (the most If only is used with the same verb forms as wish, and is used
common form) when your fee lings are stronger. It is often used with an
get + object + past participle (also possible when exclamation mark (I). It is often used with would/wouldn't to
people are speaking informa lly) crit icise someone else's behaviour.
USE 1 To say that someone else did somethi ng for you If only I could find the answer l
because you wanted them to. If only they would stop talking I
He had his hair cut specially for the interview If only I had never met himl
He, got such big feet he has to have shoes
specially made. 10.3 it's time
Where can I get these papers photocopied?
Its time is used with the past simple to ta lk about the
He decided to get the photograph enlarged.
present or future. We mean that the action shou ld have
2 We also use have something done to say that been done before. For emphasis, we can also say Its about
someone else did something to you even though
time and Its high time.
you d idn't want them to.
It's (about) time you started revising for the exam.
He had to have a kidney removed.
It's (high) time we set off The train leaves in half an hour.
She said she'd had her necklace stolen.
3 We use get somebody to do/make somebody do
something when we want to persuade or force
10.4 would rather
somebody to do something for us. We use would rather + past simple to say what we want
I got my friend to drive me to the shops. someone or someth ing else to do in either the present
The police made the man hand over his car keys. o r the future.
I'd rather you didn't tell anyone about all this.
10 Hypothetical meaning Would you rather I asked someone else?
I'd rather we didn't discuss that, if you don't mind
10. 1 wish 2 We use would rather + past perfect to say what we
1 We use wish + past simple to express a wish that has not wanted to happen in the past.
come true in the present or to ta lk about wishes that I'd rather you hadn't told her that.
might come true in the future. I'd rather you had asked me first.
We use th is structure when we want our situation (or
Watch out! would rather + infin it ive w ithout to is used
the situation of the person who is doing the w ish ing)
to ta lk abou t our or other people's preferences in the
to be different.
present or future.
I wish Eleanor liked me.
I'd rather go to the concert than to the opera.
Don't you wish you had a big car?
They'd rather go on foot.
I wish she was/ were going out with me.
We all wish the weather wasn't/ weren't 50 bad
2 We use wish + would/could to refer to general w ishes for 10.5 suppose/what if?
the future. Suppose means What If •. ? It is used with
I wish the sun would shine.
1 the p resent simple to describe someth ing that may
I wish I could be in the basketball team.
possibly happen or may have happened.
3 wish + would is used to talk about wishes we have for Suppose someone sees her with us.
other people. Suppose someone h ears you coming in
I wish my sister would stop smoking.
2 the past simple to talk about something that is just
I wish he wouldn't chew gum all the time.
imag ination or which is unli ke ly to happen in the future.
Watch out! Th is form is not often used w ith I o r we. To Suppose Eleanor knew you loved her What would you do?
ta lk about wishes we have for ourselves we use could Suppose you won the prize. How would you feel?
I wish I could have a holiday 3 the past perfect to talk about something t hat cou ld have
happened in the past but d idn't.
4 We use wish + past perfect to refer to th ings we are sorry
Suppose we hadn't told her Would she have found out?
about in the past.
Suppose you had married Corlos. Would you have been
I wish I had been invited to the party
happy together?
She wishes she hadn't told him about Carlo.

Grammar reference 169

 I I Indirect questions 13.2 Certainty (deduction)
1 Indirect forms are often used when you want to be polite. We use mustto say that we are sure about something in
This may be because you don't know someone very th e present or past.
well, or when you want to make a request and you feel You must be pleased with your exam results. (~ present)
uncertain about someone's reaction He must have touched up the photograph. (~ past)
2 The first part of the question often begins with a modal 2 We use can't or couldn't in negative sentences. We do not
such as would, could, I was wondering. In the second use mustn't.
part of the question the word order is the sa me as in a That can't be Keira Knightley. Shes too old. (~ present)
statement; auxiliaries such as do/doeS/have/be are not They can't have got lost. They know the area really. well.
used and the subject and verb are not inverted. (~ past)
A Direct question: It couldn't have been Tom that I saw. (~ past)
When does the film start?
B Examples of indirect questi ons: 13.3 Obligation. prohibition and necessity
Could you tell me when the film starts'
Do you know when the film starts? We use musVmustn't and (not) allowed to to talk about
Would you mind telling me when the film starts ' present and future obligations/prohibitions imposed by
I was wondering when the film starts. the speaker, often on him/herself.
Payment must be made in cash.
I 2 it is, there is I must get some new shoes.
You must read tha t book, it's excellent! (~ recommendation)
We use there is/there are to begin a sentence describi ng
Must I really go now' (~appeal)
whether or not something exists. It is often followed by
You mustn't park here. (~prohibition)
an indefinite noun.
You mustn't eat so much. (~strong advice)
There is a little house at the foot of the hill.
You aren't allowed to wear trainers to school.
There are some trees growing along the side of the road.
There's no point in worrying about it. 2 We use have to/have got to to talk about present an d
future obligations that are imposed by someone other
2 We use it is/was, ete. to begin a sentence giving
than the speaker.
information about time, weather and distance.
It is a bright, sunny day. Watch out! have got to is more common in British
It was half past six in the morning. than American English.
It~ just over ten kilometres to the nearest town. I have (got) to take my holiday in February.
3 We use it is as the subject of a sentence to refer forwards Have we got to pay to go in'
to a later clau se with that, an infinitive or an -ing form .
3 We use had to to talk about past and reported obligation s
It is a pity that no one can help.
of all kinds.
It's good to see you again.
They told us we had to leave our bags in the cloakroom.
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
We had to stand up when the teacher came in.
I knew I had to make a decision.
13 Modal verbs and 4 We use need to to talk about oblig ation and necessity.
expressions with similar Do we need to type our work'
You need to book tickets in advance
meanings
13. 1 Possibility 13.4 Lack of obligation or necessity
We use can or could for theoretical possibility. We use needn't, don't need to, don't have to to talk about a
Can there be life on Mars' lack of obligation in the present or future.
Can that be Peter over there? You don't need to/ needn't meet me at the station.
The weather could be better tomorrow. (~ it's possible) We don't have to wait. We can go straight in.
2 We use may, might, could + infinitive to talk about 2 We use needn't + have + past participle to say that
likelihood in the present or future. somebody did something, but that it was unnecessary.
He may be in a meeting. You needn't have gone to all that trouble.
She might/could be here already.
3 We use didn't need to + infinitive to say that something
3 We use could/may/might + have + past participle (perfect wasn't necessary without saying whether the person did
infinitive) to ta lk about the possibility that past it or not.
events happened. You didn't need to bring any extra money.
His face was familiar. We may have met somewhere before. She didn't need to cook dinner for all of us'
He's not in the office. He might have finished work early.
She could have been at the party, but I didn't see her.

170 Grammar reference

13.5 Ability 13.7 Asking for and giving permission
We use can/could to express general abi lity and typical 1 We use can and are allowed to to ask for and give permission.
behaviou r of people or th ings. Can I borrow your calculator for a few minutes?
Temperatures can rise to over 30'( in the summer Yes, you can stay up and watch the late night film.
Employers can be unwilling to employ people over fifty You can't wait here. Its private. (= not allowed to)
My father could be very generous. (= past) You are allowed to borrow up to eight books.
2 We use can/be able to fo r present and future ability. 2 We use could to ask for permission when we are not sure
I can understand French but I can't speak it very well. what the answer will be.
Will your parents be able to help you? A: Could I open the window?
I like being able to cook my own meals. B: Yes, of course you can.
3 We use can for the future where there is a sense Watch out! could is NOT used for giving permission.
of opportuni ty.
I can come tomorrow if you like 3 We use may to ask for or give permission in forma l
You can practise your French when you go to Paris. sit uations.
4 We use could/couldn't and was able to to talk about May I take that chair?
genera l past ability. You may use pen or pencil.
I could swim before I could walk.
I was able to talk when I was eighteen months. 14 Participles (-ing and -ed)
Andrews father couldn't get a job.
14.1 Participles in relative clauses
5 We use was/wasn't able to to talk about past ability in a
We can use present participle (-ing) and past participle (-ed)
specific situatio n.
clauses in place of relative pronouns to make writing more
Fortunately, he was able to swim to the shore.
economical.
6 We use could/couldn't + perfect infinitive to talk about
unfulfilled ability in the past.
A presen t pa rticiple has an active meaning. It can replace
relative clauses which have an active verb.
I could have gone to university, but I decided not to.
I couldn't have been a ballet dancer. I was too tall. This is the road leading to the school. (= which leads .. .)
There was a huge lamp hanging from the ceiling. (= which
7 Ot her exp ressions for ability:
hung ... )
00 you know how to type?
He succeeded in becoming a professional footballer 2 A past participle has a passive meaning. It can replace
relative clauses which have a passive verb.
at eighteen.
We managed to find our way home. (= suggests difficu lty) The cathedral, built in the Middle Ages and recently
restored, is well worth a visit. (= which was built... which
has recently been restored)
13.6 Advice: should and ought to,
be supposed to 14.2 Other uses of participles
We use ought to and should to ta lk about obl igations and (see also 22.1)
duties in th e future, present and past, or to give advice.
We also use pa rticiples
You ought to/ should speak English in class.
Shouldn't we tell someone about the accident? 1 after certain verbs. Ienjoy running .
Oughtn't we to have invited Mandy? (= more formal) 2 after conj unctions. Before going out, I locked the door.
2 We can use be supposed to when sayi ng what someone 3 after prepositions. Shes really good at swimming.
shou ld or shou ld not do according to rules or regulations. 4 as adjectives. That film was amazing.
You're not supposed to park here. I was shocked by his behaviour.
I'm supposed to call my mum when we leave the party.
5 as the subject of a sentence.
3 should + have + past participle is often used to criticise Eating roo much is bad for you.
your own or other people's behaviour.
6 to express reason, condition, or res ult in place of adverbs.
I should have told you before.
Seeing Jim in the distance, I called after him.
You shouldn't have promised that
(= because I saw Jim ... )
4 Ot her phrases fo r advice include Having refused the invitation, I then changed my mind
You could get the next flight (= afte r I'd refused .. .)
If I were you, I'd phone him. Seen from a distance, the view is amazing.
I'd advise you not to park there. (= if/w hen you see it ... )

Grammar reference 171

 I 5 Passive forms USE The passive is used
to talk about actions, events and processes when the
15.1 Passive form and use action, event or process is seen as more important than
FORM To form the passive, use the appropriate tense of be the agent This is often the case in formal or
+ past participle. scientific writing.
The equipment was checked carefully.
present simple Most phone calls are made on mobile phones. Rats have been trained to open boxes.
present Calls Ofe being made every day. to put new information later in the sentence.
continuous
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
past simple The first emaif was sent in the twentieth
century.
15.2 by + agent
past I thought I was being asked ro help.
continuous When we are interested in the agent, we use the
prepOSition by.
present perfect Miffions of text messages have been sent.
He was saved by his mobile phone.
past perfect Once personal computers had been invented,
The team were guided by a local climber
they spread quickly.
future will She'll be given her own room.
15.3 Passive reporting verbs
future perfect The arrangements will have been made by
the end of the week. We often use reporting verbs such as believe, claim, report,
going to The event is going to be organised by the say, think in the following impersonal passive structures
manager. when we don't know or don't wish to specify the subject.
modals The machine must have been {efr switched on. it + be + verb + that
Messages may not be delivered immediately. It is thought that the criminal is a local man. (= present)
-ing Our dog doesn't like being left on his own. It was ciaimed that the minister had been involved.
(= past)
present They hope to be chosen to take part.
infinitive subject + be + reporting verb + infinitive
The criminal is thought to be a local man. (= present)
perfect I was happy to have been selected for
infinitive the team.
The minister was ciaimed to have been involved.
(= past)

Watch out!
1 Verbs that do not take an object (e.g. ache, arrive, sit
16 Relative clauses
down) do not have passive forms. It is not possible to and pronouns
say I was ached.
16.1 Relative pronouns
12 For verbs with two objects, one of them a person, the
passive sentence usually begins with the person. The most common relative pronou ns are:
Someone gave Mary a present. --+ Mary was given a who (= subject) and whom (= object) to refer to people
present. (NOT A p...."t ",'13 gi .." to Malj.) which to refer to thin gs
that to refer to either people or things
3 The verbs make, hear, see, help are followed by the
whose the possessive of who and which
infinitive without to in active sentences, but the
when used after nouns referring to time
infinitive with to in passive sentences.
where used after nouns referring to place
They made him go home. --+ He was made to go home.
why used to refer to rea son s
14 Let does not have a passive form. We use be allowed to
in the passive. Watch out! The relative pronoun replaces the subject
I They don't let us talk in class. --+ We are not allowed to or the object.
talk in class. People who (tIley) live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
The vase, which I bought (if) years ago, is very valuable.
What is not a relative pronoun.

172 Grammar reference

16.2 Defining relative clauses I 8 Reported statements,
In defining re lative clauses questions and imperativesl
1 the re lative clause defines or identifies the person, thing,
time, place or reason.
Reporting verbs .
Chris is the son ofo woman who works in television . 18.1 Reported speech
Thors the man whose son is an actor.
Th is is when we report something that has been
Winter was the time when people tended to get
sa id or written.
insufficient fresh food.
I know the place where the play is set. If the report is afterthe time the thing was said or written,
I con't imagine why he would want to leave you . the verb form generally changes as follows

2 that can be used instead of who or which.

Direct speech Reported speech
The girl that (who) lives next door rides 0 motorbike.
The sports centre that (which) is opening soon will offer present simp le/continuous past simple/continuous
'I like your shoes, Kate,' said Jack. Jack said (that) he liked Kates
great new facilities.
shoes.
3 The relative pronoun can be left out if it is the obj ect of
past simple/contin uous past sim ple/contin uous or past
the verb in the re lative clause.
'/ saw them advertised on TV,' perfect simp le/continuous
The person (who/that) I spoke to yesterday said it was free. said Kate. Kate said (that) she saw/had
Sue bought the watch (which/ that) she'd seen. seen them advertised on TV
4 No commas are used before and after the relative clause. present perfect simp le/ past perfect simple!
co nt in uous continuous
16.3 Non-defining relative clauses 'I've bought a hat: He!en told me. He!en ta!d me (that) she had
bought a hat.
Relative clauses give extra information which CAN be omitted.
will would
Commas are used before and after the relative clause.
'1'11 take you there ifyou want: She said (that) she would take
The pronoun that CAN NOT be used instead of who or which. she said me there if! wanted.
The museum, where you can see Roman pottery, is free. must (obligation) had to
The witness, who refused to be named, SOld the police hod 'You must buy a ticket,' he said. He said (that) we had to buy a
acted unwisely ticket.
can could
I 6.4 Prepositions in relative clauses '1 can speak Spanish,' said Mel. Me! said (that) he could speak
Spanish.
Preposi tio ns can come before the relative pronoun or at
the end of the relative clause, depending on whether the
2 The verb form does not need to change when
sentence is formal or informal.
the situation being reported is unchanged.
The person to whom I spoke told me the hotel was fully
booked (formal) 'Bananas are good for energy' said the doctor.
John, who I bought my car from, has gone abroad (informal) The doctor told us that bananas are good for energy
'The costle is 800 years old: said the guide.
17 Reflexive pronouns The guide told us that the costle is BOO years old
Refiexive pronouns (myself, yourself, him/her/itself, ourselves, the thing reported contains the modals would. could,
yourselves, themselves) are used might, ought to and should or must for logical deduction.
'I ought to buy a new cor,' she said.
when the subject and object of a transitive verb
She said she ought to buy 0 new cor.
are t he same.
He stopped himself from saying something. 'I think he must be coming: she said.
I hurt myself when I fell over. She said she thought he must be coming.
to mean 'without th e help of others'. the thin g being reported contains the past perfect.
I cleaned the cor myself. 'He had already been given a prize: she said.
We booked the holiday ourselves. She said he had already been given a prize.
with by to mean alone/on your own.
Are you going to town by yourself?
with enjoy, behave, ete. w hen there is no object.
EnjOy yourselfl
Behave yourselves I
To add emphasis to the subject or object
The President himself spoke to me.
The actors were good but the film itself was boring.
Grammar reference 173
 3 Other changes that occur in reported speech are shown 18.5 Reported recommendations
in the table below:
recommend (thar) + clause; recommend + -ing
Direct speech ! Reported speech 'I'd buy the red coat: my friend said.
tomorrow I the next day, the day alter, the following day My friend recommended buying/ (that) I buy/ bought
yesterday the day before, the previous day the red coo t.
last week the week before
here there 18.6 Reported suggestions
this morning that morning FORM suggest + -ing
today that day suggest + that + past simple
suggest + that + (should) + infinitive without to
next Friday the following Friday
'lets pay half each: she said.
ago before She suggested paying half each.
She suggested we paid half each.
She suggested that we should pay half each.
18.2 Reported statements
Watch out! We can't say
verb (+ that) + clause
She suggested 10 pay;~"ggE5led b5 re pay half each.
'He works in television: she said.
She said (that) he worked in television.
'/ took the money: she admitted. 18.7 Reporting verbs
She admitted (that) she had taken the money. verb + infinitive
agree, decide, offer, promise, refuse, threaten
18.3 Reported questions We agreed to go to the meeting.

Reported yes/no questions 2 verb + object + infinitive

When there is no question word in the direct speech advise, beg, encourage, invite, persuade, remInd, tell, warn
question, we use if/whether. Word order is the same as in She asked me to te ll the truth.
the statement. The verb tense and other changes are the 3 verb (+ that) + clause
same as for other types of reported speech. accept, admit, claim, explain, recommend, soy, suggest
'Could I borrow your bike" she asked. She says (that) we should be repaid the money.
She asked if/ whether she could borrow my bike. 4 verb + object (+ that) + clause
2 Reported wh- questions promise, remind, tell, warn
The who word is followed by statement word order He told us (that) he would be on time.
(subject followed by vetb). All tense and other changes S verb + ·ing
are the same as for other types of reported speech. admit, deny, recommend, suggest
Why did you leave that job?' she asked him. He admitted taking the money.
She asked him why he had left that job.
6 verb + preposition + -ing
Where is the swimming pool?' he asked her.
apologise for, insist on
He asked her where the swimming pool was.
She apologised for being late.
7 verb + object + prepOSition + ·ing
18.4 Reported imperatives accuse (of), blame (for), congratulate (on), discourage (from)
verb + object + infinitive with to She discouraged me from going in for the competition.
'Please open your suitcase; said the customs official. 8 verb + wh- word + infinitive
The customs official asked me to open my suitcase. describe, explain, know, wonder
'Don't walk on the grass l ' said the official. She explained what to do.
The official told them not to walk on the grass. 9 verb + object + wh- word + infinitive
ask, remind, tell
They told us who to see.

174 Grammar reference

5.6 Modal verbs in conditional sentences 6 Countable and
Modal verbs can, could, might, ete. can be used in all types uncountable nouns;
of conditi onal sentences.
I might send him an email if I can find his address. expressions of quantity
If she had someone to look after the children, she could go
out to work. 6.1 Uncountable nouns
These have no plural. The following are common nouns that
5.7 Mixed conditionals are usually uncountable: accommodation, advice, behaviour,
bread, copper (and all other metals), meat, sugar, English,
It is possible to have sentences that mix conditionals in
(and all other languages), furniture, health, information,
an ifcla use referring to the past with a main clause knowledge, luggage, maths (and all other school subjects),
referring to the present or future. news, progress, research, rice (and all other grains and
If I had invested in that company ten years ago, I would cereals), salt, (and all other condiments, e.g. pepper), scenery,
be rich now. spaghetti, traffic, transport, travel, trouble, water (and all other
If we hadn't been given all that homework, we could go liquids), weather, work.
swimming.
Watch out! Use a slice, and a piece with uncountable
an if clause referring to the present or future with a main
nouns fo r food .
clause refe rr ing to the past.
/'11 just have a small slice of cake.
If you don't like sweet things, you shouldn't have ordered
that dessert.
I Would you like another piece of toast?
Ifyou've got an exam tomorrow, you ought to have
started revising by now. 6.2 Nouns which can be countable or
uncountable
5.8 Polite expressions Nouns we can think of as a single thing or substance, e.g.
1 would can be used after ifin polite expressions. chicken, chocolate, egg, hair, iron, paper, stone
If you wouldn't mind waiting here, 1'/1 find someone to help. There are only two chocolates left in the box.
2 if + should is common in formal letters. You've got chocolate on your T-shirt.
If you should require any further information, please do not We'll have to buy a new iron.
hesitate to contact us. Green vegetables are rich in iron.

!watch o~t! For-;v~;;-greater formality, if can be

om itted, and should can begin the sentence.
Should you wish to contact me, I can be reached at the
I
j Have you read today's paper?
I need to go and buy some paper for the printer.
Theres a hair in my soup.
Shes got short dark hair.
above address. The house is built of stone. (= rock)
The necklace is made of semi'precious stones. (= gems)
2 Nouns which are used to refer to particular varieties, e.g.
wine, country
Would you like some wine?This is a very good wine.
I'd like to have a house in the country. Hes worked in five
different countries.
3 Words for some drinks, e.g. coffee, beer. The countable
noun means a glass of, a cup of, a bottle of, etc
Coffee is produced in Africa and South America.
Shall we have a coffee and a piece of cake?
4 time, space, room
Theres no time to talk - we have to rush l
I didn't have a very good time at the party.
Theres no space left. You'll have to get another bag.
Fill in the spaces with the correct preposition.
Theres room for seven people in this car.
This house has seven rooms.

Grammar refere nce 167

 21 Verb forms 21 .3 Present perfect simple
21.1 Present simple We use the present perfect simple
to talk about states. single or repeated actions over a long
We use the present simple
period of time up to the present (often with ever/never,
1 for routine or regular repeated actions (often with often/always).
adverbs of frequency like always, usually, often, sometimes, I've always wanted to be an actor.
never, every Saturday morning, twice every week). Have you ever been to Australia?
We go running every evening. I've only used my mobile phone ance since I bought it.
She doesn't do any work at weekends. She's read that book at least ten times.
I never get home before eight O'clock in the evening. Thats the first time I've ever eaten octopus.
2 fo r present habits. Its the worst concert I've ever been to.
I generally park outside the library. 2 to talk about recent single actions with a present result
3 when we are talking about permanent situations. (often with just, already, yet).
She comes from South America. I've already seen that film and I don't wont to see it again.
They live in London. Have you finished your essay yet?
4 with scientific facts. Our friends have just arrived.
Water freezes at O'e. Watch out! In American English, it is acceptable to use
5 with stative verbs (verbs which are not normally used the past simple in sentences like these.
in continuous forms) e.g. be, have, depend, know, think, I didn't hove breakfast yet.
understand, disagree, like, want, hear, love, see, smell, taste. I already sow that film.
They don't have 0 cor.
Does she understand? 3 to talk about an unfinished period of time up to the
I'm sorry, but I disagree completely. present (often with for/since, this week/month/year).
That perfume smells too strong. Tomoko has lived in England for five years.
I've been in love with Stella since 2002.
6 when we are talking about the future as expressed in
I've loved travelling all my life.
timetables, regulations and programmes.
I've disliked bananas since I was a child.
The plane leaves at 8.45a.m.
We haven't had a holiday this year.
When do the holidays begin ?
7 in time clauses with a future meaning, e.g. after, as soon
21 .4 Present perfect continuous
as, if, until, when.
/'11 see her when/ as soon as she's free. We use the present perfect continuous
Give this to Susie if you see her. to talk about a recent activity when the effects of that
Tom can't apply for the job until he gets the right activity can still be seen.
qualifications. A: Why are you out of breath?
B: I've been running.
21.2 Present continuous 2 to emphasise how long an action has been going on for.
We use the present continuous when we use dynamic or that it has been repeated many times.
(action) verbs to talk about I've been replying to emails all morning.
I've been cleaning the house all day.
1 actions happening now
I think he~ watching TV 3 to suggest that an activity is temporary.
I've been living here for five years but
2 changing/developing situations.
I'm going to move soon.
My broken leg is getting better.
4 to suggest that an action is not complete.
3 temporary situations.
I've been reading Vlysses; but I haven't finished it yet.
I am staying in this hotel for two weeks.
4 annoying or surprising habits with always. Watch out! We don't use verbs that refer to a state
Shes always losing her keys. (e.g. be, know, love) in the continuous form.
Hes always buying her flowers.
5 plans and arrangements in the future.
Are you going out this evening?

176 Grammar reference

2 1.5 Narrative forms: past simple 21.8 Future forms
We use the past simple FORMS shall/will + infinitive without to
, to t alk about a fin ished event that happened at a specific going to + infinitive without to
time in the past. present continuous (see 21.2)
I saw Paul last night present simple (see 21.1)
I went to Brazil five years ago. futu re continuous (will + be + -ing form)
future perfect (will + have + past participle)
2 to describe a seq uence of finished events in
chronologica l order. 1 We use will + infinitive without to
I took out my key, opened the door and walked in • for p redicting something based on our belief or our
knowledge of characteristic behaviour.
3 to talk about habits in the past.
This medicine will make you feel sleepy
Did your parents read to you when you were younger?
You'll feel better when you've had a good nights rest.
4 to talk about states in the past.
When I was a child, I didn't enjoy watching TV at all. Watch out! We cannot use the present continuous in
The house belonged to my father from 1990. to 20.0.0. this ca se.
5 in reported speech. • for promises, threats, offers and requests.
She said she didn't want to join us. Ifyou tell anyone, 1'1/ kill you l
I promise I'll pay the money back.
21 .6 Narrative forms: past continuous 1'1/ meet you at the station ifyou want
Shall I meet you at the station?
We use the past continuous
Will you do the washing-up for me?
, to describe an action in progress in the past, often to set
the scene for a particular event. Watch out! We cannot use going to in this case.
I was sitting in the garden, reading a book. 2 We use going to or the present continuous to talk about
2 to ta lk about temporary situa t ions in the past. things tha t have already been decided.
Rodolfo was living in South America at the time. She's decided shes going to lose ten kilos.
3 to ta lk about an event that was in progress in the past Where are you going to have the wedding reception?
and was interrupted.
Watch out! We cannot use will/shall + infinit ive in
I was going out of the house when I heard a noise.
this case.
4 to talk about mU ltiple actions in progress at the same
time in the past. 3 We use going to to talk about things that are certain to
While I was painting, you were watching TV happen because the re is present evidence.
I've got no sense of direerion -I know I'm going to get lost.
S to ta lk about anticipated events that did not happen.
Look out - you're going to fal/l
We were going to Rome for a holiday, but then I broke my leg.
Watch out! We cannot use will/shall + infinitive or the
21.7 Narrative forms: past perfect present continuous in th is case.

We use the past perfect 4 We use will/shall + infinitive without to to talk about
, to refer to a time ea rlier than another past time, when this future actions decided at the time of speaking.
is needed to make the order of events clear. I think 1'1/ give up smoking.
The birds wings had been clipped 50 it couldn't fly I'll wear my black dress.
By the time the fire engine arrived, the house had completely S We use the future continu ous (will/shall + be + -ing) to
burnt down say that an action w ill be in progress at a definite time in
the futu re.
Watch out! Be careful not to overuse the past perfect.
I'll be living a normal life by this time next year
It is not necessary with before/after, which make the
6 We use the futu re pe rfect (will/shall + have + past
sequence of events clear.
pa rticiple) to describe something that will be completed
Once we have established the time sequence, we can
before a definite ti me in the future.
revert to the past simple.
By the end ofJune 1'1/ have been at this school for a year.
2 in reported speech.
They said they had met before.

Grammar reference 177

 22 Verb patterns: .ingl 22,6 Common verbs followed by
infinitive object + infinitive without to
let, make, hear, help, see
2.2.1. Common verbs followed by -ing
He made me repeat the exercise.
admit, appreciate, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, Her parents won't let her stay out late.
escape, fee/like, finish, give up, imagine, in valve, mentian, I heard her play in Milan.
mind, miss, postpane, practise, prefer, put off, recommend,
resent, risk, suggest Watch out! In passive sentences make, hear and help are
followed by an infinitive with to.
I don't recommend going to that restaurant.
He was made to report to the police.

22.2 The infinitive Let cannot be used in the passi ve form. Instead, allowed
must be used.
The infinitive is used My parents let me stay out late.
aher some main verbs (see 22.3 and 22.4). I am allowed to stay out late by my parents.
after some adjectives.
I was happy to see her 22.7 Verbs/Expressions followed by -ing or
They were wrong to refuse.
infinitive with a difference in meaning
after some nouns.
She never regretted her decision to be a teacher. can't bear/stand, hate, like, love, prefer. When these verbs
Its time to leave. are used with the infinitive, they refer to more specific
situations. When they are used with ·ing, they refer to
to express purpose.
more general situations.
I went to London to see my aunt.
Watch out! The difference in meaning is very slight.
22.3 Common verbs followed I prefer to work on a compu ter than to write by hand
by infinitive I can't bear listening to her complaining all the time.

afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, begin, choose, 2 remember, forget, regret, stop, try
consent, decide, expect, fail, forget, happen, hare, help, hesitate, remember/forget + ·ing refers to an action that
hope, intend, learn, like, love, manage, mean, offer, prefer, happened before the moment of remembering/forgetting
prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, remember, seem, start, swear, remember/ forget + infinitive refers to an action aher the
try, want, wish moment of remembering/forgetting
I can't afford to eat in that restaurant. I remember seeing you somewhere before. (= that I have
seen you)
22.4 Common verbs followed by Did you remember to lock the door l
She had completely forgotten telling him about her cat.
object + infinitive I forgot to give Sally the book.
advise, allow, ask, cause, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, regret + -ing means be sorry about an action that
help, instruct, intend, invite, leave, like, mean, need, order, happened in the past
persuade, prefer, remind, request, teach, tell, tempt, want, warn regret + infinitive means be sorry about a present action
He asked me to help him. I regret going to the party last night.
I regret to have to tell you that your car has been stolen.
22.5 The infinitive without to (= formal)

The infinitive without to is used stop + -ing means stop something you do, e.g. a habit

after some mai n verbs (see 22.6). stop + infinitive with to means stop what you are doing
in order to do something else
after modal verbs. I stopped drinking coffee: it kept me awake at night.
You must leave now. We stopped to have a coffee on the way home.
aher would rather/had better. try + -ing means do an experiment (= doing the action
You'd better come in now. may not be successful)
try + infinitive means make an effort (= the action may
be difficult or impossible to do)
Try studying in the morning - it might suit you better.
Try to study at regular times.

178 Grammar reference