CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

CHITTAGONG-4349, BANGLADESH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Name : Md. Samiul Islam
Student Id : 1701044
Course No : CE-352
Course Name : Environmental Engineering (Sessional-1)
Group No : A2-3
Experiment No : 10
Experiment Name : Determination of Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
Experiment Name :
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Introduction :
Biological Oxygen Demand is a measure of the amount of oxygen
required to remove waste organic matter from water by
decomposition. When biodegradable organic matter/waste (the most
common category of pollutant: affecting surface water) is released into
a water body, microorganisms (especially bacteria) feed on the wastes,
breaking it down to simpler organic and inorganic substances. When
this decomposition takes place in an aerobic environment , it produces
non-objectionable, stable end products (e.g., CO2, SO4, PO4, and NO3)
and in the process draws down the dissolved oxygen (DO) content of
water.
Organic matter + O2 = CO2 + H2O + New cells + Stable products (1)
(bacteria)
When insufficient oxygen is available or when oxygen is exhausted by
the aerobic decomposition
of wastes, then different set of microorganisms carry out the
decomposition anaerobically producing highly objectionable products
including H2S, NH3, and CH4.
Organic matter = CO2 + CH4 + New cells + Unstable products (2)
(bacteria)
The amount of oxygen required by micro-organisms to oxidize organic
wastes aerobically is called biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD
may have various units, but most often it is expressed in mg of oxygen
required per liter of water/wastewater (mg/L).
Environmental Significance :
Dissolved oxygen is the most commonly used indictor of the general
health of a surface water body. If DO in the water body goes below 4 to
5 mg/L, forms of aquatic life that can survive begin to be reduced.
When anaerobic condition exists, higher life forms are killed or driven
off. Noxious condition, including floating sludge, bubbling, odorous
gases, and slimy fungus growth prevails. According to Bangladesh
Environment Conservation Rules (1997), drinking water standard for
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is 0.2 mg/L (at 20°C). For
wastewater effluent allowable concentration of BOD varies from 50-
250 mg/L depending on discharge point of the effluent e.g. inland
water, irrigation land, public sewer etc. respectively
Reagents :
- Manganous sulfate solution [57]
- Alkaline potassium iodide solution [58]
- 0.025N sodium thiosulfate [59]
- Starch solution (indicator) [60]
- Concentrated sulfuric acid
Apparatus :
- BOD bottle : 3 nos
- Beaker (250 ml) : 1 no.
- Measuring cylinder : 1 no.
- Dropper : 1 no.
- Stirrer : 1 no
Procedure :
We filled two BOD bottles with sample (or diluted sample); the bottles
were completely filled. Determined initial DO (DOi) in one bottle
immediately after filling with sample (or diluted sample). Then we kept
the other bottle in dark at 20°C and after 5-days determine DO (Dof) in
the sample (or diluted sample). Dissolved oxygen (DO) is determined
according to the following procedure:
1. We added 1 mL of manganous sulphate solution to the BOD bottle
by means of pipette, dipping in end of the pipette just below the
surface of the water.
2. Then added 1 mL of alkaline potassium iodide solution to the BOD
bottle in a similar manner.
3. Inserted the stopper and mixed by inverting the bottle several times.
4. Allowed the "precipitates” to settle halfway and mixed again.
5. Again we allowed the “precipitates" to settle halfway.
6. Added 1 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid. Immediately inserted the
stopper and mixed as before.
7. After this we allowed the solution to stand at least 5 minutes.
8. Withdrawn 100 mL of solution into an Erlenmeyer flask and
immediately added 0.025N sodium thiosulphate drop by drop from a
burette until the yellow color almost; disappeared.
9. Added about 1 mL of starch solution and continued the addition of
the thiosulphate solution until the blue color just disappeared. The ml.
of thiosulphate solution used was recorded.
 Data sheet
• Experiment Name: Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
• Experiment No: 10,
• Group No: A2-3

Group BOD (mg/L)

A2-1 3

A2-2 1.6

A2-3 2.4

A2-4 2.8

A2-5 3.4

A2-6 5.6
Data Table :
DO (mL) DO5 (mL)
Initial Final Initial Final
Initial 6.3 9.6 4 6.1
Difference 3.3 2.1

Calculation :
Normality of Na2S2O4 = 0.025
Sample taken = 100 mL
Equivalent weight of Oxygen = 8
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 Na2S2O4 ∗𝐸𝑞𝑣.𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛∗1000
MF =
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑚𝐿)

= (0.025*8*1000)/100
=2
So, DO = Volume of Na2S2O4 added in mL * MF
Initial DOi = 3.3*2
= 6.6 mg/L
Final DOf = 2.1*2
= 4.2 mg/L
So, BOD = DOi - DOf
= 6.6 – 4.2
= 2.4 mg/L
Result : The result of the amount of Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) is 2.4 mg/L.
Discussion :
From the experiment we have found the BOD value is 2.4 mg/L where
the standard value of BOD according to BECR (1997) is 0.2 mg/L for
drinking water. It shows that our BOD value is quite high than the
guideline which indicates that this water is not drinkable. But this water
can be used in other purposes like washing , cleaning etc.
 Assignment
Question 1 :
In a BOD test on a diluted wastewater sample (1:20
dilution, but not seeded), the initial DO is 8.2 mg/L
and final DO after 5 days is 3.2 mg/L. If the reaction
rate constant is 0.2/day, calculate; (a) 5-day BOD of
the wastewater, (b) Ultimate carbonaceous BOD of
the wastewater, (c) Remaining Oxygen demand after
5-days.
Answer :
(a)
DOi = 8.2 mg/L , DOf = 3.2 mg/L
Now, the Dilution Factor D.F = (20+1)/1
= 21
SO, BOD5 = (DOi – DOf ) * D.F
= (8.2 – 3.2 ) * 21
= 105 mg/L
(b)
Now, BOD5 = Lo ( 1 - e-kt ) where, k = 0.2 / day
Lo = BOD5 / (1 – e-kt) t = 5 days
= 105 / ( 1 – e-0.2*5 )
= 166.108 mg/L
So,Ultimate carbonaceous BOD of the wastewater is166.108 mg/L
 (c) Remaining Oxygen Demand after 5 days = (166.108 – 105) mg/L
= 61.108 mg/L

Question 2 :
A test bottle containing just seeded dilution water has
its DO level drop by 0.5 mg/L in 5-day test. A 300 mL
BOD bottle filled with 40 mL of wastewater and the rest
with seeded dilution water experiences a drop of 7.1
mg/L in the same period (5-day). Calculate the BOD5 of
the wastewater.
Answer :
Given that,
BODm = 7.1 mg/L , Vm = 300 mL
Vw = 40 mL , Vd = 0.5 mg/L
BODd = (300 – 40 ) mg/L
= 260 mg/L
We know that,
BODm = BODWVW + BODdVd
Or, BODw * 40 = 7.1*300 – 260*0.5
BODw = 50 mg/L (Ans)
Question 3 :
A sample of sewage is mixed with water (no seeding
done) in the ratio of 1:30 (i.e., 1 mL of sewage diluted
to 30 mL by adding water) for BOD test. The initial DO
is 8 mg/L and final DO, after 5 days, is 2.1 mg/L.
Calculate BOD5 of the sewage.
Answer :
Given that,
DOi = 8 mg/L , DOf = 2.1 mg/L
So, D.F = (30+1)/1 = 31
Now,
BOD5 = (DOi – DOf) * D.F
= (8-2.1) * 31
= 182.9 mg/L (Ans.)
 CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
CHITTAGONG-4349, BANGLADESH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Name : Md. Samiul Islam
Student Id : 1701044
Course No : CE-352
Course Name : Environmental Engineering (Sessional-1)
Group No : A2-3
Experiment No : 11
Experiment Name : Determination of Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD)
Experiment Name :
Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Introduction:
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test allows measurement of oxygen
demand of the waste in terms of the total quantity of oxygen required
for oxidation of the waste to carbon dioxide and water. COD is the
measurement of the amount of oxygen in water consumed for chemical
oxidation of pollutants. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L),
which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.
This method covers the determination of COD in ground and surface
waters, domestic and industrial wastewaters. The applicable range is 3-
900 mg/L.
Environmental Significance:
Chemical Oxygen Demand is an important water quality parameter
because, similar to BOD, it provides an index to assess the effect
discharged wastewater will have on the receiving environment. Higher
COD levels mean a greater amount of oxidizable organic material in the
sample, which will reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) levels.
Ratio of BOD to COD greater than or equal to 0.8 indicates that
wastewater highly polluted and amenable to the biological treatment.
BOD value is always lower than COD value. For domestic and some
industrial wastewater, COD value is about 2.5 times BOD value.
Apparatus:
1. COD Digester
2. Burette & Burette stand
3. COD Vials with stand
4. 250 mL conical flask
5. Pipettes
6. Pipette bulb
7. Tissue papers
8. Wash Bottle
Reagents:
1. Potassium dichromate
2. Sulfuric acid
3. Ferrous ammonium sulphate
4. Silver sulphate
5. Mercury sulphate
6. Ferroin indicator
7. Organic free distilled water
Procedure:
1. At first, 2.5 ml sample water in a tube & 2.5ml distilled water in
another tube were taken.
2. 1.5ml of potassium dichromate was added to the both tubes.
3. 3.5 ml of sulphuric acid reagent was added to both tubes carefully.
4. Then tubes were tightly closed & kept in COD digestor at 1500c for 2
hours.
5. After cooling to room temperature, the content was transferred to
the conical flask.
6. 2 drops of ferroin indicator was added.
7. The contents was titrated against ferrous ammonium sulphate.
8. The titration was being continued till the color changes to reddish
brown.
9. Then, COD concentration was calculated.
 Data sheet.
• Experiment Name: Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)

• Experiment No: 11,

• Group No: A2-3

Group COD (mg/L)

A2-1 192

A2-2 256

A2-3 256

A2-4 192

A2-5 0

A2-6 192
Data Table:
SI. NO Sample Volume Burette Volume of
of sample reading 0.1 N
(mL) (ml) FAS (mL)
Initial Final
1 Blank 2.5 0 1.7 1.7
2 Sample 1 2.5 3 3.9 0.9

Calculation:
Volume of Ferrous Ammonium sulphate for blank (A) = 1.7 mL
Volume of Ferrous Ammonium sulphate for Sample (B) = 0.9 mL
Normality of Ferrous Ammonium sulphate, N = 0.1 N
Volume of Sample, V = 2.5 mL

(A – B) * N * 8 * 1000
Chemical oxygen Demand (COD) =
Volume of sample taken

(0.8*0.1*8*1000
= 2.5

=256 mg/L

Result:
The result of the amount of chemical oxygen demand (COD) is 256 mg/L
Discussion:
From the experiment we’ve found the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
is 256 mg/L where the standard value of COD for drinking according to
BECR (1997) is 4 mg/L. So it's clear that our sample has higher COD
value than the prescribed level for drinking. So the water isn’t
drinkable. This water can ne used in other purposes like cleaning,
washing , industrial purpose etc.
 Assignment
Question 1:
What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of the
COD test over the BOD test?
Answer :
Advantages:
1. Only the biodegradable agencies is measured in BOD test whereas
COD test measure complete organic material present in the water
body.
2. BOD test required long period of time (5days) where COD test
Require only 3hrs to determine.
3. A high quantity of seed bacteria is required in BOD test.
Disadvantages:
1. COD test is unable to differentiate between biodegradable and
non-biodegradable organic matter where BOD test is able.
2. The use of chemical as chromium and strong acids produce
hazardous liquid, which requires carefully disposal.

Question 2:
Explain why COD values are greater than BOD values.
Answer :
COD is normally higher than BOD because more organic compounds
can be chemically oxidised than biologically oxidized. This includes
chemicals toxic to biological life, which can make COD tests very useful
when testing industrial sewage as they will not be captured by BOD
testing.
In COD test include both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic
matter is determined whereas BOD take only biodegradable matter.
that’s why COD values are greater than BOD values.
Question 3:
What could be inferred from the following analytical results
regarding the relative ease of biodegradability of each
waste?
Type of Waste 5-day -day BOD COD
(mg/L) (mg/L)
A 240 300
B 100 500
C 80 240
Answer :
For waste A , 5 day BOD and COD ratio is = 240/300
= 0.8
This value means that it’s high biodegradable.
For waste B, 5 day BOD and COD ratio is = 100/500
= 0.2
That means it’s slightly biodegradable.
For waste C, 5 day BOD and COD ratio is = 80/240
= 0.33
That means it’s slightly biodegradable.
 CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
CHITTAGONG-4349, BANGLADESH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Name : Md. Samiul Islam
Student Id : 1701044
Course No : CE-352
Course Name : Environmental Engineering (Sessional-1)
Group No : A2-3
Experiment No : 12
Experiment Name : Determination of Chemical Coagulation of
waters : Alum Coagulation.
Experiment Name :
Determination of Chemical Coagulation of waters : Alum Coagulation.
Introduction:
Chemical coagulation is a treatment method widely used for removal of
small sized and colloidal impurities from water. Surface water generally
contains a wide variety of colloidal impurities that may cause the water
to appear turbid and may impart color to the water. Colloidal particles
that cause color and turbidity are difficult to separate from water
because the particles will not settle by gravity and are so small that
they pass through the pores of most common filtration media.
Chemical agents are used to promote colloid aggregation by destroying
the forces that stabilize colloidal particles.
The process of destroying the stabilizing forces and causing aggregation
of colloids is referred to as chemical coagulation. Coagulation involves
reduction of electrical forces of repulsion and promotion of “chemical
type" interaction between colloids, which eventually results in settling
of the colloids and accomplishes removal of turbidity and color. At
higher coagulant doses, “charge reversal" is possible which may result
in re-suspension of the colloids. Hence optimum coagulant doses are
determined through laboratory model tests where the water to be
treated are subjected to a range of doses of a coagulant and the
removal efficiencies are observed.
The most common coagulants used in water and wastewater treatment
are aluminum and ferric salts such as alum, ferric chloride and ferric
sulfate.
The common metal salt alum (aluminum sulphate) is a good coagulant
for water containing appreciable organic matter. The chemical formula
used for commercial alum is Al2(SO4)314H2O. Once dissolved in water,
aluminum forms hydroxo-complexes and solids e.g., Al(OH)3(S),
Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)4 [Eqs.1-5] and as a result pH of water is
lowered, especially if alkalinity of water is low. Theoretically, each mg/L
of alum consumes approximately 0.50 mg/L (as CaC03) of alkalinity. For
water with low alkalinity, this may result in significant reduction in pH
that may interfere with formation of aluminum hydroxide floes. If the
alkalinity is insufficient, coagulant aids such as lime [Ca(OH)2], soda ash
(Na2CO3), activated silica and polyelectrolytes are used to provide the
necessary alkalinity. Iron coagulants can be operated over a wider pH
range and are generally effective in removing turbidity and color from
water. However, they are usually more costly.
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O (alum) = 2 Al3+ + 3 SO42- …………(1)
Al3+ + 3 H2O= Al(OH)3 (s) + 3 H+ …………………………..(2)
Al3+ + H2O = Al(OH)2+ + H+ ……………………………………(3)
Al3+ + H2O = Al(OH)2+ + 2H+ …………………………………(4)
Al3+ + H2O = Al(OH)4 - + H+ …………………………………..(5)
Environmental Significance:
Besides efficient removal of turbidity and color, coagulation with alum
and ferric chloride or ferric sulphate is also widely used for removal of
heavy metal ions (e.g., lead, arsenic) from water. In this process heavy
metal ions are primarily removed by adsorption (and subsequent
precipitation) onto coagulated floes of metal (either aluminum or iron)
hydroxides. Coagulation with alum and ferric chloride/sulphate are
being successfully used for removal of arsenic from water.
Reagents:
- Standard Alum solution.

Apparatus:
- Coagulation (stirring) device
- pH meter
- Turbidity meter
- Glass beakers (1000 mL; 6 nos)
Procedure:
1. We determined pH and turbidity of the water to be treated.
2. Filled six 1000 mL beakers each with 500 mL water to be treated.
3. Added required coagulant dose (standard alum. solution) to each
beaker.
4. Mixed the samples in the beaker with the help of the stirring device.
Subjected the samples to one minute of rapid mixing (about 40 rpm)
followed by 15 minutes of slow mixing (about 25 rpm).
5. Then allowed the floes to settle down for about 15 minutes.
Observed the characteristics of the floes and the settling rates. Also
observed of which of the 6 beakers is clearest.
6. Collected the supernatant from each beaker and measured pH and
turbidity of each sample.
7.Then plotted pH versus alum dose in a graph paper and observed
effect of alum dose on pH.
8. Plotted turbidity (NTU) versus the coagulant (alum) dose (mg/L) in a
graph paper. Determined optimum dose of alum from this plot.
 Data Sheet.

• Experiment Name: Determination of Chemical Coagulation Of

Water: Alum Coagulation.
• Experiment No: 12,
• Group No: A2-3
• Initial pH : 7.1
• Initial Turbidity (NTU):570
Sample No Alum Dose Final PH Final Turbidity Removal
(mg/L) (NTU) Efficiency
A2-1 170 6.2 122 78.59%

A2-2 340 6.1 88.2 84.52%

A2-3 680 5.9 37.8 93.36%

A2-4 1020 5.5 9.5 98.33%

A2-5 1700 6.2 34.2 94%

A2-6 3400 6.8 43.7 92.33%

Graph 1 : pH Vs Alum Dose (mL)
Graph 2 : Turbidity (NTU) Vs Alum Dose (mL)
Data Table :
Stock solution of Alum = 17 g/L
Alum Dose (mL) pH Turbidity (NTU)
Initial 7.1 570
A2-1 5 6.2 122
A2-2 10 6.1 88.2
A2-3 20 5.9 37.8
A2-4 30 5.5 9.5
A2-5 50 6.2 34.2
A2-6 100 6.8 43.7

Calculation :
Alum dose,
S1 = 17 g/L = 17000 mg/L
V1 = 20 mL , V2 = 500 mL
So, S1V1=S2V2
𝑠1×𝑉1 17000×20
S2= = = 680 mg/L
𝑉2 500
570−9.5
Highest removal efficiency = ×100
570

=98.33%

Result:
From the turbidity (NTU) VS Alum dose (mg/L) graph, We get the lowest
value for final turbidity is 9.5 (NTU). For this, the Optimum value for the
Alum Dose is 1020 mg/L . And the highest efficiency for this point is
98.33%.
Discussion:
From this experiment we got the highest removal efficiency is 98.33%.
And we have plotted Turbidity (NTU) vs Alum Dose (mL) graph too.
From this graph we got the lowest value for turbidity is 9.5 (NTU) and
for this point the Alum Dose rate is 1020 mg/L. According to
Environmental Conservation Rules 1997, drinking water standard for
turbidity is 10 (NTU) where we have found the turbidity value from the
experiment is 9.5 (NTU). So according to this value our sample water is
drinkable.
 Assignment
Question 1 :
What is charge reversal? When and why it happens?
Answer:
It is shown that if colloids are sufficiently strongly charged, the number
of condensed multivalent counterion can exceed the bare colloidal
charge leading to charge reversal. Charge renormalization in
suspensions with multivalent counterions depends on a subtle interplay
between the solvation energies of the multivalent counterions in the
bulk and near the colloidal surface. Also found that the effective charge
is a monotonically decreasing function of the multivalent salt
concentration. Furthermore, contrary to the previous theories, it is
found that except at very low concentrations, monovalent salt hinders
the charge reversal
Question 2 :
Why addition of alum may result in a drop in pH value.
Discuss the effect o' alum dose on pH from your
experimental results?
Answer:
While alum and ferric-based coagulants are acidic in nature and
produce a drop in pH when added to wastewater, their main purpose is
to neutralize electrical charges of fine particles in water and clump
them together. So the pH value increases. The optimal pH range for
coagulation is 6 to 7 when using alum and 5.5 to 6.5 when using iron.
For high alkalinity water, excessive amounts of coagulant may be
needed to lower the pH to the optimal pH range. In these cases, it may
be beneficial to use acid in addition to the coagulant to reduce the
amount of coagulant needed and effectively lower chemical costs.
Enhanced coagulation is now widely practiced for removing disinfection
byproduct (DBP) precursors, and it also removes inorganics,
particulates, and color causing compounds. Removing these
contaminants using coagulation depends on the amount of coagulant
added. It is important to determine the optimal dose for coagulation;
insufficient doses will not effectively destabilize the particles and
adding excessive doses can cause detrimental effects such as re-
stabilization, excessive sludge production, or corrosion. Water quality
parameters such as pH, temperature, and alkalinity may dictate
effectiveness of the coagulation-filtration process. The pH during
coagulation has a profound influence on the effectiveness during the
destabilization process. The pH controls both the speciation of the
coagulant as well as its solubility, and it also affects the speciation of
the contaminants. For high alkalinity water, an excessive amount of
coagulant may be required to lower the pH to the optimal pH ranges
(alum pH 6 to 7, iron 5.5 to 6.5).
Question 3 :
What is the primary mechanism by which heavy metal ions
are removed during coagulation?
Answer:
Chemical coagulation process is considered to be a valid method which
is determined by the hydrolyzed species of the inorganic coagulants
under different raw water and coagulation conditions. And the main
mechanisms of the removal of heavy metals are adsorption,
complexation, and coprecipitation. Compared with the aluminum-
based coagulants, the iron-based coagulants have better performance
due to the use of wide pH range and large surface area of the resulting
flocs. During the chemical coagulation process, the valence state of
arsenic and antimony could affect the removal efficiency. Thus, the
oxidants and reductants are often combined with inorganic coagulants
used in this process. It is found that pH is an important factor greatly
influencing the performance directly or indirectly. The complex
resulting from the interaction between the inorganic/organic pollutant
and inorganic coagulant may contribute to the removal of heavy
metals. Overall, chemical coagulation is an effective way to control
heavy metal pollution with/without other water treatment
technologies
 CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
CHITTAGONG-4349, BANGLADESH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Name : Md. Samiul Islam
Student Id : 1701044
Course No : CE-352
Course Name : Environmental Engineering (Sessional-1)
Group No : A2-3
Experiment No : 13
Experiment Name: Determination of residual Chlorine and
Chlorine demands: Break point Chlorination.
Experiment Name:
Determination of residual Chlorine and Chlorine demands: Break point
Chlorination.

Introduction:
Chlorination of public water supplies and polluted waters serves
primarily to destroy or de-activate disease-producing microorganisms.
Disinfection with chlorine is widely practiced. Chlorination may produce
some adverse effects including taste and odor problem. In recent years,
chlorination has been found to produce trihalomethanes (THMs) and
other organics of health concern (THMs are suspected human
carcinogens). Thus, use of alternative disinfectants, such as chlorine
dioxide and ozone that do not cause this particular problem, is
increasing.

Environmental Significance:
Breakpoint chlorination is required to obtain a free chlorine residual for
better disinfection if ammonia is present in a water supply. While free
chlorine residuals have good disinfecting powers, they are usually
dissipated quickly in the distribution system. For this reason, final
treatment with ammonia if often practiced to convert free chlorine
residuals to longer-lasting combined chlorine residuals. The difference
between the amount of chlorine added to the water and the amount of
residual chlorine (i.e., free and combined available chlorine remaining)
at the end of a specified contact period is termed as "chlorine demand'.
Reagents:
-Starch Indicator

-Standard 0.025 N Sodium thiosulfate

-Potassium Iodine crystal

-Concentrated Acetic Acid

-Chlorine water

Apparatus:
-Erlemeyer flask (250 mL)

-Bottle

-Beaker (250 mL)

-Measuring cylinder

-Dropper

-Stirrer

Procedure:
1. We Placed 200-mL portion of the water to be chlorinated in each of
six 250-mL flasks.

2. Then, we added required quantity (as instructed by your teacher) of

"chlorine water" (stock solution of bleaching powder in water) in each of
the flasks. The chlorine content of the "chlorine water" (determined
earlier in the laboratory) would be provided to you by teacher.

3. Then, Shook each flask gently and allow to stand for 30 minutes.
4. At last, We Determined residual chlorine of water from each flask by
the starch-iodine method as described below:

Starch-Iodine Method:
The starch-iodine method is based on the oxidizing power of free and
combined chlorine residuals to convert iodide ion into free iodine at pH
8 or less, as shown below.
Cl2 + 2I- = I2 + 2 Cl
In the starch-iodine method, the quantity of chlorine residuals is
determined by measuring the quantity of iodine by titration with a
reducing agent sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3). The end point of titration
is indicated by the disappearance of blue color, produced by the reaction
between iodine and starch (which is added as indicator during the
titration),

I2 + 2 Na2S2O3 = Na2S4O6 + 2 NaI

Or , I2 + 2S2O32- = S4O62- + 2I-
I2 + starch = blue color
(Qualitative test for the presence of iodine/chlorine)
The titration is carried out at pH 3 to 4, because the reaction with
thiosulfate is not
stoichiometric at neutral pH due to partial oxidation of the thiosulfate to
sulphate.

Procedure for determination of residual chlorine

concentration:
1. We Placed 200 mL of the sample in an Erlenmeyer flask.

2. Then, we added 'about 1g of potassium iodide (estimated on a spatula)

and 2 mL of concentrated Acetic acid to the water.

3. Next Added 0.025 N sodium thiosulfate drop by drop from a burette

until the yellow color almost disappears.
4. Then, we Added 1 mL of starch solution to the water.

5. Continued addition of standard sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) solution

until the blue color just disappears.

6. We recorded the quantity (in mL) of sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)

solution used.
Data Calculation :
Initial Reading= 2.3 mL

Final Reading= 3.4 mL

So, The amount of Na2S2O3 used = (3.4-2.3) mL=1.1 mL

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎2𝑆2𝑂3 ×𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙2 ×1000
M.F꞊
𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛.

0.025×35.5×1000
꞊ ꞊ 4.4375
200

So, Residual Chlorine ꞊ mL of 0.025 Na2S2O3 used * M.F

꞊ 1.1*4.4375

꞊ 4.88 mg/L

And the Chlorine dose rate for the 4.88 mg/L residual chlorine is 2.5
mg/L.

Data Sheet :
Group No Chlorine dose (mg/L) Residual Chlorine
(mg/L)
A2-1 1.25 1.775

A2-2 2 3.99375

A2-3 2.5 4.88

A2-4 5 2.66
A2-5 7.5 5.76

A2-6 10 6.65
Graph : Residual Chlorine Vs Chlorine Dose
Result :

From the graph, the break point is= (5-1.75) mg/L=3.25 mg/L

The Chloride demand is=2.66 mg/L

Discussion :
From the graph we have found the Chloride demand is 2.66 mg/L
where the breaking point is 3.25 mg/L. But for drinking purpose the
permissible limit of residual chlorine demand is only 0.2 mg/L – 0.5
mg/L. So from this value we can say that the water sample is not
suitable for drinking.
 Assignment
Question 1 :
What are the major disadvantages of chlorination? Name
some of the alternate disinfectants.
Answer:
Major disadvantages

• Forms DBPs when organic substances are present

• Not effective against Cryptosporidium protozoa
• Can cause taste and odor problems

While chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant in water

treatment, it is not the only disinfectant available. Disinfection
byproducts (DBPs) form when using chlorine. For this reason, water
systems may choose to use alternate disinfectants.

These alternate disinfectants for drinking water treatment include:

• Chloramines
• Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
• Ozone (O3)
• Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
Question 2 :
You would like to perform chlorination to a water sample with
pH 7.5. At this pH, what would be the relative proportions of
HOCl and OCI (see Fig. 1) What kind of change in pH would
you propose in order to increase the relative proportion of
HOCI, which is a better disinfectant?

Answer:
Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion are both disinfection agents.
These forms can exist together, but their concentration depends on the
pH of the solution. HOCl = OCl¯ + H+ at 25° C and a pH of 7.5 (7 is average
for water or neutral) half of the chlorine presenting a solution of OCl¯
and half is HOCl. At higher pH values, the quantity of OCl¯ increases at
the expense of HOCl and at lower pH values, the shift is toward
conversion of OCl¯ to HOCl. At a pH of about 5, nearly all the chlorine is
present as HOCl, and at pH 8.5, nearly all the chlorine is present as OCl¯.
In sanitizing water, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is 80-100 times more
effective as hypochlorite ion (OCl¯). Chlorine gas lowers the pH of the
solution, thus more HOCl is present and many times more effective. At
pH 7 (neutral), 76% of the chlorine is in solution as HOCl. Hypochlorites
raise pH, losing its effectiveness. In hard water, this may contribute o
deposits on equipment and residues. Hypochlorites also produce CaCl2
or NaCl salt) which may have an adverse effect on the quality of the
water or solution. Hypochlorites are more sensitive to organic matter in
the water and thus lose their germicidal powers faster.
Question 3 :
Schematically draw a "chlorine residual" versus "chlorine
dose" curve for a water sample with no ammonia or organic
matter.
Answer:
The curve is drawn below:
 CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
CHITTAGONG-4349, BANGLADESH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Name : Md. Samiul Islam
Student Id : 1701044
Course No : CE-352
Course Name : Environmental Engineering (Sessional-1)
Group No : A2-3
Experiment No : 14
Experiment Name : Determination of Total and Fecal Coliform
in water.
Experiment Name:
Determination of Total and Fecal Coliform in water.
Introduction:
A variety of different microorganisms are found in untreated water.
Most of these organisms do not pose a health hazard to humans.
Certain organisms, referred to as pathogens, cause disease to humans
which include species of bacteria, viruses and protozoa. These
organisms are not native to aquatic systems and usually require an
animal host for growth and reproduction. Pathogens are likely to gain
entrance sporadically, and they do not survive for very long period of
time; consequently they could be missed in a sample submitted to the
laboratory. Although it is possible to detect the presence of various
pathogens in water, the isolation and identification of many of these is
often extremely complicated, time-consuming and expensive
proposition. Hence in most cases (except when presence of any
particular microorganism is suspected) the microbiological quality of
water is checked using some indicator organisms.
Environmental significance:
The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environments
indicates that the water has been contaminated with the fecal material
of man or other animals. At the time this occurred, the source water may
have been contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or
viruses which can also exist in fecal material. Some waterborne
pathogenic diseases include typhoid fever, viral and bacterial
gastroenteritis and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal contamination is an
indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this
water. Fecal coliform bacteria may occur in ambient water as a result of
the overflow of domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of human and
animal waste. Fecal Coliform bacteria indicate the presence of sewage
contamination of a waterway and the possible presence of other
pathogenic organisms.

Procedure:
Determination of Total Coliforms (TC):
1. Firstly connected the Erlenmeyer (side-arm) flask to the vacuum
source (turned off) and placed the porous support in position.
2. Then opened a Petri-dish and placed a pad in it.
3. 'With a sterile pipette add 2 mL of selective broth (culture) medium to
saturate the pad.
4. Then assembled the filtration unit by placing sterile membrane filter
on the porous support, using forceps sterilized earlier by flaming.
5. After that placed the upper container in position and secure it with the
special clamps. The type of clamping to be used will depend on the type
of equipment.
6. Poured tide volume of sample chosen as optimal, in accordance with
the type of water, into the upper container.
7. After the sample had passed through the filter, disconnected the
vacuum and rinsed the container with 20-30 mL of sterile dilution water
8. Took the filtration unit apart and using the forceps, placed the
membrane filter in the Petri-dish on the pad with the grid side up.
9. Inverted the Petri-dish for incubation.
10. Incubated at 35°C or 37°C for 18-24 hours with 100% humidity
Determination of Fecal Coliforms (FC):
1. First placed the dishes in an incubator at 44±0.5 °C for 24 hours at
100% humidity. Alternatively, tight-fitting or sealed Petri-dishes may be
placed in water-proof plastic bags for incubation.
2. Then submerged the bags in a water-bath maintained at 44±0.5°C for
24 hours.
3.The plastic bags must be below the surface of the water throughout
the incubation period. They can be held down by means of a suitable
weight, e.g., a metal rack.
Data sheet

-Experiment Name: Microbiological Quality of water: Determination of

Total coliform and Fecal Coliform.
-Experiment No: 14

-Group No: A2-3

Observation No- Total coliform unit per Fecal coliform unit per
100 mL 100 mL
1 Nil Nil

Result:
The amount of Total coliform and fecal coliform unit is 0 unit CFU/100
mL in sample water.
Discussion:
In this experiment we have found the amount of FC and TC in sample
water is 0 CFU/100 mL. According to Environmental Conservation Rules
1997, the Standard Value for Drinkable water in Bangladesh in Coliform
parameter is 0 unit/100 mL. So from the experimental value we can say
that the water sample is fully safe for drinking and can be used in other
purposes too.
 Assignment
Question 1 :
What do you understand by "indicator organisms"? Why
water samples are usually tested for indicator organisms
instead of specific pathogenic organisms?
Answer:
An indicator organism is one whose presence presumes that
contamination has occurred and suggests the nature and extent of the
contaminants. An indicator organism should be a microorganism whose
presence is evidence of fecal contamination of warm blooded animals.
Indicators may be accompanied by pathogens, but typically do not cause
disease themselves.
Using coliform as indicators of the presence and absence of pathogens
sometimes may cause the following drawbacks:
❖ False positive result can be obtained from the bacterial genus
aeromonas, which can biochemically mimic the coliform group
❖ False negative result can be obtained when conforms are present
along with high population of other bacteria. The latter bacteria
can act to suppress coliform activity.
❖ A number of pathogens have been shown to survive longer in
natural waters and / or through various treatment processes than
coliform.
But the use of coliforms was established first and there does not appear
to be any distinct advantages to warrant shifting to other indicator
organisms. Since bacteria are used as indicator organisms, the
microbiological examination of water is commonly called bacteriological
examination.
Question 2 :
Define and differentiate between total coliform (TC) and
fecal coliform (FC)?
Answer:
Total coliforms are defined as gram negative bacteria which ferment
lactose at 35° or 37° C with the production of acid, gas and aldehyde
within 24 or 48 hours. Fecal coliform are a subgroup of total coliforms,
which live in the warm blooded animals and have the same properties as
thetotalcoliform but tolerate and grow at higher selective temperature
range of 44° to 44.5°C. In addition, they form indole from tryptophan.
And these combined properties, when positive, are regarded as
presumptive Escherichia coli (presumptive E. coli).

Question 3:
What are the major advantages of "membrane filtration
method" over "multiple tube method"?
Answer:
The major advantages of "membrane filtration method" over "multiple
tube method" are as follows-
❖ Results are obtained more quickly as the number of coliforms can
be assessed in less than 24 hours, whereas the multiple tube
technique requires 48 hours both for a negative or a presumptive
positive test;
❖ Saving in work, certain supplies and glassware;
❖ Method gives direct results;
❖ Easy to use in laboratories, or even in the field if portable
equipment is used.
CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
CHITTAGONG-4349, BANGLADESH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Name : Md. Samiul Islam
Student Id : 1701044
Course No : CE-352
Course Name : Environmental Engineering (Sessional-1)
Group No : A2-3
Experiment No : 15
Experiment Name : Determination of Arsenic in Water
Experiment Name:
Determination of Arsenic in Water
Introduction:
In Bangladesh presence of elevated levels of arsenic in groundwater
has become a major concern. Arsenic pollution of groundwater is
particularly challenging in Bangladesh since tubewell water extracted
from shallow aquifers is the major source of drinking water for most
of its population. In Bangladesh, the arsenic in groundwater is of
geologic origin and is probably only apparent now because it is only
the last 20 - 30 years that groundwater has been extensively used for
drinking in rural areas. Weathering of arsenic-rich base metal
sulphides in the upstream of the Ganges basin appears to be a major
source of arsenic-rich iron oxyhydroxides in the sediments of
Bangladesh. Use of phosphate fertilizer can potentially enhance
release of arsenic as a result of replacement of arsenic by phosphate
ions on the adsorption sites of iron oxyhydroxides. In groundwater,
arsenic primarily exists as inorganic arsenic. Inorganic trivalent
arsenic, [As(III)] or arsenite is the dominant form in reducing
environment; while inorganic pentavalent arsenic [As(V)] or arsenate
is the dominant form in oxidizing or aerobic environment. In
groundwater environment where the conditions are mostly reducing,
a significant part of the arsenic exists as As(III). According to ECR 1997,
drinking water standard for arsenic in Bangladesh is 50 μg/L(or 0.05
mg/L). The WHO guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is
10μg/Land the USEPA is also planning to revise its standard from 50
μg/L to 10μg/L.
Environmental significance:
Arsenic is a major environmental pollutant and exposure occurs
through environmental, occupational and medicinal sources. Airborne
exposure is small except in polluted locations. Food exposure can be
significant but, particularly in fish and shellfish, it is mostly in organic
forms that are relatively nontoxic. Drinking water remains the most
significant source worldwide, and large numbers of people are subject
to serious exposure from this source. Toxicity consists mostly of
neuropathy, skin lesions, vascular damage, and carcinogenesis.
Vascular lesions are the result of endarteritis (blackfoot disease). This
appears to be more prevalent in developing rather than developed
countries and may be related to nutritional deficiencies. Skin cancer is
the most clearly associated malignancy related to arsenic exposure
from drinking water; however, bladder, lung, liver, and kidney tumors
also appear to be related.

Apparatus:
1. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS)
2. Glass tube.
3. Micro.
4. Pipette.
5. Arsenic toolkits.

Procedure:
1. Firstly added reagent to reaction bottle and shaked vigorously.
2. Then inserted the strip into the turret and closed it.
3. After that it was sit for 15 minutes.
4. Selected the As concentration on the chart that matched the color
of the test strip most closely. The reference chart provided with the
kit displays the yellow to brown range of colors expected for As
concentrations of 0, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, and 1000 μg/L.
 Data sheet

-Experiment Name: Determination of Arsenic in water.

-Experiment No: 15

-Group No: A2-3

Sample No- Arsenic Concentration

(µg/L)
1 Nil

Result:
The amount of Arsenic in sample water is 0 µg/L
Discussion:
From the experiment we have found the amount of arsenic in sample
water is 0 µg/L. According to Environmental Conservation Rules 1997
and guideline from WHO the standard value for arsenic is 0.05 mg/L
and 10 µg/L respectively. So it is clear that the sample water is fully
safe for drinking and other purposes.
 Assignment

Question 1 :
In which chemical form arsenic is likely to exist in ground
water? Explain.

Answer:
In groundwater, arsenic primarily exists as inorganic arsenic. Inorganic
trivalent arsenic, [As(III)] or arsenite is the dominant form in reducing
environment; while inorganic pentavalent arsenic [As(V)] or arsenate
is the dominant form in oxidizing or aerobic environment. In
groundwater environment where the conditions are mostly reducing,
a significant part of the arsenic exists as As(III).

Question 2 :
Write down some merits & demerits of ETAAS method and
FAAS method.

Answer:
ETAAS is by far the most advanced and widely used high sensitivity
sampling technique for atomic absorption. The main advantages of
ETAAS can be summarized as follows:
❖ Slurries and solid samples can be analyzed in addition to
samples in solution
❖ It shows greater sensitivity than AAS

❖ Smaller quantities of sample are required (normally 5-60 μL)

❖ The atomization process is more efficient comparing to AAS

The main disadvantages of ETAAS are given below :

❖ It is an expensive technique
❖ Low sample throughput
❖ It requires experienced operators.
The advantages of FAAS are mentioned below:
• Inexpensive (equipment, day-to-day running) • High sample
throughput • Easy to use • High precision

The disadvantages of FAAS are as follows:

• Only solutions can be analyzed • Relatively large sample quantities
required (1 –2 mL) • Less sensitivity (compared to graphite furnace)
•Problems with refractory elements.