THERMODYNAMICS 2

ME 325

CHAPTERS
1. POWER FROM TWO PHASE SYSTEMS
2. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
3. GAS COMPRESSORS
4. STEAM ENGINES
5. STEAM TURBINES
6. HEAT TRANSFER
7. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
8. STEAM GENERATING UNITS
Chapter 1: POWER FROM TWO PHASE SYSTEM

The Rankine Cycle

TURBINE WT

BOILER 2
QA
wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
3
B3 PUMP

WP

a) Schematic diagram of steam power plant

1
T

T1

evaporation
B3 S1=S2

WP

P2=P3

condensation 2 X2
3

b) T – S diagram S
Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
CYCLE ANALYSIS
1 – 2 : Isentropic expansion
2 – 3 : Constant pressure heat rejection
3 – B3 : Adiabatic pumping
B3 – 1 :Constant pressure addition of heat

A) BOILER

h1
QA + hB3 = h1
QA = h1 - hB3 , kJ/kg
QA = ms , kg/s (h1 - hB3) kJ/kg , kW

QA boiler Where:
h1 = h at P1, T1 (Table 3)
QA = Heat added, kJ/kg

hB3

B) TURBINE

h1

W T + h 2 = h1
turbine WT = h1 - h2 , kJ/kg
WT
WT = ms, kg/s (h1 - h2) kJ/kg , kW

h2
C) CONDENSER Q R + h3 = h 2
QR = h2 - h3 , kJ/kg
h2 QR = ms , kg/s (h2 - h3 ) kJ/kg , kW

QW = heat absorbed by cooling water, kW

wo QW = mWCPWΔTW
QR QW = [mCP (TWi n – TWout)]
wi By heat balance : QR = QW

mWCPWΔTW = ms (h2 - h3 )
h3 ms (h2 − h3 )
mw =
CP ∆T
Where:
QR = heat rejected in the condenser
h2 = h at P2 and S1 = S2 , kJ/kg
h3 = hf at P2 = P3 , kJ/kg
mS = mass flow of steam , kg/s
mW = mass flow of cooling water , kg/s
TW = temperature of cooling water in
and out the condenser 0C

CP = 4.187 kJ/kg – K (water)

D) PUMP
WP + h3 = hB3
WP = hB3 - h3 , kJ/kg
hB3 WP = ms , kg/s (hB3 - h3) kJ/kg , kW
h3 WP = Vf3, m3/kg (PB3 - P3)kPa, kJ/kg
Where:
WP WP = pump work
hB3 = enthalpy of feed water , kJ/kg
h3 = hf at P2 = P3 , kJ/kg (table 2)
Vf3 = specific volume of water entering
the pump , m3/kg
Vf3 = Vf at P3 (table 2)
EFFICIENCIES WITH STEAM RATES

For cycle:
Wnet WT − WP
eC = = x 100%
QA QA

For engine:
WT WT
eT = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2

Where:
EC = energy chargeable to the engine
EC = h1 – hf2 , (hf2 = last saturated enthalpy)

WS , Steam rate of an engine or power plant is the mass of

steam used per unit of work kg/kW – Hr.
Heat Rate , het of an engine or power plant is the amount of
heat required to produce a unit work.

3600 kJ/kW − Hr kg
WT = , (For engine)
WT , kJ/kg kW − Hr

3600 kJ/kW − Hr , kg
WC = kW − Hr (For cycle)
WC , kJ/kg

heat rate = WS , kg/kW – Hr h1 − hf2 , kJ/kg

3600 kJ/kW − Hr
𝑒= 𝑥100%
WS , kg/kW – Hr h1 − hf2 , kJ/kg
 Ideal and Actual cycle
W’ = actual work = WB
T 1
T1 W’ = h1 – h2’ , kJ/kg

evaporation h2’ = hf2 – X2’hfg2 ,kJ/kg

B3
where:
WP
h2’ = actual enthalpy
P2=P3 2 2’ X2’ = actual quality
X2 X2 ,
3

S
T – S diagram WB
nb ng

TURBINE Gen WK

QA 2
BOILER wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B3 PUMP
3
where:
WP nb = break efficiency
Schematic diagram ng = generator efficiency
WB = break work
Wi = indicated work
Efficiencies
Wk = combined work
WB ek = combined efficiency
nb = x 100%
WI Wk = combined steam rate
Wk
ng = x 100% Mean Effective Pressure (Pm)
WB
Wk Wk WI , kJ/kg
ek = = x 100% Pm = , kPa
Ec h1 − hf2 VD , m3 /kg
where:
kJ
3600 VD = V2 = volume displacement
kW −Hr
ek = kg kJ x 100% V2 = Vf2 + X2Vfg2
Wk kW −Hr
h1 − hf2 ,
kg
PROBLEMS:

1. A thermodynamic cycle operates as follows: engine produces 22.4

kW; hot body supplies 4220 kJ/min; small pump (to circulate the
working substance) absorbs 2 kW. Sketch the system and calculate
(a) the net work, (b) the heat rejected, and (c) the thermal efficiency.

Given:
QA = 4220 kJ/min
WP = 2 kW 1
WT = 22.4 kW
WT =22.4 kW
TURBINE
Required:
a) Wnet
QA =4220 kJ/min
b) QR BOILER 2
c) ec wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B3 3
PUMP
Solution:

For a) WP=2 kW

Wnet = WT - WP
Wnet = 22.4 kW – 2 kW
Wnet = 20.4 kW
For c)
For b) Wnet
eC = x 100%
By the first law of thermodynamics: QA
Ein = Eout 1224 kJ/min
eC = x 100%
4220 kJ/min
For the cycle:
eC = 29%
QA = Wnet + QR
QR = QA - Wnet
QR = 4220 kJ/min – 20.4 kW
QR = 4220 kJ/min – 1224 kJ/min
QR = 2996 kJ/min
 2. The condensing pressure for a Rankine engine is 1 bar ( h f = 417.4
kJ/kg). Calculate the net work for 1 kg/s steam at the beginning of the
expansion is at 50 bar and (a) saturated, (b) 350 0C, (c) 640 0C. note
the variation of efficiency and of the quality at the end of the
expansion.
T P1 = 50 bars
Given: 1
P2 = 1 bar = 0.1 MPa
B3
Required:
Wnet P2 = 1 bar 2
ec
3
for a: 50 bar and saturated
for b: 50 bar and 350 0C
for b: 50 bar and 640 0C TS diagram for a) S
For Wnet

Solution: Wnet = WT assuming that WP = 0

WT = h1 – h2
From steam tables
At P2 = 0.1 MPa (table 2) For h2
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
hf2 = 417.36 kJ/kg S f2 = 1.3026 kJ/kg – K 5.974 = 1.3026 + X2(6.0568)
hfg2 = 2258 kJ/kg Sfg2 = 6.0568 kJ/kg – K X2 = 0.77127 =77.127%
Vf2 = 0.0010432 m3/kg
For Vfg2 h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2
Vfg2 = Vg2 – Vf2 h2 = 417.36 + (0.77127)(2258)
Vfg2 = 1.6929568 m3/kg h2 = 2158.97 kJ/kg

WT = (h1 – h2)ms
For a) WT = (2794.3 – 2158.97)ms
From steam tables WT = 635.33 kJ/kg (1 kg/s)
At P1 = 5 MPa and saturated (table 2) WT = 635.33 kW
h1 = hg at 5.0 MPa
h1 = 2794.3 kJ/kg For ec
S1 = Sg at 5.0 MPa WT h1 − h2
S1 = 5.974 kJ/kg – K eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2
2794.3 − 2158.3
eC = x 100%
2794.3 − 417.36
eC = 26.73%
 For c)
For b)
From steam tables
From steam tables
At P1 = 5 MPa and 640 0C (table 3)
At P1 = 5 MPa and 350 0C (table 3)
h1 = 3759.6 kJ/kg
h1 = 3068.4 kJ/kg
S1 = 7.3632 kJ/kg – K
S1 = 6.4493 kJ/kg – K
For h2 For h2
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2 S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
6.4493 = 1.3026 + X2(6.0568) 7.3632 = 1.3026 + X2(6.0568)
X2 = 0.8497 = 84.97% X2 = 1.00 = 100%

h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2 h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2

h2 = 2336.0709 kJ/kg h2 = 2676.776656 kJ/kg
1

T P1 = 50 bars 1 T P1 = 50 bars

B3 B3

P2 = 1 bar P2 = 1 bar
2 2
3 3

S S
TS diagram for b)
For Wnet
For Wnet
Wnet = WT assuming that WP = 0
Wnet = WT assuming that WP = 0 WT = (h1 – h2)ms
WT = (h1 – h2)ms WT = (3759.6 – 2676.78)ms
WT = (3068.4 – 2336.0709)ms WT = 1082.82 kJ/kg (1 kg/s)
WT = 732.329 kJ/kg (1 kg/s) WT = 1082.82 kW
WT = 732.329 kW

For ec For ec

WT h1 − h2 WT h1 − h2
eC = = x 100% eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2 EC h1 − hf2
732.329 kJ/kg 1082.82 kJ/kg
eC = x 100% eC = x 100%
(3068.4 − 417.36)kJ/kg (3759.6 − 417.36)kJ/kg
eC = 32.4%
eC = 27.62%
 3. A steam is generated at 4.0 MPa at 440 0C, condensation occurs at
0.105 MPa.
a) For the rankine engine operating on the same limits, compute the
efficiency and heat rate.
b) For the rankine cycle occurs between the same limits, determine
QA, QR, W net and ec.
c) What mass flow rates is required for a net output of 30 MW.
Given:
P1 = 4.0 MPa T1 = 440 0C 1
P2 = 0.105 MPa
TURBINE WT
Solution:
QA BOILER 2
wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B3 3
T P1 = 4.0 MPa 1 PUMP
T1 = 440 0C
B3 WP

P2 = 0.105 MPa
2
3

From steam tables

For h2
At P1 = 4.0 MPa and T1 = 440 0C (table 3)
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
h1 = 3307.1 kJ/kg
6.9041 = 1.3181 + X2(6.0249)
S1 = 6.9041 kJ/kg – K
X2 = 0.9271523 = 92.71523%
At P2 = 0.105 MPa (table 2)
h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2
hf2 = 423.24 kJ/kg S f2 = 1.3181 kJ/kg – K h2 = 423.24 + (0.9271523)( 2254)
hfg2 = 2254 kJ/kg Sfg2 = 6.0249 kJ/kg – K h2 = 2513.412185 kJ/kg
Vf2 = 0.0010443 m3/kg
For Vfg2 WP = Vf3 (P1 – P2)
Vfg2 = Vg2 – Vf2 WP = 0.0010443 m3/kg (4000 – 105)kN/m2
Vfg2 = 1.617.3557 m3/kg WP = 4.06754 kJ/kg
For a) Wnet = QA – QR
For the rankine engine Wnet = (2879.7946 - 2090.1721)kJ/kg
Wnet = 789.6225 kJ/kg
For ec
Or
WT h1 − h2 Wnet = WT – WP
eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2 Wnet = (793.6878 - 4.06754)kJ/kg
3307.1 − 2513.412185 Wnet = 789.6202 kJ/kg
eC = x 100%
3307.1 − 423.24
eC = 27.52172% For ec
kJ kg kJ Wnet
Heat rate =W , (h1 − h2 ) eC = = x 100%
kW – Hr S kW – Hr kg QA
Where: 789.6225 kJ/kg
eC = x 100%
2879.7946 kJ/kg
WS = steam rate kg/kW – Hr
eC = 27.42%
3600 kJ/kW – Hr
WS =
WT , kJ/kg
For c)
3600 kJ/kW – Hr For mass flow rates
WS =
(3307.1 − 2513.412185)kJ/kg
ms = mass flow steam , kg/Hr
WS = 4.53579 kg mS = WSK , kg/kW – Hr (output, kW)
kW − Hr
H. R. = 4.53579 kg/kW – Hr (3307.1 – 423.24)kJ/kg where:
Heat Rate = 13080.58335 kJ/kW – Hr

For b) WSK = cycle steam rate, kg/kW – Hr

For the rankine cycle kj
3600
QA = h1 – hB3 WSK = kW −Hr
Wnet
Where: hB3 = WP + (h3 = hf2)
hB3 = 4.06754 kJ/kg + 423.24 kJ/kg
WSK = 4.5591 kg
hB3 = 427.546754 kJ/kg kW − Hr
QA = (3307.1 - 427.546754) kJ/kg
QA = 2879.7946 kJ/kg mS = 4.5591 kg/kW – Hr (30,000 kW)

mS = 136,774.2181 kg/Hr
Q R = h2 – h3
QR = (2513.412185 - 423.24) kJ/kg
QR = 2090.1721 kJ/kg
 4. Steam at 100 bar, 600 0C is received by a Rankine engine and
exhaust at 2 bar; ∆P and ∆K are negligible. (a) for the ideal engine,
find W, W, e, and Pm. (b) for the actual engine nb = 84 %, ng = 93 %
and the driven generator produces 30 MW. Find W k, ek, total throttle
flow, and estimate the exhaust enthalpy h2’.

Given:
WB nb = 84 % ng = 93 %
0 P1 = 10 MPa T1 = 600 0C
P1 = 10 MPa T1 = 600 C
P2 = 0.2 MPa 1
nb = 84 %
ng = 93 % WK
QA P2 = 0.2 MPa 2
wO
Required: QR
wi
For a: (for ideal engine)
Wi, W, e, and Pm B3
3
For b: (for actual engine)
Wk, ek, total throttle WP
flow, h2’.
Solution:
h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2
For a) h2 = 504.70 + (0.95994)( 2201.9)
From steam tables h2 = 2618.39811 kJ/kg
At P1 = 10 MPa and T1 = 600 0C (table 3)
h1 = 3625.3 kJ/kg For Wi
S1 = 6.9029 kJ/kg – K
Wi = (h1 – h2)kJ/kg
At P2 = 0.2 MPa (table 2) Wi = (3625.3 - 2618.39811) kJ/kg
Wi = 1006.90189 kJ/kg
hf2 = 504.70 kJ/kg S f2 = 1.5301 kJ/kg – K
hfg2 = 2201.9 kJ/kg S fg2 = 5.5970 kJ/kg – K For W
Vf2 = 0.0010605 m3/kg 3600 kJ/kW – Hr
W=
For Vfg2 Wi , kJ/kg
Vfg2 = Vg2 – Vf2 3600 kJ/kW – Hr
W=
Vfg2 = 0.8846395 m3/kg 1006.90189kJ/kg
kg
W = 3.5753
For h2 kW – Hr
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
6.9029 = 1.5301 + X2(5.5970)
X2 = 0.95994 = 95.994 %
For e
WT h1 − h2
e = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2 For h2’
1006.90189kJ/kg
e = x 100% h2’ = h1 – WB
(3625.3 − 504.70 )
h2’ = 3625.3 kJ/kg – 845.7975876 kJ/kg
e = 32.266 % h2’ = 2779.502412 kJ/kg

For Pm

V2 = Vf2 + X2Vfg2
V2 = [0.0010605 + 0.95994 (0.8846395)] m 3/kg
V2 = 0.85026 m3/kg = V2

1006.90189kJ/kg
Pm = , kPa
0.85026 m3/kg
Pm = 1184.266 , kPa

For ms
For b) kg kJ
H. R.k = Wk , (h1 − h2 )
kW – Hr kg
For Wk 3600 kg kJ
WB = nbWi H. R.k = (3625.3 − 504.70)
786.59176kW – Hr kg
WB = (0.84)(1006.90189 kJ/kg) kJ
WB = 845.7975876 kJ/kg H. R.k = 14,282.07187
kW – Hr

Wk = ngWB
Wk = (0.93)( 845.7975876 kJ/kg) ms = (Pout)(Wk )
Wk = 786.5917565 kJ/kg ms = (30000 kW)(4.57671kg/kW - Hr)
ms = 137,301.5167 kg/Hr
For ek
Wk Wk
ek = = x 100%
Ec h1 − hf2
786.5917565kJ/kg
ek = x 100%
(3625.3 − 504.70) kJ/kg
ek = 25.20642%
 The Regenerative Cycle

Regenerative Cycle, The process of heating the feed water before

entering the boiler by using the extracted steam from the turbine.

mT
TURBINE
1
WT

5
BOILER 2 3
QA m1 4

m2 QR
CONDENSER

m3

B9 B8 B7 B6 6
9 O.H. 8 O.H. 7 O.H.
3 2 1 ( mT – m1 – m2 – m3)

WP4 WP3 WP2 WP1

(mT) ( mT – m1) ( mT – m1 – m2)

Schematic diagram of Regenerative cycle with three extractions

Cycle
1
T
(mT)
P1 2
B9
9 P2 ( mT – m1)
B8 3
8 P3
B7
( mT – m1 – m2)
7 P4 4
B6
( mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
6 P5 5

S
T – S diagram
By heat balance E in = Eout

A) BOILER
h1
QA + hB9 = h1
QA = h1 - hB9 , kJ/kg
QA = mT, kg/s (h1 - hB9) kJ/kg , kW

QA boiler Where:
h1 = h at P1, T1 (Table 3)
QA = Heat added, kJ/kg

hB9
B) TURBINE
h1 m WT = mTh1 – m1h2 – m2 h3 – m3 h4 – h5 (mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
T

Where:
WT mT = total mass of steam ,kg/Hr
m1, m2, m3, = masses of extracted steam
h5

h2 h3 h4

D) CONDENSER
h5 (mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
Q R + h6 = h5
QR = h5 – h6 , kJ/kg
QR = (mT – m1 – m2 – m3), kg/s (h5 – h6 ) kJ/kg , kW
QR

(mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
h6

C) PUMP
WP4 + h9 = hB9
hB9
WP = hB9 – h9 , kJ/kg
h9
WP = mT, kg/s (hB9 – h9) kJ/kg , kW
WP = Vf9, m3/kg (PB9 – P9)kPa, kJ/kg
WP4
E) OPEN FEED WATER HEATER

h2 m1 m1 h2 + hB8(mT – m1) = h9mT

for a 1 kg mass of throttled steam:

hB8 m1 h2 + hB8(1 – m1) = h9
(mT) OPEN (mT – m1) m1 h2 + hB8 – hB8m1 = h9
FWH 3 m1(h2 – hB8) = h9 – hB8
(h9 − hB8 ) kg extracted steam
h9 m1 = ,
(h2 − hB8 ) kg throttled steam

PROBLEMS:

1. Steam at 6.0 MPa and 455 0C is received by regenerative engine.

Extraction for feed water heating occurs at 2.8 MPa and again at 1.20
MPa. With the remaining steam expanding to 0.006 MPa for the ideal
engine with a throttle flow of 54500 kg/Hr, find a) the amount of steam
extracted per Hr b) the turbine work in kW and c) the thermal efficiency,
d) for an ideal cycle, through the same states calculate Q A and ec.

Given: mT = 54500 kg/Hr

P1 = 6.0 MPa T1 = 455 0C 1 TURBINE
0
P1 = 6.0 MPa T1 = 455 C WT
P2 = 2.8 MPa
P3 = 1.2 MPa 4
BOILER m1
P4 = P5 = 0.006 MPa QA P2 = 2.8 MPa 2 3
mT = 54500 kg/Hr
CONDENSER
QR
m2
P3 = 1.2 MPa
Required:
B7 B6 5
For a: m1, and m2 7 O.H. 6 O.H.
1
For b: WT 2
P4 = 0.006 MPa
For c: eT WP3 WP2 WP1
For d: (for an ideal cycle)
eC and QA 1 T1 = 455 0 C
T
P1 = 6.0 MPa (mT)
B7 2
P2 = 2.8 MPa
7
B6 (mT – m1 )
6 P3 = 1.2 MPa 3
B5
P4 = 0.006 MPa 4 (mT – m1 – m2 )
5

S
Solution:
For h4
Solving for h1, h2, h3, h4 S1 = S2 = S3 = S4 = Sf4 + X4Sfg4
6.7179 = 0.5210+ X2(7.8094)
From steam tables X4 = 0.793518068 = 79.3518068 %
At P1 = 6.0 MPa and T1 = 455 0C (table 3) h4 = hf4 + X4hfg4
h1 = 3311.1 kJ/kg h4 = 151.53 + (0.793518068)( 2415.9)
S1 = 6.7179 kJ/kg – K h4 = 2068.5903 kJ/kg

At P2 = 2.8 MPa (table 2) For h5

h5 = hf at 0.006 MPa
hf2 = 990.59 kJ/kg S f2 = 2.6109 kJ/kg – K h5 = 151.53 kJ/kg
hfg2 = 1813.4 kJ/kg S fg2 = 3.6030 kJ/kg – K
Vf2 = Vf7 = 0.0012090 m3/kg For h6
h6 = hf at 1.2 MPa
At P3 = 1.2 MPa (table 2) h6 = 798.65 kJ/kg

hf3 = 798.65 kJ/kg S f3 = 2.2166 kJ/kg – K For h7

hfg3 = 1968.2 kJ/kg S fg3 = 4.3067 kJ/kg – K h7 = hf at 2.8 MPa
Vf3 = Vf6 = 0.001385 m3/kg h7 = 990.59 kJ/kg

At P4 = 0.006 MPa (table 2) for WP1, WP2, WP3

hf4 = 151.53 kJ/kg S f4 = 0.5210 kJ/kg – K WP3 = Vf7,m3/kg(P1 – P2), kN/m2

hfg4 = 2415.9 kJ/kg S fg4 = 7.8094 kJ/kg – K WP3 = 0.0012090,m3/kg(6000 – 2800), kN/m2
Vf4 = Vf5 = 0.0010064 m3/kg WP3 = 3.8688 kJ/kg

For h2 ΣWP = Vf5,m3/kg(P1 – P4), kN/m2

S1 = S2 = S3 = S4 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2 ΣWP = 0.0010064,m3/kg(6000 – 6), kN/m2
6.7179 = 2.6109 + X2(3.6030) ΣWP = 6.0323616 kJ/kg
X2 = 1.13988343 = 113.988343 %
h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2 For a)
h2 = 990.59 + (1.13988343)( 1813.4)
h2 = 3057.6546 kJ/kg By heat balance at open heater 2 (Wp = 0)

h2 m1
For h3
S1 = S2 = S3 = S4 = Sf3 + X3Sfg3
6.7179 = 2.2166 + X2(4.3067)
h6
X3 = 1.045185409 = 104.5185409 %
h7 O.H.
h3 = hf3 + X3hfg3 (mT – m1)
2
h3 = 798.65 + (1.045185409)( 1968.2)
h3 = 2874.5973 kJ/kg mT
 m1 h2 + h6(mT – m1) = h7mT

for a 1 kg mass of throttled steam:

m1 h2 + h6(1 – m1) = h7
m1 h2 + h6 – h6m1 = h7
m1(h2 – h6) = h7 – h6
h7 − h6 kg extracted steam
m1 = ,
h2 − h6 kg throttled steam
(990.59 − 798.65) kg e. steam
m1 = ,
( 3057.6546− 798.65) kg t. steam
kg e. s.
m1 = 0.084966626 x mT kg t. s.
kg t. s.
kg e. s.
m1 = 0.084966626 x 54500 kg t. s./Hr
kg t. s.
kg extracted steam
m1 = 4630.681117
Hr

By heat balance at open heater 1 (Wp = 0)

h3 m2

h5
h6 O.H. (mT – m1 – m2)
1
(mT – m1)

m2 h3 + h5(mT – m1 – m2) = h6(mT – m1)

for a 1 kg mass of throttled steam:

m2 h3 + h5(1– m1 – m2) = h6(1 – m1)
m2 h3 + h5 – h5m1 – h5m2 = h6 – h6m1
m2(h3 – h5) + h5(1 – m1) = h6(1 – m1)
h6 − h5 1 − m1 kg extracted steam
m2 = ,
h3 − h5 kg throttled steam
798.65 − 151.53 (1 − 0.084966626) kg e. s.
m2 = ,
2874.5973 − 151.53 kg t. s.
kg e. s.
m2 = 0.217451987 X mT kg t. s.
kg t. s.
kg e. s.
m2 = 0.217451987 X 54500 kg t. s./Hr
kg t. s.
kg extracted steam
m2 = 11,851.13333
Hr
 For b)

By heat balance at turbine

h1 m T

WT

(mT – m1 – m2)
h4

m1 m2
h2 h3
WT = mTh1 – m1h2 – m2 h3 – h4 (mT – m1 – m2)

for a 1 kg mass of throttled steam:

WT = h1 – m1h2 – m2 h3 – h4 (1 – m1 – m2)
kg e.s. kg e.s.
WT = 3311.1 – (0.084966626 ) 3057.6546 – (0.217451987 ) 2874.5973 –
kg t.s. kg t.s.
kg e.s . kg e.s .
2068.5903(1 – 0.084966626 – 0.217451987 )
kg t.s . kg t.s .
WT = 3311.1 – 259.7985948 – 625.1041423 – 1443.010091
kg e.s .
WT = 983.1871723(kJ/kg)( ) X mT, kg t.s.
kg t.s .
kg e.s .
WT = 983.1871723(kJ/kg)( ) X 54500, kg t.s./Hr
kg t.s .
WT = (53583700.89 kJ/Hr)/ 3600
WT = 14884.36136 kW For d)

For c) For eC
Wnet WT − WP
For eT eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf
kJ
WT WT 983.1871723 − 6.0323616kJ/kg
kg
eT = = x 100% eC = kJ kJ x 100%
EC h1 − hf 3311.1 − 990.59
kJ kg kg
983.1871723 eC = 42.109485%
kg
eT = kJ kJ x 100%
3311.1 − 990.59
kg kg For QA
QA = h1 – hB7 = h1 – (h7 + WP3)
eT = 42.36944345% QA = 3311.1 – (990.59 + 3.8688)
QA = 2316.6412 kJ/kg
The Reheat Cycle

QRH

Reheater

2
3
1

TURBINE WT

QB 4
BOILER wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
5
B5
PUMP

WP

a) Schematic diagram of steam powerplant

1
T1
T 3

S1=S2
P1
evaporation
B5 2
P2 – P3

WP

P4 4 S3=S4
condensation
5

S
b) T – S diagram
Cycle Analysis

1 – 2: Partial isentropic expansion S = C

2 – 3: Constant pressure reheating P = C
3 – 4: Complete isentropic expansion S = C
4 – 5: Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser P = C
5 – B5: Adiabatic pumping S = C
B5 – 1: constant pressure addition of heat P = C

By heat balance: Ei n = Eout eT = turbine thermal efficiency

1) QA = heat added in the steam WT

eT = X 100%
generating unit h1 − h5 + Q RH
QA = QRH + QB
eC = cycle thermal efficiency
Where:
QRH = heat added in the Wnet WT − WP
eC = = X 100%
reheater QA QA
QRH = h3 – h2 , kJ/kg QA − QR
eC = X 100%
QA
QB = heat added in the
boiler 6) Steam rates,WS
QB = h1 – hB5 , kJ/kg
,
WST = turbine steam rate kg/kW – Hr
QA = QRH + QB , kg
QA = h1 – h2 + h3 – hB5 3600
WST = kW −Hr
WT kJ/kg
2) WT = turbine work
W T = h 1 + h 3 – h2 – h 4
Or WSC = cycle steam rate kg/kW – Hr
WT = W1-2 + W3-4 ,
kg
3600
3) QR = heat rejected in the WSC = kW −Hr
Wnet kJ/kg
condenser
Q R = h 4 – h5 7) heat rates kJ/kW – Hr

4) WP = pump work engine H. R. = W h1 − h5 kJ/kg

ST
WP = hB5 – h5 engine H. R. = ,W h1 − h5 kJ/kg
SC

5) e = thermal efficiency
H. R. rankine − H. R. reheater
% improvement= X 100%
H. R. rankine
 PROBLEMS:

1) Steam at 10 MPa, 500 0C enters an ideal engine that has one stage
of reheat: exhaust is at 0.05 MPa and 85% quality. The work
produced by the engine is 800 kJ/kg of steam. Determine the
thermal efficiency of the engine.

Given: T1 =5000C
1
T 3
P1 = 10 MPa
T1 = 500 0C P1 = 10 MPa

P4 = 0.05 MPa B5 2
WT = 800 kJ/kg
X4 = 85 %
WP
P4 = 0.05 MPa
Required: 5 X4 = 85 % 4
QRH
a) eT

Reheater
P1 = 10 MPa 3
T1 =500 C 0 2
1
WT = 800 kJ/kg
TURBINE
QB
BOILER P4 = 0.05 MPa 4
wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B5 PUMP 5 Q A = WT + Q R
WP
For QR:
Q R = h 4 – h5
Solution:
From steam tables But:
At P4 = 0.05 MPa (table 2) h4 – h5 = X4hfg4
h4 – h5 = (o.85 %)(2305.4 kJ/kg)
hf4 = 340.49 kJ/kg h4 – h5 = 1959.59 kJ/kg = Q R
hfg4 = 2305.4 kJ/kg
QA = 800 kJ/kg + 1959.59 kJ/kg
for eT QA = 2759.59 kJ/kg
WT 800 kJ/kg
eT = X 100% eT = X 100%
QA 2759.59 kJ/kg
e T = 28.9898 %
Chapter 2: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Internal combustion engine is a heat engine deriving its energy by the heat
liberated by the mixture of some hydrocarbons with the atmospheric air.

THE FOUR STROKE CYCLE

The four stroke cycle is one where in four strokes of the piston, 2
revolutions of the crankshafts are required to complete the cycle.
INTAKE EXHAUST
VALVE VALVE

CYLINDER
CYLINDER
PISTON
PISTON

PISTON ROD

INTAKE STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE POWER STROKE EXHAUST STROKE

The Otto Cycle is the prototype of the Gasoline Cycle

P T
3
3

S=C V=C
4 2
2 4
S=C
1 1 V=C

PV diagram of a four stroke V TS diagram of a four stroke S

gasoline engine gasoline engine
Cycle Analysis

1 – 2: isentropic compression, S = C
2 – 3: constant volume addition of heat, V = C
3 – 4: isentropic expansion, S = C
4 – 1: constant volume rejection of heat, V = C

1) QA = heat added kJ/s

QA = mCV(T3 – T2)

2) QR = heat rejected kJ/s Point 3 – 4: S = C

QR = mCV(T1 – T4) T3 V4 k−1
QR = - mCv(T4 – T1) =
T4 V3
T3
3) W = work kJ/s = rkk−1
T4
W = Q A – QR Substitute T2 and T3 in eqn for thermal
W = mCV(T3 – T2) - mCV(T4 – T1) eff.
1
4) e = thermal efficiency e = 1 − k−1 X 100%
W QA − QR rk
e= = X 100% where:
QA QA
QR k = 1.4 cool air
e = 1− X 100% k < 1.4 hotter air
QA
mCV (T4 − T1 )
e = 1− X 100% V1 VD + cVD
mCV (T3 − T2 ) rk = =
T4 − T1 V2 cVD
e = 1− X 100% Where:
T3 − T2 C = percent clearance
1
e = 1 − k−1 X 100% VD = displacement volume
rk 1+c
where: rk =
c
V1 rk = compression ratio
rk =
V2

Point 1 – 2: S = C
k−1
T2 V1
=
T1 V2
T2
= rkk−1
T1
Computing for the size
of the engine

VD = piston displacement, m3/s eb = brake thermal efficiency

π
VD = D2 LNC WB , kW
4 eb = X 100%
where: kg kJ
mf , HHV
s kg
D = piston diameter, m
L = length of stroke, m
N = engine speed, RPS
N = RPM/2 (4 stroke single acting) ei = indicated thermal efficiency
N = RPM (2 stroke single acting WI , kW
C = no. of cylinder ei = kg kJ
X 100%
mf , HHV
s kg

Efficiencies and
Mean effective pressure
WB = Pmb LANc , kW
eb = brake thermal efficiency WB = 2πTN , kW
kJ Where: Pmb = brake mean effective
3600
kW −Hr
eb = kg kJ
X 100% pressure, kPa
mfb HHV A= πD2/4
kW −Hr kg

WI = PmI LANc , kW
ei = indicated thermal efficiency
kJ PS = shaft power
3600
kW −Hr
ei = kg kJ
X 100% 2π T, ft − lb N, rpm
mfi HHV Bhp =
kW −Hr kg ft −lb
33000
hp −min
nm = mechanical efficiency
lb π
WB eb P, L, ft D2 , in2 N, rpm c
nm = = X 100% Ihp = in 2 4
WI ei ft −lb
33000
hp −min
ni = indicated engine efficiency

ei 1
ni = X 100% where: e = e = 1 − k−1 X 100%
e rk
nb = brake engine efficiency
nb = ni X nm
PROBLEMS:

1) A two stroke, Otto type, 23.5 X 23.5 cm engine develops 29.85 kW

at 200 rpm while using natural gas whose lower heating value is
37252 kJ/m3 at intake of P1 = 1 atm and T1 = 15.6 0C. the heat rate
is 14.142 kJ/kW – Hr; compression ratio is 6; mechanical efficiency
is 81 %. Use the air standard with k = 1.33 and compute the brake
and indicated thermal efficiencies, engine efficiencies, and mean
effective pressure.
Given: P

P1 = 1 atm 3
T1 = 15.6 0C
LHV= 37252 kJ/m3 S=C
rk = 6 4 P1 = 1 atm
k = 1.33
nm = 81 % 2 S=C
heat rate = 14142 kJ/kW – Hr
WB = 29.85 kW 1
T1 = 15.6 0C
N = 200 rpm
V
Dimensions : 23.5 X 23.5 cm
For e
1
Required: e = 1− X 100%
a) eb , ei rkk−1
1
b) nb, ni e = 1 − (1.33 −1) X 100%
c) mep 6
e = 44.6382 %
Solution: 31.42
ni = X 100%
44.6382
For a) ni = 70.388 %
kJ nb = ni X nm
3600 nb = 0.70388 X 0.81
kW −Hr
eb = kJ
X 100%
14142 nb = 57 %
kW −Hr
eb = 25.456 %
For c)
ei = eb /nm WB 29.85 kW
ei = 25.456/81 mep = = m3
= 878.561 kPa
VD 0.033975997
ei = 31.42 % s

π 200rpm
For b) VD = (.235m2 )(.235cm)
4 60
ni = ei X 100%
e m3
VD = 0.033975997
s
The Diesel Cycle
P 3 3
2 T

S=C
P=C
4 2
S=C
4

1 1 V=C
V S
PV diagram of a four stroke TS diagram of a four stroke
diesel engine diesel engine

Cycle Analysis

1 – 2: isentropic compression, S = C
2 – 3: constant pressure addition of heat, P = C
3 – 4: isentropic expansion, S = C
4 – 1: constant volume rejection of heat, V = C

1) QA = heat added kJ/s T4 − T1

QA = mCP(T3 – T2) e = 1− X 100%
k T3 − T2
1 rck − 1
2) QR = heat rejected kJ/s e = 1 − k−1 X 100%
QR = mCV(T1 – T4) rk k(rc − 1)
QR = - mCv(T4 – T1) where:
V3
rc = = cut off ratio
3) W = work kJ/s V2
W = Q A – QR V2 = clearance volume
W = mCV(T3 – T2) - mCV(T4 – T1) V2 = cVD
V1 V2
re =
4) e = thermal efficiency V3 V2
W QA − QR rk
e= = X 100% re =
QA QA rc
QR
e = 1− X 100% Point 1 – 2: S = C
QA k −1
mCV (T4 − T1 ) T2 V1
e = 1− X 100% =
mCP (T3 − T2 ) T1 V2
T2
= rkk−1
T1
 Point 2 – 3: P = C Substitute T2 , T3 and T4 in eqn for thermal
T3 V3 V3 eff.
= , T3 = T2
T2 V2 V2 T4 − T1
k−1 e = 1− X 100%
T3 = T1 rk (rc ) k T3 − T2
T1 rck − T1
Point 3 – 4: S = C e = 1− X 100%
k T1 rkk−1 rc − T1 rkk−1
T4 V3 k−1 V3 k −1
T1 rck − 1
= , T4 = T3 e = 1− X 100%
T3 V4 V4 kT1 rkk−1 rc − 1
k−1
V2 rc 1 rck − 1
T4 = T1 rkk−1 rc e = 1 − k−1 X 100%
V1 rk k(rc − 1)
k−1
rck−1
T4 = T1 rk rc k−1
rk
T4 = T1 (rck )

PROBLEMS:

1) There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal diesel engine operating on

227 g of air; P1 = 97.91 kPa, T 1 = 48.9 0C. At the end of compression, P2
= 3930 kPaa. Assume that the air and the products within the cycle have
air properties. Determine a) rk, b) the percentage clearance, c) rc, d) W,
e) e, f) Pm.
P2 = 3930 kPaa
Given: P 2 3
P1 = 97.91 kPa
T1 = 48.9 0C
P2 = 3930 kPaa
ma = 227 g of air 4
QA = 317 kJ/cycle
P1 = 97.91 kPa
T1 = 48.9 0C 1
Required:
a) rk V
b) the percentage clearance Solution:
c) rc
d) W For a)
e) e V1
f) Pm rk =
V2
mRT1
V1 =
P1
 kJ
. 227 kg 0.28708 273 + 48.9
kg −k
V1 =
97.91 kPa
V1 = 0.214251m3
P2 V1 k
=
P1 V2
1 1
P1 k 97.91 kPa 1.4
V2 = V1 = 0.214251m3
P2 3930 kPaa
3
V2 = 0.015329 m

0.214251m3
rk =
0.015329m3
rk = 13.977

For b)
1+c
rk =
c
1
c=
rk − 1
1
c=
13.977− 1
c = 7.705941%

For c)

Q A = mCP T3 − T2
T2 = T1 rkk−1
T2 = 321.9 K 13.977.4
T2 = 924.4566753K
kJ kJ
317 = .227 kg 1.0062 T3 − 924.4567 K
cycle kg − k
T3 = 2312.327671K

T3 = 321.9 K 13.977.4 rc
2312.327671K
rc =
321.9 K 13.977.4
rc = 2.50128289
For d)

W = QA − QR
W = Q A − mCV T4 − T1
kJ kJ
W = 317 − .227 kg 0.7186 (T4 − T1 )
cycle kg − k
T4 = T1 rkc
T4 = 321.9 K 2.501282891.4
T4 = 1161.846928K

kJ kJ
W = 317 − .227 kg 0.7186 1161.846928K − 321.9 K
cycle kg − k
kJ
W = 179.986
cycle

For e)

kJ
137.013991
cycle
e = 1− kJ X 100%
317
cycle
e = 56.777921%

For f)

W
Pm =
VD
V2 = cVD
0.015329m3 = 0.0705941%VD
VD = 0.19892444m3

kJ
179.986
cycle
Pm =
0.19892444m3
Pm = 904.7958109kPa
Chapter 3: GAS COMPRESSORS

Operation of compressors

Discharge valve

Inlet valve

P 3 discharge 2

compression

suction
4 1
V1 = VD
V
Conventional diagram without clearance

P 3 2

compression
expansion

4 1
V1
VD
V
Conventional diagram with clearance
V1, = V1 − V4
Volume of gas drawn into the cylinder

P1 V1, = m,1 RT1

P1 V1 = m1 RT1

where:
m1 = m1’ + m2
m1 = total mass after admission
m1’ = mass of gas drawn in and delivered
mc = clearance of residual gas
V1’ = volume of gas drawn in corresponding to mass m1’
P1 = pressure at the start of compression
T1 = temperature of start of compression
V1 = total volume at end of admission corresponding to mass m1
Work of Compression
Q = ∆P + ∆K + ∆H + W
Q = ∆H + W ∆P = 0 , ∆K = 0
W = Q − ∆H

1. Adiabatic Compression (Q = 0) (S = 0)
W = −∆H = −m′ CP T2 − T1
k −1
kR T2 P2 k
CP = , =
k−1 T1 P1
k −1
m′ kRT1 P2 k
W= −1
1−k P1
k −1
kP1 V1 ′ P2 k kJ
W= −1 , kW
1−k P1 min
2. Polytropic Work
W = Q n − ∆H = m′ Cn T2 − T1 − m′ CP T2 − T1
Cv k − n
W = m′ Cn − CP T2 − T1 but Cn =
1−n
Cv k − n
W = m′ − CP T2 − T1
1−n
Cv k − n − CP (1 − n)
W = m′ T2 − T1
1−n
 Cv k − Cv n − CP − CP n
W = m′ T2 − T1
1−n
where: CP = Cv k CP − Cv = R
m′
W= n CP − Cv T2 − T1
1−n n −1
nm′RT1 T2 nm′ RT1 P2 n
W= −1 = −1
1 − n T1 1 − n P1
n −1
nm′ RT1 P2 n
W= − 1 , kW
1−n P1

3. Isothermal work ∆H = 0
2
W = Q − ∆H = Q = pdv
1
2
dv V2
W= c = c lnV 12 = c lnV2 − lnV1 = cln
1 v V1
V2 V2
W = P1 V1 ′ ln = m′ RT1 ln , kW
V1 V1

Volumetric efficiency(n V)
1 1
P3 n P2 n V1
V4 = V3 = cVD = cVD
P4 P1 V2
Since V1 = VD + cVD we have
1
P3 n
V1 − V4 VD + cVD − cVD P4
nV = VD
=
VD
1
P2 n V1
= 1+c −c = 1+c−c
nV P1 V2
 PROBLEMS:

1) A rotary compressor receives 6 m 3/min of a gas (R = 410 J/kg – k)

CP = 1.03 kJ/kg – k, k = 1.67 at 105 kPa 27 0C and delivers it at
630 kPaa ∆P = 0, ∆K = 0. Find the work if the process is a)
isentropic, b) polytropic with PV 1.4 = C and c) isothermal.

Given:

V1’ = 6 m3/min For b)

P1 = 105 kPa n −1
T1 = 27 0C = 300 K nP1 V1 ′ P2 n

P2 = 630 kPaa W= − 1 , kW
1−n P1
R = 410 J/kg – k .4

CP = 1.03 kJ/kg – k 1.4 105 kPa 6 m3/min 630 1.4

W= −1
k = 1.67 −0.4 105
PV1.4 = C kJ
W = −1474.0655 = 24.567759kW
min
Required:
a) Isentropic work For c)
b) Polytropic work
P1
c) Isothermal work W = P1 V1 ′ ln
P2
Solution: 105 kPa
W = 105 kPa 6 m3/min ln
630 kPaa
For a) W = −1128.808466kJ/ min = 18.8134744kW
k −1
kP1 V1 ′ P2 k kJ
W= −1 , kW
1−k P1 min
0.67
1.67 105 kPa 6 m3/min 630 1.67
W= −1
−0.67 105
kJ
W = −1652.06578 = 27.53443 kW
min

For b)
n −1
nP1 V1 ′ P2 n
W= − 1 , kW
1−n P1
 2) There are compressed 0.142 kg/s of oxygen by a 35.56 cm X
35.56 cm double acting motor driven compressor operating at 100
rpm. P1 = 101.35 kPa, T1 = 27 0C and P2 = 310.131 kPaa.
Compression and reexpansion are polytropic with n = 1.31.
Determine a) n V, b) heat rejected c) work and d) power input by the
driving motorfor an overall adiabatic efficiency of 70 %
Given:
P 3 2 P2 = 310.131 kPaa
m1’ = 0.142 kg/s
kPa
P1 = 101.35 kPa
T1 = 27 0C = 300 K
P2 = 310.131 kPaa
nc= adiabatic efficiency of 70 % P1 = 101.325 kPa
35.56 cm X 35.56 cm double acting kPa
4 1
n = 1.31 V1
VD T1 = 300 K
N = 100 rpm
kPa
V
Required: For b)
a) nV QR = heat rejected
b) QR QR = mCn (T2 – T1)
c) W P1 V1
d) Pi n m= but V1 = VD + cVD
RT 1 1
P2 n
Solution: nV = 1 + c − c
For a) P1
1
V1 ′ 310.131 kPaa 1.31
nV = 0.92798 = 1 + c − c
VD 101.35 kPa
′ m′ RT1 c = 5.3409813%
V1 = m3
P1 V1 = 0.117721 1 + 0.05341
kg
0.142 0.2599
kJ
(300K) s
′ s kg −k m3
V1 = V1 = 0.117721 1 + 0.05341
101.35 kPa s
′ m3 m3
V1 = 0.109242624 V1 = 0.124008
s s
πD2
VD = LN m3
4 101.35 kPa 0.124008
π . 3556m 2 2 m= s
VD = (.3556 m)(100rpm) kJ
4 60 0.2599 300K
3 kg −k
m kg
VD = 0.117720984 m = 0.1611929
s s
m3
0.10924262
nV = s
m3
X 100% = 92.798 %
0.11772098
s
 Cv k − n
Cn =
1−n
kJ
0.6595 1.395− 1.31
kg −k
Cn =
1 − 1.31
kJ
Cn = −0.180830645
kg − k
n −1
T2 P2 n
=
T1 P1
1.31−1
310.131 kPaa 1.31
T2 = 300K
101.35 kPa
T2 = 390.8975661K

Q R = mCn T2 − T1
kg kJ
Q R = 0.1611929 −0.180831 90.8976 K
s kg − k
Q R = −2.649543458kW

For c)

nP1 V1 ′ T2
W= −1
1 − n T1
1.31(101.35 kPa)1 V1 ′ T2
W= −1
1−n T1
m3
1.31 101.35 kPa 0.109242624 390.8976 K
s
W= −1
−0.31 300 K
W = 14.17609582kW

For d)
Wisen
Pin =
nc
k −1
′
kP1 V1 P2 k
W= −1
1−k P1
m3 .395
1.395 101.35 kPa 0.109242624 310.131 kPaa 1.395
s
W= −1
−0.395 101.35 kPa
W = 14.56797232kW
14.56797232kW
Pin =
. 70
Pin = 20.81138904kW
MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION
Multistaging is the compression of the gas in two or more cylinders in place
of a single cylinder compressor. It is used in reciprocating compressor. In
order to 1) save power, 2) limit the gas discharge temperature, and 3) limit
the pressure differential per cylinder.

P M 4 P M 4

PVn = C PVn = C

B 2
B 3 2 PX
N N 3

1
A 1

V V
Two stage compression no pressure Two stage compression with pressure
drop without intercooling drop with intercooling

WT = total work of compression

WT = WLP + WHP
n −1 n −1
nm′ RT1 PX n nm′ RT1 P4 n
WT = −1 + −1
1−n P1 1−n PX

if T1 = T3 , P2 = P3 = PX then: WLP = WHP

n −1 n −1
nm′ RT1 P2 n nm′ RT1 P4 n
WT = −1 = −1
1−n P1 1−n P3

PX P4
= ; PX 2 = P1 P4 ; PX = P1 P4
P1 PX
PD PD
P2 = PX + ; P3 = PX −
2 2
Where:
PX = intermediate pressure
PD = pressure drop
 Wout
Wi n

m’ 2 3 m’
1 4

Intercooler

LP cylinder HP cylinder

Q ic = heat rejected in the intercooler

Q ic = m′ CP (T3 − T2 )

PROBLEMS:

1) There are compressed 11.83 m 3/min of air from 103.42 kPaa, 26.7 oC to
827.36 kPaa. All clearances are 8 % a) find the isentropic power and
piston displacement required for a single stage compression, b) using the
same data, find the minimum ideal power for two stage compression when
the intercooler cools the air to the initial temperature, c) find the
displacement of each cylinder for conditions of part (b), d) how much heat
is exchanged in the intercooler? e) for compressor efficiency of 78 % what
driving motor output is required?
Given:
P 3 2 P2 = 827.36 kPaa
V1’ 3
= 11.33 m /min kPaa
P1 = 103.42 kPa kPa
T1 = 26.7 0C = 299.7 K
P2 = 827.36 kPaa
P1 = 103.42 kPaa
c=8%
kPa
n C = 78 % 4 1
V1 T1 = 299.7 K
Required: VD
a) Wisen , VD (simgle stage) kPa
V
b) Wi deal(two stage)
For single stage
c) VDHP , VDLP
d) QR
e) Pout
Solution:
PX = P1 P4
For a)
k −1 PX = (103.42 kPaa) 827.36 kPaa
kP1 V1 ′ P2 k
PX = 292.5159 kPaa
Wisen = −1
1−k P1 k −1
2kP1 V1 ′ PX k
m3 0.4 W= −1
1.4 103.42 kPa 11.33 min 827.36 1.4 1−n P1
Wisen = −1
−0.4 103.42 m3 0.4

kJ 2.8 103.42 kPa 11.33 292.52 1.4

= 55.4640.49 kW W =
min
Wisen = −3327.842949 −1
min −0.4 103.42
W = 47.285935 kW
V1 ′
nV =
VD For c)
1

n V = 1 + c − c P2
n
V1 ′
P1 nV =
1 VDLP
827.36 kPaa 1.4 1
n V = 1 + 0.08 − 0.08 P2 n
103.42 kPaa nV = 1 + c − c
n V = 72.6691 % P1
1
m3 292.52 kPaa 1.4
11.33 n V = 1 + 0.08 − 0.08
min
VD = 103.42 kPaa
. 726691
m3 n V = 91.187895%
VD = 15.591221
min m3
11.33
min
For b) VDLP =
0.91187895
m3
P 4 P4 = 827.36 kPaa VDLP = 12.425
min
kPaa
kPa P1 V1 ′ = m′ RT1
P1 V1 ′
2 m =
′
RT1
3 P1 = 103.42 kPaa m3
103.42 kPaa 11.33
min
kPa m′ = kJ
1 T1 = 299.7 K 0.28708 (299.7 K)
kg −K
VkPa kg
m′ = 13.61898567
Wi n Wout min
3 4
m’ 1 2 P3 V3 = m′ RT3
m’ m′ RT3
V3 =
P3
kg
QR 13.61898567 (0.28708)299.7 K
min
V3 =
292.5159 kPaa
 m3
V3 = 4.00576
min
V3
nV =
VDHP
m3
4.00576
min
VDHP =
0.91187895
m3
VDHP = 4.392864
min

For d)

Q R = m′ CP (T3 − T2 )
k−1
T2 P2 k
=
T1 P1
0.4
292.5159 kPaa 1.4
T2 = 299.7 K
103.42 kPaa
T2 = 403.362 K

kg
Q R = 13.61898567 (1.0062)(299.7 K − 403.362 K)
min
kJ
Q R = −1420.524275
kg

For e)

WO
nC =
Win
47.285935kW
Win =
0.78
Win = 60.622993kW
Chapter 4: STEAM ENGINE

Steam Engine Performance

1. Ideal PV diagram

P 2 3

V
2. VD = piston displacement
πD2
VD = LN 2 , piston rod neglected
4
πD2 π(D2 − d2 )
VD = LN + LN , piston rod considered
4 4
Steam
Steam engines are
double acting h1 ms = kg/s
engines 1
Head end Crank end crosshead

d Brake power
h2 2
Indicated power
condenser

h3

3. Indicated power
IP = Pmi VD
where:
Pmi = indicated mean effective pressure
area of card
Pmi = X spring scale
length of card

Pmi

length

4. Brake Power
BP = 2πTN
Where:
T = torque kN – m
T=FXL
N = speed rps

WB = Pmb VD
Where:
Pmb = brake mean effective pressure

5. Friction Power = Indicated Power – Brake Power

6. Mechanical Efficiency
Brake Power
nm =
Indicated Power

7. Efficiencies
a) ei = indicated thermal efficiency
Indicated Power, kW
ei = kg kJ
ms , h1 − hf2
s kg
 b) eb = brake thermal efficiency
Brake Power, kW
eb = kg kJ
ms , h1 − hf2
s kg
c) ni = indicated engine efficiency
Indicated Power, kW
ei = kg kJ
ms , h1 − h2
s kg
d) nb = brake engine efficiency
Brake Power, kW
eb = kg kJ
ms , h1 − h2
s kg

8. nRC = efficiency of equivalent rankine cycle

kg kJ
ms , h1 − h2
s kg
nRC = kg kJ
ms , h1 − hf2
s kg

1
Imep = P1 rc 1 + ln − P2
rc
actual mep = f(Imep)
PROBLEMS:

1) The crankshaft of a double acting steam engine rotates at 200 rpm.

The bore and stroke are 360 mm X 450 mm and the mean effective
pressure acting upon is 4 kg/cm 2. Find the Hp developed in the
cylinder.
Given:
N = 200 rpm
D = 360 mm
L = 450 mm
mep = 4 kg/cm2

Required:
a) IP
Solution:
πD2
IP = mep LN 2
4
kg π
IP = 40000 2 0.360 m 2 0.45 m (200 rpm) 2
m 4
2.2 lb 3.28 ft
IP = 732870.7342 kg − m
1kg 1m
IP = 5288395.218 ft − lb
IP = 160.2544 Hp

2) Estimate the brake power of a 380 mm X 405 mm uniflow steam engine

with a 60 mm piston rod diameter when operating at 250 rpm steam
pressure is 0.72 MPa and the exhaust pressure is 0.1 MPa. The engine
of the Corliss type nm = 90 %
Given:
Solution:
N = 250 rpm 1
Imep = P1 rc 1 + ln − P2
D = 380 mm rc
L = 405 mm 1
Imep = 720 kPa(0.15) 1 + ln − 100 kPa
P1 = 720 kPa 0.15
P2 = 100 kPa Imep = 212.8889584kPa
d = 60 mm
f = diagram factor = 0.85 actual mep = f(Imep)
actual mep = 0.85(212.8889584kPa)
rC = expansion ratio = 0.15
actual mep = 180.9556164kPa
Required:
a) BP
 πD2
IHPHE = actual mep LN,
4
2
π 0.380 m
IHPHE = 180.9556164kPa 0.405 m 250 rpm
4
IHPHE = 34.63121 kW

π(D2 − d2 )
IHPCE = actual mep LN
4
2
π[ 0.380 m − 0.06 m 2 ]
IHPCE = 180.9556164kPa 0.405 m 250 rpm
4
IHPCE = 33.76823681kW

IHPT = IHPCE + IHPHE

IHPT = 34.63121 kW + 33.76823681kW
IHPT = 68.39944681 kW

Brake power = nm IHPT

Brake power = 0.9 (68.39944681kW)
Brake power = 61.55950213kW

3) Determine the friction power and mechanical efficiency of a 305 mm X 380

mm stem engine which gives the following:
Area of HE card = 935 mm2
Area of CE card = 805 mm2
Length of card = 76 mm
Engine speed = 240 rpm
Spring constant = 21.74 kN/mm
Piston rod diameter = 63 mm
Tare weight = 356 N
Length of brake arm = 0.8 m
area of card
Required: PmiHE = X spring scale
length of card
a) FP
935 mm2
b) nm PmiHE = X 21.74 kPa/mm
76 mm
PmiHE = 267.4592105kPa
Solution:
FP = IP − BP area of card
BP PmiCE = X spring scale
nm = length of card
IP
805 mm2
PmiCE = X 21.74 kPa/mm
76 mm
PmiCE = 230.2723684kPa
 πD2
IHPHE = PmiHE LN,
4
2
π 0.305 m
IHPHE = 267.4592105kPa 0.380 m 240 rpm
4
IHPHE = 29.70234282kW

π(D2 − d2 )
IHPCE = PmiCE LN
4
2
π[ 0.305 m − 0.063 m 2 ]
IHPCE = 230.2723684kPa 0.380 m 240 rpm
4
IHPCE = 24.48152581kW

IHPT = IHPCE + IHPHE

IHPT = 24.48152581kW + 29.70234282kW
IHPT = 54.18386863kW

BP = 2πTN
T= FXL
T = 356 N X 0.8 m
T = 284.8 J
BP = 2π . 2848 J 240 rpm
BP = 7.157804702kW

FP = 54.18386863 kW − 7.157804702kW
FP = 47.02606393kW

7.157804702kW
nm =
54.18386863kW
nm = 13.21021345%
4) A steam engine with a 305 mm bore by 457 mm stroke controlled
compression horizontal uniflow steam engine having an indicated engine
efficiency of 70 % when operated between 0.862 MPa (gauge) and
atmospheric pressure. Exhaust steam initially dry and saturated. Piston rod
diameter is 44mm. Mechanical efficiency is 90 % when connected to an AC
generator which has an efficiency of 83.5 % when running at 240 rpm.
Given: Required:
d = 44 mm a) kW rating of the generator
N = 240 rpm
ni = 70 % b) combined steam rate consider that at
D = 305 mm
nm = 90 % rated load compression ratio is 4 and f
L = 457 mm
ranges from 0.7 to 0.8
P1 = 862 kPa(gauge) ng = 83.5 %
P2 = 101.325 kPa
Solution:
For a)

1
Imep = P1 rc 1 + ln − P2
rc
P1
Imep = 1 + lnrk − P2
rk
963.325 kPa
Imep = 1 + ln4 − 101.325 kPa
4
Imep = 473.3692539kPa

actual mep = f(Imep)

actual mep = 0.75(473.3692539kPa)
actual mep = 355.0269404kPa

πD2
IHPHE = actual mep LN,
4
2
π 0.305 m
IHPHE = 355.0269404kPa 0.457 m 240 rpm
4
IHPHE = 47.41622954kW

π(D2 − d2 )
IHPCE = actual mep LN
4
2
π[ 0.305 m − 0.044 m 2 ]
IHPCE = 355.0269404kPa 0.457 m 240 rpm
4
IHPCE = 46.42942624kW

IHPT = IHPCE + IHPHE

IHPT = 46.42942624kW + 47.41622954kW
IHPT = 93.84565578kW

For b)
3600 kJ/kW − Hr
Ws =
Wk Wk , kW
ng = 3600 kJ/kW − Hr
WB Ws =
WB 70.52501032kW
nm = W = 51.049273
WI s
WB = 93.84565578kW 0.9
WB = 84.4610902kW

Wk = 84.4610902kW 0.835
Wk = 70.52501032kW
Chapter 5: STEAM TURBINE

Performance of steam turbines

Steam Gen. output

Internal power H
ms
L
h1 h1 1
Steam Actual
Gen
Turbine
Ideal
h2 Turb. Output h2a
2a
(brake power) h2
2
condenser S

hf2

1. Ideal Turbine Work = ms (h1 – h2)

Where: h1 = enthalpy of steam entering
h2 = enthalpy after ideal (isentropic) expansion

2. Actual Turbine Work = ms (h1 – h2a) = ms (h1 – h2)nst

Where: h2a = enthalpy after actual expansion
nst = stage efficiency

3. Turbine Power Output = ms (h1 – h2)nt

Where: nt = Turbine efficiency

4. ne = electrical or generator efficiency = gen output/ turbine output

5. Thermal efficiency
turbine output
a. ntb = brake thermal efficiency =
ms (h1 − hf2 )
gen output
b. ntc = combined or overall thermal efficiency =
ms (h1 − hf2 )
6. Engine efficiency of Turbine
brake power
a. neb = brake engine efficiency =
ms (h1 − h2 )
gen output
b. nec = combined or overall engine efficiency =
ms (h1 − h2 )
 7. Willan’s Line
Willan’s line is a straight line which shows the relation between the steam
consumption (ms , kg/Hr) and the load (L, kW) of steam turbine generator unit.

ms kg/Hr
y = bx + a Slope, b
where: msf
msf − msn
b=
FL Y = ms
x = load msf - msn
a = no load steam
consumption a = ms n
no
L Full L kW
load
load

PROBLEMS:

1) A 4 kg of air enters a turbine with enthalpy of 600 kJ/kg and a velocity of

250 m/s. the enthalpy at the exit is 486 and velocity of 170 m/s. what is the
work develop of there is a heat loss of 10 kJ.

Given: h1 = 600 kJ/kg

QL = 10 kJ
ms = 4 kg ms = 4 kg
h1 = 600 kJ/kg V1 = 250 m/s
V1 = 250 m/s
h2 = 486 kJ/kg WT
V2 = 170 m/s
QL = 10 kJ
V2 = 170 m/s h2 = 486 kJ/kg
Required:
a) WT
Solution:

h1 + KE1 = WT + KE2 + Q L + h2
WT = (h1 − h2 ) + (KE1 − KE2 ) + Q L
kJ kJ kJ kJ
WT = 600 − 486 + 16.8 + 2.5
kg kg kg kg
kJ
WT = 133.3
kg
WT = 533.2 kJ
 2) A steam turbine with an internal efficiency of 90 % receives steam
at 7 MPa and 550 0C and exhaust of 20 kPa. Determine the ideal
turbine work, exhaust enthalpy and the exit quality of steam

Given: P1 = 7 MPa
T1 = 550 0C
nt= 90 %
P1 = 7 MPa
T1 = 550 0C
P2 = 0.020 MPa nt= 90 % WT

Required:
a) WTi
P2 = 0.020 MPa
b) X2

Solution:

From steam tables WTi = (h1 – h2)

At P1 = 7 MPa and 550 0C (table 3) WTi = (3530.9 kJ/kg – 2289.776873 kJ/kg)
h1 = 3530.9 kJ/kg WTi = 1241.123127 kJ/kg
S1 = 6.9486 kJ/kg – K

From steam tables

At P2 = 0.02 MPa (table 2)

hf2 = 251.40 kJ/kg S f2 = 0.8320 kJ/kg – K

hfg2 = 2358.3 kJ/kg S fg2 = 7.0766 kJ/kg – K

For h2
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
6.9486 = 0.8320 + X2(7.0766)
X2 = 0.864341633 = 86.4341633 %

h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2
h2 = 251.40 + (0.864341633) 2358.3
h2 = 2289.776873 kJ/kg
3) A steam turbine generator power plant 6.5 MW capacity has a full
load steam consumption 6.0 kg per kW – Hr. no load steam
consumption is 12 % of the full load consumption.
a) Write the equation of the Willan’s line of this turbine.
b) At 70 % of the rated load, calculate the hourly steam
consumption.
Given:
P = 6500 kW
msf = 6.0 kg/kW – HR
msn = 0.12(ms f)
X = 0.70(6500 kW)

Required:
a) Willan’s line
b) X2
Solution:

Willan’s line equation:

a = no load steam consumption

kg
a = (0.12) 6 X 6500kW
kW − Hr
kg
a = 4680
Hr
msf − msn
b=
FL
kg kg
6500kW X6 − 0.12 X 6500kW X6
kW −Hr kW −Hr
b=
6500
b = 5.28 kg/Hr

y = bx + a
kg kg
y = 5.28 0.70 (6500 kW) + 4680
Hr Hr
y = 28704 kg/Hr
4) Steam with an enthalpy of 800 kcal/kg enters the nozzle at a
velocity of 80 m/s. Find the velocity of the steam at the exit of the
nozzle if its enthalpy is reduced to 750 kcal/lkg. Assuming the
nozzle is horizontal and disregarding heat losses. Take g = 9.81
m/s2 and J constant is 427 kg – m/kcal.

5) Steam is expanded through a nozzle and the enthalpy drop per kg

of steam from the initial pressure is 60 kJ. Neglecting friction find
the velocity of the discharge and the exit area of the nozzle to pass
0.2 kg/s if specific volume of the steam at the exit is 1.5 m 3/kg.

6) The entrance and exit enthalpies of a steam turbine are 4000 and
3000 kJ/kg respectively, what is the mass of steam entering the
turbine if the generator power is 3 MW and the generator efficiency
is 90 %.

7) Dry and saturated steam at 8 bar is expanded in a turbine nozzle to

a pressure of 5 bar and 0.97 dry. Find the velocity at the exit if the
area at exit is 14.5 cm2. Find the mass flow of the steam in kg/s.

8) A steam turbine has an entrance enthalpy of 3000 kJ/kg and an exit

enthalpy of 2000 kJ/kg. What is the stage efficiency if the actual
enthalpy after isentropic expansion is 2200 kJ/kg.

9) Steam enters the nozzle of an impulse turbine at 2 MPa, 300 0C.

And leaves at 0.3 MPa, 0.95 dry the angle of the nozzle is 20 0 to
the direction of motion of the blades and blade velocity is 380 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzle.
 10) In a power plant operating on a throttle pressure of 2.85 MPa
and 400 0C. There are two steam turbine generators running in
parallel. One 5 MW capacity and the other is 7.5 MW capacity.
Exhaust is at 8.5 kPa. The steam consumption of the units in kg/Hr
are:
Unit 1: 5 MW – 13600 at 50 % load, 24000 at full
Unit 2: 7.5 MW – 20000 at 50 % load, 35 000 at full

The power plant comes a system load at 10000 kW divided equally

between the units.

a) Write the willan’s line equation

b) Total steam used by both turbines in kg/Hr
c) Combined heat rate
d) Combined thermal efficiency

Given:
P1 = 2.85 MPa
T1 = 400 0C
P2 = 0.0085 MPa

Required:

a) Write the willan’s line equation

b) Total steam used by both
turbines in kg/Hr
c) Combined heat rate
d) Combined thermal efficiency

Solution:
ms t
ms 2
ms 1
5000 kW 7500 kW
Turbine 1 Turbine 2

10000 kW
From steam tables for b)
At P1 = 2.85 MPa and 400 0C (table 3)
h1 = 3233.4 kJ/kg yT = mst = y1 + y2
for unit 1
From steam tables y1 = b1 x + a1
At P2 = 0.0085 MPa (table 2) kg kg
y1 = 4.16 (5000 kW) + 3200
h3 = hf at 0.0085 MPa kW − Hr Hr
kg
h3 = 178.7 kJ/kg y1 = 24000
Hr
for a)
for unit 2
y2 = b2 x + a2
for unit 1 kg kg
y = bx + a y2 = 4 (5000 kW) + 5000
24000 kg/Hr = b1 (5000 kW) + a1 kW − Hr Hr
kg
50 % load y2 = 25000
Hr
kg kg kg
13600 = b1 2500 kW + a1 yT = 24000 + 25000
Hr Hr Hr
By elimination: kg
kg yT = 49000
b1 = 4.16 Hr
kW − Hr
kg for c)
a1 = 3200
Hr combined Heat rate , kJ/kW – HR
y1 = b1 x + a1 kg kJ
y1 = 4.16x + 3200 mst , h1 − h3
Hr kg
H. R. =
10000 kW
kg kJ
for unit 2 49000 3233.4 − 178.7
Hr kg
y = bx + a H. R. =
35000 kg/Hr = b2 (7500 kW) + a2 10000 kW
kJ
50 % load H. R. = 14968.03
kg kW − Hr
20000 = b2 3750 kW + a2
Hr for d)
By elimination:
kg kJ
b2 = 4 3600
kW − Hr ek = kW −Hr
kg H. R.
a2 = 5000 kJ
Hr 3600
y2 = b2 x + a2 ek = kW −Hr
kJ
y2 = 4x + 5000 14968.03
kW −Hr
ek = 24.05126%
Chapter 6: HEAT TRANSFER

Three types of heat transfer

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Conduction is the transfer of heat through medium or conductor

through molecular motion. The ability of the conductor to conduct heat
is called thermal conductivity

Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids from one place to

another accompanied by the motion of fluid in bulk.

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy into radiant energy in

space in the form of light.

Conduction through walls:

kAT T1 − T2
k Q=
X

T2 Q Where:
T1 Q = heat transfer, kJ
1 2 kJ
k = thermal conductivity
Hr − m − K
A = cross sectional area, m2
T = time, Hr
X = thickness of the material, m
X
Conduction through composite walls:
k 1 A T1 − T2 RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Q1 = 1
k1 k2 k3 X1 RT =
k 2 A T2 − T3 U
Q2 = Where:
X2 X1 X2 X3
T1 T2 T3 T4 Q k 3 A T3 − T4 RT = + +
Q3 = k1 k2 k3
1 2 3 4 X3 U = overall heat
A T1 − T4 W
Q= X X X
transfer coeff. , 2
1 m −K
+ 2+ 3
k1 k2 k3

X1 X2 X3
Conduction through fluid film:
A Ti − To
hi k1 k2 k3 Q= 1 X1 X2 X3 1
ho + + + +
hi k1 k2 k3 ho
To where:
Ti T1 T2 T3 T4 Q kJ
h0 = outside film coefficient ,
i 1 2 3 4 o Hr − m2 − K
kJ
hi = inside film coefficient ,
Hr − m2 − K

X1 X2 X3
Mean temperature difference
1. Arithmetic mean temperature difference
(AMTD)
2. Logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD)

Q = UA∆T (LMTD, AMTD)

θmax + θmin
AMTD =
2
θmax − θmin
LMTD = θ max
ln
θ min
 T T
T1 T1
Hot fluid
T2 𝛉ma x
T2
𝛉ma x 𝛉mi n t2
𝛉mi n
t2
Cold fluid t1
t1

m2 m2
Heat lost by hot fluid = heat lost by cold fluid
Temperature gradient Temperature gradient
(parallel flow) (parallel flow)
θmax = T1 − t1 θmax = T1 − t 2
θmin = T2 − t2 θmin = T2 − t 1

PROBLEMS:

1) A 15 cm thick wall has a thermal conductivity of 5 W/m – K. If inside and

outside surface temperature of the wall are 200 0C and 30 0C
respectively. Determine the heat transmitted.

Solution:
Given:
kA T1 − T2
Q=
X = 15 cm X
T1 = 200 0C = 473 0K Q k T1 − T2
=
T2 = 30 0C = 303 0K A X
W
K = 5 W/m - K Q 5 473 − 303 K
= m−K
A 0.15 m
Required: Q W
= 5666.66667 2
a) Q A m
2) Two walls of cold storage plant are composed of an insulating material
(k = 0.25 kJ/Hr – m – 0C) 100 mm thick at the outer layer and material
(k = 3.5 kJ/Hr – m – 0C) 15 cm thick at inner layer. If the surface
temperature at cold side is 30 0C and hot side is 250 0C, find the heat
transmitted per square meter.

Given:
k1 k2
X1 = 10 cm
X2 = 15 cm Q
T1 = 250 0C = 523 0K T1 T2 T3
T2 = 30 0C = 303 0K 1 2 3
K1 = 0.25 kJ/Hr – m – 0C
k2 = 3.5 kJ/Hr – m – 0C

Required: X1 X2
a) Q/A

Solution:
Q T1 − T3
= X X
A 1
+ 2
k1 k2
Q 523 − 303 K
= 0.10 m 0.15 m
A +
0.25 3.5
Q kJ
= 496.7741935
A Hr − m2

3) A composite furnace wall is made up of 800mm lining of magnesite

refractory brick; a 130 mm thickness of 85 % magnesia; and a steel 2.54
mm thick. Flue gas temperature is 1205 0C and the boiler room is at 27 0C.
gas side film coefficient is 85 W/m 2 – K and air side film coefficient is 23
W/m2 – K. determine:
a) The thermal current
b) Interface temperatures
c) Effect on thermal current and inside refractory wall temperature if the
magnesia insulation is doubled.
Given:
X1 = 800 mm hi = 85 W/m2 k1 k2 k3 ho = 23 W/m2
X2 = 130 mm –K –K
X3 = 2.54 mm
Ti = 1478 0K T1 T2 T3 T4 To = 300 0K
Ti = 1205 0C = 1478 0K
To = 27 0C = 300 0K
kmagnesite = 2.96 W/m - K
kmagnesia = 0.0692W/m - K
ks teel = 43.3 W/m – K
hi = 85 W/m2 – K X1 = 800 mm X2 = 130 mm X3 = 2.54 mm
ho = 23 W/m2 – K

Q T1 − T2
Required: = X1
A
a) Q/A k1
b) T1, T2, T3, T4 W 1471.712494− T2 K
534.4379923 2 = 0.8
c) X2 is doubled m
2.96
Solution: T2 = 1327.269793K

for a) Q T2 − T3
= X2
A
A Ti − To k2
Q= 1 X1 X2 X3 1 W 1327.269793− T3 K
+ + + + 534.4379923 2 = 0 .13
hi k1 k2 k3 ho m
Q 1478− 300 K 0.0692
= 1 0.8 0.13 0.00254 1
T3 = 323.2677844K
A + + + +
85 2.96 0.0692 43 .3 23
Q W Q T3 − T4
= 534.4379923 2 =
A m A X3
k3
for b) W 323.2677844− T2 K
534.4379923 2 = 0.00254
m
43 .3
T4 = 323.2364336K
Q Ti − T1
= 1
A
hi
W 1478− T1 K
534.4379923 2 = 1
m
85
T1 = 1471.712494K
for c)

if the magnesia insulation is doubled

X2 = 2X2

A Ti − To
Q= 1 X1 2X 2 X3 1
+ + + +
hi k1 k2 k3 ho
Q 1478− 300 K
= 1 0.8 2(0.13 ) 0.00254 1
A + + + +
85 2.96 0.0692 43 .3 23
Q W
= 288.5276698 2 (decreased by 46.01288%)
A m

Q Ti − T1
= 1
A
hi
W 1478− T1 K
288.5276698 2 = 1
m
85
T1 = 1474.605557K (increased)

4) A condenser serving a 50000 kW steam turbo generator unit receives

exhaust steam at the rate of 196000 kg/Hr vacuum in condenser is 702
mmHg sea water for cooling enters at 29.5 0C and leaves at 37.5 0C for
steam turbine condenser 950 BTU/lb of steam turbine condensed as heat
given up to cooling water calculate the LMTD in 0F. AMTD 0C
Required:
a) LMTD ms = 196000 kg/Hr steam
b) AMTD

Solution: seawater
702 mmHg
0
T TC = 40.8512 C condenser
702 mmHg

T2 = 37.5 0C Tm = 37.5 0C
mT = mw + ms
T1 = 29.5 0C

m2
 For a) For b)

θmax − θmin θmax + θmin

LMTD = θ max AMTD =
ln 2
θ min 11.3512+ 3.3512
11.3512− 3.3512 AMTD =
LMTD = 2
11 .3512
ln AMTD = 7.3512 C
3.3512
1.8 F
LMTD = 6.55735 C X
C
LMTD = 11.80323156F

5) Condensate enters a low pressure feed water heater at 27 0C and leaves at

82 0C. bled steam with an enthalpy of 2757 kJ/kg enters the heater at rate of
32700 kg/Hr together with a flow of 36750 kg/Hr of drain at h = 403 kJ/kg
flashing from the high pressure heater. The shell side fluid has an enthalpy
of 355 kJ/kg when leaving. The LMTD is 18 0C and U = 3632 W/m2 – K.
Determine:
a) The temperature of the condensing steam
b) The approximate operating pressure of heater
c) The mass of the condensate flowing through the heater
d) The heat transfer area
e) Number and length of 16 mm OD 12 mm ID tubes if condensate velocity
is 1.8 m/s

ms = 32700 kg/Hr
Solution:
hs = 2757 kJ/kg
md = 38750 kg/Hr
hd = 403 kJ/kg

27 0C
82 0C mc =
hci = 113.25 kJ/kg hco = 343.3 kJ/kg

m = 71450 kg/Hr
hm = 355 kJ/kg
For a:

TC = condensing temperature
TC = Ts a t at 355 kJ/kg
TC = 85 0C

For b:

Ph = operating pressure of the heater

Ph = Psa t at 355 kJ/kg
Ph = 0.057392703 MPa

For c:

By heat balance:
mshs + md hd + hci mc = mhm + mchco
32700 kg/Hr (2757 kJ/kg) + 38750 kg/Hr (403 kJ/kg) + 113.25 kJ/kg mc = 71450 kg/Hr (355
kJ/kg) + mc355 kJ/kg
32700 kg/Hr (2757 kJ/kg) + 38750 kg/Hr (403 kJ/kg) + 113.25 kJ/kg mc = 71450 kg/Hr (355
kJ/kg) + mc355 kJ/kg
105770150 kJ/Hr + 113.25 kJ/kg mc = 25364750 kJ/Hr + mc355 kJ/kg
80405400 kJ/Hr = mc355 kJ/kg – 113.25 kJ/kg mc
80405400 kJ/Hr = 241.75mc
mc = 332597.3113 kg/Hr

For d:

Q = mc hco − hci
Q = UALMTD
kJ kJ
Q = 332597.3113 kg/Hr 355 − 113.25
kg kg
kJ kJ
Q = 332597.3113 kg/Hr 355 − 113.25
kg kg
kJ
Q = 80405400.01 = 22334.83334 kW
Hr
kW
22334.83334kW = 3.632 A 18 C
m2 − K
A = 341.6365844m2
 For e:

Tave = 54.5 C
𝛒ave = 986 kg/m3
ms 332597.3113 kg/Hr m3
Vf = = = 337.3197883
𝛒ave 986 kg/m3 Hr
Vf = A X V X N
π
Vf = (ID)2 X V X N
4
m3 π 1.8m
337.3197883 = (0.012m)2 X XN
Hr 4 s
N = 460 tubes
A = πODLN
341.6365844m2 = π 0.016m L 460tubes
L = 14.77 m = 15 m

CONDUCTION THROUGH PIPES

R1
R2
Di Do

2πkL T1 − T2 Where:
Q= R2
ln Q = heat transferred, W
R1
K = thermal conductivity, W/m – K
L = length of pipe
R1 = inside radius
R2 = outside radius

CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE PIPES

R2
R3 R1
 2πk 1 L T1 − T2 2πL T2 − T3
Q1 = R2
Q= R R
ln ln 2 ln 3
R1 R2
R1 +
k1 k2

2πk 2 L T2 − T3
Q2 = R3
ln
R2

CONDUCTION FROM FILM TO FILM

hi
ho

Q i = Ai hi Ti − T1
Q i = hi 2πR1 L Ti − T1

Q o = Ao ho T3 − To

Q o = ho 2πR 3 L T3 − To

Ti − T0
Q= R R
1 ln 2 ln 3 1
R1 R2
+ + +
hi A1 2πk 1 L 2π2L h0 A3
PROBLEMS:

1) A 15 cm X 6 m uninsulated B.I. pipe conveys steam at 385 0F with

an average ambient temperature of 85 0C. If the cost of the fuel is
100.00 pesos per million BTU with the net energy conversion of 75
%. What is the annual cost of the heat lost?

Given:
15 cm X 6 m uninsulated B.I. pipe
Ti = 385 0F
To = 85 0F

Required:
a) Annual cost of heat lost
Solution:
From pipe
For 15 cm (5.9055 in) Sch. 80 for steam use
Do = 6.625 in = 16.8275 cm
Di = 5.761 in = 14.639294 cm
Ki ron = 30 BTU/Hr – ft – F
hi = 1000 BTU/Hr – ft2 – F
ho = 2 BTU/Hr – ft2 - F
Ao = 3.171909 m2
Ai = 2.7582442 m2

BTU 1.055 kJ 1Hr 3.28 ft 1.8 F 1000 J

k iron = 30
Hr − ft − F BTU 3600 s 1m2 C 1 kJ
W
k iron = 51.906
m−K

BTU
hi = 1000
Hr − ft − F
W
hi = 5675.056 2
m −K
BTU
ho = 2
Hr − ft − F
W
ho = 11.35011 2
m −K
 Ti − T0
Q= R
1 ln 2 1
R1
+ +
hi A1 2πk 1 L h0 A3

385 − 85 /1.8
Q= 0.168275
1 ln 1
W + 0.14639294
+ W
5675 .056 2 (2.7582442 ) 2π 51.906 6 11.35011 2 (3.171909 )
m −K m −K

385 − 85 /1.8
Q= 0.168275
1 ln 1
W + 0.14639294
+ W
5675 .056 2 (2.7582442 ) 2π 51.906 6 11.35011 2 (3.171909 )
m −K m −K

Q = 5986.588499 W
kJ 31536000s 1000 1BTU
total cost = 5986.588499
s yr 106 BTU 0.75 1055 J
total cost = 238601.0173 pesos
Chapter 7: FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Classifications of fuels

1. Solid fuels (principal component: carbon)

Coal, coke, wood, charcoal, bagasse, cococnut shells and
husks, briquetted fuels.
2. Liquid fuels (principal component: hydrocarbon)
Gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, diesel, bunker, other fuel oils
3. Gaseous fuels (principal component: hydrocarbon)
Natural gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas, liquefied petroleum
gas, methane, ethane, acetylene, propane.

Heating value or Calorific value kJ/kg

1. Higher heating value (gross calorific value) the heating value

obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the
liquid state.
2. Lower heating value (net calorific value) the heating value
obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in
vapor state.

Combustion

Combustion, chemical reaction, between the fuel and oxygen

which is accompanied by heat and light.

Theoretical air – fuel ratio the exact theoretical amount, as determined

from the combustion reaction, of air needed to burn a unit amount of
fuel, kg air per kg of fuel.

Actual air – fuel ratio theoretical air – fuel ratio plus excess air

Air by volume consists of 21 % oxygen and 79 % nitrogen, thus there

are 3.76 mols of N2 per mol of O2.
FORMULAS:

1. Specific gravity
density
S. G = , for liquids
density of water
density
S. G = , for gases
density of air
2. API and Baume gravity units
141.5
API = − 131.5 , (petroleum products)
SG at 15.6 C
140
Baume = − 130 , brine
SG at 15.6 C
SG at temperature T, applying correction factor:
SGT = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 T − 15.6
3. For higher and lower heating value
a. Dulong’s formula, used for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis:
O kJ
Q h = 33,820 C + 144,212 H − + 9,304 S ,
8 kg
b. ASME formula for petroleum products
Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X API
c. Bureau of standards formula
Q h = 51,716+ 8,793.8 (SG)2
d. Difference between HHV and LHV
Q h − Q L = 9 H2 2442
Where:
H2 = 26 − 15(SG)
4. Combustion of solid fuel with known ultimate analysis:
A O kg air
Theo. = 11.5 C + 34.5 H − + 4.3 S ,
F 8 kg fuel
Molecular weights:
C : 12 N2 : 28
H2 : 2 S : 32
O2 : 32
 5. Theoretical and actual air fuel ratio
Cn Hm + aO2 + 3.76 a N2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + 3.76 a N2 , (Theo)
Cn Hm + 1 + e aO2 + 1 + e 3.76 a N2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + deO2 + (1 + e)3.76 a N2 , (actual)
m m m m
Cn Hm + n + O2 + 3.76 n + N2 = nCO2 + H2 + 3.76 n + N , (Theo)
4 4 2 4 2

PROBLEMS:

1. Ultimate analysis of coal is given by:

C = 68.5 %
H = 2.5 %
S = 1.5 %
O = 3.5 %
Ash = 12 %
Calculate the heating value and air fuel ratio

Required:
a) Heating value
b) A/F

Solution:
For a)

O kJ
Q h = 33,820 C + 144,212 H −+ 9,304 S ,
8 kg
0.035 kJ
Q h = 33,820 0.685 + 144,212 0.025 − + 9,304 (0.015) ,
8 kg
kJ
Q h = 26280.6325
kg

For b)
A O kg air
Theo. = 11.5 C + 34.5 H − + 4.3 S ,
F 8 kg fuel

A 0.035 kg air
Theo. = 11.5 (0.685) + 34.5 0.025 − + 4.3 (0.015) ,
F 8 kg fuel
A kg air
Theo. = 8.6535625
F kg fuel
 2. Liquid octane fuel is burned with idel proportions of air calculate.
a) Ideal fuel air ratio
b) Actual fuel air ratio if e = 20 %
Solution:
m m m m
C8 H18 + n + O2 + 3.76 n + N2 = nCO2 + H2 O + +3.76 n + N , Theo
4 4 2 4 2
18 18 18 18
C8 H18 + 8 + O2 + 3.76 8 + N2 = 8CO2 + H2 O + +3.76 8 + N2 , Theo
4 4 2 4
C8 H18 + 12.5 O2 + 3.76 12.5 N2 = 8CO2 + 9H2 O + 3.76 12.5 N2 , (Theo)

12.5 O2 + 3.76 12.5 N2

A/FT =
12 8 + 1(18)
12.5 32 + 3.76 12.5 28
A/FT =
12 8 + 1(18)
kg air
A/FT = 15.05263
kg fuel

A/FA = (1 + e)A/FT
kg air
A/FA = (1 + 0.20)15.05263
kg fuel
kg air
A/FA = 18.0632
kg fuel

3. A steam generator burns fuel oil with 20 % excess air the fuel oil may be
represented as C14H30. The flue gas leaves the preheater at 0.31 MPa.
Find the minimum stack gas temperature to avoid condensation.

Given: Solution:
mol of water vapor
e = 20 % PV = Patm
total mol
C14H30
P = 0.31 MPa

Required:
a) Stack gas temp.
Solution:
Cn Hm + 1 + e aO2 + 1 + e 3.76 a N2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + deO2 + (1 + e)3.76 a N2 , actual
C14 H30 + 1.2 21.5 O2 + 4.512 21.5 N2 = 14CO2 + 15H2 O + 4.3O2 + 4.512 21.5 N2 , actual

15
PV = 310 kPa
130.308
PV = 35.68 kPa
From steam table
Tsa t at 0.03568 MPa = 72.685 0C

4. There are 20 kg of fine gas formed per kg of fuel oil burned in the
combustion of a fuel oil C12H26. What is the excess air in percent?
Given:

C12H36
m = 20 kg gas per kg
fuel

Required:
a) e in percent
Solution:
m m m m
C12 H26 + n + O2 + 3.76 n + N2 = nCO2 + H2 O + +3.76 n + N , Theo
4 4 2 4 2
26 26
C12 H26 + 12 + O2 + 3.76 12 + N2
4 4
26 26
= 12CO2 + H2 O + +3.76 12 + N2 , Theo
2 4
C12 H26 + 18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2 = 12CO2 + 13H2 O + +3.76 18.5 N2 , Theo

18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2

A/FT =
12 12 + 1(26)
18.5 32 + 3.76 18.5 28
A/FT =
12 12 + 1(26)
kg air
A/FT = 14.93929
kg fuel
kg air
A/FA = 19
kg fuel

A/FA = (1 + e)A/FT
kg air kg air
19 = 1 + e 15.05263
kg fuel kg fuel
e = 27.18 %
5. A fuel oil is burned with 50% excess air. What is the volume rate of flow
in m3/min of the wet products at a pressure of 102 kPa and a temperature
of 305 0C when fuel is burned at a rate of 45 kg/min. assume that
combustion requirement of the fuel oil is similar to those C12H26
Given:

C12H36
P = 102 kPa
mf = 45 kg/ min
T = 305 0C
e = 50 %

Required:
a) Vf

Solution:
C12 H26 + 1 + e aO2 + 1 + e 3.76 a N2
= bCO2 + cH2 O + deO2 + (1 + e)3.76 a N2 , (actual)
C12 H26 + 18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2
= 12CO2 + 13H2 O + 18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2 , actual

(1 + e) 18.5 O2 + (1 + e)3.76 18.5 N2

A/FA =
12 12 + 1(26)
1.5 18.5 32 + (1.5)3.76 18.5 28
A/FA =
12 12 + 1(26)
kg air kg air
A/FA = 22.40894118 + 1 = 23.40894118
kg fuel kg fuel

mfa = A/FA X mf
kg air
mfa = 23.40894118 X 45 kgfuel/min
kg fuel
mfa = 1053.45 kgair/min
Solving for gas constant R

Components Kg mol/mol fuel Total kg

CO2 12 528
H2O 13 234
O2 9.25 296
N2 104.34 2921.52
138.59 kg mol 3979.52 kg
kJ
3979.52 kg 8.3143
kg mol −K
m= R= kg
138.59 kg mol 28.71433725
kg mol
kg
m = 28.71433725 kJ
kg mol R = 0.289552216
kg − K

from PV = mRT
kgair kJ
102 kPa V = 1053.45 0.289552216 (578 K)
min kg − K
m3
Vf = 17.28
min

6. A 485 kW diesel engine uses fuel oil of 25 0API gravity. Fuel consumption
is 0.395 kg/kW – Hr. cost of fuel is 35.5 pesos per liter. For continuous
operation, determine the minimum volume of cubical day tank in liter. The
ambient temperature is 42 0C
Given: Solution:
m
ρ=
P = 485 kW V
25 0API Where: m = mass flow
mf = 0.395 kg/ kW – Hr V = volume flow
35.5 pesos per liter 𝛒 = density
T = 42 0C
Solving for m:
Required: m = P X mf
a) volume kg
m = 485 kW X 0.395
kW – Hr
kg
m = 191.575
Hr
 141.5 m
SG at 15.6 C = ρ=
131.5 + API V
141.5
SG at 15.6 C = m
131.5 + 25 API V=
SG at 15.6 C = 0.90415 ρ
kg
ρf 191.575
SG = V= Hr
ρw 887.441308
kg
kg m3
ρf15 .6 = 904.15
m3 m3
V = 0.215873431 X 24 Hrs
SGT = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 T − 15.6 Hr
SG42 = 0.90415 1 − 0.0007 42− 15.6 V = 5.810962345m3
SG42 = 0.887441308
kg
ρf42 = 887.441308 3
m

7. Calculate the dew point temperature of the flue gas formed by

combustion having the following analysis:
N2 = 72 % O2 = 35 %
CO2 = 20 % H2O = 4.5 4.5 %

Solution:

72
N2 = = 2.571
28
20
CO2 = = 0.4545
44
3.5
O2 = = 0.109375
32
4.5
H2 O = = 0.25
18
Total : 3.38492 kg/mol

0.25
PV = Patm
3.38492
PV = 0.101325 0.073856
PV = 0.0075 MPa
From steam tables T at 0.0075 MPa
T = 40.29 C
8. A diesel electric plant consumed 210 gal. of fuel at 30 0C and produced
4000 kW – Hr fuel used is 30 0API and was purchased at 30 pesos per
liter at 15.6. For continuous operation estimate the cost per kW – Hr of
the fuel used.
Given:

V = 210 gal
30 0API
30 pesos per liter at 15.6
T = 30 0C

Required:
a) Cost per kW – Hr

Solution:

price kg
cost per kW − Hr = X
kg kW − Hr
141.5
SG at 15.6 C =
131.5 + API
141.5
SG at 15.6 C =
131.5 + 30 API
SG at 15.6 C = 0.87616099

SGT = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 T − 15.6

SG30 = 0.87616099 1 − 0.0007 30 − 15.6
SG30 = 0.867329287

ρf
SG =
ρw
ρf30 = SG X ρw
kg kg
ρf30 = 0.867329287X1000 = 3.2832
m3 gal
m
ρ= m = Vρ
V
m = Vρ
kg
m = 210 gal X 3.2832
gal
m = 689.472 kg
 price kg
cost per kW − Hr = X
kg kW − Hr
30 peso/lit 689.472 kg
cost per kW − Hr = X
0.87616 kg/lit 4000kW − Hr
cost per kW − Hr = 5.90 peso/kW − Hr

9. Calculate the higher heating value of a certain fuel in a day tank having a
specific gravity 0.918 at a temperature of 38 0C.

Given:
SG30 = 0.918
T = 38 0C

Required:
a) HHV

Solution:

SGT = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 T − 15.6

SG38 = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 38 − 15.6
SG38
SG15 .6 =
1 − 0.0007 38− 15.6
0.918
SG15 .6 =
1 − 0.0007 38− 15.6
SG15 .6 = 0.932623

141.5
API = − 131.5
SG at 15.6 C
141.5
API = − 131.5
0.932623
API = 20.2226146
Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X API

Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X 20.2226146

kJ
Q h = 43953.077
kg
 10. A circular fuel tank 13.72 m long and 1.677m in diameter used for
oil storage. Calculate the number of days the supply tank can hold for
continuous operation at the following conditions:
Steam flow --------------------------- 910 kg/Hr
Steam condition ----------------------1.38 MPa and saturated
Feed water temperature ------------110 0C
Boiler efficiency -----------------------75 %
Fuel oil ---------------------------------- 34 API

Required:
a) days
Solution:

mf , kg day
no. of days = kg X where: mff = mass flow of fuel
mff , 24 Hrs
Hr

mfs hs − hf for Mf = total mass of fuel

nBo = Mf
mf X HHV ρf = where: V = 13.72 X 1.677 = 30.3047 m3
hs = hg at 1.38 MPa (table 2) V
kJ 141.5
hs = 2789.6 SG at 15.6 C =
kg 131.5 + API
SG at 15.6 C = 0.854984894
hf = hf at 110 C (table 1)
kJ
hf = 461.3 ρf15 .6 = 0.854984894X 1000 kg/m3
kg ρf15 .6 = 854.984894 kg/m3
kg Mf
Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X API 854.984894 3 =
m 30.3047 m3
Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X 34API Mf = 25910.06072kg
kJ
Q h = 45876.4
kg mf , kg day
no. of days = kg X
kg kJ mff , 24 Hrs
910 2789.6 − 461.3 Hr
Hr kg 25910.06072 kg day
0.75 = no. of days = X
mf X 45876.4 61.59
kg
24 Hrs
kg Hr
mff = 61.59 no. of days = 17.52859 days
Hr
Chapter 8: STEAM GENERATING UNITS

BOILERS

Classifications of boilers:
1. Fire tube boiler
2. Water tube boiler

Boiler rating

H. S. A. m2
Rated boiler horsepower =
k
where:
k = 1.1 m2/Bo – Hp , fire tube
k = 0.91 m2/Bo – Hp , water tube
k = 12 ft2/Bo – Hp
k = 10 ft2/Bo – Hp

Developed boiler horse power

kg kJ
ms Hr hs − hf kg
Developed boiler horsepower = kJ
35322
Bo −Hp −Hr
lb BT U
ms hs − hf
Hr lb
Developed boiler horsepower = BTU
33500
Bo −Hp −Hr

Developed boiler horsepower

percent rating = X 100 %
Rated boiler horsepower
kJ
hs − hf
kg
factor of evaporation = kJ
2257 kg
kJ
kg hs − hf kg
kg
equivalent evaporation = F. E. X ms = X m s
Hr kJ
2257 kg Hr
kg kJ
ASME evaporation(heat rate) = ms hs − hf
Hr kg
 ms
specific equivalent evaporation = F. E. X
mf
kg steam
ms Hr
specific actual evaporation = kg fuel
mf Hr

boiler efficiency:
kg kJ
mfs hs − hf
Hr kg
nBo = kg kJ
X 100 %
mf X HHV
Hr kg

PROBLEMS:

1. The following coal has the following ultimate analysis by weight:

C = 70.5 % H2 = 4.5 % O2 = 6.0 %
S = 3.0 % ash = 11 % moisture = 4 %
A stoker fire boiler of 175000 kg/Hr steaming capacity uses this coal
as fuel. Calculate the volume of air in m 3/Hr at 60 0F and 14.7 Psia
pressure if boiler efficiency is 70 % and F.E. = 1.10 b) weight in metric
tons of coal needed for 24 Hrs operation at rated capacity.
Given:
ms = 175000 kg/Hr
F.E. = 1.1
nBo = 70 %

Required:
a) Volume of air
b) Weight
Solution:

For a:
PV = mRT
A kg air kg fuel
ma = X mf
F kg fuel Hr

Solving for A/F

A O kg air
Theo. = 11.5 C + 34.5 H − + 4.3 S ,
F 8 kg fuel
A 0.06 kg air
Theo. = 11.5 0.705 + 34.5 0.045 − + 4.3 (0.03)
F 8 kg fuel
 A kg air
Theo. = 9.53025
F kg fuel

For mf = mass of fuel , kg/Hr:

kJ
hs − hf
kg
factor of evaporation = kJ
2257 kg
kJ kJ
(1.1)2257 = hs − hf
kg kg
kJ kJ
hs − hf = 2482.7
kg kg

O kJ
Q h = 33,820 C + 144,212 H − + 9,304 S ,
8 kg
0.06 kJ
Q h = 33,820 0.705 + 144,212 0.045− + 9,304 (0.03) ,
8 kg
kJ
Q h = 29530.17
kg

kg kJ
mfs hs − hf
Hr kg
nBo = kg kJ X 100 %
mf X HHV
Hr kg
kg kJ
175000 2482.7
Hr kg
0.70 = kg kJ
X 100 %
mf X 29530.17
Hr kg
kg
mf = 21018.33
Hr
A kg air kg fuel
ma = X mf
F kg fuel Hr
kg air kg
ma = 9.53025 X 21018.33
kg fuel Hr
kg
ma = 200309.9395
Hr

PVa = ma RT
kg kJ
200309.9395 0.28708 15.6 + 273 K
Hr kg −k
Va =
101.325 kPa
 m3
Va = 163789.1585
kg

For b: mass of fuel in MT per day

kg 24Hrs 1MT
mf = 21018.33 X X
Hr day 1000 kg
mf = 504.44 MT

2. Two boilers operating steadily on 91000 kg of coal contained in a bunker.

One boiler is producing 1591 kg of steam per hour at 12 factor of
evaporation and an efficiency of 65 % and another boiler produces 1364
kg of steam per hour at 1.15 factor of evaporation and efficiency of 60 %.
How many hours will the coal in the bunker run if the HHV of coal is 7590
kcal/kg
Given:

mf = 91000 kg
ms 1 = 1591 kg
ms 2 = 1364 kg
nBo1 = 65 %
nBo2 = 60 %
F.E.1 = 1.2
F.E.2 = 1.15
HHV = 7590 kcal/kg
Required:
a) No of hours
Solution:
mF
mf = 91000 kg
F.E.2 = 1.15
HHV = 7590 kcal/kg ms 2 = 1364 kg
nBo2 = 60 %
F.E.1 = 1.2 kg
nBo1 = 65 % Boiler 1 Boiler 2
ms 1 = 1591
kg
mS2
mS1
 mF kg
no Hrs = kg
mf
Hr
91000 kg
no Hrs =
mf1 + mf2
For boiler no :
For boiler no 1: kg kJ
kg kJ mfs hs − hf
mfs hs − hf nBo 2 =
Hr kg
Hr kg kg kJ
nBo 1 = kg kJ mf X HHV
mf X HHV Hr kg
Hr kg kg kJ
kg kJ 1364 1.15 (2257)
1591 1.2 (2257) mf2 =
Hr kg
Hr kg kJ
mf1 = kJ 0.6 X 31770.222
0.65 X 31770.222 kg
kg kg
kg mf2 = 185.7258
mf1 = 208.66 Hr
Hr

91000 kg
no Hrs =
mf1 + mf2
91000 kg
no Hrs = kg kg
208.66 + 185.7258
Hr Hr
no Hrs = 230.7385306Hrs

3. A steam boiler on a test generates 885000 lb of steam in a 4 hour period.

The average steam pressure is 400 Psia, the average steam temperature is
700 0F, and the average temperature of the feed water supplied to the boiler
is 280 0F. If the boiler efficiency for the period is 82.5 % and if the coal has a
heating value of 13850 BTU/lb as fired, find the average amount of coal
burned in short tons per hour.
4. A boiler operation at 11 kg/cm 2 is required to generate a minimum of 50000
kg/Hr of saturated steam. Feed water enters the boiler at 80 0C. The furnace
is designed to fire coal at an average rate of 4800 kg/Hr and the boiler
efficiency is 85 %. Compute the develop boiler horsepower.