FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
PASTEURISATION
Pasteurisation is a form of heat treatment used in food processing and preservation. It is named
after French Scientist Louis Pasteur, who discovered in the 1860s that abnormal fermentation of
wine and beer could be prevented by heating beverages to about 57oC for a few minutes. It is a
relatively mild heat treatment where food is heated to temperatures below 100oC (approximately
60-90oC). It has two primary objectives which are;
1. in low acid foods (pH > 4.5) like milk, eggs and beer, it is used to minimise possible health
hazard and increase food safety by destroying pathogenic microorganisms. Shelf life of food
may be extended for a few days
2. in acidic foods (pH < 4.5) like fruit juice, wine it aims to destroy spoilage microorganisms
like yeast, mould, non-spore forming bacteria, and inactivate enzymes in order to extend
shelf life for several months.
In both cases, treatment is achieved without altering the taste, appearance and nutritive content
of the product.
Methods of Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation methods are classified based on the heating temperature and holding time.
Generally, the process involves heating food up rapidly to the required temperature, holding it
there for a definite time and then cooling the food down rapidly. There are 2 main methods of
pasteurisation as follows;
- LTLT - Low Temperature, Long Time (Holder Process): food held within its packaging container,
is heated up to 63oC and held for 30mins (for milk). For beer and fruit juice, it is 60/65oC for
20mins.
- HTST – High Temperature, Short Time (Flash Pasteurisation): is used for pourable foods which
are subjected to higher temperatures of >70oC and held for shorter times of 3-15secs. The
product is subsequently cooled and packaged. Milk is pasteurised at 73oC for 15secs and fruit
juice at 77oC for 15secs. Flash pasteurisation is a very rapid process and so reduces the thermal
stress on the product and better maintains product freshness, nutrient content and flavour. It
is the preferred method for liquid milk and fruit juices.
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FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
Equipment - Pasteuriser
Foods are usually pasteurised before or after packaging. For packaged foods like bottled beer, hot
water is normally used if the food is packaged in glass to reduce risk of thermal shock (fracture
due to rapid change in temperature) to the container. In a pasteuriser, the maximum temperature
between the container and water is 20oC for heating, and 10oC for cooling. Steam-air mixture can
also be used for pasteurisation in metal and plastic packages due to little risk of thermal shock.
Hot water pasteurisers can either be batch or continuous in operation. The batch process usually
involves a water bath where crates of packaged foods are heated to a pre-set temperature and
held to the required length of time after which cold water is pumped in to cool the product. A
continuous version usually involves a tunnel pasteuriser which consists of a tunnel divided into
heating zones. Atomised water sprays heat the containers carried along on a conveyor as they
pass through the tunnel, giving an incremental rise in temperature until pasteurisation is achieved.
Water sprays then cool the containers as they continue through the tunnel. The water is
recirculated between pre-heat sprays, where it is cooled by the incoming food, and the cooling
zones where it is heated by hot products.
Atomised water
Pre-heat water sprays Cooling water sprays
A Tunnel Pasteuriser for Bottled Beer
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FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids like milk for ice cream, yoghurt, fruit juices, liquid eggs, etc.
can either be done in a jacketed vat or in a plate heat exchanger. The jacketed vat is used for the
LTLT pasteurisation process. The vat is surrounded by either circulating water, steam or heating
coils. In ice cream production, milk is heated in the vat to 63oC and held for 30mins while being
agitated after which it is cooled. It is also used in cheese production.
A Vat Pasteuriser
The plate heat exchanger consists of a series of thin vertical stainless-steel plates, held tightly
together in a metal frame which form parallel channels through which liquid food and heating
medium (hot water or steam) are pumped in alternating channels (usually in a counter current
flow pattern). Heat is exchanged between plate surfaces by conduction. The plates are separated
by small gaskets that ensure that the liquid product and heating or cooling mediums are kept
separate. The pasteurised product is then cooled and packaged under aseptic conditions to prevent
recontamination of the product.
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FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
Gasket
Liquid food out
Hot water
or steam
in
Liquid food in
Water out
A Plate Heat Exchanger
IRRADIATION
Food Irradiation is the application of radiation as ionising energy to food and food packaging.
Ionising radiation is the energy that can be transmitted without direct contact to the energy source
(radiation) and is capable of freeing electrons from their atomic bonds (ionising) when applied to
a targeted food. It is a non-thermal processing method that preserves foods by destroying
pathogenic microorganisms without heating the food material and as such has been referred to as
“Cold Pasteurisation”.
Factors that Influence Irradiation Efficiency
The effectiveness of irradiation in food preservation is influenced by the process factors and
product characteristics. These include;
1. The source of ionising energy
2. The dose and dose rate
3. The packaging environment
4. Product composition
5. Water activity (aw) of the product. The lower the aw, the greater the resistance to irradiation
6. Type, number and resistance (to ionizing energy) of microorganisms present in the product
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FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
7. Product temperature, density and thickness
Sources of Ionising Energy
The ionising energy used can be emitted by a radioactive substance or generated electrically. There
are three sources of radiation approved for use in foods.
1. Electron beam (e-beam): is a stream of high-energy electrons propelled from an electron
accelerator directly into the food.
2. X-rays: produced by reflecting this high-energy stream of electrons off a heavy metal and
then into the food.
3. Gamma rays: these are emitted from radioactive isotopes of cobalt (Cobalt 60) or caesium
(Caesium 137).
Gamma rays have greater penetrating power than e-beam. For the same energy level, gamma rays
can penetrate approximately 3feet (36 inches) of a food sample, while e-beam does at most
4inches. However, the e-beam is faster and more efficient, taking only 2mins of processing time
for what gamma ray would take 20mins (see video).
Gamma rays from radioactive isotopes are safely captured in a pool of deionised water and
radiation is contained within the processing area using thick concrete walls and lead shielding. The
radiation chamber must be carefully constructed to prevent leakage of radiation. Products are then
carried through on circular conveyors to be irradiated.
Dose and Dose Rate
Irradiation processes create enough of an absorbed dose to destroy living organisms. The unit of
an absorbed dose in food is Kilogray (kGy) = 1000 grays (Gy). The dose of radiation delivered to a
sample is measured using a Dosimeter. A maximum of 10kGy has been approved for use in
consumer products. Irradiation dose is divided into three levels as follows;
1. Radicidation (Low Dose < 1kGy): used in the reduction of pathogens (food poisoning bacteria-
like Salmonella)
2. Radurization (Medium Dose 1 – 10kGy): applied in prolonging shelf life of foods by an overall
reduction of vegetative cells – yeasts, moulds, and non-spore forming bacteria.
3. Radappertization (High Dose > 10kGy): this goes beyond the approved limit and is used to
sterilise foods consumed in space by astronauts.
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FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
The Dose Rate is the dose accumulated per unit time. When ionising energy contacts food, it first
penetrates the surface and a portion of the radiation is absorbed by the food. The absorbed dose
increases with exposure time, as more ionising energy collides with food matter.
Effects of Irradiation on Food Pathogens
Radiation only interacts with atoms by ionisation. Therefore, the biological damages caused by
radiation are a consequence of ionisation of the atoms that make up the cells. The effect of
irradiation on food pathogens are either direct or indirect.
Direct Effect:
This is when radiation interacts with the atoms of the DNA molecule or other cellular
components (RNA, enzymes, cell membrane proteins) critical for cell survival. This
immediately injure or destroy microorganisms in the irradiated foods by interfering with its
life-sustaining system. The radiation damage can break bonds in the DNA base pairs,
causing alterations in the information carried by the DNA molecules, impairing cellular
biochemistry and metabolisms. Eventually, the microorganism cannot reproduce by cell
division and cell death results.
Indirect Effect:
Irradiation also exerts indirect effects on the microorganisms when radiation absorbed by
the food causes Radiolysis (bond breaking) of water producing free radicals (hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions). These free radicals are highly unstable and can quickly react with bacterial
cell membranes to change or damage their structure, resulting in bacterial death.
There is a lower probability for direct radiation effects to occur in exposed cells because the DNA
makes up a small portion of living cells. The probability for indirect effect is much higher because
most of cell volume is water.
Applications of Food Irradiation
- Destruction of pathogenic micro-organisms in packaged and unpackaged foods
- Prevention of germination and sprouting in potatoes, onions and garlic
- Slowing down ripening and ageing of fruit and vegetables
- Prolonging the shelf life and preventing food-borne diseases in meat, poultry and seafood
- Disinfestation of grains and tropical fruits infested with insects and larvae.
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FST 321 Fundamentals of Food Processing 01/06/2021
Regulation of Irradiated Foods
Although irradiation is a non-thermal process, it is regulated as a food additive by the Food and
Drug Agency (FDA). Irradiation should only be applied to foods when there is a technological need
and if it will provide significant preservative properties to the food. It is only permitted in certain
foods and within certain dose limits. The FDA also requires that all irradiated foods include special
labelling;
- that says “treated by irradiation” or treated by ionising energy”
- and must carry the international symbol of irradiation called the Radura.
The Radura Symbol
Irradiation is not a replacement for proper food handling practices by producers, processors, and
consumers. Irradiated foods still need to be stored, handled, and cooked in the same way as non-
irradiated foods, because they could still become contaminated with disease-causing organisms
after irradiation when there is unsafe food handling.
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