Anticonvulsants
Seizures
D Abnormal or uncontrolled neuronal discharges in the brain
D Affect
C Consciousness
C Motor activity
C Sensation
D Symptom of an underlying disorder
Convulsion
D Involuntary violent spasm of large muscles of face, neck,
arms, and legs
D Not synonymous with seizure
Epilepsy
D Seizures occurring chronically
D International Classification of Epileptic Seizures
C Partial (focal)
C Generalized
C Special epileptic syndromes
Epilepsy
D Epilepsy can cause
IJ Loss of consciousness
IJ Abnormal movements
IJ Atypical or odd behavior
IJ Distorted perceptions
D The site of origin of the abnormal neuronal firing determines
the symptoms that are produced
D If the motor cortex is involved, the patient may experience
abnormal movements or a generalized convulsion
D Seizures originating in the parietal or occipital lobe may
include visual, auditory, and olfactory hallucinations
Classification of seizures
D Seizure classification determines
treatment
D Seizures have been classified by:
IJ Site of origin
IJ Etiology
IJ Electrophysiologic correlation
IJ Clinical presentation
Generalized seizures
1. Tonic-clonic seizures:
D Result in loss of consciousness, followed by tonic (continuous
contraction) and clonic (rapid contraction and relaxation)
phases
2. Absence seizures:
D Involve a brief, abrupt, and self-limiting loss of
consciousness
D The patient stares and exhibits rapid eye-blinking for 3-5
seconds
Generalized seizures
3. Myoclonic seizures:
D Short episodes of muscle contractions that may recur for
several minutes
4. Febrile seizures:
D Young children may develop seizures with illness
accompanied by high fever
5. Status epilepticus:
D Life-threatening and requires emergency treatment
D Two or more seizures occur without recovery of full
consciousness between them
Known Causes of Seizures
D Infectious diseases
D Trauma
D Metabolic disorders
D Vascular diseases
D Pediatric disorders
D Neoplastic disease
Additional Known Causes of Seizures
D Medications
D High doses of local anesthetics
D Eclampsia
D Drug abuse
D Withdrawal syndromes from alcohol or sedative-
hypnotic drugs
Seizures of Unknown Etiology
D Lower tolerance to environmental triggers
IJ Sleep deprivation
IJ Flickering lights
IJ Fluid and electrolyte imbalances
Seizures in Neonates, Infants, and Children
D Congenital abnormalities of CNS
D Perinatal brain injury
D Metabolic imbalances
Later-Childhood Etiology
D CNS infections
D Neurological degenerative disorders
Adult Etiology
D Cerebral trauma or neoplasm
D Cerebrovascular disorders
EEG recordings showing the differences between normal,
absence seizure, and generalized tonic-clonic seizure tracings.
Choice of Drug Depends Upon
D Type of seizure
D Client’s history and diagnostic studies
D Pathologic process causing seizures
Mechanism of action of antiepileptic drugs
• Blocking voltage gated channels (Na+ or Ca2+)
• Blocking excitatory glutamate transmission
• Enhancing inhibitory GABA impulses
• Some antiepileptic drugs appear to have multiple
targets in CNS
• Antiepileptic drugs (AED) suppress seizures but do not
“cure” or “prevent” epilepsy
Hydantoins
D Prototype drug: phenytoin (Dilantin)
D Mechanism of action: to densitize sodium channels
D Primary use: treating all types of epilepsy except
absence seizures
D Adverse effects: CNS depression, gingival hyperplasia,
skin rash, cardiac dysrhythmias, and hypotension
Phenytoin-Like Drugs
D Prototype drug: valproic acid
D Mechanism of action: to desensitize sodium channels
D Primary use: for absence seizures
D Adverse effects: limited CNS depression, visual
disturbances, ataxia, vertigo, headache
D Additional adverse reactions: gastrointestinal effects,
hepatotoxicity, pancreatitis
Valproic acid and divalproex
D Mechanisms of action:
IJ Sodium channel blockade
IJ Blockade of GABA transaminase (The enzyme that metabolizes
GABA)
D Broad spectrum of activity against seizures
Examples of Phenytoin-like Drugs
D Carbamazepine (for tonic-clonic and partial seizure)
D Felbamate (Broad spectrum anticonvulsant)
D Lamotrigine (effective for a wide variety of seizures)
D Valproic acid (Broad spectrum, can be used for absence
seizures)
Hydantoins and Phenytoin-like Drugs
D Desensitize sodium channels
D Sodium movement is factor that determines whether neuron
will undergo an action potential
Drugs That Potentiate GABA Action
D Include barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and miscellaneous
GABA agents
D Suppress the firing ability of neurons
Barbiturates
D Prototype drug: phenobarbital (Luminal)
D Mechanism of action: changing the action of
GABA
D Primary use: controlling seizures
D Adverse effects: dependence, drowsiness, vitamin
deficiencies, laryngospasm
Examples of Barbiturates
D Phenobarbital
D Amobarbital
D Secobarbital
D Pentobarbital
Barbiturates & primidone:
D Only long-acting ones useful in epilepsy: phenobarbital &
mephobarbital
D Can be usefully combined with phenytoin
D Broad spectrum
D More depressant than phenytoin
D Some tolerance develops
D Elevated seizure liability during withdrawal
D Primidone is second-line due to risk of agranulocytosis
Benzodiazepines
D Prototype drug: diazepam
D Mechanism of action: similar to that of barbiturates
but safer
D Primary use: for short-term seizure control
D Adverse effects: drowsiness and dizziness
Examples of Benzodiazepines
D Clonazepam
D Clorazepate
D Lorazepam
D Diazepam
Examples of Miscellaneous GABA Agents
D Gabapentin
D Primidone
D Tiagabine
D Topiramate
Succinimides
Suppress seizures by delaying calcium influx into neurons
Examples of succinimides
} Ethosuximide Effective in treating only primary generalized absence seizures
} Methsuximide
} Phensuximide
Adverse effects of
an/-seizure drugs
Status epilepticus
• Two or more seizures occur without recovery of full
consciousness in between episodes
• May be focal or primary generalized, convulsive or
nonconvulsive
• Requires emergency treatment
• Fast-ac/ng medica/on such as a benzodiazepine
• Slower-acting medication such as phenytoin,
• Phenytoin is not compa/ble with most IV solu/ons, especially
those containing dextrose.
