m02 Physics

Module 2
Licence Category B1 and B2
Physics
2.1 Matter
Fondazione Istituto Tecnico Superiore

per la Filiera dei Trasporti e della Logistica Intermodale
Module 2.1 Matter 1-1

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Module 2.1 - Matter ......................................................................................................................5
1.0 Nature of Matter ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Chemical elements ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Chemical Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 The Structure of Atoms ................................................................................................................................ 8
1.3. Molecules ................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.0 Chemical Compounds .................................................................................................................. 14
2.1 Adhesion and Cohesion .............................................................................................................................. 14
Covalent and Ionic Bonding.......................................................................................................................... 14
Covalent Bonding: ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Examples of simple covalent molecules ....................................................................................................... 15
Ionic Bonding ................................................................................................................................................ 18
Exemple of Ionic Bonding ............................................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Bonding in Metals ....................................................................................................................................... 20
3.0 States of Matter ............................................................................................................................. 21
3.1 Solids .......................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Liquids ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
3.3 Gases ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Plasma ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
4.0 Changes between States ............................................................................................................. 22
1-2 Module 2.1 Matter

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Module 2.1 - Matter
1.0 Nature of Matter
1.1 Chemical elements

Scientists for a long time suspected that all substances were composed of small particles which they called atoms.
However, it wasn’t until the beginning of this century that the existence of atoms was demonstrated to everyone’s
satisfaction. The size of the atom was found to be so small that a few hundred million, if placed side by side in a
row, would form a line less than an inch long.
All atoms are, crudely speaking, the same size and can be thought to consist of two main parts. The outer part is
composed of 1 or more orbits of electrons.
These orbits makes up most of the volume of the atom yet contributes practically nothing to its substance. The
other part, located at the centre, is extremely small compared to the atom as a whole, yet essentially all of the real
substance of the atom can be attributed to this small speck. We call this speck the nucleus.
Further investigation revealed that the nucleus is actually composed of two kinds of particles of roughly equal size
and substance packed closely together. These nuclear particles are the proton and neutron. When we refer to the
amount of material or substance in an object, we are really talking about the number of protons and neutrons in
that object. Also, what we perceive as the mass of an object is related directly to the number of protons and
neutrons contained it.
The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton
for a nucleus. An atom of lead, on the other hand, has 82
protons and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207
(125 + 82) times as much material or substance as an
atom of hydrogen.
The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the
number of particles in its nucleus. A sodium atom, for
example, with 11 protons and 12 neutrons is
approximately the same size as an atom of mercury with
80 protons and 121 neutrons.
In general, we can say that the size of an atom is
determined by its electron orbits, its substance is
determined by the total number of protons and neutrons
in its nucleus.
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose
properties we study in Chemistry. However from
experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century
it was deduced that atoms were made up of three
fundamental sub-atomic particles (table 1.1). Figure 1.1 gives some idea on the structure of an atom.
Particle Relative mass Electrical charge Comments

Table 1.1: The sub-atomic components of atoms
Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus
Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus
1
Electron /1850 -1 (negative) Arranged in energy levels
or shells around the nucleus

The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number
Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any Group
A Group is a vertical column of like elements e.g. Group IA, The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.), Group VIIB, The
Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) and Group VIII (or 0), The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.). The Group number equals the
number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's electron arrangement is 2.8.7, the second element down, in
Group 7).
A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties. The Period number equals the number of
shells (1-7).
Chemical Definitions
Elements : Pure substances, made up of atoms with the same number of protons.
Note that an element:
• consists of only one kind of atom,

• cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means, and
• can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).

Mixtures: Mixtures are of pure substances. Mixtures have the properties of the different substances that make it
up. Mixtures melt at a range of temperatures and are easy to separate.
Note that a mixture:
• consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

• can be separated into its components by physical means, and
• often retains many of the properties of its components.
Compounds:Pure substances made up more than 1 element which have been joined together by a chemical
reaction therefore the atoms are difficult to separate. The properties of a compound are different from the atoms
that make it up. Splitting of a compound is called chemical analysis.
Note that a compound consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,
• can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not by physical
means),
• has properties that are different from its component elements, and
• always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.
Atomic Number: The atomic number (also known as the proton number) is the number of protons found in the
nucleus of an atom. It is traditionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a
chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, atomic number is equal to the number of electrons.
Mass Number: The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the number of
protons and neutrons (also defined as a less commonly known term, nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. The mass
number is unique for each isotope of an element and is written either after the element name or as a superscript to
the left of an element's symbol. For example,
Carbon-12 (12C) has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number (Z) as
a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number, thus:
12
6 C
The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given
nucleus: N=A−Z.
For example: Carbon-14 is created from Nitrogen-14 with seven protons (p) and seven neutrons via a cosmic ray
interaction which transmutes 1 proton into 1 neutron. Thus the atomic number decreases by 1 (Z: 7→6) and the
mass number remains the same (A = 14), however the number of neutrons increases by 1 (n: 7→8).
Before: Nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)
After: Carbon-14 (6p, 8n).
Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. This gives each isotope of
the element a different mass or nucleon number but being the same element they have the same atomic or
proton number. There are small physical differences between the isotopes e.g. the heavier isotope has a
greater density and boiling point. However, because they have the same number of protons they have the same
electronic structure and are identical chemically. Examples are illustrated below. Do not assume the word isotope
means it is radioactive, this depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms might be referred to as
radioisotopes.

, and are the three isotopes of hydrogen. They are called hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium
respectively. How do we distinguish between them? They each have one single proton (Z = 1), but differ in the
number of their neutrons. Hydrogen has no neutron, deuterium has one, and tritium has two neutrons. The isotopes
of hydrogen have, respectively, mass numbers of one, two, and three. Hydrogen-1 is the most common, there is a
trace of hydrogen-2 naturally but hydrogen-3 is very unstable and is used in atomic fusion weapons.
and are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons
respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear fusion process. Helium-4
is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha decay of an unstable nucleus. An alpha particle is a
helium nucleus, it picks up two electrons and becomes the atoms of the gas helium.
and are the two isotopes of sodium with mass numbers of 23 and 24, with 12 and 13 neutrons
respectively but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but
sodium-24 is a radio-isotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a radioactive tracer e.g. to examine
organs and the blood system.
Ionization: When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process of electron exchange, it is said to be
ionised. For ionisation to take place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a change in the internal
energy of the atom. An atom having more than its normal amount of electrons acquires a negative charge, and is
called a negative ion (or ‘anion’). The atom that gives up some of its normal electrons is left with less negative
charges than positive charges and is called a positive ion (or ‘cation’). Thus, ionisation is the process by which an
atom loses or gains electrons.
• Cation - A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations.

• Anion - An anion is a negatively charged ion. Non-metals typically form anions.
1.2 The Structure of Atoms

The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and with increasing distance from the
nucleus. The shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to Q. There are rules about the
maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell.
• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons

• The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons
• The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons
• The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons
Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the mathematical formulations predicted by Neils Bohr. He
suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the number of electrons held in the orbit depends on the number
of the orbit. The orbits are counted outwards from the nucleus. Higher the orbit number, farther are the electrons in
that orbit from the nucleus. If the orbit number is “n”, then the maximum electrons held in the orbit is given as 2n2.
The first orbit has n=1, and will hold maximum of 2 electrons, the second orbit has n=2 and is capable of holding a
total of 8 electrons; similarly the third orbit will be able to contain 18 electrons and so on.

Electrons within an atom have definite energies. The electrons
closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most tightly bound; the
reason is because of stronger electrostatic attraction with the
nucleus. Electrons in the highest orbit are least tightly bound.
Electrons in the same orbit have same energies. The electron
orbits are also called as electron energy levels or shells.
Electronic shells are known as K shell, L shell, M shell, N shell
corresponding to orbit number n=1,2,3 and 4 respectively.
Higher number orbits are assigned shell names in
alphabetical order after N.
Figure 1.3: The atomic structure of

Helium and Neon
Figure 1.4: Electron shell (orbit) designation
Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of electrons in a neutral atom),
shorthand electron arrangement
On Period 1
Figure 1.5: Electron arrangement of Hydrogen and Helium

On Period 2
Figure 1.6: Electron arrangement of Lithium, Carbon and

Neon
On Period 3
Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium, Chlorine and

Argon
On Period 4
Figure 1.8: Electron arrangement of Potassium and Calcium
Valency: Hydrogen is the simplest element. It has one electron. Its outer shell only holds two electrons. Let us use
Hydrogen as a standard to see how other atoms combine with it. Table 1.2 lists the simplest compound of selected
elements with Hydrogen.Valency can be simply defined as the number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can
combine with. In the above table, Helium, Neon and Argon have a valency of 0. They do not normally form
compounds.
Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a valency of 1 because they combine with one Hydrogen atom. Beryllium,
Magnesium and Calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two Hydrogen atoms. Note that the valences of
all these atoms are equal to the number of outer electrons that these elements have.
Boron and Aluminium combine with three Hydrogen atoms - their valences are 3 - and they have three outer
electrons.

Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen atoms. The valency of these elements is 4. It will come as no
surprise that they both have four outer electrons. Any element with 4 electrons in its outer shell is known as a
semiconductor
Outer
Atom Symbol Compound
Shell
Helium He Full None
Lithium Li 1 LiH
Beryllium Be 2 BeH2
Boron B 3 BH3
Carbon C 4 CH4
Nitrogen N 5 NH3
Oxygen O 6 H2O
Fluorine F 7 HF
Neon Ne Full None
Sodium Na 1 NaH
Magnesium Mg 2 MgH2
Aluminium Al 3 AlH3
Silicon Si 4 SiH4
Phosphorus P 5 PH3
Sulphur S 6 H2S
Chlorine Cl 7 HCl
Argon Ar Full None
Potassium K 1 KH
Calcium Ca 2 CaH2
Table 1.2: Electrons in outer shells of some common
elements
What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus? They have five outer electrons. But they normally only combine with three
Hydrogen atoms. Their valences are 3. Note that 3 is 5 less that 8. These atoms are three electrons short of a full
shell.
Please note that both Nitrogen and Phosphorus can also have a valency of 5. Some atoms are capable of having
more than one valency. That will confuse the issue so we will talk of normal valency.
Now to Oxygen and Sulphur. Both have six outer electrons. Six is two short of a full shell. Their normal valences
are 2 and they combine with two atoms of Hydrogen. Water is H2O.
Finally, Fluorine and Chlorine - seven outer electrons. This is one short of a full shell. They both combine with a
single Hydrogen atom and their normal valences are 1.
As a side note, Chlorine can also have valences of 3, 5 and 7. The reasons are well beyond the scope of these
notes.

The rules above can be summarised as follows:
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of outer electrons if that number is four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the number of outer electrons.
The atoms with full electron shells (Helium, Neon, Argon) are chemically inert forming few compounds. The atoms
don't even interact with each other very much. These elements are gases with very low boiling points.
The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing electron are all highly reactive. Sodium is more reactive
than Magnesium. Chlorine is more reactive than Oxygen. Generally speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full
electron shell, the more reactive it is. Atoms with one outer electron are more reactive than those with two outer
electrons, etc. Atoms that are one electron short of a full shell are more reactive than those that are two short.
Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good electrical conductors. Atoms with 8, or close to 8
electrons in its outer shell are poor conductors (or good insulators). This is why atoms with 4 electrons in its outer
shell are semi-conductors.
When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom bonds with another similar atom, it does so covalently.
Each atom shares one electron with 4 neighbour atoms. Thus all its electrons are used up in what becomes a solid
lattice of semiconductor atoms. The solid material has therefore no free electrons (and no holes for electrons to fit
into).
The following names are given to ions of the specific number of electron bindings (valence):
• 1 electron binding - monovalent

• 2 electron binding - divalent
• 3 electron binding - trivalent
• 4 electron binding - tetravalent
• 5 electron binding - pentavalent
• 6 electron binding - hexavalent
Atomic Element Electrons per Shell Atomic Element Electrons per Shell
No. No.
K L M N O P Q K L M N 0 P Q
1 Hydrogen i 53 iodine 2 8 18 8 7
2 Helium 2 54 Xenon 2 8 18 18 8
3 Lithium 2 1 55 Caesium 2 8 18 8 8 1
4 Beryllium 2 2 56 Barium 2 8 18 8 8 2
5 Boron 2 3 57 Lanthanum 2 8 18 8 9 2
6 Carbon 2 4 58 Cerium 2 8 18 19 9 2
7 Nitrogen 2 5 59 Praseodymium 2 8 18 20 9 2
8 Oxygen 2 6 60 Neodymium 2 8 18 21 9 2
9 Fluorine 2 7 61 Promethium 2 8 18 22 9 2
10 Neon 2 8 62 Samarium 2 8 18 23 9 2
11 Sodium 2 8 1 63 Europium 2 8 18 24 9 2
12 Magnesium 2 8 2 64 Gadolinium 2 8 18 25 9 2
13 Aluminium 2 8 3 65 Terbium 2 8 18 26 9 2
14 Silicon 2 8 4 66 Dysprosium 2 8 18 27 9 2
15 Phosphorus 2 8 5 67 Holmium 2 8 18 28 9 2
16 Sulphur 2 8 6 68 Erbium 2 8 18 29 9 2

17 Chlorine 2 8 7 69 Thulium 2 8 18 30 9 2
18 Argon 2 8 8 70 Ytterbium 2 8 18 31 9 2
19 Potassium 2 8 8 1 71 Lutetium 2 8 18 32 9 2
20 Calcium 2 8 8 2 72 Halnium 2 8 18 32 10 2
21 Scandium 2 8 9 2 73 Tantalum 2 8 18 32 11 2
22 Titanium 2 8 10 2 74 Tungsten 2 8 18 32 12 2
23 Vanadium 2 8 11 2 75 Rhenium 2 8 18 32 13 2
24 Chromium 2 8 13 1 76 Osmium 2 8 18 32 14 2
25 Manganese 2 8 13 2 77 iridium 2 8 8 32 15 2
26 iron 2 8 14 2 78 Platinum 2 8 8 32 16 2
27 Cobalt 2 8 15 2 79 Gold 2 8 8 32 18 1
28 Nickel 2 8 16 2 80 Mercury 2 8 8 32 18 2
29 Copper 2 8 18 1 81 Thallium 2 8 8 32 18 3
30 Zinc 2 8 18 2 82 Lead 2 8 8 32 18 4
31 Gallium 2 8 18 3 83 Bismuth 2 8 8 32 18 5
32 Germanium 2 8 18 4 84 Polonium 2 8 8 32 18 6
33 Arsenic 2 8 18 5 85 Asatine 2 8 8 32 18 7
34 Selenium 2 8 18 6 86 Radon 2 8 8 32 18 8
35 Bromine 2 8 18 7 87 Francium 2 8 8 32 18 8 1
36 Krypton 2 8 18 8 88 Radium 2 8 8 32 18 8 2
37 Rubidium 2 8 18 8 1 89 Actinium 2 8 18 32 18 9 2
38 Strontium 2 8 18 8 2 90 Thorium 2 8 18 32 19 9 2
39 Yttrium 2 8 18 9 2 91 Proactinium 2 8 18 32 20 9 2
40 Zirconium 2 8 18 10 2 92 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2
41 Niobium 2 8 18 12 93 Neptunium 2 8 18 32 22 9 2
42 Molybdenum 2 8 18 13 94 Plutonium 2 8 18 32 23 9 2
43 Technetium 2 8 18 14 95 Americium 2 8 18 32 24 9 2
44 Ruthenium 2 8 18 15 96 Curium 2 8 8 32 25 9 2
45 Rhodium 2 8 18 16 97 Berkelium 2 8 8 32 26 9 2
46 Palladium 2 8 18 18 98 Californium 2 8 8 32 27 9 2
47 Silver 2 8 18 18 1 99 Einsteinium 2 8 8 32 28 9 2
48 Cadmium 2 8 18 18 2 100 Fermium 2 8 8 32 29 9 2
49 indium 2 8 18 18 3 101 Mendelevium 2 8 18 32 30 9 2
50 Tin 2 8 18 18 4 102 Nobelium 2 8 18 32 31 9 2
51 Antimony 2 8 18 18 5 103 Lawrencium 2 8 18 32 32 9 2
52 Tellurium 2 8 18 18 6
Table 1.3: Electrons per shell

Molecules
1.3. Molecules
Definition : A pure substance which results when two or more atoms of a single element share electrons, for
example O2.
or
is the smallest particle in a chemical element or compound that has the chemical properties of that element or
compound.
Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. These bonds form as a result of the
sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms.

It can also more loosely refer to a compound, which is a combination of two or more atoms of two or more different
elements, for example H2O.
Atoms combine to form more complex structures which we call molecules. Like building blocks, these molecules
organize to form all of the materials, solid, liquid and gas, which we encounter in our daily lives.
Solids and liquids are materials in which the molecules attract one another so strongly that their relative motion is
severely restricted. In a gas, the freedom of motion of the
molecules is only slightly influenced by their mutual attraction.
This is why gases fill the entire space to which they are
confined,
They spread out unconstrained until they encounter the walls
of their container.
•
• H2O (water)
• N2 (nitrogen)
• O3 (ozone)
• CaO (calcium oxide)
• C6H12O6 (glucose, a type of sugar)
• NaCl (table salt)
2.0 Chemical Compounds
2.1 Adhesion and Cohesion

'cohesion' is the intermolecular force between liquid particle types (for example, it is what makes water molecules
stick together, or ‘cohere’, to make a rain drop). 'Adhesion' is the intermolecular force between dissimilar atoms
(for example, it is what makes the rain drops ‘adhere’ to a washing line). These types of bonding are temporary.
Atomic bonding refers to the permanent bonding between atoms which holds all materials together.
Noble Gases: Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as single
atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g. 2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are
shown in the diagrams below.
argon (18) 2.8.8

Figure 1.9: (Atomic Number) and electron arrangement
Covalent and Ionic Bonding

All other atoms therefore, bond to become electronically more stable, that is to become like Noble Gases in
electron arrangement. Atoms can do this in two ways …
COVALENT BONDING - sharing electrons to form molecules with covalent bonds, the bond is usually formed
between two non-metallic elements in a molecule.

or
IONIC BONDING - By one atom transferring electrons to another atom. The atom losing electrons forms a
positive ion and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion and is usually a non-
metallic element.
The types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements or compounds are described in detail below. In
all the electronic diagrams ONLY the outer electrons are shown.
Covalent Bonding:
Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of bond usually formed
between two non-metallic elements. The molecules might be that of an element i.e. one type of atom only OR from
different elements chemically combined to form a compound.
The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two positive nuclei of the two atoms
of the bond, and the electrons between them.
One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared electrons between the same
two atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share 3 pairs of electrons and give a triple bond.
The Bonding in Small Covalent Molecules: The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of
their formation are shown below. The electrons are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the
electrons come from, though all electrons are the same. The diagrams may only show the outer electron
arrangements for atoms that use two or more electron shells.
Examples of simple covalent molecules
Example 1 - 2 hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the element hydrogen H2
and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo helium structure of 2
outer electrons around each atom.
Example 2 - 2 chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Cl2
and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo neon or

argon structure of 8 outer electrons around each atom.
Example 3 - 1 atom of hydrogen (1) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the molecule of the
compound hydrogen chloride HCl
and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium and

chlorine like neon or argon.
Example 4 - 2 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule of the
compound we call water H2O

and and combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are
electronically like helium and the oxygen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule can be shown as
with two hydrogen - oxygen single covalent bonds.
Example 5 - 3 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the molecule of the
compound we call ammonia NH3
three of and one combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are
electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule can be shown as
with three nitrogen - hydrogen single covalent bonds.
Example 6 - 4 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule of the
compound we call methane CH4
four of and one of combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are
electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule can be shown as
with four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds.
All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds. Below are three examples 7-9, where there
is a double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have stable Noble Gas outer electron arrangements
around each atom.

Example 7 - Two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the molecules of the element oxygen O2.
The molecule has one double covalent bond .
Example 8 One atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two atoms of oxygen (2.6) to form carbon dioxide CO2.
The molecule can be shown as with two carbon = oxygen double covalent bonds.
Example 9 - Two atoms of carbon (2.4) combine with four atoms of hydrogen (1) to form ethane C2H4.
The molecule can be shown as with one carbon = carbon double bond and four carbon
- hydrogen single covalent bonds.
The Properties of Small Covalent Molecules - The electrical forces of attraction between atoms in a molecule
are strong and most molecules do not change on heating. However the forces between molecules are weak and
easily weakened further on heating. Consequently small covalent molecules have low melting and boiling points.
They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no free electrons or ions in any state to carry
electric charge. Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution.
Large Covalent Molecules and their Properties. It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent
structure. This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent bond network. This illustrated by carbon in the
form of diamond. Carbon can form four single bonds to four other atoms etc. etc. This type of structure is thermally
very stable and they have high melting and boiling points. They are usually poor conductors of electricity
because the electrons are not usually free to move as they can in metallic structures. Also because of the strength
of the bonding in the structure they are often very hard and will not dissolve in solvents like water.

Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions. Ions are atoms, or groups
of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a
metal. The overall charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive
nuclear charge (protons do NOT change in chemical reactions).
Figure 1.10: A plane of Carbon
atoms from a diamond crystal
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is
usually a non-metallic element. The overall charge on the ion is
negative because of the gain, and therefore excess, of negative
electrons.
Exemple of Ionic Bonding
The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2

or 3, with a non-metal from Group 6 or Group 7 (The Halogens)
Example 1 - A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. sodium +

chlorine Þ sodium chloride NaCl or ionic formula Na+Cl- in terms of
electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a
chlorine atom forming a single positive sodium ion and a single
negative chloride ion. The atoms have become stable ions, because
electronically, sodium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.
Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7) Þ Na+ (2.8) Cl- (2.8.8)
ONE combines with ONE to form
Example 2 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. magnesium + chlorine Þ magnesium chloride
MgCl2 or ionic formula Mg2+(Cl-)2
In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its two outer electrons to two chlorine atoms forming
a double positive magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions. The atoms have become stable ions,
because electronically, magnesium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.
Mg (2.8.2) + 2Cl (2.8.7) Þ Mg2+ (2.8) 2Cl- (2.8.8)
ONE combines with TWO to form see *
(* NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples a number subscript has been used, as
in ordinary chemical formula)

Example 3 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. aluminium + fluorine Þ aluminium fluoride AlF3 or
ionic formula Al3+(F-)3
In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three fluorine atoms
forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions. The atoms have become stable
ions, because electronically, aluminium becomes like neon and also fluorine.
Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.8.7) Þ Al3+ (2.8) 3F- (2.8)
ONE combines with THREE to form
Example 4 - A Group 1 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. potassium + oxygen Þ potassium oxide K2O or
ionic formula (K+)2O2-
In terms of electron arrangement, the two potassium atoms donates their outer electrons to one oxygen atom.
This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable
electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
2K (2.8.8.1) + O (2.6) Þ 2K+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)
TWO combine with ONE to form
Example 5 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. calcium + oxygen Þ calcium oxide CaO or ionic
formula Ca2+O2-
In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates its two outer electrons to one oxygen atom. This
results in a double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic
structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
Ca (2.8.8.2) + O (2.6) Þ Ca2+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)
ONE combines with ONE to form
Example 6 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. aluminium + oxygen Þ aluminium oxide Al2O3 or
ionic formula (Al3+)2(O2-)3 . In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer

electrons to three oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative oxide
ions. All the ions have the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8
2Al (2.8.3) + 3O (2.6) Þ 2Al3+ (2.8) 3O2- (2.8)
TWO combines with THREE to form
The properties of Ionic Compounds
• The ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an orderly way in a

giant ionic lattice shown in the diagram on the left. The
ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction between the
positive and negative ions next to each other in the lattice.
Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds.
• This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle)
and have high melting and boiling points. Unlike covalent
molecules, ALL ionic compounds are crystalline solids at
room temperature.
• Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all.
• The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the
ions are not free to move to carry an electric current. Figure 1.11: Sodium Chloride lattice
However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in structure
water, the liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion
particles are now free.
2.2 Bonding in Metals

The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions, NOT atoms. The outer electrons (-) from the original metal atoms
are free to move around between the positive metal ions formed (+). These free or 'delocalised' electrons are the
'electronic glue' holding the particles together. There is a strong electrical force of attraction between these
mobile electrons and the 'immobile' positive metal ions - this is the metallic bond.

Figure 1.12: ‘Electron cloud’ formation of Ionic (or Metallic) Bonding
• This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting and boiling points.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the charge of an electric
current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across a piece of metal.
• Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving electrons. Non-metallic
solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms, knocking against cooler less strongly
vibrating atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic
energy electrons move around freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to 'cooler' atoms.
• Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily tarnished by corrosive
oxidation in air and water.
3.0 States of Matter
3.1 Solids
A solid object is characterized by its resistance to deformation and changes of volume.
At the microscopic scale, a solid has these properties:
• The atoms or molecules that comprise the solid are packed closely together.
• These constituent elements have fixed positions in space relative to each other. This accounts for the
solid's rigidity. In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a
crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way; which is
periodically repeated in three dimensions on a lattice. The spacing between unit cells in various directions
is called its lattice parameters.
• If sufficient force is applied, its lattice atomic structure can be disrupted, causing permanent deformation.

Because any solid has some thermal energy, its atoms vibrate. However, this movement is very small, and cannot
be observed or felt under ordinary conditions.
3.2 Liquids
A liquid's shape is confined to, but not determined by, the container it fills. That is to say, liquid particles (normally
molecules or clusters of molecules) are free to move within the volume, but they form a discrete surface that may
not necessarily be the same as the vessel.
The same cannot be said about a gas; it can also be considered a fluid, but it must conform to the shape of the
container entirely.
3.3 Gases
Gases consist of freely moving atoms or molecules
without a definite shape and without a definite
volume. Compared to the solid and liquid states of
matter a gas has lower density and a lower viscosity.
The volume of a gas will change with changes in
temperature or pressure, as described by the ideal
gas law. A gas also has the characteristic that it will
diffuse readily, spreading apart in order to uniformly
fill the space of any container.
3.4 Plasma
A plasma is typically an ionized gas. Plasma is considered to be a distinct state of matter, apart from gases,
because of its unique properties. ‘Ionized’ refers to presence of one or more free electrons, which are not bound to
an atom or molecule. The free electric charges make the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly
to electromagnetic fields.
Plasma typically takes the form of neutral gas-like clouds (e.g. stars) or charged ion beams, but may also include
dust and grains (called dusty plasmas). They are typically formed by heating and ionizing a gas, stripping electrons
away from atoms, thereby enabling the positive and negative charges to move more freely.
4.0 Changes between States

Solids can melt and become liquids, and liquids can boil to become gases. Likewise, gases can condense to
become liquids, and liquids can freeze to become solids. Sometimes solids can become gases without ever
becoming liquids. This is called subliming.
Most substances may exist in any of the three common states of matter.
In the gaseous state, the molecular motion has completely overcome any attraction between the particles and the
particles are totally separate from each other. There are large spaces between the particles and they move large
distances between collisions.
In the liquid state, the molecular motion and the molecular attractions are more balanced. While the particles stay
more or less in contact with each other, they are still free to move and can slide past one another easily.
In the solid state, the attractive forces dominate. The particles are pulled together into a tightly packed pattern
which does not allow the particles to pass each other. The molecular motion in this form is essentially reduced to
vibration in place.
Increasing the temperature of a substance means increasing the molecular motion (kinetic energy) of the
molecules in the substance. The phase in which a substance exists is the result of a competition between attractive
forces and molecular motion.
For most substances, when the temperature of the solid is raised high enough, the substance changes to a liquid,
and when the temperature of the liquid is raised high enough, the substance changes to a gas.
We typically visualize a solid as tiny particles in constant motion held together by attractive forces. As we add heat
to the solid, the motion, or the kinetic energy, of the particles increases.
At some temperature, the motion of the particles becomes great enough to overcome the attractive forces.

The thermal energy that was added to the solid up to this point was absorbed by the solid as kinetic energy,
increasing the speed of the molecules.
The lowest temperature at which the particles are able to exist in the liquid form is called the melting point.
In order for the molecules to actually separate from each other, more energy must be added. This energy,
called heat of fusion or heat of melting, is absorbed by the particles as potential energy as the solid changes to a
liquid.
Recognize that, once the temperature of a solid has been raised to the melting point, it is still necessary for the
solid to absorb additional thermal energy in the form of potential energy as the molecules separate.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the particles have sufficient molecular motion to exist in
the form of a gas. Once again, however, in order for the particles to separate to the gaseous form, they must
absorb a sufficient amount of potential energy.
The amount of potential energy necessary
for a phase change to gaseous form is
called the heat of vaporization. Consider
the heating curve shown below.
The heating curve shown is for water but
other substances have similarly shaped
heating curves.
Suppose you begin with solid water (ice) at
-30°C and add heat at a constant rate. The
heat you add in the beginning will be
absorbed as kinetic energy and the
temperature of the solid will increase.
When you reach a temperature of 0°C
(the melting point for water), the heat you
add is no longer absorbed as kinetic
energy.
Instead, the added heat is absorbed as
potential energy and the particles separate
from each other.
During the flat part of the curve labeled
“melting”, heat is being added constantly
but the temperature does not increase. At the left edge of this flat line, the water is solid; by the time enough heat
has been added to get to the right edge, the water is liquid, but maintains the same temperature. Once all the water
is in the liquid form, the added heat will once again be absorbed as kinetic energy and the temperature will
increase again. During the time labeled “water being heated as a liquid”, all the added heat is absorbed as kinetic
energy.
When a temperature of 100°C (the boiling point of water) is reached, the added heat is once again absorbed as
potential energy and the molecules separate from liquid form into gaseous form. When all the substance has been
converted into gas, the temperature will again begin to rise. Use the simulation below to further explore the heating
curve for water and visualize the how water changes at the molecular level during each phase illustrated in the
graph:
Heats of Fusion and Vaporization of Some Common Substances
Substance Heat of Fusion, Hf (J/kg)⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Heat of Vaporization, Hv (J/kg)⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Copper 2.05×105 5.07×106
Gold 6.30×104 1.64×106

Iron 2.66×105 6.29×106
Methanol 1.09×105 8.78×105
Water 3.34×105 2.26×106
When the temperature of a substance is changing, we can use the specific heat to determine the amount of heat
that is being gained or lost. When a substance is changing phase, we can use the heat of fusion or heat of
vaporization to determine the amount of heat being gained or lost. When a substance freezes from liquid to solid,
the amount of heat given off is exactly the same as the amount of heat absorbed when the substance melts from
solid to liquid. The equations for heat gained or lost are given here:
The heat gained or lost during a temperature change: Q=mcΔt.
The heat gained or lost during a phase change of solid to liquid: Q=mHf.
The heat gained or lost during a phase change of liquid to gas: Q=mHv.
Summary
• Most substances may exist in any of the three common state of matter, solid, liquid, or gas.
• The phase in which a substance exists is the result of a competition between attractive forces and molecular
motion.
• The potential energy absorbed by a solid as it changes to a liquid is called the heat of fusion or the heat of
melting.
• The amount of potential energy necessary for a phase change to gaseous form is called the heat of
vaporization.
• The heat gained or lost during a temperature change is given by, Q=mcΔt.
• The heat gained or lost during a phase change of solid to liquid is given by, Q=mHf.
• The heat gained or lost during a phase change of liquid to gas is given by, Q=mHv.

Module 2
Physics
2.2 - Mechanics

Module 2.2 Mechanics. ITS Lombardo Mobilità Sostenibile© 2-1

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Module 2.2 Mechanics
2-2 ITS Lombardo Mobilità Sostenibile©
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MODULE 2.2 MECHANICS ......................................................................................................... 5
1.0 - Statics................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 Force ........................................................................................................................................................5
Force ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Units of Force ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Weight ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Moment and couples ................................................................................................................................6
Moment ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Torque ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Couples ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Representation as Vectors ............................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Center of gravity ......................................................................................................................................9
Principle ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Elements of Theory of Stress .................................................................................................................11
General ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
Tension, Compression, Torsion, Shear and Bending ................................................................................... 11
Stress, Strain and Elasticity .......................................................................................................................... 12
Related Definitions........................................................................................................................................ 14
Materials Behaviour ...................................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Nature and Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gas ..................................................................................16
General ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
Changes of State .......................................................................................................................................... 17
1.6 Pressure and Bouyancy in Liquids .........................................................................................................19
Computing Pressure Force, and Area .......................................................................................................... 19
Atmospheric Pressure (Aneroid barometer) ................................................................................................. 19
Transmission of Forces Through Liquids...................................................................................................... 20
Pascal’s Law ................................................................................................................................................. 21
Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems................................................................................................ 22
Hydraulic Jack .............................................................................................................................................. 25
Barometers ................................................................................................................................................... 26
Buoyancy (Archimedes Principle) ................................................................................................................. 27
Archimedes’ Principles as Applied to Airships and Balloons ........................................................................ 29
2.0 - Kinetics ........................................................................................................................................... 30
2.1 Linear Motion ..........................................................................................................................................30
The Equations of Motion ............................................................................................................................... 30
Accelerated Under Gravity (“Freely Falling” Body) ....................................................................................... 32
2.2 Rotational Movements ............................................................................................................................33
Centripetal force ........................................................................................................................................... 33
Centrifugal force ........................................................................................................................................... 33
Degrees and Radians ................................................................................................................................... 34
2.3 Periodic Motion: Pendular Movement .....................................................................................................36
General ....................................................................................................................................................... 36
Mass and Spring ........................................................................................................................................... 37
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) ................................................................................................................... 37
Properties of SHM ........................................................................................................................................ 38
2.4 Theory of Vibration .................................................................................................................................38
Types of vibration ......................................................................................................................................... 38
Resonance.................................................................................................................................................... 38
Design Implications of Resonance ............................................................................................................... 39
Harmonics..................................................................................................................................................... 39

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2.5 Velocity Ratio ..........................................................................................................................................40
Gears ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Belt and Pulley .............................................................................................................................................. 40
2.6 Mechanical Advantage ed Efficiency ......................................................................................................41
General Theory of Simple Machines ............................................................................................................ 41
The Lever...................................................................................................................................................... 43
The Pulley ..................................................................................................................................................... 44
The Wheel and Axle ..................................................................................................................................... 44
The Inclined Plane ........................................................................................................................................ 45
The Screw Jack ............................................................................................................................................ 45
3.0 - Dynamics ........................................................................................................................................ 46
3.1 Mass, ......................................................................................................................................................46
3.2 Force, Inertia (Newton’s Laws) ...............................................................................................................46
Newton’s First Law ....................................................................................................................................... 46
Newton’s Second Law .................................................................................................................................. 47
Newton’s Third Law ...................................................................................................................................... 48
3.3 Work, Energy Power, Heat and Efficiency ..............................................................................................51
Work ....................................................................................................................................................... 51
Energy (Kinetic and Potential) ...................................................................................................................... 52
Gravitational Potential Energy ...................................................................................................................... 53
Power ....................................................................................................................................................... 54
Heat Energy .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Efficiency ...................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.4 Momentum and Conservation of Momentum .........................................................................................55
Impulse ....................................................................................................................................................... 59
3.5 The Gyroscope .......................................................................................................................................59
Precession .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Transport Drift (or Wander)........................................................................................................................... 61
3.6 Friction: Nature and Effect ......................................................................................................................62
Calculating Friction (Coefficient of Friction) .................................................................................................. 63
4.0 - Fluid Dynamics ............................................................................................................................... 64
4.1 The Atmosphere .....................................................................................................................................64
4.2 Density and Specific Gravity ...................................................................................................................67
Density ....................................................................................................................................................... 69
Specific Density ............................................................................................................................................ 67
4.3 -Viscosity .................................................................................................................................................68
4.4 - Fluid Resistance and Effect of Streamlining ..........................................................................................69
General ....................................................................................................................................................... 69
Viscous Resistence ...................................................................................................................................... 70
Streamlining .................................................................................................................................................. 71
4.5 Effect of Compressibility in Fluids ...........................................................................................................72
4.6 Static and Dynamic pressure - Bernoulli’s Principle ...............................................................................73
Basic Definitions ........................................................................................................................................... 73
The Venturi Tube .......................................................................................................................................... 74
5.0 Problems

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1.0 - Statics.
1.1 Force
Force
The physicist uses the word “force” to describe any push or pull. A force is one kind of vector.
A vector is a quantity that has both size and direction.
A force has a certain magnitude or size. Also, a force is always in a certain direction. To completely describe a
force, it is necessary to specify both the size of the push or pull and its direction.
The units in which force are measured are the pound (lb.) in the English system and the Newton (N) in the metric
system. The Newton is named for Sir Isaac Newton, a famous British physicist who lived in the 17th century.
The relationship between the metric and English units is given by the conversion factor:
1 lb = 4.448 N or = 0,454 Kg
Units of Force
The units which we will use in our discussion of Newton’s laws are the same as the units used in the formula
relating weight to mass (w = mg). These units are reviewed and summarized in Table 2.4.
Each set of units, pound, slug, ft./sec.2) in the English system, or (Newton, kilogram, m/sec.2) in the metric system
is said to be consistent in the following sense: a force of 1 lb. when applied to a mass of 1 slug gives it an
acceleration of 1 ft./sec2
Table 2.4: Units of Force, Mass and Acceleration
Similarly, a force of 1 Newton applied to a mass of 1 kilogram causes it to accelerate at 1 m/sec2.

See Newton’s laws:
1 Newton = 1 kilogram m/sec2 >> and >> 1 pound = 1 slug ft./sec2
Weight
A weight is one kind of force. It is defined as the gravitational pull of the earth on a given body. The direction of this
force is toward the geometrical centre of the earth.
Distinction between Mass and Weight
The physicist very carefully distinguishes between “mass” and “weight”. As we have seen, mass is the quantity of
matter, determined by the number of protons and neutrons in the body, and weight is a measure of the gravitational
pull of the earth on this quantity of matter.
It may seem that this is an unimportant distinction; however, there is one important difference.
The mass of an object is the same wherever this object is in the universe. The mass of a stone is the same if the
stone is on the earth, on Mars, in a space ship, or some place in the Milky Way Galaxy. If the stone is not on the
earth but is in a space station orbiting the earth some distance from the earth’s surface, the weight of this stone is
different from its weight on the earth’s surface. If the stone is on the planet Mars, we speak of its “weight on Mars”,
the gravitational pull of Mars on the stone.
As you have probably figured out, the greater the mass of an object on the surface of the earth, the greater is the
weight of this object. These two quantities are approximately proportional to each other as long as the body
remains on the surface of the earth. The word “approximately” in the previous sentence refers to the fact that the
pull of the earth on a body of a given mass varies slightly with the position of the body on the earth’s surface.
For example, a body that weighs 57.3 lbs. at the North Pole would weigh 57.0 lbs. at a place on the equator. This
occurs because a body at either pole is slightly closer to the centre of the earth than it is at the equator. Thus, the
pull of the earth on the body is greater at the poles and slightly smaller at other places on the earth. However, we
usually neglect this slight difference.

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Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies in slugs or kilograms and weights in pounds or Newtons. The
equation relating mass and weight is: w = mg
In this equation, g has a definite numerical value. We will use the following relations:
g = 32 lbs/slug or g = 9.8 N/Kg
There is a great source of confusion in British marketing practices. For example, we often see on a packet of sugar
the information regarding the contents:
1 kg or 2.2 lbs
We note that 2.2 lbs. equals 1 kg. We have just learned that 2.2 lbs. is the weight of the sugar and that 1 kg is the
mass of the sugar. In other words, British packaging practices list the weight of the product if we deal with the
English system and list the mass of the product if we are in the metric system.
For example, suppose the weight of a piece of cheese is marked 32 oz. and we wish to know the number of grams.
First we convert the weight in ounces to 2 lbs. Then we convert from pounds to Newtons.
Next, we use the relation:
Therefore, we write: w = mg or m = w/g
Note that we can convert from pounds to Newtons since both are units of weight and we can convert from
kilograms to slugs since both are units of mass.
However, if we want to find a mass if we know a weight or a weight if we know a mass we must use the equation:
m = w/g or w = mg
In summary, let us note that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter - ultimately, a measure of the number of
protons and neutrons in the body and weight is the force with which the earth pulls on a body. These are related
but not identical concepts. The units of mass are slugs and kilograms.
The units of weight are pounds and Newtons. A mass can be changed from slugs to kilograms and vice versa. A
weight can be changed from Newtons to pounds or vice versa. However, one cannot say that one pound equals
454 grams. The only correct statement is that a body having a weight of one pound has a mass of 454 grams.
1.2 Moment and couples

Moment
A moment or a torque is caused by a force acting on a body some distance from the center of gravity.
Moment = force x arm
The product of the weight of item A and its distance from the pivot point (X) produces a counterclockwise torque
and the product of the weight of item B and its moment arm y produces a clockwise torque. When the clockwise
torques equal the counterclockwise torques, the airplane or object is balanced along that plane. In an airplane, any
moment in front of the center of gravity is considered a negative value, having a negative moment arm, while any
torque behind the center of gravity is considered to be a positive value with a positive moment arm.
Finding the balance point: given the following setup below, where the length of the beam is 80 inches long but
weightless, if we wish to find the balance point of this system, or where to locate the fulcrum, we first must set up
an arbitrary zero reference point. This can be located anywhere on the line of the beam. For this example, we will
choose the zero reference point to be at A.
Checking these values, letting the moment arm of A be negative, then
A's torque = force x distance = 45 pounds x (-50 inches) = -2250 inches pounds
B's torque = force x distance = 75 pounds x 30 inches = 2250 inches pounds
Problem: 1. Given the following figure below, where A has a weight of 168 pounds and B has a weight of 272
pounds, and the weightless beam is 120 inches long. Locate the center of gravity where the fulcrum should be
placed. 2. Given the length of the weightless beam to be 120 inches, and the weight at A to be 600 pounds with the
center of gravity to be located 4 feet to the right of A. Find the weight necessary to produce equilibrium at B.

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Torque
Consider the diagrams 2.59 shown below. We define torque as the
force (F) applied to a body that is pivoted at a point (0) multiplied by
the distance from the pivot point to the place where the force is
applied and multiplied by the sin of the angle between r and F.
We will use the Greek letter Tau (t) for torque. The distance
mentioned in the preceding sentence is called the lever arm and
symbolized by the letter r.
The defining equation is: t = r F sin q
In the diagram , we note that q = 90°. This is by far the most common
case. Since sin 90° = 1, this common case reduces to the more
simple equation: t = r F
However, it must be remembered that in those cases where q is not
90°, the full equation must be used. Note also that the unit for torque
is the lb.ft ; lb.in ; or the Nm.
Extension - Figure 2.60 shows a typical beam type

torque wrench which has an extension spanner attached.
If this combination is used to torque load a fastener then
the following formula should be used to calculate the
wrench scale reading which corresponds to the specified
torque value:
Scale reading = specified torque
Where L = distance between the driving tang and the

centre of the handle
X = length of extension spanner between centres
A simple way of calculating the scale reading required without using the formula is set out in the following example,
for which the specified torque loading is 300 lb in and the lengths of the wrench and spanner are 10 and 5 inches
respectively.
(a) Force required on wrench handle to produce a torque of 300 lb in is 300 lb in divided by the distance between
nut and wrench handle,which is
(b) Scale reading when force on handle is 20 lb is, 20 lb x 10 in 200 lb in.

Force must therefore be applied to the wrench handle until a reading of 200 lb in is shown on the wrench scale,
and this will represent a 300 lb in torque load applied to the nut. With the ‘break’ type wrench, the adjustment must
be preset at 200 lb in.

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NOTE: For the purpose of conversion, 1
lb.in. = 115 kg cm or 0.113 N.m.
When using an extension spanner with a
torque wrench, the spanner and wrench
should be as nearly as possible in line. If it is
necessary to diverge by more than 15° from
a straight line (due, for example, to
intervening structure), then the direct
distance (D) between the nut and wrench
handle must be substituted for ‘L + X’ in the
formula for calculating wrench scale reading.
This is shown in figure 2.61, and the scale
reading in this instance will be equal to
specified torque x
Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the specified torque and the wrench scale are in the
same units; if not, then the specified torque should be converted, by calculation, to the units shown on the wrench
scale, and any measurements taken in appropriate units.
When applying torque the wrench handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly at 90° to the axis of
the wrench.
Couples
A couple is a pair of forces, equal in magnitude, oppositely directed,
and displaced by perpendicular distance
The simplest kind of couple consists of two equal and opposite forces
whose lines of action do not coincide.
The forces have a turning effect or moment called a torque about an
axis which is normal (perpendicular) to the plane of the forces.
The SI unit for the torque of the couple is newton meter.
If the two forces are F and - F then the magnitude of the torque is given by the following formula:
T= Fd where is T the torque, F is the magnitude of one of the forces,
d is the perpendicular distance between the forces, sometimes called the arm of the couple.
The magnitude of the torque is always equal to F d, with the direction of the torque perpendicular to the plane
containing the two forces. When d is taken as a vector between the points of action of the forces, then the couple is
the cross product of d and F
An example is the cutting of an internal thread with a tap and tap wrench. The force applied at one end of the
wrench handle, multiplied by the distance to the centre of rotation is just half of the torque felt at the tap itself, since
there is an equal torque applied at the other wrench handle.
Torque applied by a couple
= one of the forces (F) x distance to centre of rotation (r) x 2
or
= one of the forces (F) x distance between the forces (d) = Fd
Another example is the forces applied to a car steering wheel.
A couple is a system of forces with a resultant moment but no
resultant force.
A better term is force couple or pure moment. Its effect is to
create rotation without translation, or more generally without
any acceleration of the centre of mass.

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Representation as Vectors
A vector quantity is described by magnitude and direction.
A vector is represented graphically by an arrow.
Parallelogram rule
A resultant force is the single force which represents the vector sum of two or more forces. For example, two forces
of magnitudes F1, F2 acting upon a particle have a resultant as shown:F1
In order to add two forces together, the ‘start’ of the second force needs to be moved to the ‘end’ of the first force,
with the resultant going from the start of the first force directly to the end of the second force (as shown in the
diagram). This rule is then extended when considering more forces.
1.3 Center of gravity

Principle
Balance of forces produces Equilibrium.
Gravity always acts downward on every object on earth. Gravity multiplied by the object's mass produces a force
called weight.
Although the force of an object's weight acts downward on every particle of the object, it is usually considered to
act as a single force through its balance point, or center of gravity. If the object has its weight distributed equally
throughout, its balance point is located at its geometric center.
If the object has unequal weight distribution, its balance point or its center of gravity may not be at its geometric
center. It is possible for the center of gravity to entirely outside the boundaries of the object, as does a boomerang.
The force that opposes the force of weight for an aircraft is lift.

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The lift force must be greater than the weight for an airplane to fly. For aircraft, it is important that the location of the
center of gravity fall within the limits specified by the design of the aircraft. If it falls outside these limits, it will have
adverse effects on how the airplane will fly.
A force applied at a right angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the lever's fulcrum (the length of the lever
arm) is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two meters from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same
torque as a force of one newton applied six meters from the fulcrum.
The direction of the torque can be determined by using the right hand grip rule: if the fingers of the right hand are
curled from the direction of the lever arm to the direction of the force, then the thumb points in the direction of the
torque. More generally, the torque on a particle (which has the position r in some reference frame) can be defined
as the cross product: where r is the particle's position vector relative to the fulcrum, and F is the force acting on the
particle.
The magnitude τ of the torque is given by where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the particle, F is the
magnitude of the force applied, and θ is the angle between the position and force vectors. Alternatively, where F⊥
is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle.
Any force directed parallel to the particle's position vector does not produce a torque.] It follows from the properties
of the cross product that the torque vector is perpendicular to both the position and force vectors.
The torque vector points along the axis of the rotation that the force vector (starting from rest) would initiate. The
resulting torque vector direction is determined by the right-hand rule
An airplane is a combination of many parts; the wings, engines, fuselage, and tail, plus the payload and the fuel.
Each part has a weight associated with it which the engineer can estimate, or calculate, using Newton's weight
equation:
W= m x g
where W is the weight, m is the mass, and g is the gravitational constant which is 32.2 ft/square sec in English
units and 9.8 meters/square sec in metric units.

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To determine the center of gravity cg, we choose a reference location, or reference line. The cg is determined
relative to this reference location. The total weight of the aircraft is simply the sum of all the individual weights of
the components. Since the center of gravity is an average location of the weight, we can say that the weight of the
entire aircraft W times the location cg of the center of gravity is equal to the sum of the weight w of each
component times the distanced of that component from the reference location:
W * cg = [w * d](fuselage) + [w * d](wing) + [w * d](engines) + ...
The center of gravity is the mass-weighted average of the component locations.
An aircraft that has additional equipment installed on the plane or replacements made by technicians needs to
have information about its centre of gravity updated
EXERCISE
1. An aircraft of weight 1400 Lb and centre of gravity location at 36 inches is going through alterations: -a 30
pounds seat located at 72 inches with a 20 pounds seat whose arm will be 73.5 inches-a radio of 30 pounds is
to be installed at 30 inches.
Find the new centre of gravity
2.An aircraft with an empty weight of 1500 Lb and a centre of gravity of 28.4 inches was alterated as follows: -
Two seats weighting 12 pounds each, located at 65.5 inches were removed -A structural modification increasing
the weight by 28 pounds was made at 73 inches -A seat and safety belt weighting 30 pounds were installed at
70.5 inches -Radio equipment weighting 25 pounds was installed at 85 inches
Find the new centre of gravity
1.4 Elements of Theory of Stress

General
Structural integrity is a major factor in aircraft design and construction. No production aeroplane leaves the ground
before undergoing extensive analysis of how it will fly, the stresses it will tolerate and its maximum safe capability.
Every aircraft is subject to structural stress. Stress acts on an aeroplane whether on the ground or in flight. Stress
is defined as a load applied to a unit area of material. Stress produces a deflection or deformation in the material
called strain. Stress is always accompanied by strain.
Current production general aviation aircraft are constructed of various materials, the primary being aluminum
alloys. Rivets, bolts, screws and special bonding adhesives are used to hold the sheet metal in place.
Regardless of the method of attachment of the material, every part of the fuselage must carry a load, or resist a
stress placed on it. Design of interior supporting and forming pieces, and the outside metal skin all have a role to
play in assuring an overall safe structure capable of withstanding expected loads and stresses.
The stress a particular part must withstand is carefully calculated by engineers. Also, the material a part is made
from is extremely important and is selected by designers based on its known properties.
Aluminum alloy is the primary material for the exterior skin on modern aircraft. This material possesses a good
strength to weight ratio, is easy to form, resists corrosion, and is relatively inexpensive.
Tension, Compression, Torsion, Shear and Bending
The five basic structural stresses to which aircraft are subject are:
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Torsion
4. Shear
5. Bending
While there are many other ways to describe the actual stresses which an aircraft undergoes in normal (or
abnormal) operation, they are special arrangements of these basic ones.
Tension - is the stress acting against another force that is trying to pull something apart. For example, while in
straight and level flight the engine power and propeller are pulling the aeroplane forward. The wings, tail section
and fuselage, however, resist that movement because of the airflow around them. The result is a stretching effect
on the airframe. Bracing wires in an aircraft are usually in tension.
Compression - is a squeezing or crushing force that tries to make parts smaller. Anti-compression design resists
an inward or crushing force applied to a piece or assembly. Aircraft wings are subjected to compression stresses.
The ability of a material to meet compression requirements is measured in pounds per square inch (PSI).
Torsion - is a twisting force. Because aluminum is used almost exclusively for the outside, and, to a large extent,
inside fabrication of parts and covering, its tensile strength (capability of being stretched) under torsion is very
important. Tensile strength refers to the measure of strength in pounds per square inch (PSI) of the metal.
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Torque (also a twisting force) works against torsion. The torsional strength of a material is its ability to resist torque.
While in flight, the engine power and propeller twist the forward fuselage. The force, however, is resisted by the
assemblies of the fuselage. The airframe is subjected to variable torsional stresses during turns and other
manoeuvres.
Shear - stress tends to slide one piece of material over another. Consider the aircraft fuselage. The aluminum skin
panels are riveted to one another. Shear forces try to make the rivets fail under flight loads; therefore, selection of
rivets with adequate shear resistance is critical. Bolts and other fasteners are often loaded in shear, an example
being bolts that fasten the wing to the spar or carry-through structure. Although other forces may also be present,
shear forces try to rip the bolt in two. Generally, shear strength is less than tensile or compressive strength in a
particular material.
Bending - is a combination of two forces, compression and tension. During bending stress, the material on the
inside of the bend is compressed and the outside material is stretched in tension. An example of this is the G-
loading an aeroplane structure experiences during manoeuvring. During an abrupt pull-up, the aeroplane's wing
spars, wing skin and fuselage undergo positive loading and the upper surfaces are subject to compression, while
the lower wing skin experiences tension loads. There are many other areas of the airframe structure that
experience bending forces during normal flight.
An aircraft structure in flight is subjected to many and varying stresses due to the varying loads that may be
imposed. The designer's problem is trying to anticipate the possible stresses that the structure will have to endure,
and to build it sufficiently strong to withstand these. The problem is complicated by the fact that an aeroplane
structure must be light as well as strong.
Stress, Strain and Elasticity
What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the
member divided by the cross sectional area. Or
In figure 2-1, a solid rod of length L, is under

simple tension due to force F, as shown. If we
divide that axial force, F, by the cross
sectional area of the rod (A), this would be the
axial stress in the member.
Axial stress is the equivalent of pressure in a
gas or liquid. As you remember, pressure is
the force/unit area. So axial stress is really the
'pressure' in a solid member. Now the
question becomes, how much 'pressure' can a
material bear before it fails.
In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension as shown in figure 2.1, we see that there will be an elongation (or
deformation) due to the tension. If we then graph the tension (force) verses the deformation we obtain a result as
shown in figure 2.2.
In figure 2.2, we see that, if our metal rod is

tested by increasing the tension in the rod,
the deformation increases.
In the first region the deformation increases
in proportion to the force. That is, if the
amount of force is doubled, the amount of
deformation is doubled.
Figure 2.1: Tensile Stress
This is a form of Hooke's Law and could
be written this way: F ¥ k (deformation),
where k is a constant depending on the
material (and is sometimes called the
spring constant).

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After enough force has been applied the material enters the plastic region - where the force and the deformation
are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of deformation. In this
region, the rod often begins to 'neck down', that is, the diameter becomes smaller as the rod is about to fail. Finally
the rod actually breaks.
The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In actuality, these
two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which permanent deformation occurs, that is,
after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the sample, it will not return to its original size and shape, permanent
deformation has occurred.
The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer directly proportional to the applied force
(Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly different, we will treat them as the same in
this course.
Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph the axial stress
verses the axial strain (figure 2-2). We have defined the axial stress earlier.
The axial strain is defined as the fractional change in length or
Strain = (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member)
We may write:
where Lo is the original length of the member.
Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as 'in/in (or inches per
inch)' in some texts.
As we see from figure 2.4, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as the force verses
deformation graph in figure 2.2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the ratio
of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to the slope of the linear portion of the graph).
This constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually

symbolized by an E or Y.
We will use E for Young's modulus. We may now write:
(This is another form of Hooke's Law.)

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The value of Young's modulus - which is a
measure of the amount of force needed to
produce a unit deformation - depends on
the material.
Young's Modulus for
Steel is 30 x 106 lb/in2,
Aluminum E = 10 x 106 lb/in2,
Brass E = 15 x 106 lb/in2.
To summarize our stress/strain/Hooke's Law relationships up to this point, we have:
Related Definitions
Bulk Modulus - The bulk modulus gives the change in volume of a solid substance as the pressure on it is
changed. The formula for bulk modulus is very similar to that for Young’s Modulus:
Some examples of Bulk Modulus for different materials are given on

the next page.
Poisson’s Ratio - As a member is stressed in tension, its length

increases (axial strain) and its width decreases (transverse strain).
Poisson’s Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to the axial strain in a
stressed member.
Cantilever - Figure 2.5 illustrates a cantilever structure. The beam

is under bending stress (which is greatest at the root end) and shear
stress (which is constant along the beam).

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Materials Behaviour
Elastic - Material deforms under stress but returns to its original size and shape when the stress is released. There
is no permanent deformation. Some elastic strain, like in a rubber band, can be large, but in metals it is usually
small.
Brittle - Material deforms by fracturing. Glass is typically brittle.
Ductile - Material deforms without breaking. Metals and most plastics are ductile.
Viscous - Materials that deform steadily under stress. Purely viscous materials like liquids deform under even the
smallest stress. Even metals may behave like viscous materials under high temperature and pressure. This is
known as creep and affects plastics far more than metals.
Table 2.2: Elastic Limit and Ultimate Stress of some

common materials
EXAMPLE:
The elastic limit for copper is 2.3 x 104 lb/in2 and the ultimate strength is
4.9 x 104 lb/in2 . Suppose that a copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2. A force of 11,500 lbs.
applied longitudinally to this rod would just be within the elastic limit. A force of 12,000 lbs. would deform the
rod in such a way that it would not return to it original size after the force is removed. A force of 24,500 lbs.
would cause the rod to rupture.

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1.5 Nature and Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gas
General
All matter exists in one of three states – solid, liquid or gas. The following notes characterize the three states:
Solid - Properties
• The greatest forces of attraction are between the particles in a solid and they pack
together in a neat and ordered arrangement.
• The particles are too strongly held together to allow movement from place to place
but the particles vibrate about there position in the structure.
• With increase in temperature, the particles vibrate faster and more strongly as they
gain kinetic energy.
The properties of a Solid
• Solids have the greatest density (‘heaviest’) because the particles are closest
together.
• Solids cannot flow freely like gases or liquids because the particles are strongly
held in fixed positions.
• Solids have a fixed surface and volume (at a particular temperature) because of
the strong particle attraction.
• Solids are extremely difficult to compress because there is no real ‘empty’ space between the particles.
• Solids will expand a little on heating but nothing like as much as liquids because of the greater particle
attraction restricting the expansion (contract on cooling). The expansion is caused by the increased
strength of particle vibration.
Liquid - Properties
• Much greater forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid
compared to gases, but not quite as much as in solids.
• Particles quite close together but still arranged at random throughout the
container, there is a little close range order as you can get clumps of particles
clinging together temporarily.
• Particles moving rapidly in all directions but more frequently colliding with
each other than in gases.
• With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as they gain
kinetic energy.
Properties of a Liquid
• Liquids have a much greater density than gases (‘heavier’) because
the particles are much closer together.
• Liquids flow freely despite the forces of attraction between the particles but liquids are not as ‘fluid’ as
gases.
• Liquids have a surface, and a fixed volume (at a particular temperature) because of the increased particle
attraction, but the shape is not fixed and is merely that of the container itself.
• Liquids are not readily compressed because of the lack of ‘empty’ space between the particles.
• Liquids will expand on heating (contract on cooling) but nothing like as much as gases because of the
greater particle attraction restricting the expansion. When heated, the liquid particles gain kinetic energy
and hit the sides of the container more frequently, and more significantly, they hit with a greater force, so in
a sealed container the pressure produced can be considerable.

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Gas -Properties
• Almost no forces of attraction between the particles which are completely free of
each other.
• Particles widely spaced and scattered at random throughout the container so there
is no order in the system.
• Particles moving rapidly in all directions, frequently colliding with each other and
the side of the container.
• With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as they gain kinetic energy
Properties of a Gas
• Gases have a low density (‘light’) because the particles are so spaced out in the
container (density = mass ÷ volume).
• Gases flow freely because there are no effective forces of attraction between the
particles.
• Gases have no surface, and no fixed shape or volume, and because of lack of
particle attraction, they spread out and fill any container.
• Gases are readily compressed because of the ‘empty’ space between the
particles.
• If the ‘container’ volume can change, gases readily expand on heating because of the lack of particle
attraction, and readily contract on cooling. On heating, gas particles gain kinetic energy and hit the sides of
the container more frequently, and more significantly, they hit with a greater force. Depending on the
container situation, either or both of the pressure or volume will increase (reverse on cooling).
• The natural rapid and random movement of the particles means that gases readily ‘spread’ or diffuse.
Diffusion is fastest in gases where there is more space for them to move and the rate of diffusion increases
with increase in temperature.
Changes of State
We can use the diagrams shown below, to explain changes of state and the energy changes involved.
Evaporation and Boiling (liquid to gas. In evaporation and boiling the highest kinetic energy molecules can
‘escape’ from the attractive forces of the other liquid particles. The particles lose any order and become completely
free. Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces in the liquid and is taken in from the surroundings. This
means heat is taken in (endothermic). Boiling is rapid evaporation at a fixed temperature called the boiling point
and requires continuous addition of heat. Evaporation takes place more slowly at any temperature between the
melting point and boiling point and results in the liquid becoming cooler.
Condensing (gas to liquid) On cooling, gas particles lose kinetic energy and eventually become attracted
together to form a liquid. There is an increase in order as the particles are much closer together and can form
clumps of molecules. The process requires heat to be lost to the surroundings i.e. heat given out, so condensation
is exothermic.

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Melting (solid to liquid) When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more
strongly and the particle attractive forces are weakened. Eventually, at the
melting point, the attractive forces are too weak to hold the structure
together and the solid melts. The particles become free to move around and
lose their ordered arrangement. Energy is needed to overcome the attractive
forces, so heat is taken in from the surroundings and melting is an
endothermic process.
Freezing (liquid to solid)
On cooling, liquid particles lose kinetic energy and become more strongly
attracted to each other. Eventually at the freezing point the forces of
attraction are sufficient to remove any remaining freedom and the particles
come together to form the ordered solid arrangement. Since heat must be
removed to the surroundings freezing is an exothermic process.

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1.6 Pressure and Bouyancy in Liquids
The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the study of fluids. It is essential that we distinguish between
the terms. Force means a total push or pull. It is the push or pull exerted against the total area of a particular
surface and is expressed in pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount of push or pull (force) applied to each
unit area of the surface and is expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in2) or Newtons per square meter (N/m2).
Pressure maybe exerted in one direction, in several directions, or in all directions.
Computing Pressure Force, and Area
A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in fluid power systems. In this formula, P refers to
pressure, F indicates force, and A represents area. Force equals pressure times area.
Thus, the formula is written F=PxA
Pressure equals force divided by area. By rearranging the formula, this statement may be condensed into
Since area equals force divided by pressure, the formula is written
Figure 2.13 illustrates a memory device for recalling the different

variations of this formula. Any letter in the triangle may be
expressed as the product or quotient of the other two, depending
on its position within the triangle. For example, to find area,
consider the letter A as being set off to itself (or put the finger on
letter) followed by an equal sign. Now look at the other two
letters: the letter F is above the letter P, so the result is F/P.
NOTE: Sometimes the area may not be expressed in square units. If the surface is
rectangular, you can determine its area by multiplying its length (say, in inches) by its
width (also in inches). The majority of areas you will consider in these calculations are
circular in shape. Either the radius or the diameter may be given, but you must know the
radius in inches to find the area. The radius is one-half the diameter. To determine the
area, use the formula for finding the area of a circle. This is written A = pr2, where A is the area, p is 3.1416 (3.14
or 22/7 for most calculations), and r2 indicates the radius squared.
Atmospheric Pressure (Aneroid barometer)
Recall that the atmosphere is the entire mass of air that surrounds the earth. While it extends upward for about 500
miles, the section of primary interest is the portion that rests on the earth’s surface and extends upward for about 7
1/2 miles. This layer is called the troposphere.
If a column of air 1-inch square extending all the way to the "top" of the atmosphere could be weighed, this column
of air would weigh approximately 14.7 pounds at sea level. Thus, atmospheric pressure at sea level is
approximately 14.7 PSI.
As one ascends, the atmospheric pressure decreases by approximately
1.0 PSI for every 2,343 feet. However, below sea level, in excavations and
depressions, atmospheric pressure increases. Pressures under water differ
from those under air only because the weight of the water must be added
to the pressure of the air.
Atmospheric pressure can be measured by any of several methods. The
common laboratory method uses the mercury column barometer. The
height of the mercury column serves as an indicator of atmospheric
pressure. At sea level and at a temperature of 20° Celsius (C), the height
of the mercury column is 29.92 inches, or 760 millimeters.
This represents a pressure of approximately 14.7 PSI.
The 30-inch column is used as a reference standard.
Another device used to measure atmospheric pressure is the aneroid
barometer. The aneroid barometer uses the change in shape of an
evacuated metal cell to measure variations in atmospheric pressure (figure
2.14). The thin metal of the aneroid cell moves in or out with the variation
of pressure on its external surface. This movement is transmitted through a
system of levers to a pointer, which indicates the pressure.
The atmospheric pressure does not vary uniformly with altitude. It changes more rapidly at lower altitudes because
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of the compressibility of the air, which causes the air layers close to the earth’s surface to be compressed by the air
masses above them. This effect, however, is partially counteracted by the contraction of the upper layers due to
cooling. The cooling tends to increase the density of the air.
Atmospheric pressures are quite large, but in most instances practically the same pressure is present on all sides
of objects so that no single surface is subjected to a great load.
Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of a liquid (figure 2.15, view A) is transmitted equally throughout the
liquid to the walls of the container, but is balanced by the same atmospheric pressure acting on the outer walls of
the container. In view B of figure 2.15, atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of one piston is balanced by the
same pressure acting on the surface of the other piston. The different areas of the two surfaces make no
difference, since for a unit of area, pressures are balanced.
Transmission of Forces Through Liquids
When the end of a solid bar is struck, the main force of the blow is carried straight through the bar to the other end
(figure 2.16, view A). This happens because the bar is rigid. The direction of the blow almost entirely determines
the direction of the transmitted force.
When a force is applied to the end of a column of confined liquid (figure

2.16, view B), it is transmitted straight through to the other end and also
equally and undiminished in every direction throughout the column—
forward, backward, and sideways—so that the containing vessel is
literally filled with pressure.
An example of this distribution of force is illustrated in figure 2.17.
The outward push of the water is equal in every direction.
So far we have explained the effects of atmospheric pressure on liquids
and how external forces are distributed through liquids. Let us now focus
our attention on forces generated by the weight of liquids themselves.
To do this, we must first discuss density, specific gravity, and Pascal’s
law.

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Pascal’s Law
The foundation of modern hydraulics was established when Pascal discovered that pressure in a fluid acts equally
in all directions.
This pressure acts at right angles to the containing surfaces.
If some type of pressure gauge, with an exposed face, is placed beneath the
surface of a liquid (figure 2.18) at a specific depth and pointed in different
directions, the pressure will read the same.
Thus, we can say that pressure in a liquid is independent of direction.
Pressure due to the weight of a liquid, at any level, depends on the depth of
the fluid from the surface. If the exposed face of the pressure gauges, are
moved closer to the surface of the liquid, the indicated pressure will be less.
When the depth is doubled, the indicated pressure is doubled.
Thus the pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth.
Consider a container with vertical sides (fig. 2.19) that is 1 foot long and 1
foot wide. Let it be filled with water 1 foot deep, providing 1 cubic foot of
water. We learned earlier in this chapter that 1 cubic foot of water weighs
62.4 pounds. Using this information and the equation, P = F/A, we can
calculate the pressure on the bottom of the container.
Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot,
This can be stated as follows: the weight of a column of water 1 foot high, having a cross-sectional area of 1
square inch, is 0.433 pound. If the depth of the column is tripled, the weight of the column will be 3 x 0.433, or
1.299 pounds, and the pressure at the bottom will be 1.299 lb/in2 (PSI), since pressure equals the force divided by
the area. Thus, the pressure at any depth in a liquid is equal to the weight of the column of liquid at that depth
divided by the cross-sectional area of the column at that depth. The volume of a liquid that produces the pressure
is referred to as the fluid head of the liquid. The pressure of a liquid due to its fluid head is also dependent on the
density of the liquid.
If we let A equal any cross-sectional area of a liquid column and h equal the
depth of the column, the volume becomes Ah. Using the equation for density,
D = Weight (W) / Volume (V), the weight of the liquid above area A is equal
to AhD.
Since pressure is equal to the force per unit area, set A equal to 1. Then
the formula pressure becomes
P =hD
It is essential that h and D be expressed in similar units.
That is, if D is expressed in pounds per cubic foot, the value of h must
be expressed in feet. If the desired pressure is to be expressed in
pounds per square inch, the pressure formula, becomes

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Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems
Pascal was also the first to prove by experiment that the shape and volume of a container in no way alters
pressure.
Thus in figure 2.20, if the pressure due to the weight of the
liquid at a point on horizontal line H is 8 PSI, the pressure is 8
PSI everywhere at level H in the system.
The equation P=F/A also shows that the pressure is
independent of the shape and volume of a container. If there
is a resistance on the output piston and the input piston is
pushed downward, a pressure is created through the fluid,
which acts equally at right angles to surfaces in all parts of the
container.
If force 1 is 100 pounds and the area of the input piston is 10
square inches, then the pressure in the fluid is 10 PSI
Recall that, according to Pascal’s law, any force applied to a

confined fluid is transmitted in all directions throughout the
fluid.
NOTE: Fluid pressure cannot be created without resistance
to flow. In this case, resistance is provided by the equipment
to which the output piston is attached.
The force of resistance acts against the top of the output
piston. The pressure created in the system by the input
piston pushes on the underside of the output piston with a
force of 10 pounds on each square inch.
In this case, the fluid column has a uniform cross section, so
the area of the output piston is the same as the area of the
input piston, or 10 square inches.
Therefore, the upward force on the output piston is 100
pounds (10 PSI x 10 sq. in.), the same as the force applied
to the input piston. All that was accomplished in this system
was to transmit the 100-pound force around the bend.
However, this principle underlies practically all mechanical
applications of fluid power.
At this point you should note that since Pascal’s law is
independent of the shape of the container, it is not
necessary that the tube connecting the two pistons have the
same cross-sectional area of the pistons.
A connection of any size, shape, or length will do, as long
as an unobstructed passage is provided. Therefore, the
system shown in figure 2.22, with a relatively small, bent
pipe connecting two cylinders, will act exactly the same as the system shown in figure 2.21.
The Hydraulic Ram Principle Consider the situation in figure 2.23, where the input piston is much smaller than
the output piston. Assume that the area of the input piston is 2 square inches. With a resistant force on the output
piston a downward force of 20 pounds acting on the input piston creates a pressure 10 PSI in the fluid
Although this force is much smaller than the force applied in figures 2.21 and 2.22, the pressure is the same.
This is because the force is applied to a smaller area.

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This pressure of 10 PSI acts on all parts of the
fluid container, including the bottom of the output
piston. The upward force on the output piston is
200 pounds (10 pounds of pressure on each
square inch). In this case, the original force has
been multiplied tenfold while using the same
pressure in the fluid as before.
In any system with these dimensions, the ratio of
output force to input force is always ten to one,
regardless of the applied force. For example, if
the applied force of the input piston is 50 pounds,
the pressure in the system will be 25 PSI. This will
support a resistant force of 500 pounds on the
output piston.
The system works the same in reverse. If we
change the applied force and place a 200-pound
force on the output piston (figure 2.23), making it
the input piston, the output force on the input
piston will be one-tenth the input force, or 20
pounds. (Sometimes such results are desired.)
Therefore, if two pistons are used in a fluid power
system, the force acting on each piston is directly proportional to its area, and the magnitude of each force is the
product of the pressure and the area of each piston.
Note the white arrows at the bottom of figure 2.23 that indicate up and down movement. The movement they
represent will be explained later in the discussion of volume and distance factors.
Differential Areas Consider the special situation shown in

figure 2.24. Here, a single piston (1) in a cylinder (2) has a
piston rod (3) attached to one of its sides.
The piston rod extends out of one end of the cylinder. Fluid
under pressure is admitted equally to both ends of the cylinder.
The opposed faces of the piston (1) behave like two pistons
acting against each other.
The area of one face is the full cross-sectional area of the
cylinder, say 6 square inches, while the area of the other face is
the area of the cylinder minus the area of the piston rod, which
is 2 square inches.
This leaves an effective area of 4 square inches on the right
face of the piston. The pressure on both faces is the same, in
this case, 20 PSI.
Applying the rule just stated, the force pushing the piston to the
right is its area times the pressure, or 120 pounds (20 x 6).
Likewise, the force pushing the piston to the left is its area times
the pressure, or 80 pounds (20 x 4). Therefore, there is a net
unbalanced force of 40 pounds acting to the right, and the
piston will move in that direction.
The net effect is the same as if the piston and the cylinder had the same cross-sectional area as the piston rod.

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Volume and Distance Factors You have learned that if a force is applied to a system and the cross-sectional
areas of the input and output pistons are equal, as in figures 2.21 and 2.22, the force on the input piston will
support an equal resistant force on the output piston. The pressure of the liquid at this point is equal to the force
applied to the input piston divided by the piston’s area. Let us now look at what happens when a force greater than
the resistance is applied to the input piston.
In the system illustrated in figure 2.23, assume that the resistance force on the output piston is 100 PSI. If a force
slightly greater than 100 pounds is applied to the input piston, the pressure in the system will be slightly greater
than 10 PSI. This increase in pressure will overcome the resistance force on the output piston. Assume that the
input piston is forced downward 1 inch. The movement displaces 10 cubic inches of fluid.
The fluid must go somewhere. Since the system is closed and the fluid is practically incompressible, the fluid will
move to the right side of the system. Because the output piston also has a cross-sectional area of 10 square
inches, it will move 1 inch upward to accommodate the 10 cubic inches of fluid.
You may generalize this by saying that if two pistons in a closed system have equal cross-sectional areas and one
piston is pushed and moved, the other piston will move the same distance, though in the opposite direction. This is
because a decrease in volume in one part of the system is balanced by one equal increase in volume in another
part of the system.
Apply this reasoning to the system in figure 2.23. If the input piston is pushed down a distance of 1 inch, the
volume of fluid in the left cylinder will decrease by 2 cubic inches. At the same time, the volume in the right cylinder
will increase by 2 cubic inches.
Since the diameter of the right cylinder cannot change, the piston must move upward to allow the volume to
increase. The piston will move a distance equal to the volume increase divided by the surface area of the piston
(equal to the surface area of the cylinder). In this example, the piston will move one-tenth of an inch (2 cu. in. ÷ 20
sq. in.). This leads to the second basic rule for a fluid power system that contains two pistons: The distances the
pistons move are inversely proportional to the areas of the pistons. Or more simply, if one piston is smaller than the
other, the smaller piston must move a greater distance than the larger piston any time the pistons move.
Relationship between Force, Pressure, and Head In dealing with fluids, forces are usually considered in relation
to the areas over which they are applied. As previously discussed, a force acting over a unit area is a pressure, and
pressure can alternately be stated in pounds per square inch or in terms of head, which is the vertical height of the
column of fluid whose weight would produce that pressure.
In most of the applications of fluid power, applied forces greatly outweigh all other forces, and the fluid is entirely
confined. Under these circumstances it is customary to think of the forces involved in terms of pressures. Since the
term head is encountered frequently in the study of fluid power, it is necessary to understand what it means and
how it is related to pressure and force.
At this point you need to review some terms in general use. “Gravity head”, when it is important enough to be
considered, is sometimes referred to as simply “head”. The effect of atmospheric pressure is referred to as
“atmospheric pressure”. (Atmospheric pressure is frequently and improperly referred to as suction.) Inertia effect,
because it is always directly related to velocity, is usually called “velocity head”; and friction, because it represents
a loss of pressure or head, is usually referred to as “friction head”.
Static and Dynamic Factors Gravity, applied forces, and atmospheric pressure are static factors that apply
equally to fluids at rest or in motion, while inertia and friction are dynamic factors that apply only to fluids in motion.
The mathematical sum of gravity, applied force, and atmospheric pressure is the static pressure obtained at any
one point in a fluid at any given time. Static pressure exists in addition to any dynamic factors that may also be
present at the same time.
Remember, Pascal’s law states that a pressure set up in a fluid acts equally in all directions and at right angles to
the containing surfaces. This covers the situation only for fluids at rest or practically at rest. It is true only for the
factors making up static head. Obviously, when velocity becomes a factor it must have a direction, and as
previously explained, the force related to the velocity must also have a direction, so that Pascal’s law alone does
not apply to the dynamic factors of fluid power.
The dynamic factors of inertia and friction are related to the static factors. Velocity head and friction head are
obtained at the expense of static head. However, a portion of the velocity head can always be reconverted to static
head. Force, which can be produced by pressure or head when dealing with fluids, is necessary to start a body
moving if it is at rest, and is present in some form when the motion of the body is arrested; therefore, whenever a
fluid is given velocity, some part of its original static head is used to impart this velocity, which then exists as
velocity head.

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Hydraulic Jack
The hydraulic jack is perhaps one of the simplest forms of a fluid power system. By moving the handle of a small
device, an individual can lift a load weighing several tons. A small initial force exerted on the handle is transmitted
by a fluid to a much larger area. To understand this better, study figure 2.25.
The small input piston has an area of 5 square inches and is
directly connected to a large cylinder with an output piston having
an area of 250 square inches. T
he top of this piston forms a lift platform. If a force of 25 pounds is
applied to the input piston, it produces a pressure of 5 PSI in the
fluid, that is, of course, if a sufficient amount of resistant force is
acting against the top of the output piston.
Disregarding friction loss, this pressure acting on the 250 square
inch area of the output piston will support a resistance force of
1,250 pounds. In other words, this pressure could overcome a
force of slightly under 1,250 pounds.
An input force of 25 pounds has been transformed into a working
force of more than half a ton; however, for this to be true, the
distance travelled by the input piston must be 50 times greater
than the distance travelled by the output piston. Thus, for every
inch that the input piston moves, the output piston will move only
one-fiftieth of an inch.
This would be ideal if the output piston needed to move only a short distance. However, in most instances, the
output piston would have to be capable of moving a greater distance to serve a practical application. The device
shown in figure 2.25 is not capable of moving the output piston farther than that shown; therefore, some other
means must be used to raise the output piston to a greater height.
The output piston can be raised higher and maintained at this height if additional components are installed as
shown in figure 2.26. In this illustration the jack is designed so that it can be raised, lowered, or held at a constant
height. These results are attained by introducing a number of valves and also a reserve supply of fluid to be used in
the system. Notice that this system contains the five basic components—the reservoir; cylinder 1, which serves as
a pump; valve 3, which serves as a directional control valve; cylinder 2, which serves as the actuating device; and
lines to transmit the fluid to and from the different components. In addition, this system contains two valves, 1 and
2, whose functions are explained in the following discussion.
As the input piston is raised (fig. 2.26, view A), valve 1 is closed by the back pressure from the weight of the output
piston. At the same time, valve 2 is opened by the head of the fluid in the reservoir. This forces fluid into cylinder 1.
When the input piston is lowered (fig. 2.26, view B), a pressure is developed in cylinder 1.
When this pressure exceeds the head in the reservoir, it closes valve 2. When it exceeds the back pressure from
the output piston, it opens valve 1, forcing fluid into the pipeline. The pressure from cylinder 1 is thus transmitted
into cylinder 2, where it acts to raise the output piston with its attached lift platform. When the input piston is again
raised, the pressure in cylinder 1 drops below that in cylinder 2, causing valve 1 to close. This prevents the return
of fluid and holds the output piston with its attached lift platform at its new level. During this stroke, valve 2 opens
again allowing a new supply of fluid into cylinder 1 for the next power (downward) stroke of the input piston.
Thus, by repeated strokes of the input piston, the lift platform can be progressively raised. To lower the lift platform,
valve 3 is opened, and the fluid from cylinder 2 is returned to the reservoir.

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Barometers
A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. It can measure the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury.
Mercury barometers A standard mercury barometer has a glass tube of about 30 inches (about 76 cm) in height,
closed at one end, with an open mercury-filled reservoir at the base. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of
the mercury column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High atmospheric pressure places
more force on the reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column. Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a
lower level in the column by lowering the force placed on the reservoir.
Since higher temperature at the instrument will reduce the density of
the mercury the scale for reading the height of the mercury is
adjusted to compensate for this effect.
The standard temperature for reading a mercury barometer is 0oC
(32oF). A correction factor is read from a graph and applied to the
reading for temperatures above 0oC. The barometer over-reads at
higher temperatures.
The mercury barometer's design gives rise to the expression of
atmospheric pressure in inches or millimeters: the pressure is
quoted as the level of the mercury's height in the vertical column. 1
atmosphere is equivalent to about 29.9 inches, or 760 millimeters, of
mercury. Barometers of this type normally measure atmospheric
pressures between 28 and 31 inches of mercury.
The reading from a barometer (in mm.hg or in.hg) can be converted
into Pascals or PSI by using the formula
Pressure = ρgh (if using Metric units)
or
Pressure = ρh (if using English units)
Where:
Pressure = the converted pressure (Pa or PSI)
ρ = density of the mercury (13,600 kg/m3 or 62.4 lbf../ft3)
h = height of mercury (m or ft)
Aneroid barometers An aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal vacuum chamber called an aneroid cell.
This aneroid capsule (cell) is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper.
The evacuated capsule (or usually more capsules) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes
in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract.
This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the
tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of
the aneroid barometer.
Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the
current measurement so a change can be seen. In addition, the
mechanism is made deliberately 'stiff' so that tapping the barometer
reveals whether the pressure is rising or falling as the pointer moves.
They are used for measuring atmospheric pressure.

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Buoyancy (Archimedes Principle)
Archimedes was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who lived about 250BC. There is a story (maybe even
true) about Archimedes that every physics student should hear. It goes as follows:
The king who ruled Greece at that time asked his royal metalworkers to make him a gold crown. When the crown
was delivered it was indeed beautiful. However, the king suspected that the crown was not pure gold. He did not
want to destroy the crown but he wanted to know if he had been cheated. What he needed was some type of non-
destructive evaluation (NDE dates back many years!). He asked Archimedes to solve his problem.
Archimedes pondered the question. The density (mass/volume) of gold was well known. He knew of course how to
determine the weight and mass of the crown by simple weighing. However, since the crown did not have a regular
shape it was impossible to determine the volume by a mathematical calculation.
The solution came to Archimedes one day when his servant
filled his bathtub too full. As Archimedes stepped into his bath,
he noticed that a volume of water equal to his volume
overflowed! With a flash of insight he ran through Athens, stark
naked, shouting “Eureka, Eureka, I have the solution!”
The experiment was performed, the king was notified that his
crown was not pure gold and the royal metal workers lost their
lives.
The point of the above story is that a body submerged in a liquid
displaces a volume of water equal to its own volume. A corollary
is that a body that floats in a liquid displaces a volume of liquid
less than its volume since some portion of the body is above the
water level.
Archimedes' principle, states that a body immersed in a fluid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
The principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies and
to all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases. It explains not only the
buoyancy of ships and other vessels in water but also the rise of
a balloon in the air and the apparent loss of weight of objects
underwater.
In determining whether a given body will float in a given fluid, both weight and volume must be considered; that is,
the relative density, or weight per unit of volume, of the body compared to the fluid determines the buoyant force.
If the body is less dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the case of a balloon, it will rise. If the body is denser than
the fluid, it will sink.
Relative density also determines the proportion of a floating body that will be submerged in a fluid. If the body is
two thirds as dense as the fluid, then two thirds of its volume will be submerged, displacing in the process a volume
of fluid whose weight is equal to the entire weight of the bo dy.
In the case of a submerged body, the apparent weight of the body is equal to its weight in air less the weight of an
equal volume of fluid. The fluid most often encountered in applications of Archimedes' principle is water, and the
specific gravity of a substance is a convenient measure of its relative density compared to water.
In calculating the buoyant force on a body, however, one must also take into account the shape and position of the
body. A steel rowboat placed on end into the water will sink because the density of steel is much greater than that
of water. However, in its normal, keel-down position, the effective volume of the boat includes all the air inside it, so
that its average density is then less than that of water, and as a result it will float.
Archimedes’ Principle Applied to Bodies that Float

A body will float in any liquid that has a weight density greater than the weight density of the body. For example a
body of weight density 63.4 lbs./ft.3 would float in ocean water (D = 64.4 lbs./ft.3) and sink in lake water (D = 62.4
lbs./ft.3).
When bodies float they can float “high” or float “low”. The ratio of the weight density of the floating body relative to
the weight density of the liquid determines exactly how high or low a body will float.
In order to understand Archimedes’ Principle as applied to floating bodies, let us consider a submarine and imagine
that a block of wood of weight density 48.3 lbs./ft.3 and volume 2 ft.3 is thrust out of the hatch of a submarine into
the ocean water. We know intuitively that this block of wood will rise to the ocean surface.
The weight of the block is (48.3 lbs./ft.3) (2 ft.3) = 96.6 lbs. As long as the block is below the water surface (while it
is rising to the top), it displaces 2 ft.3 of ocean water.
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We know that:
BF = weight of displaced ocean water

= (64.4 lbs./ft.3) (2 ft.3)
BF = 128.8 lbs.
We can see why the block rises. How far will the block rise? it will rise until the BF exactly equals its weight. In our
example it will rise until the BF has been reduced to 96.6 lbs. (the weight of the block). The BF will be reduced as
the block emerges from the water. In our example, it will rise until 25% of the block’s volume is above the water
surface. It follows that 75% of 2 ft.3 (= 1.5 ft.3 ) will be below the water surface. When this occurs, the BF on the
block is (64.4 lbs./ft.3)(1.5 ft.3) equals 96.6 lbs. Note again that the BF equals the weight of the block while the block
is floating.
In the preceding example, note that the ratio of the weight density of the block (48.3 lbs./ft.3) to the weight density
of the ocean water (64.4 lbs./ft.3) was 0.75. We recall that 75% of the floating block was under water. This is
generally true and makes a much easier procedure to determine how low a block will float in a given liquid.
In dealing with bodies that float, it is important to note that boats, made of materials more dense than water, are
shaped in such a way that the total weight density is less than water. In order to understand this, consider the
rowing boat with contents (people, lunch, fishing gear, etc.) shown in
figure 2.34. Note that some of the boat (shown with dotted lines) is
below the water surface. Suppose that the row boat floats in such a way
that it displaces 8 cu ft. of lake water. The weight of the displaced water
is 8 ft. (62.4 lbs./ft.3) or 499 lbs. Therefore, the BF is 499 lbs. The boat
and contents must weigh 499 lbs. to float at this level. If the boat weighs
150 lbs. the contents must weigh 349 lbs.
This is realistic (father 200 lbs., son 75 lbs., lunch 25 lbs., fishing gear
49 lbs.).
One final comment should be made regarding submarines. Submarines
cruising at a definite depth in ocean water have a total weight density
equal to the weight density of ocean water, 64.4 lbs./ft.3 This means that
the total weight of the submarine (metal shell, air, crew, load, ballast,
etc.) divided by the total volume is 64.4 lbs./ft.3 The ballast used in submarines is ocean water. These vessels can
take on water or pump out water. If the submarine wants to descend, it takes on water. If it wants to rise toward the
surface it pumps out water.
EXAMPLE:
A block of oak (D = 45 lbs./ft.3) is placed in a tank of benzene (D = 54.9 lbs /ft.3). The oak floats since its
weight density is less that the weight density of the benzene. What percentage of the oak will be below the
surface of the benzene?
We find the ratio of the two weight densities.
We conclude that 82% of the oak block will be below the surface of the benzene.

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Archimedes’ Principles as Applied to Airships and Balloons
In all of the above materials, we have talked about Archimedes’ principle as if it applied only to liquids. Since most
of our experience with this principle is with liquids, it seemed easier to do this at first. However, it must now be
emphasized that buoyant forces exist also with gases.
The obvious example is that of a hot air balloon or a lighter-than-air aircraft.
EXAMPLE:
The bag of a balloon is a sphere of radius 25 m filled with hydrogen of weight density 0.882 N/rn3. What total
weight (in Newtons) of fabric, car, and contents can be lifted by this balloon in air of weight density 12.6 N/rn3?
We first calculate the volume of the spherical balloon by recalling that the volume of a sphere is given by:
The weight of the hydrogen is found from the formula D V = w:

(0.882 N/m3) (65,450 m3) = 57,700 N.
The weight of the displaced air is:
(12.6 N/rn3) (65,450 m3) = 824,700 N.
Since the weight of the displaced air is the BF we can say that:
BF = 824,700 N
This BF must hold up the hydrogen, fabric, car, and contents. It follows that fabric, car, and contents weighing
767,000 N can be lifted by this balloon. Note that this number was obtained by subtracting 57,700 N from
824,700 N.
Usually balloons are not filled with hydrogen since hydrogen is explosive. Of course, since hydrogen is the
lightest of all gases it is the most efficient. However, the danger of explosion outweighs this advantage. The
next lightest gas is helium of weight density 1.74 N/rn3. Usually, balloons are filled with this gas.
Table 2.3: Weight densities for common substances

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2.0 - Kinetics
2.1 Linear Motion
When a body is moving in a straight line with constant speed it is not accelerating.
We say, in this case, that it is moving with constant velocity. If a body’s velocity is not constant, it is accelerating.
A body accelerates if it is changing its speed and/or its direction.
When we discuss a body’s straight-line motion, then we do not have any change in direction. In this special case,
any acceleration is due to a change in speed
The Equations of Motion
In all of the following discussion, certain symbols will be used. These symbols are summarized below:
Vav = average velocity t = time u = initial velocity
v = final velocity a = acceleration s = distance covered
There is a formula dealing with the motion of a body that you have used for many years. In school, you probably
memorized the formula in these words:
distance = rate (or speed) x time
Using our above symbols, we could write:
(1) s = Vav t
Note that for the rate, we have used the average speed. We all know that even though sometimes speed changes,
we can always talk about the average speed. Thus, if we travel at an average speed of 50 MPH for 6 hours, we
cover 300 miles.
Now we must extend our treatment of motion to include the concept of acceleration. Acceleration (for straight-line
motion) is the rate of change of speed in time. We define acceleration (for straight-line motion) in the following
manner:
(2)
In using this formula, a may be either positive or negative. If v is less than u, then our value of a turns out to be a
negative number.
EXAMPLE:
A truck is initially travelling at a speed of 50 ft./sec. The driver applies his brakes for 15 sec. The final speed of
the car is 20 ft./sec. What is the acceleration?
Notice that the unit of acceleration has the square of a time unit in its denominator.
A little thought will convince you that an acceleration is positive if the body is increasing speed and negative when
the body is decreasing its speed. If we cross-multiply in formula (2) we obtain:
at=v-u
After transposing, we can write:
(3) v = u + at

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If an automobile is on an expressway and the driver is increasing speed smoothly and regularly, we note that his
average speed is the average of his initial and final speed.
The equation can be written:
If this value of Vav is substituted into equation (1), we have:
(4)
In this equation, we can substitute for v (= u + at) using the value in equation (3).
After a bit of algebra, we obtain:

(5) s = ut + ½ at2
Equation (4) can be written, after cross-multiplication:
2s = (u + v)t
We can now multiply this equation by equation (2). After cancelling time (t) on the right:
2as = (v - u) (v + u). or 2as = v2 – u2
The final form of this formula is:
(6) v2 = u2 + 2as
These equations are very important. They enable us to deal with all kinds of motion problems where the body is in
straight line motion and is changing its speed. These formulas will be summarized below. They will be numbered
with Roman numerals and can be referred to by these numbers when used in the problem exercises.
i.
ii. v = u + at
iii. s = ut + ½ at2
iv. v2 = u2 + 2as
When a body in straight line motion is not changing speed, or in cases where we are interested only in the average
speed, the formula is more simple.
s = Vav t
Formulas i through iv are used in many practical physics problems. Note that each one involves four quantities.
When a problem is given to you to solve, be sure to determine which of these three quantities are given to you, and
which quantity is to be found. Choose the formula which involves these four quantities. If the formula is not solved
for the unknown quantity, solve for this quantity algebraically. Finally substitute the known quantities and solve for
the unknown quantity.
An example should clarify the above procedure.

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EXAMPLE:
An automobile has an initial speed of 50 ft./sec. and a final speed of 75 ft./sec. While it is undergoing this
change of speed, it travels a distance of 125 ft. What is its acceleration?
In attacking this problem it is wise to write down exactly what is known and what is unknown.
u = 50 ft./sec. V = 75 ft/sec.
S = 125ft. a=?
Formula iv involves these four quantities. Note that i, ii, and ill do not involve these exact four quantities.
Formula iv is the one to use. First it should be solved for the unknown, a.
v2 = u2 + 2as v2 - u2 = 2as a= v2 - u2 / 2s
Accelerated Under Gravity (“Freely Falling” Body)

Common experience indicates that falling bodies accelerate or increase in speed as they fall. Close to the surface
of the earth this “acceleration of a freely falling body” has been measured to be about 32 ft./sec.2 in the English
system and 9.8 m/sec.2 in the metric system. The “about” in the preceding sentence indicates that this quantity
varies somewhat over the face of our earth. The values given are average values.
When we use the words “freely falling”, we mean that we are neglecting the effects of air resistance (as if we were
in a vacuum). Of course, there is always air resistance, so how can we neglect it?
When a body is falling with a great speed, air resistance can certainly not be neglected. To use the acceleration
formulas in these cases would give us results that are not valid.
However, if a body is falling close to the surface of the earth, the acceleration formulas do give us valid results if
the height from which it falls is not too great.
Some numerical data should clarify the preceding statements. If a compact body, such as a stone, is dropped (not
thrown) from a height of 324 ft. above the surface of the earth, it will take about 4.5 sec. for the body to reach the
ground. It will have obtained a speed of 144 ft/sec. (98 MPH). At this speed, the effects of air resistance are still
quite negligible. Above this speed (98 MPH), the effects of air resistance are not negligible.
Therefore, we can conclude that the fall of a body from a height of 324 ft. or less (or equivalently during a time of
4.5 sec. or less) can be handled quite accurately with the ordinary acceleration formulas. The value of the
acceleration will be either 9.8 m/sec2 or 32 ft./sec2 if the body is rising and therefore decreasing its speed the
values of the acceleration will be - 9.8 m/sec2 or - 32 ft/sec2
If a body falls from a height greater than about 324 ft. above the surface of the earth, the air resistance becomes
very important. As we have said, a height of 324 ft. corresponds to a fall of 4.5 sec.
When the time of fall increases to about 8 seconds, the speed of fall has increased to about 115 MPH. When the
time of fall is between 4.5 sec. and 8 sec. the speed increases in a non-linear manner from 98 MPH to 115 MPH.
As the time of fall increases beyond 8 seconds the speed of fall remains constant at about 115 MPH.
This speed of fall is called the “terminal velocity”.
All of the above data indicates that it is possible to use the acceleration formulas with accurate results for many
applications dealing with falling bodies. We will limit our applications to cases where the formulas are valid: heights
less than 324 ft. and times of fall less than 4.5 seconds.
EXAMPLE 1
A body started from rest and has been falling freely for 3 sec. At what speed is it falling?
u = 0 t = 3 sec, a = 32 ft/sec2, v = ?
We will use Formula ii : v = u + at

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EXAMPLE 2
A body is thrown upward with an initial speed of 120 ft./sec. How high does it rise?
u = 120 ft/sec, v = 0, a = -32 ft/sec2, s=?
We will use Formula iv. v2 = u2 + 2as
2.2 Rotational Movements

Centripetal force
Previously we discussed constant speed and accelerated motion in a straight line and derived four important
formulas which will be reviewed below.
In this chapter we will consider motion which takes place on a circular
path. Such motion is very common in our complex society and we need
to understand more about motion in curved paths
A ball whirled in a circle experiences an acceleration toward the centre of
the circle.
This can be proven by considering that the ball is continually changing
direction as it moves in a circle.
Newton’s first law tells us that the ball would prefer to follow a straight
path, and that for it to deviate from a straight path, a force must be
applied to it. It is a direct result of Newton’s first law that a hammer
thrower (Figure 2.58) must continually pull towards the centre of rotation,
applying his full weight to make the hammer accelerate continually
towards the centre of rotation.
As soon as the athlete stops applying the force towards the centre (i.e.
releases the hammer) the hammer travels in a straight line, at a tangent
to the circle.
This acceleration is in the same direction as the force which makes it
move in a circle. This force is called centripetal force (from the Latin
meaning centre-seeking).
Since we have a constant change in the direction of the motion of the hammer, we have a constant acceleration.
This is called centripetal acceleration and can be calculated by the square of the velocity divided by the radius of
the circular path, thus
Centripetal acceleration =
Newton’s Second Law connects acceleration and force, by Force = Mass x Acceleration.
Thus, we can write the equation of Centripetal Force Fnet = mac or Fnet =

Centrifugal force
Is often confused with its counterpart, centripetal force, because they are so closely related — essentially two sides
of the same coin.
Centripetal force is defined as, "the force that is necessary to keep an object moving in a curved path and that is
directed inward toward the center of rotation," while centrifugal force is defined as "the apparent force that is felt by
an object moving in a curved path that acts outwardly away from the center of rotation,"
Note that while centripetal force is an actual force, centrifugal force is defined as an apparent force.
In other words, when twirling a mass on a string, the string exerts an inward centripetal force on the mass, while
mass appears to exert an outward centrifugal force on the string.
"The difference between centripetal and centrifugal force has to do with different 'frames of reference,' that is,
different viewpoints from which you measure something. "Centripetal force and centrifugal force are really the exact
same force, just in opposite directions because they're experienced from different frames of reference."
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If you are observing a rotating system from the outside, you see an inward centripetal force acting to constrain the
rotating body to a circular path.
However, if you are part of the rotating system, you experience an apparent centrifugal force pushing you away
from the center of the circle, even though what you are actually feeling is the inward centripetal force that is
keeping you from literally going off on a tangent.
Overview Centripetal force is a real force that counteracts the centrifugal

force and prevents the object from "flying out," keeping it moving instead
with a uniform speed along a circular path.
Centrifugal force is the opposite; it appears to pull objects away from the
center or axis of rotation.
Note that while centripetal force is an actual force, centrifugal force is
defined as an apparent force. In other words, when twirling a mass on a
string, the string exerts an inward centripetal force on the mass, while mass
appears to exert an outward force on the string.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Meaning Tendency of an object following a curved The force that keeps an object moving with
path to fly away from the center of a uniform speed along a circular path.
curvature. Might be described as “lack of
centripetal force.”
Direction Along the radius of the circle, from the Along the radius of the circle, from the
center towards the object. object towards the center.
Example Mud flying off a tire; children pushed out on Satellite orbiting a planet
a roundabout.
Formula Fc = mv2/r Fc = mv2/r
Defined by Chistiaan Hygens in 1659 Isaac Newton in 1684
Is it a real No; centrifugal force is the inertia of motion. Yes; centripetal force keeps the object from
force? "flying out".
Degrees and Radians

Before we begin our discussion, we need to define a new unit for measuring
angles, the radian (see figure 2.35).
A radian is defined as the central angle subtending a length of arc equal to the
radius of the circle.
A radian is approximately equal to 57.3°. The conversion factors for angle units
are:
1 revolution = 360° 1 revolution = 2p radian
2p radians = 360 1 radian = 57.3°

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Now let us consider a body (represented by a point) moving in a circular path.
An initial reference line is shown in figure 2.36. As the point moves about the
circle in a counter-clockwise sense, a line drawn between the point and the
centre of the circle continuously sweeps out an angle.
This angle can be measured in revolutions, radians or degrees. We call
this angle the angular displacement of the point and use the Greek letter
theta (q) to represent this angular displacement.
If the point moves with constant speed it also has a constant angular
velocity. That is, the line drawn from the point to the centre of the circle
sweeps out a definite number of revolutions, radians, or degrees each
second or minute. The symbol used to represent angular velocity is the
Greek letter omega (w).
Angular velocity can be expressed in different units, such as,
It is also possible that the point is not moving with constant angular velocity. It may be increasing or decreasing its
angular velocity. When a CD starts rotating in a CD drive the angular velocity increases until it reaches a constant
value. After the reject button is pushed the angular velocity decreases until the CD comes to rest.
In both of the above cases we say that the point has an angular acceleration. The Greek letter alpha (a) is used
for angular acceleration. Note that a is positive if the angular velocity is increasing and negative if the angular
velocity is decreasing.
Angular acceleration can also be expressed in different units,
Now as a body moves in a circular path four similar equations hold as in the case of a body moving in a straight-
line path. Both sets of equations will be shown below. It is important to re-memorize the equations for straight-line
motion. In this way the other four equations will also be known, since they are exactly analogous.
Study these equations carefully and note that the set to the right, the “rotational analogy” are easily remembered if
the left set is well known. We recall that the subscripts ”u” and ”v” indicate “initial” and “final”.
These rotational equations help us to solve many practical problems dealing with rotating bodies.

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EXAMPLE 1
A rotating machine part increases in angular velocity from 3 rev./min. to 35 rev./min. In 3.5 minutes. What is its
angular acceleration?
We use the following equation and solve it for a.
We now substitute our known values.
EXAMPLE 2
A propeller starts from an angular velocity of 900 rev./min. and accelerates at 100 rev./min.2 for 5 minutes.
Through how many revolutions has it turned?
q = w1t + ½ at2 q = (900 rev./min.)(5 min) + ½ (100 rev./min.2)(5 min.)2. q = 5,750

revolutions
EXAMPLE 3
A propeller starts at 1,000 rev./min. and accelerates at 100 rev./min.2 through 2,000 revolutions. What is its
final angular velocity?
w22 = w12 +2aq w22 = (1,000 rev./min.)2 +2 (100 rev./min.2)(2,000 rev.) w2 = 1,180 rev./min
2.3 Periodic Motion: Pendular Movement

General
A simple pendulum is one which can be considered to be a point mass suspended from a string or rod of negligible
mass. It is a resonant system with a single resonant frequency. For small amplitudes,
the period of such a pendulum can be approximated by:
Where: L = the length of the pendulum is m, or ft

g = the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 or 32 ft/s2
Note: The Natural Frequency of Oscillation is independent of the mass of the

pendulum, and of the amount of initial displacement
This expression for period is reasonably accurate for angles of a few degrees, but the
treatment of the large amplitude pendulum is much more complex
It is interesting to note that the pendulum will oscillate at only one frequency,
regardless of how far the pendulum is initially displaced, or for how long the pendulum
is left to oscillate. The only factor that changes, is the linear velocity of the mass.
This fixed frequency is known as the Natural Frequency of Oscillation.
If we consider only the horizontal motion of the mass and neglect its vertical motion as it swings (an assumption
which can be made if the string is long compared to the amplitude of swing), then the periodic motion is said to be
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
Time period (T) and frequency (f) can also be related to each other by the formulae:

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Mass and Spring
When a mass is acted upon by an elastic force which tends to bring it back to its equilibrium position, and when
that force is proportional to the distance from equilibrium (e.g., doubles when the distance from equilibrium doubles
- a Hooke's Law force), then the object will undergo periodic motion when released.
A mass on a spring is the standard example of such periodic motion. If the displacement of the mass is plotted as a
function of time, it will trace out a pure sine wave.
The motion of the medium in a travelling wave is also simple
harmonic motion as the wave passes a given point in the
medium.
It is interesting to note that the spring/mass system will
oscillate at only one frequency, regardless of how far the
mass is initially displaced, or for how long the system is left
to oscillate. The only factor that changes, is the linear
velocity of the mass. The fixed frequency is known as the
Natural Frequency of Oscillation, and can be calculated from
the formula:
Where: k = the stiffness of the spring in N/m, or lb/in

m = the mass of the oscillating body
Note: The Natural Frequency of Oscillation is independent of the magnitude of gravity, and of the amount of initial
displacement
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

What is SHM
Motion which repeats itself precisely and can be described with the following terms:
• Period: the time required to complete a full cycle, T in seconds.
• Frequency: the number of cycles per second, f in Hertz (Hz)
• Amplitude: the maximum displacement from equilibrium, A
and if the periodic motion is in the form of a travelling wave, one needs also
• Velocity of propagation: v
• Wavelength: repeat distance of wave, l.
Simple harmonic motion is the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator (such as a pendulum or spring/mass system),
a motion that is neither driven nor damped. The motion is periodic, as it repeats itself at standard intervals in a
specific manner - described as being sinusoidal, with constant amplitude. It is characterized by its amplitude, its
period which is the time for a single oscillation, its frequency which is the number of cycles per second, and its
phase, which determines the starting point on the sine wave. The period, and its inverse the frequency, are
constants determined by the overall system, while the amplitude and phase are determined by the initial conditions
(position and velocity) of that system.
A single frequency travelling
wave will take the form of a
sine wave. A snapshot of the
wave in space at an instant of
time can be used to show the
relationship of the wave
properties frequency,
wavelength and propagation
velocity.

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The motion relationship "distance = velocity x time" is the key to the basic wave relationship.
With the wavelength as distance, this relationship becomes l=vT. Then using f=1/T gives the standard wave
relationship
This is a general wave relationship which applies to sound and light waves, other electromagnetic waves, and
waves in mechanical media.
Properties of SHM
Considering the motion of a mass on the end of a spring, or the horizontal motion of a pendulum, the following
properties can be observed:
The velocity of the body is always changing. It is maximum at the undisturbed position (centre of its motion) and
zero at the extremities of its motion (maximum displacement position)
The acceleration of the body is always changing. It is maximum at the extremities of its motion (maximum
displacement position) and zero at its undisturbed position (centre of motion).
In other words, when its velocity is zero, its acceleration is a maximum, and when its acceleration is zero, its
velocity is a maximum.
2.4 Theory of Vibration

Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the
motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind instrument or
harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration, necessary for the correct functioning of the various
devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound -- noise. For example, the
vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in operation are typically unwanted. Such
vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc.
Careful designs usually minimise unwanted vibrations.
The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, pressure waves, are generated by vibrating structures
(e.g. vocal cords) and pressure waves can generate vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to
reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.
Types of vibration
Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely.
Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then letting go or hitting a tuning fork and
letting it ring.
The mechanical system will then vibrate at one or more of its natural frequencies and damp down to zero.
Forced vibration is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a mechanical system. Examples of this type
of vibration include a shaking washing machine due to an imbalance, transportation vibration (caused by truck
engine, springs, road, etc), or the vibration of a building during an earthquake. In forced vibration the frequency of
the vibration is the frequency of the force or motion applied, but the magnitude of the vibration is strongly
dependent on the mechanical system itself.
Resonance
What is Resonance? Resonance is the phenomenon of producing large amplitude of vibrations by a small periodic
driving force. It is the tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at a certain frequency. This
frequency is known as the system's resonance frequency (or resonant frequency). When damping is small, the
resonance frequency is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the system, which is the frequency of free
vibrations. Under resonance condition the energy supplied by the driving force is sufficient enough to overcome
friction.
Examples of Resonance. One familiar example is a playground swing, which is a crude pendulum. When pushing
someone in a swing, pushes that are timed with the correct interval between them (the resonant frequency), will
make the swing go higher and higher (maximum amplitude), while attempting to push the swing at a faster or
slower rate will result in much smaller arcs.

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Other examples:
• acoustic resonances of musical instruments
• the oscillations of the balance wheel in a mechanical watch
• electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios that allow individual stations to be picked up
• the shattering of crystal glasses when exposed to a strong enough sound that causes the glass to
resonate.
A resonator, whether mechanical, acoustic, or electrical, will probably have more than one resonance frequency
(especially harmonics of the strongest resonance). It will be easy to vibrate at those frequencies, and more difficult
to vibrate at other frequencies. It will "pick out" its resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an
impulse or a wideband noise excitation. In effect, it is filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance.
What Causes Resonance? Resonance is simple to understand if you view the spring and mass as energy storage
elements - the mass storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. When the mass and spring have
no force acting on them they transfer energy back forth at a rate equal to the natural frequency. In other words, if
energy is to be efficiently pumped into the mass and spring the energy source needs to feed the energy in at a rate
equal to the natural frequency. Applying a force to the mass and spring is similar to pushing a child on swing - you
need to push at the correct moment if you want the swing to get higher and higher. As in the case of the swing, the
force applied does not necessarily have to be high to get large motions. The pushes just need to keep adding
energy into the system.
A damper, instead of storing energy dissipates energy. Since the damping force is proportional to the velocity, the
more the motion the more the damper dissipates the energy.
Therefore a point will come when the energy dissipated by the damper will equal the energy being fed in by the
force. At this point, the system has reached its maximum amplitude and will continue to vibrate at this amplitude as
long as the force applied stays the same. If no damping exists, there is nothing to dissipate the energy and
therefore theoretically the motion will continue to grow to infinity.
Such catastrophic resonance can be witnessed frequently, in, for example, the failure of complete aircraft wing
structures during control surface “flutter”, failure of helicopter structural components, and even the collapse of road
bridges in gale force winds, as experienced at Tacoma Bridge on November 7th, 1940.
Design Implications of Resonance
Designers of aircraft must be seriously concerned about the phenomenon of resonant frequency because if a
certain component of an aeroplane or helicopter is caused to vibrate at its resonant frequency the amplitude of the
vibration can become very large and the component will destroy itself by vibration.
Let us examine the case of a helicopter which has a tail boom with a natural or resonant frequency of 1 Hz. That is,
if you were to strike the boom with your fist it would oscillate once each second. The normal rotational speed of the
rotor is 400 RPM and the helicopter has 3 blades on its main rotor. Each time a rotor blade moves over the tail
boom the blade is going to cause a downward pulse of air to strike the tail boom. The designer must determine the
speed at which the pulses will be equal to the resonant frequency of the boom. One cycle per second is equivalent
to 60 cycles/minute. Since each of the three blades causes a pulse each revolution, there will be 3 x 60 or 180
pulses/minute.
Therefore a rotor speed of 180 RPM would be critical and the pilot would be warned against operating at that
speed. Since the boom also has a secondary, or overtone, resonant frequency of twice the fundamental resonant
frequency, 360 RPM would also have to be avoided but would not be as critical as 180 RPM. The third frequency of
concern would be 3 x 180 or 540, but that is above the rotor operating speed, so is not a problem.
The natural frequency of vibration is also an extremely important consideration in designing the wings, horizontal
and vertical stabilizers of an aircraft. The designer must be certain that the resonant frequency when the surface is
bent is different from that resonant frequency when it is twisted. If that is not the case, an aerodynamic interaction
with the elasticity of the surface can result in “flutter” which can cause the surface to fracture in a fraction of a
second after it begins.
Harmonics
The harmonic of an oscillation is a component frequency of the oscillation that is a multiple of its natural frequency
(known as the fundamental frequency). For example, if the fundamental frequency is f, the harmonics have
frequency 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. The harmonics have the property that they are all periodic at the input frequency.
Thus, if an oscillating body (e.g. a spring/mass system) can be oscillated by an excitation input of frequency equal
to its natural frequency (the ‘fundamental frequency’), it will also be oscillated at frequencies that are harmonics of
that natural frequency.

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2.5 Velocity Ratio
Velocity ratios are calculated by dividing the driver gear by the driven gear.
The driver gear or pulley is the one connected to the power - e.g. the pedals on a bicycle or the motor.
To calculate the speed of the driven gear - multiply the speed of the driver gear by the velocity ratio.
Gears
There are a number of different types of gears all of which are designed for specific tasks.
They will all transmit the rotary motion of the input shaft to an output shaft, but the angle between them, their
direction of rotation and the ratio of their speeds, depends on the type of gears being used.
Gears are toothed wheels which interlock to form
simple machines.
The tighter the joint, the less chance of slipping.
Gears range in size but the important number is how
many teeth a gear has.
What are gears used for?
• To reverse the direction of rotation
• To increase or decrease the speed of rotation
• To move rotational motion to a different axis
• To keep the rotation of two axes
synchronized.
What is a gear ratio?

A gear ratio is the ratio between the driver gear (the one being powered) and the driven gear (the one connected to
the driver). Gear Ratios are expressed as fractions and can be written a number of ways
1 to 3 or 1/3 or 1:3 (most commonly used)
Always remember that the driven gear will turn in the opposite direction of the driver gear.
What is Velocity Ratio (VR)?
When calculating for velocity or speed,it is best to have a ratio in which the driver gear is larger than the driven
gear.
For maximum speed you should always have a larger driver gear/pulley paired with a smaller driven gear/pulley.
Belt and Pulley
A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt.
This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be
transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of differing
diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized.
If the diameter of the driver pulley wheel is 600mm and
the driven pulley wheel is 200mm, this means that for
every single revolution of the larger driver pulley wheel,
the smaller driven pulley wheel rotates three times.
This due to velocity ratio. The ratio can be worked out
mathematically in different ways.
The two most likely methods are shown below.
Please note, the driven pulley wheel is placed on top of
the equation as it is the larger number

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2.6 Mechanical Advantage ed Efficiency
In this chapter, we will study six simple machines:
• The lever The pulley
• The wheel and axle The inclined plane
• The screw The hydraulic press
General Theory of Simple Machines
In discussing machines, we will assume that there is an object on which work is to be done.
We will call this object the load. In most cases, it is required that the load be raised a certain distance in a
gravitational field. For example, we wish to put cement blocks originally on the ground into the bed of a truck.
A machine is a device for doing work. The input work is, by definition, the work done by the worker, that is, the
force applied by the worker multiplied by the distance through which the worker’s force acts.
The output work is, by definition, the force that actually acts on the load multiplied by the distance the load is
raised.
We note that one way to do work is to do it directly. For example, it is possible for the worker to raise each cement
block directly to the truck bed. This is possible but can be difficult if each block weighs, say, 175 lbs. In this case it
would be better to use a machine since a machine usually decreases the force supplied by the worker and
increases the distance through which his force acts.
In the equations which follow, the subscript “o” will stand for output and the subscript “i” will indicate input. We will
use the following defining equations:
Wo = Fo Do Wi = Fi Di
It is important to realize that there is no perfect machine. In our real world, on our earth, there is always some
friction. We always have, at least, air resistance. In addition, there is friction due to the nooks and crannies that we
would see if we inspected the surfaces of our machine parts with a high-powered microscope.
Because of the constant presence of friction the input work is always greater than the output work. Some of the
input work is not useful work but serves to produce sound energy (a squeak), light energy (a spark), or heat
energy.
We will use the symbol “Wf” to represent work lost because of friction.
Wi = Wo + Wf
We define two kinds of “mechanical advantage”. The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is the ratio of the
output force to the input force. This actual mechanical advantage tells us how much easier it is for the worker.
The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) is the mechanical advantage that would exist if there were no friction in
the machine. It is the ratio of input distance to the output distance.

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AMA = IMA =
The ideal mechanical advantage of a machine can always be determined by measurements made on the machine
itself.
The Efficiency (Eff) of a machine is the ratio of the output work to the input work.
The efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or as a percentage. For example, if the efficiency is calculated as
0.78, we can expressed it as 78%.
One final point should be made regarding efficiency.
There is no machine that is 100% efficient.
We always have some friction. However, sometimes we assume that there is no friction and that the machine is
perfect or ideal! if a problem says that the efficiency is 100%, we are doing a make-believe problem. This kind of a
problem is not meaningless, however, because it tells us the best that this machine can do. In this ideal case the
AMA equals the IMA.
EXAMPLES:
1) A worker is able to raise a body weighing 300 lbs. by applying a force of 75 lbs. What is the AMA of the
machine that he is using?
2) A worker applied his force through a distance of 15 ft. The load is raised a distance of 2.5 ft. What is the
IMA of the machine that he used?
3) The actual mechanical advantage of a machine is 8 and the efficiency of this machine is 78%. What is the
ideal mechanical advantage?
4) A worker uses a machine to raise a load of 500 lbs. a distance of 2 ft. He does this by applying a force of
100 lbs. through a distance of 12 ft. What was the efficiency of the machine?
Method 1
Method 2:

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Simple machines. We will next consider six simple machines. In each of these cases the IMA is expressed, not as
the ratio Di/Do, but in some other manner. We will study the geometry of each of these simple machines to
determine how to express the IMA in some simple equation
The Lever
Consider the diagram in figure 2.42. Note that the lever
always pivots about some point called the fulcrum. The
input force (F1) is downward force and in our diagram, is
applied at the right end of the lever. This input force gives
rise to an upward force at the left end in our diagram. This
upward force causes the load to be raised and is called
“Fo”.
The distance from the input end of the lever to the fulcrum is called the input lever arm (Li) and the distance from
the output end to the fulcrum is called the output lever arm (L0).
Recall that:
Since it is much easier to measure lever arms that the distances of rotation, we always use the ratio on the right
hand side of the above equation to express the IMA of a lever.
(Lever) IMA =
There are three classes of levers:
§ 1st Class: The fulcrum is between the load

and the applied force. Examples are the claw
hammer, scissors, and crowbar.
§ 2nd Class: The load is between the fulcrum
and the applied force. Examples are the
nutcracker and wheelbarrow.
§ 3rd Class: The applied force is between the
load and the fulcrum. An example is ice tongs.
§ In a third class lever, the IMA is less than one.
There is no force advantage. However, there is a
speed advantage. The work can be done in less
time.

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The Pulley
Some pulleys are firmly attached to an overhead support while other pulleys move up or down with the load. We
will refer to pulleys as “fixed” or “movable”.
In figure 2.44 (A), we have shown a single fixed pulley. If a length of pulley cord (Di) is pulled down by a worker, the
load will be raised a distance (Do). We see from the diagram that these distances equal each other. Therefore we
conclude that the IMA of this type of pulley is one. For example, it would take 100 lbs. of force to raise a 100 lbs.
load. The advantage of using this type of pulley is that the worker is able to pull down on the pulley cord and in this
way an upward force is applied to the load. We say that a single fixed pulley is a “direction changer”.
In figure 2.44 (B), there is a single movable pulley. A study of the diagram shows that Di is always twice Do. For
example, if the load is to be raised 2 ft. the worker must pull in 4 ft. of cord.
Note also that there are 2 strands supporting the load. The IMA of a single movable pulley is 2.
In figure 2.44 (C), there is a single movable pulley and a single fixed pulley. The fixed pulley again serves to
change the direction of the input force. The IMA is still 2. Note also that there are again 2 strands supporting the
load.
We conclude that the IMA of a pulley equals the number of strands supporting the load
(Pulley) IMA = the numb er of strands supporting the load

Several other examples of various types of pulley blocks are shown in figure 2.45.
The Wheel and Axle
Note that one cord is wrapped around the axle of radius (r). The
load is attached to this cord. Another cord is wrapped around the
wheel of radius (A). The worker applies his force to this second
cord.
Both wheel and axle turn together. This means that if the wheel
rotates through one revolution the axle also turns through one
revolution.
Let us suppose that the worker pulls in a length of cord equal to
one circumference of the wheel (D1) The load will be raised a
distance equal one circumference of the axle, (Do).

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The Inclined Plane
In the inclined plane shown in figure 2.47 we note that the

worker slides the load up the incline. The input distance (Di)
is therefore equal to the length of the incline (L). The effect of
this is that the load is raised a distance (h). This means that
the output distance (Do) equals h also.
We note that the sine of the angle of inclination (q) is also h/L.
Therefore, we can write the expression for the IMA as follows:
The Screw Jack
The pitch of the screw (p) is the distance between adjacent threads (see
figure 2.48). As the handle is turned through one revolution, a distance given
by
2 p r ft., the load is raised a distance of one pitch.
Therefore, we have the relation:
(Screw Jack) IMA=
A screw Jack has a great deal of friction. Therefore its efficiency is usually very low. However, the distance through
which the input force acts in comparison to the pitch is usually very large. This gives a screw jack a large
mechanical advantage.
EXAMPLE 1:
The radius of the wheel in a windlass (wheel and axle) is 3.5 ft. and the radius of the axle is 0.27 ft. The
efficiency of the machine is 60%. What load can be lifted by this machine by using a force of 75 lbs.?
EXAMPLE 2:
An inclined plane has a 32° angle of incline. A force of 50 lbs. Is required to slide a 90 lbs. load up the incline.
What is the efficiency of this machine?

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3.0 - Dynamics
3.1 Mass,
In physics. the term for what we have up to now referred to as the amount of substance or matter is “mass”. A
natural unit for mass is the mass of a proton or neutron. This unit has a special name, the “atomic mass unit”
(amu). This unit is useful in those sciences which deal with atomic and nuclear matter.
In measuring the mass of objects which we encounter daily, this unit is much too small and therefore very
inconvenient. For example, the mass of a bowling ball expressed in amu’s would be about
4,390,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
One kilogram equals 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu. Since one amu is the mass of a proton or
neutron we know immediately that a kilogram of anything has this combined number of protons and neutrons
contained in it.
The kilogram is the SI unit of mass. In the English system, the standard unit of mass is the slug.
The conversion is:
1 slug = 14.59 kg = 8,789,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 amu
We will use the conveniently sized units, the slug in the English system and the kilogram in the metric system, for
all of the problems that we will do in this course. Note that the above conversion, 1 slug = 14.59 kilogram, is listed
with your conversion factors in the table of conversion factors (Table 1-1).
3.2 Force, Inertia (Newton’s Laws)

The rapid advance in aviation in the first half of the last century can be attributed in large part to a science of
motion which was presented to the world three centuries ago by Sir Isaac Newton, a British physicist. Published in
1686, Newton’s treatise on motion, The Principia, showed how all observed motions could be explained on the
basis of three laws. The applications of these laws have led to great technological advances in the aerodynamics,
structure, and power plant of aircraft. It is safe to say that any future improvements in the performance of aircraft
will be based on these laws. This chapter will be devoted to Newton’s laws, examining some of their applications in
aviation.
Newton’s First Law
The old magician’s trick of pulling a cloth out from under a full table setting is not only a reflection of the magician’s
skill but also an affirmation of a natural tendency which dishes and silverware share with all matter. This natural
tendency for objects at rest to remain at rest can be attested to by any child who ever tried kicking a large rock out
of his path. It is also a well known fact that once a gun is fired, the command “stop” has no effect on the bullet. Only
the intervention of some object can stop or deflect it from its course. This characteristic of matter to persist in its
state of rest or continue in whatever state of motion it happens to be in is called inertia. This property is the basis of
a principle of motion which was first enunciated by Galileo in the early part of the 17th century and later adopted by
Newton as his first law of motion.
The first law of motion is called the law of inertia. It can be summarized:
A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion continues to move
at constant velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced external force.
The importance of the law of inertia is that it tells us what to expect in the absence of forces, either rest (no motion)
or straight line motion at constant speed. A passenger’s uncomfortable experience of being thrown forward when
an aircraft comes to a sudden stop at the terminal is an example of this principle in action. A more violent example
is the collision of a vehicle with a stationary object. The vehicle is often brought to an abrupt stop.
Unconstrained passengers continue to move with the velocity they had just prior to the collision only to be brought
to rest (all too frequently with tragic consequences) by surfaces within the vehicle (dashboards, windshields, etc.).
A less dramatic example of Newton’s first law comes from the invigorating activity of shovelling snow. Scooping up
a shovel full of snow, a person swings the shovel and then brings it to a sudden stop. The snow having acquired
the velocity of the shovel continues its motion leaving the shovel and going off onto the snow pile.

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Newton’s Second Law
A Learjet accelerates down the runway a distance of 3,000 feet, takes off and begins its climb at 6,000 feet per
minute quickly reaching a cruising altitude of 35,000 feet, where it levels off at a speed of 260 knots. Subsequently,
the plane may have to perform a variety of manoeuvres involving changes in heading, elevation, and speed.
Every aspect of the aeroplane’s motion is governed by the external forces acting on its wings, fuselage, control
surfaces and power plant. The skilled pilot using his controls continually adjusts these forces to make the plane
perform as desired.
The interplay between force and motion is the subject of Newton’s second law. An understanding of this law not
only provides insight into the flight of a plane, but allows us to analyse the motion of any object.
While Newton’s first law tells us that uniform velocity is to be expected when an object moves in the absence of
external forces, the second law states that to have a change in speed or direction an unbalanced force must act on
the object. Using acceleration to describe the change in motion of an object, the second law can he expressed
Fnet = m a
In words, the second law states that a net or unbalanced force acting on an
object equals the mass of the object times the acceleration of that object.
Here, the net force is the total force acting on the object, obtained by adding vectorially all of the forces influencing
the object. The mass is a scalar quantity. However, both the net force and the acceleration are vector quantities.
Mathematically, this means that they must always point in the same direction. That is, at each instant the
acceleration is in the same direction as the net force.
Before we consider cases where the net force acting on a body is not zero, it is most important to understand that
sometimes the net force acting on a body is zero.
The vector sum of the forces acting on the body in the x-direction is zero and the vector sum of the forces acting on
the body in the y-direction is also zero.
In this case we say that the body is in equilibrium.
From the law, net force equals mass times
acceleration, we know that since the net force is
zero the acceleration is also zero.
Zero acceleration means that the velocity of the
body in not changing in direction or in magnitude.
This means that the body is moving in a straight
line with constant speed or it has the constant
speed, zero (it is at rest). If we observe that a body
is at rest we know that all of the forces on this body
are balanced. Similarly, if a body is moving in a
straight line with constant speed, all of the forces
acting on this body are balanced.
For example, if a plane is travelling on a straight stretch of runway at constant speed, there are four forces acting
on this plane: the earth is pulling down on the plane (its weight), the earth is pushing up on the plane (the normal
force), the engine is giving a forward thrust to the plane, and frictional forces (air resistance, tires on runway. etc.)
are acting backward.
This is illustrated in figure 2.50.
Next, we must consider some examples where the
net force acting on a body is not zero.
The body is accelerating. The body is experiencing
a change in its direction or in its speed or both.
As a first example, a plane accelerating down a
runway gets a change in velocity in the direction of
its motion. This is the same direction as the thrust
provided by the power plant.
In figure 2.51, note that the thrust is greater than
the frictional forces. The net forward force is the
thrust minus the friction. It is this net forward force
that results in the acceleration of the plane.

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Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s third law is sometimes referred to as the law of action and reaction. This law focuses on the fact that
forces, the pushes and pulls responsible for both the stability of structures as well as the acceleration of an object,
arise from the interaction of two objects. A push, for example, must involve two objects, the object being pushed
and the object doing the pushing.
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
The third law states that no matter what the circumstance, when one object exerts a force and a second object the
second must exert an exactly equal and oppositely directed force on the first. An apple hanging from a tree is
pulled by the earth with a force which we call its weight. Newton’s third law tells us that the apple must pull back on
the earth with an exactly equal force.
The weight of the apple is a force on the apple by the earth, directed downward. The force which the apple exerts
back on the earth, is a pull on the earth directed upward. Another force acting on the apple is the upward pull
exerted by the branch. The law of action and reaction tells us that the apple must be pulling down on the branch
with the same magnitude of force.
People are often confused by this principle because it implies, for instance, that in a tug of war the winning team
pulls no harder than the losing team. Equally enigmatic is how a horse and wagon manage to move forward if the
wagon pulls back on the horse with the same force the horse pulls forward on the wagon.
We can understand the results of the tug of war by realizing that the motion of the winning team (or losing team) is
not determined exclusively by the pull of the other team, but also the force which the ground generates on the team
members feet when they “dig in”.
Recall, it is the net force, the sum of all of the acting forces which determines the motion of an object.
The results of a “tug of war” can be quite different if the “winning team”, no matter how big and strong, is standing
on ice while the “losing team” is able to establish good solid footing on rough terrain.
Similarly, the horse moves forward because the reaction force which the ground exerts in the forward direction on
its hooves is greater than the backward pull it receives from the wagon. By focusing now on the wagon, we see that
it moves forward because the forward pull of the horse is greater than the backward pull of friction between its
wheels and the ground.

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One of the main difficulties people have with the third law comes from
not realizing that the action and reaction forces act on different objects
and therefore can never cancel. Another difficulty comes from forgetting
that the motion of an object is determined by the sum of all of the forces
acting on that object.
In canoeing or rowing, a paddle is used to push water backward.(Figure
2.54) The water reacts back on the paddle generating a forward force
which propels the boat.
Consider now a propeller as shown in figure 2.55.
The plane of rotation of the propeller is assumed to be perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. The flow of air is from left to right. We can
imagine the action of the propeller is to take a mass (m) of air on the left
and accelerate it from some initial velocity (u) to a final velocity (v) to
the right of the propeller. The acceleration of this air mass requires a
force which is provided by the propeller. The air mass, in turn, reacts
with an equal and opposite force on the propeller.
This reaction force of the air on the propeller provides the thrust for a propeller driven plane.
The acceleration of the air mass is:
Both of the velocities (u and v) are the velocities relative to the plane of rotation of the propeller. The time (t) is the
time involved in accelerating the air mass from u to v.
By Newton’s third law, the thrust, which is the force the air mass exerts back on the propeller, is equal in magnitude
to F. Therefore, the thrust (T) is given by:
The velocities of the air mass are relative to the plane, and therefore change as the plane’s speed changes. Also
the time involved in accelerating the air mass changes with the speed of the plane. This causes considerable
variation in the thrust provided by a propeller.
EXAMPLE:
Each second a propeller accelerates an air mass of 12.2 slugs from rest to a velocity of 137 ft./sec.
How much thrust is provided?
T = 1,670 lbs.

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In contrast to the reciprocating engine driven propeller which imparts a small change in velocity to a relatively large
mass of air, a turbojet induces a large change in velocity to a relatively small mass of air.
Here, the sole action of the Jet engine is considered to be the intake of a mass of air at some velocity (u) and its
exhaust at a higher velocity (v).
Figure 2.50 is a sketch of a turbojet engine. The velocity (u)
in the figure denotes the relative intake velocity and v
denotes the exhaust gas velocity. The thrust formula which
was obtained above for the propeller will now be applied to a
Jet engine. The thrust formula above can be rewritten:
T = Gross thrust – Ram drag
The gross thrust is provided by the exhaust gases. The ram

drag of the incoming air is du e to the speed of the
aeroplane. The effect of the ram drag is to reduce the thrust
provided by the engine as the speed of the plane increases.
EXAMPLE 1:
The Pratt & Whitney J60 has a mass air flow of 23 kg/sec. During a static test (initial velocity = 0) the exhaust
velocity was measured to be 580 m/sec. Determine the thrust produced.
Note that the ram drag is zero since v1 is zero. Therefore, the thrust is equal simply to the gross thrust.
EXAMPLE 2:
What would the thrust have been if the J60 of the previous example had been in a plane moving at 250 knots?
Assume the same mass flow and exhaust velocity.
Note that the ram drag is not zero in this case. In order to calculate this ram drag we must use the formula:
T = gross thrust - ram drag. T = 13,300 N - 2,970 N. T = 10,300N
EXAMPLE 3 :
During a static test (initial velocity = zero), a Pratt & Whitney J75 produced a thrust of 16,000 lbs. with an air
mass flow of 8.23 slugs/sec. Determine the exhaust gas velocity of the engine.
Since u is zero, the ram drag is zero and T = gross thrust.
The air intake velocity of a turbojet will be approximately equal to the airspeed of the plane. Let us again
examine the thrust formula.
It can be seen that the thrust may be increased in two ways, either by increasing the air
mass flow through the engine (m / t) or increasing the exhaust gas velocity (v).

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EXAMPLE 4:
A French Dassault Falcon 30 is powered by two Lycoming ALF 502 turbofan engines. Flying at sea level with
a velocity of 154 m/sec. the air intake velocity is 154 m/sec. and the air exhaust velocity is 224 m/sec. The
airflow through each engine is 109 kg per second. Determine the thrust of each engine.
T = 7,630 N
EXAMPLE 5:
A Lockheed Jet Star is equipped with four Pratt & Whitney JT12 engines. Cruising at 220 knots, each engine
was found to be providing 1,420 lbs. of thrust. If the airflow through each engine was 1.55 slug/sec., what was
the exhaust gas velocity
U = 220 knots = 371 ft/sec.
3.3 Work, Energy Power, Heat and Efficiency
Work
When a force acts on an object and it causes the object to move it is
said to be work.
There are two things happen in this process. The first thing that
happens is that an object moves when an force is applied on it
otherwise it cannot move and the second thing is that the direction of
the object changes in the direction of the force applied on it.
The definition of work is as follows: W = F D cos q

The symbol for “distance” has been switched from S to D, to
emphasize that we are dealing with distances in our treatment of
simple machines.
The angle (q) in this definition is the angle between the direction of the force vector and the direction of the
displacement vector.
In this chapter, we will assume that in all the cases we will study the force and displacement vectors act in the
same direction. This implies that the angle (q) is a 0° angle and since the cosine of a 0o angle equals one, the
equation for work becomes the simple equation:
W=FD
Very often the force vector and the distance vector act in the same direction. In this case, the angle (q) is a zero
degree angle. If you check on your calculator, you will find that the cosine of a zero degree angle is equal to one.
This simplifies things in this case because then work is simply equal to the product of force times distance.
The unit of work in the English system is the foot-lb. Note that the two units are multiplied by each other.
Students tend to write ft./lb. This is incorrect. The unit is not feet divided by pounds. In the metric system, the unit is
the Newton-meter or the Joule (J). Note that the Newton-meter has a name, the Joule. The foot-lb. has no special
name.
EXAMPLE 1:
A puck lies on a horizontal air table. The air table reduces the friction between the puck and the table to almost
zero since the puck rides on a film of air. A player exerts a force of 70 lbs. on this puck through a distance of 0.5
feet, and he is careful that his force is in the same direction as the distance through the force is applied. The
player has done 35 ft.-lbs. of work on the puck.

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EXAMPLE 2:
A book weighing 8 pounds is raised a vertical distance by a student demonstrating work. The book is raised 2
feet. The student has done 16 ft.lbs. of work.
EXAMPLE 3:
A sled is dragged over a horizontal snowy surface by means of a rope attached to the front of the sled. The rope
makes an angle of 28° with the horizontal. The sled is displaced a distance a 50 ft. The worker exerts a force of
35 pounds. How much work does the worker do? We use the formula:
W = FS cos q. W = (35 lbs.) (50 ft.) cos 28° W = 1550 ft.lbs.
Sometimes the force and the displacement are in the opposite directions. This situation gives rise to negative work.
Note, in this case, the angle between the force and the displacement is a 180° angle. The cosine of 180° is
negative one.
One example of negative work occurs when a body is lowered in a gravitational field. If a student carefully lowers a
book weighing 15 pounds through a distance of 2 feet, we note that the displacement vector points downward and
the force vector point upwards
W = FS cos q
W = (15 lbs.)(2 ft.) cos 180o W = (15 lbs.)(2 ft.)(-1) W = -30 ft.lbs.
Energy (Kinetic and Potential)
The concept of energy is one of the most important concepts in all of physical science. We often hear of energy
sources, alternate energy, shortage of energy, conservation of energy, light energy, heat energy, electrical energy,
sound energy, etc. What is the exact meaning of this word, energy?
Sometimes energy is defined as the “capacity to do work”. This definition is only a partial definition.
However, it has the advantage of immediately relating the concept of energy to the concept of work. These two
ideas are intimately related to each other.
Energy is a quality that a body has after work has been done on this body. Once work has been done on a body of
mass (m) this body has energy. The body can then do work on other bodies. Consider the following situation:
A body of mass (m) was resting on a horizontal air table. A player exerted a horizontal force (F) on this mass
through a distance (s). Since the angle between the force and the displacement was a zero degree angle, the work
done on this body was simply Fs. At the instant the player removed his hand from the body we note two facts. The
body accelerated while the force (F) was acting on the body and the body has acquired a velocity (v) during this
time of acceleration (a). The body has moved through a distance (s) in time (t).
s = ½ at2
Also note that the force (F) is related to the acceleration by the relation:
F = ma
We now look again at this body at the instant the force (F) has ceased acting. We note that work (W) has been
done on this body and that the body moves with speed (v).
W = Fs = (ma) ( ½ at2) W = ½ m(at)2
Now we note that the speed obtained by the body during the time of acceleration is given by the equation:
V = at
Therefore, we can substitute v for at in the equation above.
W = ½ mV2
The equation we have obtained is the defining equation for a quantity known as kinetic energy.
Usually, we use the symbol “KE” for kinetic energy. KE = ½ mV2
After the work has been done on the mass (m) it moves off on the frictionless air table with this kinetic energy.
This body now is capable of doing work on other bodies that it contacts. For example, it probably will strike the
edge of the table. When this happens this kinetic energy will be changed into other types of energy such as sound
energy or heat energy.
We note that the initial kinetic energy of the mass (m) was zero. This is true because the body was initially as rest.
We can say that the work done on the body is equal to the change in the energy of the body.

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Gravitational Potential Energy
Another equally important situation where an agent easily can do work on a body (and thus give the body energy)
occurs when the agent raises a body vertically in a gravitational field, at the surface of the earth.
In this case, the work done on the body again equals the force applied multiplied by the distance the body is raised.
W = Fs. W = (weight of body) (distance raised)
We recall that w = mg. Also since the distance is a vertical distance we use the symbol “h” for height. In our
discussion we will assume that the symbol “h” always represents the vertical distance of the body above the
surface of the earth. Therefore, we write:
W = mgh
Again we have a case where an agent did work on a body and the body has acquired “energy”. This type of energy
is known as gravitational potential energy. however, we usually symbolize it as “PE”.
PE = mgh
If we neglect air resistance (which results in loss of energy to heat), we note that there is a conservation of kinetic
and potential energy of a body moving in a gravitational field. As a body falls from a height (h) and moves closer to
the surface of the earth, its potential energy decreases and its kinetic energy in creases while it is falling.
Therefore, there is an easy way of finding the speed of a falling body during any instant of its fall.
The units for energy are the same as the units for work, the Joule (J) in the metric system and the foot-pound in the
English system.
EXAMPLE 1:
A body of mass 4 slugs is held by an agent at a distance of 6 ft. above the surface of the earth. The agent
drops the body. What is the speed of the body when it is on the way down and at a distance of 2 feet above
the earth’s surface?
We note that the initial potential energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic and potential energies on the way
down (wd). PE = PEwd + KEwd
(4 slug) (32 ft/sec ) (6 ft.) = (4 slug) (32 ft/sec2) (2 ft.) + ½ (4 slug) v2
2
EXAMPLE 2:
A body of mass, 10 kg, falls to the earth from a height of 300 m above the surface of the earth. What is the
speed of this body just before it touches ground?
PEi = KEf. (10 kg) (9.8 m/sec2) (300 m) = (10 kg) V2
2,940 m2/sec2 = ½ V2 5,880 m2/sec2 = V2 V = 76.7 m/sec

The kinetic energy that the body has just before it reaches the ground immediately changes to sound energy
and heat energy on impact. It may also “squash” any body in its path or make an indentation in the earth – this
is strain energy (energy to deform).

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Power
Power is the rate of doing work. The more rapidly a piece of work can be done by a person or a machine the
greater is the power of that person or machine.
We define power by the following equation:
In the English system the unit of power is the horsepower and in the metric system the unit is the Watt.
Conversion factors exist giving information regarding these units.
EXAMPLE 1:
An aircraft engine weighing 4,000 lbs. is hoisted a vertical distance of 9 feet to install it in an aircraft. The time
taken for this piece of work was 5 minutes. What power was necessary? Give the answer in ft.lb./sec. and in
horsepower.
EXAMPLE 2:
An elevator cab weighs 6,000 N. It is lifted by a 5 kW motor. What time is needed for the cab to ascend a
distance of 40 m?
t = Fs / P t= (6000 N) (40 m) / 5000 Watts t = 48 Seconds
Alternate Form for Power We can put our formula for power in another form by recognizing that s/t is speed v.
This leads to the formula:
This form is particularly useful for obtaining an expression for the power output of a turbine engine.
These engines are ordinarily rated in terms of the thrust which they produce. To obtain an expression for their
power output it is necessary to multiply their thrust by the speed of the plane. This thrust power, which is usually
expressed in units of horsepower (THP, thrust horsepower), can be obtained by multiplying the thrust in pounds
by the speed in ft./sec. and dividing by 550 where the conversion
1 HP = 550 ft-lbs./sec. is used. Thus:
Alternatively, we can take the speed of the aircraft in MPH and use the conversion 1 HP = 375 mi.lbs./hr
to obtain:
EXAMPLE 1:
A gas turbine engine is producing 5,500 lbs. of thrust while the plane in which the engine is installed is
travelling 450 MPH. Determine the THP.
It is important to note that while the thrust of a gas turbine engine may not vary much over a particular range of
aircraft speeds, the power must be recalculated each time the plane changes its speed.

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Heat Energy
Most people use the word heat to describe something that feels warm, however in science, heat is defined as the
flow of energy between two systems by means of kinetic energy.
This can take the form of transferring energy from a warm object to a cooler object. More simply put, heat energy,
also called thermal energy or simply heat, is transferred from one location to another by particles bouncing into
each other. All matter contains heat energy, and the more heat energy that is present, the hotter an item or area
will be.
Modes of Heat Transfer
• Conduction - can occur in solids and fluids. It is the transfer of heat
across a medium or objects which are in physical contact.
• Convection is the transfer of heat from a fluid to a solid surface or
within a fluid.
Radiation - Matter that is at finite temperature emits energy in space in
the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation from the surface of the
Sun is a well-known example. People can sit around a campfire and
warm their hands over it because of the heat radiated from the fire.
Units of Heat - The SI unit or heat is a form of energy called the joule (J).
Heat is frequently also measured in the calorie (cal), which is defined as "the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water from 14.5 degrees Celsius to 15.5 degrees Celsius." Heat is also sometimes
measured in "British thermal units" or Btu.
Efficiency
A word can have multiple and ambiguous meanings in everyday language but they have precise meanings in
science.
Efficiency in physics is a comparison of the energy output to the energy input in a given system. It is defined as
the percentage ratio of the output energy to the input energy, given by the equation:
Efficiency = Eout / Ein×100%
This equation is commonly used in order to represent energy in the form of heat or power
EXAMPLE
The energy supplied to a light bulb is 200 J. A total of 28 J of this is usefully transferred. How efficient is the
light bulb?
Efficiency = useful energy transferred / total energy supply = 28 / 200 = 0,14
Percentage efficiency = efficiency x 100 = 0,10 x 100 = 14%
3.4 Momentum and Conservation of Momentum
Definition - Momentum is a vector quantity defined as the product of mass times velocity. Note that velocity (V) is
also a vector quantity. We write the defining equation as:
Momentum = mV
Momentum is a very important quantity when we are dealing with collisions, because it is conserved in all such
cases.
Conservation of Momentum. In a collision, there are always at least two bodies that collide. We will deal only with
collisions of two bodies. We will also limit our discussion to collisions occurring in one dimension. Such collisions
are called “head-on” collisions.
At this time, we need to recall two of Newton’s laws. We need Newton’s second law,
F = ma, and Newton’s third law, which tells us that if two bodies collide, the force that the first body exerts on the
second body is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that the second body exerts on the first
body. Also recall that the acceleration (a) equals the change in the velocity (symbolized by the Greek letter Delta,
D) divided by the time (t).
Now let us visualize two bodies of masses, m1 and m2 on a one dimensional track.

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If these two bodies collide, we have four different velocities to consider. We will name these velocities very
carefully.
V1’ = the velocity of body one before the collision
V1”= the velocity of body one after the collision
V2’ = the velocity of body two before the collision

V2” = the velocity of body two after the collision
From Newton’s two laws, we can conclude that:
After cancelling ‘t’, we obtain:

m1(V1” - V1’) = - m2(V2” - V2’)
If we remove the parentheses, transpose terms, and switch left and right parts we obtain:
m1V1’ + m2V2’ = m1V1” + m2V2”
The equation tells us that the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision.
Sometimes we say simply that “momentum is conserved”.
Recoil Problems
The simplest example of the conservation of momentum is in recoil problems.
EXAMPLE:
A boy and a man are both on ice skates on a pond. The mass of the boy is 20 kg and the mass of the man is 80
kg. They push on each other and move in opposite directions. If the recoil velocity of the boy is 80 m/sec., what
is the recoil velocity of the man?
First we note that both the man and the boy are at rest before the collision occurs.
m1V1’ + m2V2’ = m1V1” + m2V2”
(20) (0) + (80) (0) = (20) (80) + (80)V2” ; 0 = 1,600 + 80V2” ; -1,600 = 80V2” ; V2” = - 20 m/sec.
The negative sign indicates that the man recoils in the opposite direction from the boy.
Collision Problems - Whenever two bodies collide, momentum is always conserved. This is simply the result of
applying Newton’s second and third laws as we have done in the preceding discussion.
Sometimes kinetic energy is also conserved in a collision. This happens when the bodies are so hard that there is
very little deformation of the bodies in the actual collision process. Billiard balls are a good example. These
collisions are known as elastic collisions. We will derive a formula for determining the velocities of the bodies after
the collision has occurred.
Another type of collision that we will discuss is the perfectly inelastic collision. In this type of collision, the bodies
are deformed so much that they actually stick together after the collision. An example would be the collision of two
masses of putty. We will also do some problems for this type of collision.
Inelastic Collisions - We use the conservation of momentum for dealing with this type of collision. As we have
said, the colliding bodies stick together after impact. Therefore, the equation is simply:
m1V1’ + m2V2’ = (m1 + m2) V”
Note that we use the symbol V” for the common velocity of the two bodies (which are now one body) after the
collision.

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It is important to include the signs of the velocities of the bodies in setting up momentum equations. As usual, we
use a positive sign for east and a negative sign for west, a positive sign for north and a negative sign for south.
EXAMPLE:
A truck of mass 1,550 kg is moving east at 60 m/sec. A car of mass 1,250 kg is travelling west at 90 m/sec.
The vehicles collide and stick together after impact.
What is the velocity of the combined mass after the collision has occurred?
V1’ = 60 m/sec ; m1 = 1,550 kg ; V2’ = -90 m/sec ; m2 = 1,250 kg ;
m1V1’ + m2V2’ = (m1 + m2) V”
We will not include units in our substitution. However, we will note that the velocity, when we obtain it, will be
in m/sec.
(1,550) (60) + (1,250) (-90) = (1,550 + 1,250)V” ; -19,500 = 2,800 V” ; V” = - 6.96 m/sec.
Since the calculated velocity has a negative sign, we conclude that the combined mass is travelling west after
the impact has occurred.
Our answer is that the wreckage starts moving west with a speed of 6.96 m/sec.
Sometimes the principle of conservation of momentum in the case of an inelastic collision can be used by the
police to determine the speed of a vehicle engaged in a head-on collision.
Sometimes the principle of conservation of momentum in the case of inelastic collision can be used by the police to
determine the speed of a vehicle engaged in a head –on collision.
Suppose that a large truck with a weight of 12,000 lbs. (mass of 375 slugs) travelling east with an unknown velocity
enters into a head-on collision with a smaller truck of weight 6.400 lbs. (mass of 200 slugs) initially travelling west
with a speed of 30 MPH (44 ft./sec.). The trucks stick together in the collision and marks on the highway indicate
that the wreckage travelled a distance of 120 feet east. The condition of the roadway (amount of friction) indicates
that the wreckage would travel for a time of 4 sec. Determine the initial speed of the large truck.
The equation:
can be used to determine the initial velocity of the wreckage. Note that the final velocity of the wreckage is zero.
Next, we can use the conservation of momentum equation to determine the velocity of the large truck at the instant
of the impact. We will use the symbol V to represent this velocity.
(375 slugs) (V) + (200 slugs) (- 44 ft./sec.) = (575 slugs) (60 ft./sec.)
375V = 43,300 V = 115 ft./sec. V = 78.4 MPH
Elastic Collisions - are collisions that occur between bodies that deform very little in the collision. Therefore we
assume that no energy is lost. An example of such a collision is the collision between pool balls.
In elastic collisions, both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved. In an ordinary elastic collision problem, we
know the masses and the velocities of two bodies that will collide. We want to predict, by a mathematical
calculation, the velocities the bodies will have after the collision has occurred, the two unknowns. If we write the
two conservation equations, we have two equations in these two unknowns. It is possible to solve these two
equations for these two unknowns. However, one of the conservation equations, the energy equation, is a “second
order” equation. A “second order” equation contains the squares of the unknowns. This makes the solution more
difficult. Instead, we will use an algebraic trick! The two conservation equations can be solved together producing a
third equation. This third equation and the momentum conservation equation provide the two first order equations
that we will use in solving elastic collision problems.
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We will write the two conservation equations:
Conservation of Energy
(1) ½ m1V1’2 + ½ m2V2’2 = ½ m1V1”2 + ½ m2V2”2
Conservation of Momentum
(2) m1V1’ + m2V2’ = m1V1” + m2V2”
Divide (1) by ½:
(3) m1V1’2 + m2V2’2 = m1V1”2 + m2V2”2
Now in both (2) and (3), we will transpose some terms:
(4) m1V1’ - m1V1” = m2V2” - m2V2’
(5) m1V1’ - m1V1” = + m2V2” - m2V2’
Factorise (4) and (5):
(6) m1(V1’ - V1”) = m2(V2” - V2’)
(7) m1(V1’2 - V1”2) = m2(V2”2 - V2’2)
In (7), Factor again:
(8) m1(V1’ - V1”) (V1’ + V1”) = m2(V2” - V2’) (V2” + V2’)
Divide (8) by (6):
After cancelling common factors, we obtain:
In words, this equation says that the relative velocity of the balls before the collision is equal to the relative velocity
of the balls after the collision.
Equation (9) has been obtained algebraically from two equations, the conservation of momentum and the
conservation of energy. We use equations (2), the conservation of momentum equation, and equation (9), called
the relative velocity equation, to solve for the velocities of the two bodies after an elastic collision.
We will rewrite these two important equations for future reference:
(2) m1V1’ + m2V2’ = m1V1” + m2V2”
(9) V1’ - V2’ = V2” - V1”
In using these two equations, the two unknowns are usually V1” and V2”, the velocities of the two bodies after the
collision has occurred. The known quantities are usually the two masses and the velocities of the bodies before the
collision. Also be careful to include the signs of the velocities. If you forget to do this, you will always end up with
incorrect results.

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Impulse
These concepts are merely an outgrowth of Newton second law as discussed in an earlier unit. Newton's second
law (Fnet = m • a) stated that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting upon the
object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. When combined with the definition of acceleration (a =
change in velocity / time), the following equalities result.
F=m•a or F = m • ∆v / t
If both sides of the above equation are multiplied by the quantity t, a new equation results.
F • t = m • ∆v
This equation represents one of two primary principles to be used in the analysis of collisions during this unit. To
truly understand the equation, it is important to understand its meaning in words. In words, it could be said that the
force times the time equals the mass times the change in velocity. In physics, the quantity Force • time is known
as impulse. And since the quantity m•v is the momentum, the quantity m•Δv must be the change in momentum.
The equation really says that the
Impulse = Change in momentum
One focus of this unit is to understand the physics of collisions. The physics of collisions are governed by the laws
of momentum; and the first law that we discuss in this unit is expressed in the above equation. The equation is
known as the impulse-momentum change equation. The law can be expressed this way:
In a collision, an object experiences a force for a specific amount of time that results in a change in momentum.
The result of the force acting for the given amount of time is that the object's mass either speeds up or slows down
(or changes direction). The impulse experienced by the object equals the change in momentum of the object.
In equation form, F • t = m • Δ v.
In a collision, objects experience an impulse; the impulse causes and is equal to the change in momentum.
Consider a football halfback running down the football field and encountering a collision with a defensive back. The
collision would change the halfback's speed and thus his momentum.
.
3.5 The Gyroscope
Gyros are fascinating to study and a great deal of
material is available on them. For the most part, we will
be concerned with only two of the properties of spinning
gyros. The first is the tendency of a spinning gyro to
remain fixed in space if it is not acted upon by outside
forces such as bearing friction.
This is the property of rigidity.
Rigidity is used to measure position in position gyros
such as the HSI (gyro compass) and ADI (artificial
horizon).
The other property of a spinning gyro that concerns us is
its right angle obstinacy. It never goes in the direction that
you push it, but off to one side. Figure 2.62 illustrates this
obstinate characteristic.
Precession
Whichever way you apply the force to the axis of a gyro, it will move in a direction 90o (in direction of rotation) to the
force. The speed at which it moves is proportional to the force applied. This action is called precession. The
force of procession is used in rate gyros, such as those in a turn and slip indicator, where the speed of turn is
measured by the force that the precessing gyro exerts on a spring.

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Apparent Drift (or Wander) Figure 2.63 illustrates the behavior of a gyro. A perfect gyro would be one without any
external forces acting upon it, mounted in a perfect suspension system that would give it complete freedom of
movement in all three axes. All the gyros in this figure are perfect gyros. Such gyros are called free gyros.
Only four gyros are represented - A, B, C, and D. The other gyro symbols shown illustrate the various positions of
B, C, and D as the earth rotates.
Gyro A has its spin axis parallel with the spin axis of the earth, sitting on top of the North Pole. It could maintain that
position indefinitely.
Gyro B has its spin axis parallel to the earth’s spin axis, and is located above the equator. The other gyros in its
group represent Gyro B as it would appear at different times of the day. If we were to look at Gyro B sitting on a
table in front of us, we would see that the upper end of its spin axis is pointing off toward the north star. As time
goes on and the earth turns 360°, we would not see any change in its attitude on the table. Its spin axis would
always point toward the north star.
Gyro C is situated on the equator. The other gyros in its group represent Gyro C as it would appear at different
times of the day.
Let’s say that we have the Gyro C in front of us on a table. Its spin axis is parallel to the earth’s surface. As time
goes on and the earth rotates, we would see its spin axis gradually tilting upward at one end until, six hours later
(90° of earth rotation), we would see it perpendicular to the earth’s surface, illustrated by the gyro shown to the
right of the earth. Six hours later (behind the earth out of sight in this drawing) the spin axis would once again be
parallel to the earth, but with the end which was first pointing east now pointing west.
Another six hours later, the spin axis would once again be perpendicular, but this time the opposite end of the axis
would be another six hours later. When we get to the same time of day at which we started, the gyro will again be
occupying its original position.
Gyro D and its group illustrate another changing aspect of a gyro, in different positions as viewed from the earth’s
surface at different times of day.
These perfect gyros illustrate what any gyro tries to do but cannot because of its orientation of the spin axis -
always in the same direction in space.

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Transport Drift (or Wander)
The outer ring of gyros in Figure 2.64 demonstrates
that a completely free gyro in an aircraft circling the
earth would be perpendicular to the earth’s surface
at only two points.
The gyros drawn in the aircrafts are continuously
being corrected to a vertical position as the aircraft
moves around the surface of the earth. The
corrections are gentle and slow, since the amount of
correction needed in a ten minute period, for
example, is small The gyro is relatively very stable
during the pitch and roll maneuvers of the aircraft.
Such a gyro is called an earth gyro or tied gyro.
The gyro’s stable position with respect to the
movements of the aircraft makes it possible for the
pilot to know the actual attitude of his aircraft, nose
up or down, and wings level or not. This is quite
important to him when all he can see out of the
window is a gray fog.
The aircraft attitude information derived from the
gyros is also used by such systems as the autopilot,
radar antenna stabilization, flight recorders and flight
directors.

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3.6 Friction: Nature and Effect
When a body rests on a horizontal surface or is dragged or rolled on such
a surface there is always contact between the lower body surface and the
horizontal surface. This contact results in friction.
Friction is work done as the surfaces rub against each other. This work
heats the surfaces and always results in wasted work.
We need to define a force known as the normal force. A body resting on
a horizontal surface experiences two forces, the downward force due to
the gravitational pull of the earth on this body (the weight of the body),
and the upward push of the surface itself on the body (the normal force).
The weight (w) and the normal force (N) are equal to each other.
There are three kinds of friction:
1. Static friction 2. Sliding friction 3. Rolling friction
Static Friction: or ‘starting’ friction, is the force between two objects that are not moving relative to each other. For
example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction,
typically denoted as μs, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. The initial force to get an object
moving is often dominated by static friction.
Another important example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the
ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to
the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as limiting friction,
although this term is not used universally
Rolling Friction: is the frictional force associated with the rotational movement of a wheel or other circular objects
along a surface. Generally the frictional force of rolling friction is less than that associated with kinetic friction. One
of the most common examples of rolling friction is the movement of motor vehicle tyres on a road, a process which
generates heat and sound as by-products.

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Kinetic Friction: or dynamic friction, occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together
(like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as μk, and is usually less than the
coefficient of static friction. Since friction is exerted in a direction that opposes movement, kinetic friction usually
does negative work, typically slowing something down. There are exceptions, however, if the surface itself is under
acceleration. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the
box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the floor. Thus, the kinetic friction between
the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing positive work.
Examples of kinetic friction:
• Sliding friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on a desk and
moving it around is an example of sliding friction
• Fluid friction is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas. The drag of air on
an aeroplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid friction.
Calculating Friction (Coefficient of Friction)

In all cases, the friction equation is the same:
F = µN
The symbol “µ” (the Greek letter mu) is called
the coefficient of friction.
Every pair of flat surfaces has two different
coefficients of friction:
The coefficient of starting friction — µstart
The coefficient of sliding friction — µslide
Some values for the coefficients of starting and
sliding friction are given in Table 2.5.
We note that the coefficients of sliding friction
are less than the coefficients of starting friction.
This means that the force needed to start a body
sliding is greater than the force needed to keep
a body sliding with constant speed.
When we deal with a body that rolls over a flat
surface, we have another coefficient of friction to consider: the coefficient of rolling friction.
The coefficients of rolling friction (µroll) are very small. Therefore, rolling friction is much smaller than either starting
or sliding friction. Some values are:
Rubber tires on dry concrete 0.02

Roller bearings 0.001 to 0.003
EXAMPLE:
A steel body weighing 100 lbs. is resting on a horizontal steel surface. How many pounds of force are
necessary to start the body sliding? What force is necessary to keep this body sliding at constant speed?
W = N = 100 lbs. F = mN
Force to start sliding motion = (0.15)(100 lbs.) = 15 lbs.

Force to keep body sliding = (0.09) (100 lbs.) = 9 lbs.

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4.0 - Fluid Dynamics
4.1 The Atmosphere
On November 21, 1783, a hot air balloon carrying Marquis d’Arlandes, flew 5 miles across the skies of Paris
opening up new possibilities in travel and a fresh interest in our atmosphere. It wasn’t however, until heavier-than-
air flight became a reality that a detailed understanding of the medium enveloping our globe became essential.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases which we call air. Dry air is composed of approximately 21% oxygen, 78%
nitrogen, and 1% carbon dioxide. These percentages remain fairly constant as we ascend in altitude. However, the
density of air decreases. This drop in density with altitude has great significance in aviation as it not only places
limits on the attainable altitudes, but also the powerplant performance of an aircraft.
The mapping out of our atmosphere, that is, determining its density, pressure, and temperature at different
altitudes, required the effort of many individuals working over many years. The fruit of this labour is a vast quantity
of data which has led to the definition of a standard atmosphere. The standard atmosphere, a term coined by Willis
Ray Gregg in 1922, is a compilation of mean annual atmospheric properties. Since our atmosphere undergoes
seasonal variations in properties such as temperature, a mean or average value is used. Tables 2.6 and 2.7 are
two tables of values for the standard atmosphere. The first table (table 2.6) gives values in English units and the
second (table 2.7) in metric units. It must be kept in mind that the numbers in these tables are annual averages
which can be useful for reference purposes but do not indicate the actual atmospheric conditions existing at any
particular moment.
EXAMPLE:
Using the Gas Law and the temperature and pressure at an altitude of 12,000 meters listed in the Standard
Atmosphere Table (table 2.5), verify that the density of air at this altitude is 0.312 kg/m3.
We will use the equation
Cabin Altitude
Cabin altitude is a term used to express cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level. For
example, a cabin altitude of 6,000 feet means that the pressure inside the aircraft cabin is the same as the
atmospheric pressure at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Looking at the Standard Atmosphere Table (table 2.6), the
pressure is found to be 1,696 lbs/ft2 which upon division by 144 gives the pressure in lb/in2 to be 11.78 lbs/in2
At a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet, the passengers and crew can ride in relative comfort without any special oxygen
supply. Planes which fly at much higher altitudes than 8,000 feet must be furnished with a special atmosphere
control system. It is highly advantageous to fly at high altitudes both for economy of fuel consumption, and the
smooth air high above the level of turbulent weather systems. At these high altitudes, the pressure outside the
plane can be significantly lower than the cabin pressure.
At 8,000 ft., the Standard Atmosphere Table tells us that the air pressure is 1,572 lbs/ft2 or 10.92 lbs/in2 This is the
pressure that is normally maintained in the cabin even though the plane is flying at a higher altitude.
Suppose the plane is flying at an altitude of 40,000 ft. At this altitude the pressure (from the table 5-1) is 393 lbs/ft2
or 2.73 lbs/in2 This means that for a cabin altitude of 8,000 ft. for a plane flying at 40,000 ft., there is a net outward
pressure of 8.19 lbs/in2 This number was obtained by subtracting 2.73 lbs/in2 from 10.92.
For a Learjet with a pressurized area of 45,000 in2, we are dealing with a bursting force of over 368,000 lbs. (8.19
x 45 thousand). in addition to being able to withstand this much force, a safety factor of 1.33 is generally used by
design engineers. Therefore, the pressurized portion of the fuselage must be constructed to have an ultimate
strength of over 460 thousand pounds or about 230 tons. The challenge of finding lightweight materials which can
withstand these large forces is great.
In the description of an aircraft’s air conditioning and pressurization system, a differential pressure is given. The
differential pressure is the maximum difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure which the
pressurization system can sustain. For example, the air-cycle air-conditioning system of a Boeing 747 can maintain
a pressure differential of 8.9 lbs/in2 This means that the system can maintain a cabin pressure 8.9 lbs/in2 greater
than the atmospheric pressure surrounding the plane. This also means that there is an upper limit imposed by the
pressurization system on the altitude at which the plane can fly.

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Humidity
Some water in the form of invisible vapour is intermixed with the air throughout the atmosphere. It is the
condensation of this vapour which gives rise to most weather phenomena: clouds, rain, snow, dew, frost and fog.
There is a limit to how much water vapour the air can hold and this limit varies with temperature. When the air
contains the maximum amount of vapour possible for a particular temperature, the air is said to be saturated.
Warm air can hold more vapour than cold air. In general the air is not saturated, containing only a fraction of the
possible water vapour.
The amount of vapour in the air can be measured in a number of ways. The humidity of a packet of air is usually
denoted by the mass of vapour contained within it, or the pressure that the water vapour exerts. This is the
absolute humidity of air. Relative humidity is measured by comparing the actual mass of vapour in the air to the
mass of vapour in saturated air at the same temperature. For example, air at 10°C contains 9.4 g/m3 (grams per
cubic metre) of water vapour when saturated. If air at this temperature contains only 4.7 g/m3 of water vapour, then
the relative humidity is 50%.
When unsaturated air is cooled, relative humidity increases. Eventually it reaches a temperature at which it is
saturated. Relative humidity is 100%. Further cooling leads to condensation of the excess water vapour. The
temperature at which condensation sets in is called the dew point. The dew point, and other measures of humidity
can be calculated from readings taken by a hygrometer. A hygrometer has two thermometers, one dry bulb or
standard air temperature thermometer, and one wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary
thermometer which has the bulb covered with a muslin bag, kept moist via an absorbent wick dipped into water.
Evaporation of water from the muslin lowers the temperature of the thermometer. The difference between wet and
dry bulb temperatures is used to calculate the various measures of humidity.
Definitions
Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air (i.e., density of water vapour in a given
parcel), usually expressed in grams per cubic meter.
Actual vapour pressure: The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour present in a parcel. Water in a gaseous
state (i.e. water vapour) exerts a pressure just like the atmospheric air.
Vapour pressure is also measured in Millibars.
Condensation: The phase change of a gas to a liquid. In the atm., the change of water vapour to liquid water.
Dewpoint: the temperature air would have to be cooled to in order for saturation to occur. The dewpoint
temperature assumes there is no change in air pressure or moisture content of the air.
Dry bulb temperature: The actual air temperature. See wet bulb temperature below.
Freezing: The phase change of liquid water into ice.
Evaporation: The phase change of liquid water into water vapour.
Melting: The phase change of ice into liquid water.
Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the mass of the dry air in the parcel (not including
water vapour).
Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour actually in the air divided by the amount of water vapour the air
can hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a % and can be computed in a variety of ways. One way is to divide
the actual vapour pressure by the saturation vapour pressure and then multiply by 100 to convert to a percent.
Saturation of air: The condition under which the amount of water vapour in the air is the maximum possible at the
existing temperature and pressure. Condensation or sublimation will begin if the temperature falls or water vapour
is added to the air.
Saturation vapour pressure: The maximum partial pressure that water vapour molecules would exert if the air
were saturated with vapour at a given temperature. Saturation vapour pressure is directly proportional to the
temperature.
Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the total mass of the air in the parcel
(including water vapour).
Sublimation: In meteorology, the phase change of water vapour in the air directly into ice or the change of ice
directly into water vapour. Chemists, and sometimes meteorologists, refer to the vapour to solid phase change as
"deposition."
Wet bulb temperature: The lowest temperature that can be obtained by evaporating water into the air at constant
pressure. The name comes from the technique of putting a wet cloth over the bulb of a mercury thermometer and
then blowing air over the cloth until the water evaporates. Since evaporation takes up heat, the thermometer will
cool to a lower temperature than a thermometer with a dry bulb at the same time and place. Wet bulb temperatures
can be used along with the dry bulb temperature to calculate dew point or relative humidity.

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4.2 Density and Specific Gravity
Density
The density of a material is defined as the mass of a sample of the material divided by the volume of the same
sample. The symbol used for density is the Greek letter rho, (r).
Density is a very important and useful concept. If a body is made of a certain kind of material its density is known. If
the weight of the body is also known, it is possible to determine the volume of this body. Similarly, if the kind of
material and volume are known it is possible to determine the weight of the body.
Table 2.8 is a table of densities. You can refer to this table when you solve the problems dealing with mass,
weight, and volume.

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EXAMPLE 1:
An order has been placed for 120 gal. of lubricating oil. How much will this oil weigh?
The density of the lubricating oil has been obtained from table 2-1
EXAMPLE 2:
An order has been placed for 150 lbs. of turpentine. How many gallons of turpentine will be delivered?
Specific Gravity
The term “specific gravity” is closely related to the idea of density. The definition is as follows:
The calculation will give the same result (for a given substance) no matter what units are used. The example below
will calculate the specific gravity of sulphuric acid (see table 2.8).
If we use the metric units (kg/m3) we obtain
The specific gravity number (1.83) is unitless. It tells us that, for sulphuric acid, the density is 1.83 times as dense
as water.
4.3 -Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to being deformed by either shear stress or extensional stress. It
is commonly perceived as "thickness", or resistance to flow. Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow
and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while vegetable
oil is "thick" having a higher viscosity.
All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear
stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.
The study of viscosity is known as rheology.
Viscosity coefficients - When looking at a value for viscosity, the number that one most often sees is the
coefficient of viscosity. There are several different viscosity coefficients depending on the nature of applied stress
and nature of the fluid.
Dynamic viscosity determines the dynamics of an incompressible fluid;
Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density;
Volume viscosity determines the dynamics of a compressible fluid;
Bulk viscosity is the same as volume viscosity

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Shear viscosity and dynamic viscosity are much better known than the others. That is why they are often referred
to as simply viscosity. Simply put, this quantity is the ratio between the pressure exerted on the surface of a fluid, in
the lateral or horizontal direction, to the change in velocity of the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this is what is
referred to as a velocity gradient).
For example, at "room temperature", water has a nominal viscosity of 1.0 × 10-3 Pa∙s and motor oil has a nominal
apparent viscosity of 250 × 10-3 Pa∙s.
Viscosity Measurement
Dynamic viscosity is measured with various types of viscometer. Close temperature control of the fluid is essential
to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of
only 5°C. For some fluids, it is a constant over a wide range of shear rates. These are Newtonian fluids.
The fluids without a constant viscosity are called Non-Newtonian fluids. Their viscosity cannot be described by a
single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate.
One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.
In paint industries, viscosity is commonly measured with a Zahn cup, in which the efflux time is determined and
given to customers. The efflux time can also be converted to kinematic viscosities (cSt) through the conversion
equations.
Also used in paint, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine viscosity. The viscosity is
reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers.
Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. These models use vibration rather than rotation to
measure viscosity.
Units of Measure
Dynamic Viscosity - Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The symbol for viscosity is the
Greek symbol eta (η), and dynamic viscosity is also commonly referred to using the Greek symbol mu (μ). The SI
physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal-second (Pa·s), which is identical to 1 kg·/(m s) (kilogram per metre-
second). If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pa·s is placed between two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways with
a shear stress of one pascal, it moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one
second.
Kinematic viscosity - In many situations, we are concerned with the ratio of the viscous force to the inertial force,
the latter characterised by the fluid density ρ. This ratio is characterised by the kinematic viscosity (ν), defined as
follows: (where μ is the (dynamic) viscosity, and ρ is the density)
Kinematic viscosity (Greek symbol: ν) has SI units (m2·/ s). The cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is the
stokes (abbreviated S or St), named after George Gabriel Stokes. It is sometimes expressed in terms of
centistokes (cS or cSt). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the singular form.
1 stokes = 100 centistokes = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s.
1 centistokes = 1 mm2/s
Viscosity of air - The viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature. At 15.0 °C, the viscosity of air is
1.78 × 10−5 kg/(m·s).
Viscosity of water - The viscosity of water is 8.90 × 10−4 Pa·s at about 25 °C.
4.4 - Fluid Resistance and Effect of Streamlining

General
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a solid object
through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag is made up of friction forces, which act in a direction parallel to the object's
surface (primarily along its sides, as friction forces at the front and back cancel themselves out), plus pressure
forces, which act in a direction perpendicular to the object's surface.
For a solid object moving through a fluid or gas, the drag is the sum of all the aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces
in the direction of the external fluid flow. (Forces perpendicular to this direction are considered lift). It therefore acts
to oppose the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust.

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Types of drag are generally divided into three categories:
profile drag (called ‘parasitic’ drag in USA), lift-induced drag (also known as vortex drag or induced drag),
and wave drag.
Profile drag includes form drag, skin friction, and interference drag.
Lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present and is therefore usually discussed only in
the aviation perspective of drag.
Wave drag occurs when a solid object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound in that fluid.
The overall drag of an object is characterized by a dimensionless number called the drag coefficient, and is
calculated using the drag equation. Assuming a constant drag coefficient, drag will vary as the square of velocity.
Thus, the resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity.
The standard equation for drag is one half the coefficient of drag multiplied by the fluid density, the cross sectional
area of the specified item, and the square of the velocity.
Wind resistance or air resistance is a layman's term used to describe drag. Its use is often vague, and is usually
used in a relative sense (e.g., A badminton shuttlecock has more wind resistance than a squash ball).
Viscous Resistence
The equation for viscous resistance or linear drag is appropriate for small objects or particles moving through a
fluid at relatively slow speeds where there is no turbulence. In this case, the force of drag is approximately
proportional to velocity, but opposite in direction. The equation for viscous resistance is:
Viscous resistance = - bv
where:
b is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object, and
v is the velocity of the object.
For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid, George Gabriel Stokes
derived an expression for the drag constant,
B = 6π η r
where:
r is the Stokes radius of the particle, and η is the fluid viscosity.
For example, consider a small sphere with radius r = 0.5 micrometre (diameter = 1.0 µm) moving through water at
a velocity v of 10 µm/s. Using 10−3 Pa·s as the dynamic viscosity of water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.28
pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium experiences as it swims through water.
Drag Coefficient The drag coefficient (Cd) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of
aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation.
Two objects of the same frontal area moving at the same speed through a fluid will experience a drag force
proportional to their Cd numbers. Coefficients for rough unstreamlined objects can be 1 or more, for smooth objects
much less.
Aerodynamic drag(D) = Cd ½ ρ V2 A
Where
Cd = drag coefficient (dimensionless)
ρ = fluid density (slug/ft3 or kg/m3)
V = Velocity of object (ft/s or m/s)
A = projected frontal area (ft2 or m2)
The drag equation is essentially a statement that,
under certain conditions, the drag force on any
object is approximately proportional to the square
of its velocity through the fluid.
A Cd equal to 1 would be obtained in a case where
all of the fluid approaching the object is brought to rest, building up stagnation pressure over the whole front
surface. Figure 2.67 (top) shows a flat plate with the fluid coming from the right and stopping at the plate.
The graph to the left of it shows equal pressure across the surface. In a real flat plate the fluid must turn around the
sides, and full stagnation pressure is found only at the centre, dropping off toward the edges as in the lower figure
and graph.
The Cd of a real flat plate would be less than 1, except that there will be a negative pressure (relative to ambient)
on the back surface.

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Streamlining
Streamlining is the shaping of an object, such as an aircraft
body or wing, to reduce the amount of drag or resistance to
motion through a stream of air.
A curved shape allows air to flow smoothly around it. A flat
shape fights air flow and causes more drag or resistance.
Streamlining reduces the amount of resistance and
increases lift.
To produce less resistance, the front of the object should
be well rounded and the body should gradually curve back
from the midsection to a tapered rear section.
Figure 2.68 shows how the drag of a flat plate can be
reduced if its shape is changed to a sphere, and more still if
it is streamlined with fairings.
Figure 2.68: Streamlining of an object reduces its drag

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4.5 Effect of Compressibility in Fluids
Fluids are defined as any substance which flows readily. Gases and liquids are such substances.
Gases /Air - Air is a gas and it can be understood, as happens in one pump, or when a body, such as an airplane,
it moves inside.
However when the body moves in the air at low speed, as it can be in low speed flight, compression the air is so
small that most of the calculations is performed considering the application incompressible.
When instead we approach the speed of sound, that at the sea level is 762 mph, defined at 1226 Km / h
(or 340 m/s), then the phenomena of compression and expansion of the air have a predominant effect in the
calculations, so they cannot be neglected.
Our theory based on the incompressible behavior of fluids is still sufficiently valid for air when it flows below speeds
of approximately 130-150 m/s. As speed increases, compressibility effects become more apparent.
In reality, as seen above, compressibility effects need to be considered at speeds much below the speed of sound
(around 150 m/s). This is particularly true when considering the possible in accuracies in aircraft pitot–static
instruments, where such instruments depend on true static and dynamic air pressures for their correct operation.
You will consider the ways in which instruments are calibrated to overcome compressibility effects when you study
your specialist systems modules.
Liquids - Many people think that a liquid is incompressible. However, liquids are, like any material, to a certain
amount compressible.
In calculations, the amount of compressibility of liquid is considered to be 1 volume-% per 100 bar.
This means that for example when there is liquid supplied to a 200 liter oil drum which already is completely filled
with liquid, the pressure increases with 100 bar for each 2 liter of extra supplied liquid. When we supply 3 liter of
extra oil the pressure increases with 150 bar.
The compressibility of liquid plays a key role in for example fast hydraulic systems like servo-systems of a flight
simulator. To obtain a maximum dynamic performance, the compressibility should be as little as possible.
This is achieved by mounting the control valves directly on the hydraulic motor or cylinder. In that case the amount
of liquid between the control valve and the motor/cylinder is minimised.
In some situations, the compressibility of liquids is made use of in design. A ‘liquid spring’ for example, is the
principle of a particular type of landing gear leg. The leg is completely filled with air and oil. The air is compressed
under the extremely large forces encountered on landing, and the shock of the landing is absorbed by the
incompressibility of the oil.

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4.6 Static and Dynamic pressure - Bernoulli’s Principle
Basic Definitions
Before we begin our discussion of the lift and drag on an aircraft wing, the following definitions must be understood.
The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures a fluid velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the
flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at
the stagnation point, located at the Pitot tube entrance
(Figure 2.69). A pressure higher than the free-stream
(i.e. dynamic pressure) results from this conversion.
This static pressure is measured at the static taps
(known as static ports or vents).
The static pressure is not affected by the speed of the
aircraft, but is dependent upon the surrounding
atmospheric static pressure.
Pitot Pressure (Total Pressure) is the sum of static and
dynamic pressures, thus:
Pitot Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
Bernoulli’s Principle applies the ideas of work and
energy and the conservation of energy to a mass of fluid
(liquid or gas). Since it is not as easy to think of a mass
of fluid as it is to think of a discrete body, the derivation
of this principle requires some thought and effort.
It is worth the thought and effort, however, since this
principle is the basic principle of the flight of heavier-
than-air aircraft.
We review that the density of a fluid (r) is related to the
mass and volume of the sample of fluid by the relation:
m = rV
Figure 2.70: A volume of fluid
Figure 2.71: Fluid flowing through a tube of increasing cross sectional area
The fluid flows from a region where the cross-sectional area is less (labelled with 1's in the diagram) to a region
where the cross-sectional area is greater (labelled with 2’s in the diagram). We assume that the volume of fluid in
the left cylindrical shape of fluid (labelled with 1’s) is equal to the volume of fluid in the right cylindrical shape of fluid
(labelled with 2’s).
Hence, the volume flow rate in any part of the tube is constant, regardless of the tube diameter. And, since the
density of the fluid is constant (and air flowing at subsonic speed is considered incompressible) than the mass flow
rate is also constant, regardless of the diameter of the tube.

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The Venturi Tube
A venturi tube is a tube constructed in such a way that the cross sectional area of the tube changes from a larger
area to a smaller area and finally back to the same larger area. As a fluid flows through this tube the velocity of the
fluid changes from a lower velocity to a higher velocity and finally back to the same lower velocity. We note that, if
the rate (volume per second) of fluid flow is to remain constant, the fluid must flow faster when it is flowing through
the smaller area.
A diagram of a venturi tube is shown in figure 2.72.
1 2
Figure 2.72: A venturi tube
The height of the fluid column in the vertical tubes at the three places shown in the diagram, is an indication of the
fluid pressure. As we expect from Bernoulli’s Principle, the pressure is greater where the velocity is lower and vice
versa.
Venturi tubes in different shapes and sizes are often used in aircraft systems.
If we consider the types of energy involved in the flowing fluid, we find that there are three types – potential
(gravitational), pressure and kinetic energies.
Now if we consider only two positions in the venturi – the wide part (marked ‘1’) and the narrow part (the throat,
marked ‘2’), and consider the conservation of energy principle, we have:
Potential Energy at 1 Potential Energy at 2

+ +
Pressure Energy at 1 = Pressure Energy at 2
+ +
Kinetic energy at 1 Kinetic energy at 2
The above is assumed since the total energy in the fluid cannot change, only transferred from one form to another.
This then, is the basis for Bernoulli’s Formula.
Since the venturi in this case is horizontal, there in no change in potential energy, and so the potential energies can
be cancelled from the formula thus:
Pressure Energy at 1 Pressure Energy at 2

+ = +
Kinetic energy at 1 Kinetic energy at 2
Since Kinetic Energy is where m = mass of fluid, and V = velocity of fluid
and Pressure energy is where P = pressure, r = density of the fluid

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Thus:
Note that the mass, m, has no suffix, since the mass flow rate is constant regardless of the area of the flow. The
density, r, is also a constant since the fluid is considered incompressible (even air, providing its velocity is
subsonic).
Cancelling the mass, m, from each equation, and multiplying each term by the density, r, gives us
P1 + ½ r V12 = P2 + ½ r V22
This is the standard mathematical form of the Bernoulli’s Equation. It can be rearranged to give the pressure
difference (for example between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing) thus:
P1 – P2 = ½ r V22 - ½ r V12
Factorising gives:
P1 – P2 = ½ r (V22 - V12)
Application of Bernoulli’s Principle to Airfoil Sections

The relative wind direction is the direction of the airflow with
respect to the wing and is opposite to the path of flight (figure
2.73).
The chord line of a wing is a straight line connecting the
leading edge of a wing to its trailing edge (figure 2.74).
Figure 2.73: Relative wind
Figure 2.74: Chord line

The angle of attack Angle of Attack is the angle
between the chord line of a wing and the relative wind direction
(figure 2.75).
Figure 2.76 shows the cross section of a wing at rest and subject
to atmospheric pressure which on the average is 14.7 lbs./in.2
A force of 14.7 lbs. can be imagined as acting

perpendicular to every square inch of the wing. The resultant of
these 14.7 lbs. force vectors is zero and therefore has no
effect on the dynamics of the plane.
Figure 2.76: Pressure forces on an

aerofoil

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It is the motion of air past the wing that alters the pressure pattern. Whether the wing is in motion through the air or
the air is flowing past a stationary wing the result is the same.
For example, if a plane is moving through stationary air at a speed of 200 MPH, the effect is the same (as far as
the plane and air are concerned) as if the plane were stationary and the air was moving with velocity 200 MPH past
the plane.
There is a thin layer of air in direct contact with the wing surface, which, due to skin friction, is actually stationary
(relative to the wing). This is called the boundary layer. In these discussions we will disregard the boundary layer
and assume that the airflow is unaffected by friction.
As air streams past the wing of a plane, the speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing is greater than the
speed of the air past the lower surface of the wing.
These exact speeds are determined by the shape of the wing and the angle of attack.
For example, if the speed of the relative wind (equal to the speed of the plane) is 200 MPH, the speed of the air
past the upper surface of the wing may be 210 MPH and the speed of air past the lower surface of the wing may be
195 MPH. As indicated above, the exact values for a given case depend on the shape of the wing and the angle of
attack.
In this example, we could say that the speed past the upper surface of the wing is [1.05 (200 MPH)] and the speed
past the lower surface if the wing is [0.975 (200 MPH)].
In figure 2.77, the following symbols apply: V1
P1 = pressure on the upper surface of the wing

P2 = pressure on the lower surface of the wing
Vo = relative wind velocity V2
V1 = Wind velocity over upper surface
V2 = Wind velocity over lower surface Figure 2.77: Velocities and pressures above
r = density of the air and below an aerofoil
We apply Bernoulli’s principle
P1 + ½ r V12 = P2 + ½ r V22
We note that the ones refer to the upper surface and the twos apply to the lower surface of the wing.
P1 + ½ r V12 = P2 + ½ r V22. ½ r V12 - ½ r V22 = P2 - P1. ½ r (V12 - V22) = P2 - P1
When finding the lift on a wing, the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces is found from the
above equation, and, since Force = Pressure x Area, simply multiply the calculated pressure difference by the area
of the wing, thus:
DP = ½ r (V22 - V12), and Lift (or Force) = DP x Area
Lift = DP x Area
(Note: In some questions, the weight of the aircraft will be quoted. Thus, if the aircraft is flying straight and level,
the Lift = Weight).

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MODULE 2 – PHYSICS
Chapter 2. 2 – Mechanics – PROBLEMS
2.2.1.2 -Problems (torque)

1. Calculate the torque applied to a nut and bolt by a 12 in. spanner when a force of 12 lb. is applied perpendicular
at the end of the spanner.
2. How much force is required to torque a nut and bolt to 50 Nm with a wrench 0.5 m long?
3. A nut is to be torqued to 50 in.lb. A torque wrench of 17 in is used with an extension of 3 in. What setting
should the torque wrench be adjusted to?
4. A ships wheel has a couple applied to it by the captain of 60 Nm. The diameter of the wheel is 0.8 m. What is
the force applied on just one side of the wheel?
2.2.1.4. Problems (stress and stain)

1. A steel bolt with a cross-sectional area of 0.1 in2 and a length of 6.0” is subjected to a force of 580 lbs. What is
the increase in length of the bolt? (Hint: Find the stress. Then use Young’s Modulus of steel to find the strain.
From the strain find the extension)
2. An iron body of volume 145 in3 is subjected to a pressure of 500 lb/in2 . What is the decrease in volume of this
body?
3. A copper rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.04 in2 and a length of 24”. What longitudinal force must be applied
to cause this rod to stretch by 0.0024 in?
4. An aluminum brace inside a wing of a plane has a cross-sectional area of 0.2 in2. What is the greatest
longitudinal force that can be applied to the brace without causing the brace to be permanently deformed?
2.2.1.6.a - Problems (pressure of fluid)

1. Calculate the pressure on a gas when a force of 3100 N is exerted on a piston of diameter 2 cm
2. Calculate the force exerted when a pressure of 1 bar acts on a piston of diameter
8 cm which has a piston rod of diameter 2 cm taking some of the piston are
3. A brake master cylinder has a piston diameter of 0.4 ins. It feeds pressure to 4 identical wheel cylinders, each
having just one piston of diameter 2 ins. What is the force on one wheel brake when the driver applies a force
of 80 lbs to the master cylinder?
4. An hydraulic accumulator is charged with nitrogen to 600 PSI. The hydraulic pump is then switched on and it
feeds 3000 PSI to the other side of the accumulator piston. What will be the new pressure on the nitrogen side
of the accumulator?
2.2.1.6.b - Problems (buoyancy in liquid)

1. A solid aluminium object of volume 250 ft3 is resting on the ocean floor. A salvage crew plans to raise this
object. What force will be needed?
2. A solid steel body of volume 125 ft3 is to be raised by a salvaging crew to the surface of a lake. What force will
be needed?
3. What percentage of an iceberg is below the surface of the ocean?
4. A canoe is floating in such a way that it displaces 6 cu.ft. of lake water. If the canoe weighs 100 lbs., what is the
weight of its contents?
5. A balloon is spherical in shape and has a radius of 20 ft. It is filled with helium (weight density 0.01 lb/ft3) and is
floating in air (weight density 0.08 lb/ft3). What is the weight of the balloon (fabric, crew and contents etc.)?
2.2.2.1 -. Problems (linear motion)

1. 1.A car on the motorway is accelerating at 25ft/sec2. If it started from rest and has been accelerating for 5 sec.,
how far has it travelled during this time of acceleration?
2. 2.A truck had an initial velocity of 40ft/sec. It accelerated at 10ft/sec2 and reached a final velocity of 60ft/sec.
How far did this truck travel while it was accelerating?
3. 3.A car slowed down from 80 ft/sec. to 40 ft/sec. while travelling a distance of 100 ft. What was its
acceleration?
4. 4.A car, originally travelling at 25 ft/sec, increases its speed at a rate of 5 ft/sec2 for a period of 6 sec. What was
its final speed?
5. A car has an initial velocity of 40 ft/sec. It slows down at a rate of 5 ft/sec2 and covers a distance of 60 ft. while
slowing down. What is its final velocity?
6. 6.A stone is dropped from a high building and falls freely for 4 sec. How far (in meters) has it fallen during this
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time?
7. 7.A stone is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 64 ft/sec. How high does it rise?
8. 8.A ball is dropped from a bridge into the river below and 2.5 sec. after the ball is dropped a splash is heard in
the water below. How high is the bridge
9. 9.A car starts with an initial velocity of 30 ft/sec. and accelerates for 5 sec. at
4 ft/sec2. How far has it travelled during this time?
10. 10. A Cessna Agcarryall has a take-off run of 900 feet, at the end of which its speed is 80 MPH. How much
time does the run take? (Hint: convert MPH to ft./sec. first)
11. 11.A Grumman Tomcat, powered by two Pratt & Whitney turbofan engines, has a maximum acceleration
during take-off of 20 ft/sec2. What velocity can it achieve by the end of a 1000 foot take-off run?
2.2.2.2 - Problems (rotational movement)

1. 1.Find the mass of an object which accelerates at 5 m/sec2 when acted on by a net force of one Newton.
2. 2.Find the acceleration of a 3 slug object experiencing a net force of 12 lbs.
3. 3.Find the net force on a 5 slug object which is accelerating at 3ft/sec2
4. 4.A Learjet Model 24 of mass 6,000 kg is observed to accelerate at the start of its takeoff at 4 m/sec2 . What is
the net forward force acting on the plane at this time?
5. 5.During a static test, a Continental engine driving a two blade constant speed propeller was found to accelerate
each second a mass of 140 kg from rest to a velocity of 40 m/sec. Determine the thrust on the propeller.
6. 6.A Piper Archer ii has an Avco Lycoming engine driving a two blade propeller. Each second 8 slugs of air are
given a change in velocity of 122 ft/sec. How much thrust is generated on the propeller?
7. 7.The Garrett TFE 731 turbofan engine which powers the Rockwell Saberliner 65 under static testing has an
exhaust gas velocity of 321 m/sec and an airflow of
50 kg/sec. Find the static thrust of the engine.
8. 8.A plane weighs 36,000 lbs. The forward thrust on the plane is 20,000 lbs. and the frictional forces (drag) add
up to 2,000 lbs. What is the acceleration of this plane? Hint: Be sure to find the mass of the plane from its
weight.
9. 9.What centripetal force is needed to keep a 3 slug ball moving in a circular path of radius 2 feet and speed
4ft/sec.?
10.10.A boy is swinging a stone at the end of a string. The stone is moving in a circular path. The speed of the
stone is 5 ft/sec. and the radius of the path is 1.5 ft. What is the centripetal acceleration of the stone?
2.2.2.2.a – Problems (rotational movement)

1. 1.A propeller starts from rest and accelerates at 120 rev/sec2 for 4 seconds. What is its final angular velocity in
rev/sec? In rev/min?
2. A rotating turntable starts from rest and accelerates at 5 rev/min2 for 3 min. Through how many revolutions has it
turned?
3. 3.A helicopter main rotor starts from an initial angular velocity of 2 rev/min and accelerates at 60 rev/min2 while
turning through 400 revolutions. What is its final angular velocity?
4. 4.A plane is circling O’Hare in a circular pattern of radius 15,000 ft. It sweeps out an angle of 340o? How far has
it travelled?
5. 5.A plane is circling an airport in a circle of radius 5,000 ft. How far has it travelled after 4 revolutions?
6. 6.A race car is moving on a circular track of radius 600 ft. It is travelling at a speed of 100 ft/s. What is its
angular velocity in rev/min?
7. 7. A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 800 ft. It is accelerating at a rate of 10 ft/sec2 What is
its angular acceleration in rev/sec2?
8. 8.A helicopter tail rotor starts with an initial angular velocity of 15 rev/sec and decelerates at a rate of 2.00
rev/sec2 until it comes to rest. Through how many revolutions has the rotor turned while it comes to rest?
2.2.2.3 Problems (periodic motion)

1. A pendulum has a length of 0.7m. What is its frequency of oscillation, and how long will it take to oscillate 10
times?
2. A pendulum has a mass of 0.05 slugs. It takes 15 seconds to oscillate 10 times. What is its length?
3. A mass of 0.4 kg oscillates freely on the end of a spring. The stiffness of the spring is 2 N/m. What is its natural
frequency of oscillation and its time period?
4. A ball on the end of a spring bounces such that it nearly hits the floor 30 times in a minute. The spring has a
stiffness of 0.5 lb./in. What is the value of the mass of the ball?

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2.2.2.5 Problems (mechanical advantage)
1. 1.It takes a force of 80 lbs. to raise a body that weighs 240 lbs. What is the actual mechanical advantage of the
machine that was used?
2. 2.A load is raised a distance of 6 ft. by a force acting through a distance of 18 ft. What is the ideal mechanical
advantage of the machine that was used?
3. 3.What is the efficiency of a machine having an IMA of 7 and an AMA of 5?
4. 4.A load weighing 120 lbs. is raised a distance of 4 ft. by a machine. The worker using the machine exerts a
force of 50 lbs. through a distance of 12 ft. What was the efficiency of the machine?
5. The radius of the wheel of a windlass is 4.0 ft. and the radius of the axle is 0.2 ft. The machine is 75% efficient.
What force must be exerted to raise a load of 500 lbs. with this machine?
6. 6.The large piston of an hydraulic press has area 1.5 ft2. and the small piston has area 0.30 ft2. Assume that
the machine is 100% efficient. What load can be raised by a force of 75 lbs.?
7. A pulley system has four strands supporting the load. A force of 55 lbs. is needed to raise a load of 200 lbs.
What is the efficiency of this pulley system?
8. A light aircraft has a hydraulic braking system. Each rudder pedal is connected to a master cylinder which
provides braking for one of the main landing gear wheels. Each master cylinder has a radius of 1/4-inch. The
cylinder on the wheel has a radius of 1.0 inch. If the system is 95% efficient and the pilot exerts a force of 55
lbs. on the pedal, how much force is exerted on the brake disc by the wheel cylinder?
2.2.3.1 Problems (mass and weight)

1. What is the mass of a body having a weight of 45 N?
2. What is the weight of a body having a mass of 23 kg?
3. What is the mass of a body having a weight of 350 lbs.?
4. What is the weight of a body having a mass of 23.6 slugs?
5. What is the weight (in lbs.) of the corn flakes in a box where the mass is listed as 680 g?
6. What is the mass in grams of 2.5 lbs. of bologna?
2.2.3.3. Problems (work- power)

1. 1.How much work is done by a person in raising a 45 lb. bucket of water from the bottom of a well that is 75 ft.
deep? Assume the speed of the bucket as it is lifted is constant.
2. 2.A tugboat exerts a constant force of 5,000 N on a ship moving at constant speed through a harbour. How
much work does the tugboat do on the ship in a distance of 3 km?
3. 3.A father has his 45 lb. son on his shoulders. He lowers the child slowly to the ground, a distance of 6ft. How
much work does the father do?
4. A 6 slug body has a speed of 40 ft/sec. What is its kinetic energy? If its speed is doubled, what is its kinetic
energy?
5. 5.A 2 kg ball hangs at the end of a string 1 m in length from the ceiling of a ground level room. The height of the
room is 3 m. What is the potential energy of the ball?
6. 6.A body of mass 3 slug is a distance of 77 ft. above the earth’s surface and is held there by an agent. The
agent drops the body. What is the speed of the body just before it hits ground?
7. 7.An aircraft of mass 4 tonnes lands at 30 m/s and the pilot immediately applies the brakes hard. The brakes
apply a retarding force of 2000N. How far will the aircraft travel before it comes to rest.
8. A pile driver of mass 1000 kg, hits a post 3 m below it. It moves the post 10 mm. What is the kinetic energy of
the pile driver?
9. 9.A pile driver of mass 1000 kg, hits a post 3 m below it. It moves the post 10 mm. With what force does it hit
the post when it hits the post?
10.10.An aircraft engine weighing 12,000 N is lifted by a 3.6 kW motor a distance of 10m. What time was needed?
11.11.A hand-powered hoist is used to lift an aircraft engine weighing 3,000 lbs. a vertical distance of 8 ft. If the
worker required 4 minutes to do this job, what horsepower was developed by the mechanic?
12.12.How long does it take a 5 kW motor to raise a load weighing 6,000 lbs. a vertical distance of 20 ft.? (Hint:
convert KW to ft.lb./sec first)
2.2.3.4.-Problems (momentum-impulse)
1.A gun of mass 5 kg fires a bullet of mass 20 grams. The velocity of the bullet after firing, is 750 m/sec. What is
the recoil velocity of the gun?
2. An astronaut on a space walk has a mass of 5 slugs and is at rest relative to the space station. She is working
with a tool having a mass of 0.5 slug. She accidentally throws this tool away from herself with a speed of 6
ft/sec. With what speed does the astronaut recoil?
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3.An automobile having mass 1,500kg is travelling east on an expressway at 30m/sec. It overtakes a truck of mass
2,000kg also travelling east and moving with a speed of 25 m/sec. The automobile rear-ends the truck. The
vehicles become locked together in this collision and continue east. What is the velocity of this combined mass?
4. Two balls of putty become one mass of putty in a collision. The first, of mass 6 kg, was originally moving east at
10 m/sec., and the second, of mass 4 kg was originally moving west at 9 m/sec. What is the velocity of the total
mass after the collision has occurred?
5.Due to a controller’s error two aircraft are directed to land in opposite directions on the same runway in a fog. A
Cessna 150 of mass 50 slugs and a Beechcraft Bonanza of mass 80 slugs undergo a direct head-on collision.
The Beech-craft Bonanza was originally travelling north at a speed of 30 MPH and the Cessna was travelling
south. The wreckage travels a distance of 20 ft. south during a time of 3.6 sec. What was the original speed of
the Cessna?
6.A 3 kg ball is moving right with a speed of 3 m/sec. before a collision with a
2 kg ball originally moving left at 2 m/sec. What are the directions and speeds of the two balls after the collision?
7.A 2 kg ball moving right at 5 m/sec. overtakes and impacts a 1 kg ball also moving right at 2 m/sec. What are the
speeds and directions of the two balls after the impact?
2.2.3.6.Problems (friction)
1. An aircraft with a weight of 85,000 lbs. is towed over a concrete surface. What force must the towing vehicle
exert to keep the aircraft rolling?
2. It is necessary to slide a 200 lb. refrigerator with rubber feet over a wet concrete surface. What force is
necessary to start the motion? What force is necessary to keep the motion going?
2.2.4.1 Problems (the atmosphere)
1.Verify, that using the Gas Law (r = P/RT) and the temperature and pressure from the Standard Atmosphere
Table, at an altitude of 65,000 ft., the density of air is 0.000178 slug/ft.3
2.A pressurized Cessna Centurion II has a cabin pressurization system which can maintain a pressure differential
of 3.45 lbs/in2 What is the maximum altitude at which the plane can fly and still maintain a cabin altitude of
8,000 feet? (Hint: convert the of 3.45 lbs/in2 to lbs/ft2 and compare with the Standard Atmosphere table)
3.What is the maximum altitude at which this same Cessna plane can fly and maintain a cabin altitude of 6,000 ft?
2.2.4.2 Problems (specific gravity)

1.What is the specific gravity of kerosene?
2.What is the specific gravity of aluminium?
3.What is the specific gravity of ice?
4.What is the specific gravity of glass?
5.What is the weight of 85 gallons of kerosene?
by multiplying by its specific gravity of 0.8)
2.2.4.6 Problems( Bernoulli)

1.An aeroplane having wing area 500 ft2 is moving at 300 ft/sec. The speed of the air moving past the top surface
of the wing is 400 ft/sec. and the speed of the air past the bottom surface of the wing is 200 ft/sec. The density
of the air is 0.0025 slug/ft3. What is the lift?
2.An aeroplane having wing area 400 ft2 is cruising at 230 ft/sec. The speed of the air moving past the top surface
of the wing is 240 ft/sec and the speed of the air past the bottom surface of the wing is 230 ft/sec. The density of
the air is 0.0025 slug/ft3. What is the weight of the aeroplane?
3.An aeroplane is cruising at 310 ft/sec. The speed of the air moving past the top surface of the wing is 340 ft/sec
and the speed of the air past the bottom surface of the wing is 300 ft/sec. The density of the air is 0.001 slug/ft3
The weight of the aeroplane is 12,800 lbs. What is the wing area?
MODULE 2 – PHYSICS

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Chapter 2. 2 – Mechanics – ANSWERS2.2.1.4 Answers (stress and stain)
1. 0.0012 in.
2. 0.05 in3
3. 64 lb.
4. 3800 lb.
2.2.1.2 Answers (torque)

1. 144 in.lb.
2. 100 N
3. 42.5 in.lb.
4. 75 N
2.2.1.6.a - Answers (pressure of fluid)

1. 10 MPa
2. 450
3. 2000 lbs
4. 3000 PSI
2.2.1.6.b – Answers( buoyancy in liquid)

1. 26,200 lbs.
2. 53,100 lbs
3. 89%
4. 274 lbs
5. 2240 lbs
2.2.2.1 - Answers (linear motion)

1. 312 ft.
2. 100 ft.
3. -24 ft/sec2
4. 55ft/sec.
5. 32 ft/sec.
6. 78 m
7. 64 ft.
8. 100 ft. or 30.6m
9. 200 ft.
10 15 sec.
11 200 ft/sec
2.2.2.2 – Answers (rotational movement)

1. 0.2 kg
2. 4 ft./sec2
3. 15 lb.
4. 24,000 N
5. 5600 N
6. 976 lb.
7. 16,050 N
8. 16 ft/sec2
9. 24 lb.
10.16.67 ft/sec

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2.2.2.2a.- Answers (rotational movement)
1. 480 rev/sec. 28,800 rev/min.
2. 22.5 rev.
3. 219 rev/min.
4. 89,000 ft.
5. 23.8 miles
6. 1/6 rad/s, 5/p rev/min
2
7. 1/160p rev/sec
8. 56.3 rev.
2.2.2.3 Answers (periodic motion)

1. 0.6 Hz, 16.8 seconds
2. 0.625 m
3. 0.36 Hz, 2.8 seconds
4. 0.05 slugs
2.2.2.5 Answers (mechanical advantage)

1. 3
2. 3
3. 71%
4. 80%
5. 33.3 lbs.
6. 375 lbs.
7. 90.9%
8. 836 lbs.
2.2.3.1.Answers (mass and weight)

All answers are to 3 significant figures
1. 4.59 kg
2. 225 N
3. 10.9 slugs
4. 755 lbs.
5. 1.45 lbs.
6. 1140g
2.2.3.3 Answers (work- power)

1. 3370 ft.lb.
2. 15,000,000 J
3. -270 ft.lb. (Note the negative sign!)
4. 4800 ft.lb; 19,200 ft.lb.
5. 39.2 J (or 40 of g = 10m/s2)
6. 70 ft./sec.
7. 900 m
8. 30,000 J
9. 3 MN
10.33 sec.
11.100 ft.lb./sec. 0.182 H
12.32.5 sec.
2.2.3.4.Answers (momentum-impulse)

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1. 3 m/sec.
2. 0.6 ft./sec.
3. 27 m/sec. East
4. 2.4 m/sec. East
5. 67.7 MPH
6. The 3 kg ball is moving left at 1 m/sec. and the 2 kg ball is moving right at 4 m/sec
7. The 2 kg ball is moving right at 3 m/sec. and the 1kg ball is moving right at 6 m/sec
2.2.3.6 Answers (friction)

1. 1,700 lbs.
2. 140 lbs. 100 lbs
2.2.4.1.Answers (the atmosphere)

1. About 18,000 ft
1. About 14,000 ft
2.2.4.2 Answers (specific gravity)

1. 0.8
2. 2.7
3. 0.922
4. 2.6
5. 544 lbs. or 3029 N (Hint: Calculate weight of water, 1 litre = 1kg, or 1 pint = 1 lb, then convert to kerosene
2.2.4.6 Answers (Bernoulli)

1. 75,000 lbs.
2. 2350 lbs.
3. 1000 ft2

Copyright 2011
Module 2
M2 - Physics
2.3 Thermodynamics

Copyright Notice
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Module 2.3 Thermodynamics
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Module 2.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement .......................................................... 6
Module 2.3 Thermodynamics _________________________________________________ 8
1.0. - Temperature................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1. Temperature Scales (°C and °F) ......................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Thermometers ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Alcool thermometers ___________________________________________________________________ 9
Mercury thermometers _________________________________________________________________ 9
Resistance thermometers _______________________________________________________________ 9
Thermocouple thermometers ___________________________________________________________ 10
1.3 Heat Definition .................................................................................................................................... 10
2.0 Heat ................................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.Heat capacity ...................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.Heat specific ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Specific heat at constant volume _________________________________________________________ 12
Specific heat at constant pressure _______________________________________________________ 12
3.0 Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................................ 13
Convection__________________________________________________________________________ 13
Conduction _________________________________________________________________________ 13
Radiation: __________________________________________________________________________ 13
Calcolation of heat transfer _____________________________________________________________ 13
4.0 Volumetric Expansion ................................................................................................................ 14
4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 14
4.2. Linear Expansion ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.3 Area and Volume Expansion .............................................................................................................. 15
4.4. Expansion of Liquids and Gases ....................................................................................................... 15
The Interesting Case of Water___________________________________________________________ 16
5.0 Thermodynamics Laws ................................................................................................................ 17
5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics ..................................................................................................... 17
5.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics ............................................................................................... 18
Entropy ____________________________________________________________________________ 19
Summary ___________________________________________________________________________ 20
6.0 - Gases........................................................................................................................................... 21
6.1 Ideal Gas Laws ................................................................................................................................... 21
Boyle’s Law _________________________________________________________________________ 21
Charles’ Law ________________________________________________________________________ 22
Gay-Lussac’s Law ____________________________________________________________________ 22
6.2. The General (Ideal) Gas Law ............................................................................................................ 23
Alternate Form of the General (Ideal) Gas Law ______________________________________________ 24
6.2 Specific heat ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Specific heat at constant volume _________________________________________________________ 25
Specific heat at constant pressure .......................................................................................................... 25
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6.3 Work done by expanding gas ............................................................................................................. 26
Internal Energy ______________________________________________________________________ 27
Enthalpy____________________________________________________________________________ 27
7.0 – Expansion of Gases .................................................................................................................. 27
7.1 Isotermal espansion........................................................................................................................... 28
7.2 Adiabatic Expansion and Compression .............................................................................................. 28
7.3 Engine cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 29
General ____________________________________________________________________________ 29
Constant Volume Cycle (Otto cycle) _____________________________________________________ 30
Constant Pressure Cycle (The Brayton cycle) _____________________________________________ 31
7.4 Refrigeration and Heat Pumps ........................................................................................................... 32
General ____________________________________________________________________________ 32
Refrigeration ________________________________________________________________________ 32
Refrigerant Types ____________________________________________________________________ 34
Heat Pumps _________________________________________________________________________ 35
8.0 - Latent Heat .................................................................................................................................. 36
8.1. Heat Exchange _____________________________________________________________________ 36
Cooling and Heating Curves ____________________________________________________________ 37
8.2 Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation ............................................................................................ 37
8.3 Further Discussion on Latent Heat ..................................................................................................... 38
9.0 Thermal energy and heat of combustion ................................................................................. 39
9.1 Thermal energy................................................................................................................................... 39
Relation to heat and internal energy ______________________________________________________ 39
9.2 Heat of Combustion ............................................................................................................................ 40
The Calorific Power ___________________________________________________________________ 40
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Module 2.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, and
the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
EASA 66 Level
Objective Reference B1 B2
Thermodynamics 2.3 2 2
(a)
Temperature: thermometers and temperature
scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin; Heat
definition
(b) 2 2
Heat capacity, specific heat
Heat transfer: convection, radiation and conduction;
Volumetric expansion
First and second law of thermodynamics
Gases: ideal gases laws; specific heat at constant volume
and constant pressure, work done by expanding gas
Isothermal, adiabatic expansion and compression, engine
cycles, constant volume and constant pressure, refrigerators
and heat pumps
Latent heats of fusion and evaporation, thermal energy, heat
of combustion
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1.0. - Temperature
1.1. Temperature Scales (°C and °F)
Our common notion of hot and cold has its precise expression in the concept of temperature. As objects are heated
their molecules move faster. In a solid the molecules vibrate more rapidly. In liquids and gases the molecules move
all over in the container at a faster rate of speed. These variations in speed of the molecules cause objects to
expand when they are heated.
This expansion can be used to construct instruments called thermometers. The ordinary mercury thermometer
uses the expansion of a volume of mercury contained in a bulb to indicate temperature.
A number of temperature scales are currently in use. The Fahrenheit scale is the one we have used most
extensively. On this scale the freezing point of water is 32° and its boiling point is 212°.
The metric scale is the Celsius or centigrade scale. On this scale the freezing point of water is zero and the boiling
point is 100°.
In theory, if we cool any substance enough, we can cause all molecular motion to cease. We call this lowest
possible temperature “absolute zero”. Ordinary gases like air would be rock solid at this temperature.
Low temperature physicists have never been able to reach this extremely low temperature in their laboratories.
However, they have come close—down to a fraction of a centigrade degree.
Absolute zero is a limiting temperature which can never be reached.
Two other temperature scales are used by engineers and experimental scientists. In both of these scales the zero
of the scale is placed at absolute zero, the coldest possible temperature. These scales are the metric Kelvin scale
and the English Rankin scale.
In Table 3-3, the four temperature scales are compared.

There are formulas that enable us to change from a centigrade reading to a Fahrenheit reading and vice versa.
These formulas are:
5 9
C= (F - 32) and F= C + 32
9 5
Note that there are parentheses in the first formula but not in the second formula. Be careful!
There are also formulas that change from a centigrade reading to a Kelvin reading and from a Fahrenheit reading
to a Rankin reading.
These formulas are very important to us at this time since we will have to use absolute temperatures in the gas
laws.
These formulas are:
K = C + 273 and R = F + 460
Boiling Freezing Table 3.1: Comparisons of

Absolute
Point of Point of boiling points, freezing points
Zero
Water Water and absolute zero in different
units
Centigrade. 100 0° -273°
Kelvin 373 273 0

Fahrenheit 212o 32° -460°
Rankin 672° 492° 0°
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Notes:
• Kelvin has no sign in-front of the K.
• The accurate conversion factor for 0C to K is +273.15
1.2 Thermometers
The method used to measure temperature depends on the degree of hotness of the body or substance
being measured. Measurement apparatus include; liquid-in-glass thermometers, resistance thermometers,
thermistor thermometers and thermocouples.
All thermometers are based on some property of a material that changes when the material becomes colder or
hotter. Liquid-in-glass thermometers use the fact that most liquids expand slightly when they are heated. Two
common types of liquid-in-glass thermometer are the mercury thermometer and alcohol thermometer, both have
relative advantages and disadvantages.
Alcool thermometers
are suitable for measuring temperatures down to —115°C and have a higher expansion rate than mercury,
so a larger containing tube may be used. They have the disadvantage of requiring the addition of a colouring in
order to be seen easily. Also, the alcohol tends to cling to the side of the glass tube and may separate.
Mercury thermometers
conduct beat well and respond quickly to temperature change. They do not wet the sides of the tube and
so flow well in addition to being easily seen. Mercury has the disadvantage of freezing at —39°C and so is not
suitable for measuring low temperatures. Mercury is also poisonous and special procedures must be followed in
the event of spillage.
Resistance thermometers
are based on the principle that current flow becomes increasing more difficult with increase in tempera-
ture. They are used where a large temperature range is being measured approximately —200 to 1200°C.
Thermistor thermometers work along similar lines, except in this case they offer less and less resistance to the
flow of electric current as temperature increases.
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Thermocouple thermometers
are based on the principle that when two different metal wires are joined at two junctions and each
junction is subjected to a different temperature, a small current will flow. This current is amplified and used to
power an analogue or digital temperature display. Thermocouple temperature sensors are often used to
measure aircraft engine and jet pipe temperatures, they can operate over a temperature range from about
—200 to 1600°C.
1.3 Heat Definition

We recall that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules or atoms in a gas, and
therefore the average velocity, of the molecules of the substance whose temperature is being measured.
Heat is a measure of the total energy of molecular motion. The more molecules that are moving, the greater is the
heat energy. Let us compare a teaspoon of water at 100°F with a cup of water at 50°F. The molecules of water in
the teaspoon are moving faster than the molecules of water in the cup. However, since we have so many more
molecules in the cup, the heat energy in the cup is greater than the heat energy in the teaspoon. If the teaspoon of
water is placed on a large block of ice and the cup of water is also placed on this block of ice, the cup of water at
50°F would melt more ice than the teaspoon of water at 100°F.
There are definite units for measuring heat energy. The units are the Btu (British thermal unit) and the metric units,
the large Calorie (written with a capital “C”) and the small calorie.
The definitions are:
1 British thermal unit (Btu) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F
1 Calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1°C
(Note: 1 Calorie = 4186 J, 1 Btu = 0.252 Cal.)
1 calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C
1 Celsius Heat Unit (CHU) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°C
(Note: The CHU is a mix of English and Metric units and is rarely used).
When we talk about the heat content of fuel (which must be burned to be released) – commonly called the heat
of combustion, we talk about Calories per lb. of fuel, or Btu per lb. of fuel, or Joules per kg of fuel. Since 1 Btu =
252 calories, and 1 calorie = 4.186 Joules, there are 1055 Joules in 1 Btu. And since 1 lb. = 2.2 kg, 1 Btu/lb. =
2326 J/kg.
We note that the Calorie is the famous dietary Calorie. The body stores excess food as fat and we measure the
Calories in a certain foodstuff by burning these foodstuffs and measuring the heat produced!
In the solution of heat problems, we will limit our discussion to the English system, since this is the system that is
most often encountered in our society
2.0 Heat
2.1.Heat capacity
. Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied
to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is Joule per
kelvin (J/K).
Heat capacity is an extensive property. The corresponding intensive property is the specific heat capacity. Dividing
the heat capacity by the amount of substance in moles yields its molar heat capacity. The volumetric heat capacity
measures the heat capacity per volume. Heat capacity is often referred to as thermal mass in civil engineering.
2.2.Heat specific
As heat is added to a body its temperature increases. However, the same amount of heat added to a piece of
aluminium and a piece of copper will not produce the same temperature change. Aluminium and copper have
different “specific heats”.
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The important equation is the following:
Q = wCDT (when using English units)
In this equation:
Q = heat gained or lost (Btu)
w = weight of the body (lb.)
C = the specific heat of the substance Btu/lb.oF
DT = the temperature change (oF or oR)
Q = m C DT (when using Metric units)
In this equation:
Q = heat gained or lost (J) m = mass of the body (kg)
C = the specific heat of the substance (J/kgoC) DT = the temperature change (oC or K)
It is important to note that this equation deals with substances that are not changing their states of matter. Another
equation will deal with heat added or lost as a body changes from one state (solid, liquid, or gas) to another.
Since there are two equations, (depending on whether you are using English or Metric units) there are also two
sets of Specific Heat Capacity constants.
Table 3.5 shows various specific heats of substances in English and Metric units.
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Specific heat at constant volume
If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with an amount of heat energy sufficient to raise the temperature by 1°C or 1 K while
the volume of the gas remains constant, then the amount of heat energy supplied is known as the specific heat
capacity at constant volume and is denoted by c v . Note that under these circumstances (Figure 4.100(a))
no work is done, but the gas has received an increase in internal energy ( U). The specific heat at constant
volume for air ) is 718 J/kgK, this constant is well worth memorizing!
Specific heat at constant pressure

If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with a quantity of heat energy sufficient to raise the temperature of the gas by 1°C or 1
K while the pressure is held constant, then the amount of heat energy supplied is known as the specific heat
capacity at constant pressure and is denoted by cp.
This implies that when the gas has been heated it will expand a distance h (Figure 4.100b), so work has been
done. Thus for the same amount of heat energy there has been a ri-increase in internal energy (U), plus
work. The value of cp is, therefore, greater than the corresponding value of cv.
K.P.= The specific heat capacity at constant pressure for air is 1005 J/kgK.
K.P = Specific heat at constant pressure will be greater than specific heat at constant volume, since work is
done.
Gases have a different specific heat capacity depending upon whether they are held at constant volume or
constant pressure. Therefore all gases, as well as having a specific heat capacity, also has a value of its ratio of
CP
g=
CV
For example:
Specific Heat Capacity of Dry Air:

at Constant Pressure, CP 1004 J / K kg
at Constant Volume, Cv 717 J / K kg
CP
Therefore g air = = 1.4
CV
Also CP – Cv = R (the ideal gas constant we saw in Chapter 4).
Since both R and g are always positive values, and greater than 1, CP is always greater than Cv.
EXAMPLE 1:
How much heat must be supplied to raise the temperature of a 32 lb. aluminium fitting from 60°F to 90°F?
Q = w C DT (imperial)
æ Btu ö
Q = ç 0.212 o
÷ (32 lbs.)(30 F) Q = 204 Btu.
è lb.ft. ø
EXAMPLE 2:
How much heat is given up as 100 lbs. of sea water cools from 90°F to 50°F?
Q = w C DT (imperial)
æ Btu ö
Q = ç 0.93 o
÷ (100 lbs.)( 40 F) Q = 3720 Btu.
è lb.ft. ø
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3.0 Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by one or more of the
following processes:
Convection
is the transfer of heat energy in a gas or liquid by movement of currents.
Think of air and water currents! (it can also happen is some solids, like sand.)
The heat moves with the fluid.
Consider this: convection is responsible for making macaroni rise and fall in a
pot of heated water. The warmer portions of the water are less dense and
therefore, they rise. Meanwhile, the cooler portions of the water fall because
they are denser.
Conduction
is the transfer of energy through matter from particle to particle. It is the
transfer and distribution of heat energy from atom to atom within a substance.
For example, a spoon in a cup of hot soup becomes warmer because the heat
from the soup is conducted along the spoon.
Conduction is most effective in solids-but it can happen in fluids. Have you
ever noticed that metals tend to feel cold? Believe it or not, they are not colder!
They only feel colder because they conduct heat away from your hand. You
perceive the heat that is leaving your hand as cold.
Radiation:
Electromagnetic waves that directly transport ENERGY through space.
Sunlight is a form of radiation that is radiated through space to our planet at
the speed of light without the aid of fluids or solids. The energy travels
through nothingness! Just think of it!
The sun transfers heat through 93 million miles of space. Because there are
no solids (like a huge spoon) touching the sun and our planet, conduction is
not responsible for bringing heat to Earth.
Since there are no fluids (like air and water) in space, convection is not
responsible for transferring the heat. Thus, radiation brings heat to our
planet.
Calcolation of heat transfer

- We know that heat flows through insulating materials from the warm
side to the cool side.
It is possible to predict how many Btu will flow through a given
insulator in a given amount of time.
The equation is:
Q kA DT
=
t L
The equation is less difficult than it seems at first. We will carefully

define each symbol.
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Q = heat flow in Btu
t = time in hours
A = the surface area of the insulation in square feet
DT = the temperature difference in oF
L = the thickness of the insulation in inches
k = the thermal conductivity of the material from which the insulation is made
EXAMPLE:
An outside wall of a house has total cross-sectional area of 2,000 ft.2 The thickness of the fibreboard insulation
is 3 inches. The inside temperature is 70°F and the outside temperature is 20°F. What is the heat loss per
hour through this outside wall?
Q kA DT Q (0.42 Btu in. / ft 2 hr o F)(2,000 ft)(50 F) Q

= = = 14,000 Btu / hr
t L t 3 in t
4.0 Volumetric Expansion

4.1 General
The temperature of a body is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of that body. It follows that
molecules of warm liquids and gases move around faster in their containers than molecules of cool liquids and
gases. As a solid is heated its molecules vibrate faster about their equilibrium positions. As a result of this
increased motion of molecules as they are heated, solids and liquids expand as the temperature is raised.
We’re going to return to the idea of how temperature is related to molecular motion later, but first let’s look at what
happens to materials when they change temperature.
Let’s say that you’ve got a jar lid that’s stuck and you want to get it off. How can you do this? One common way is
by running the jar under hot water so that the jar lid expands and can come off the jar. Thinking back to our model
of solids, if temperature is a measure of how fast things are moving, when a solid heats up, the molecules vibrate
about their normal positions.
At higher temperature, they vibrate more and the material actually grows in size. When a material is cooled, the
molecules don’t move as much and the material shrinks.
If we look at a long strip of metal, with length Lo, we might want to find out what its change in length is under certain
conditions. This is important, for instance, in building roads that must undergo temperature extremes.
Experimentally, we find that the change in length is directly related to the change in temperature and to the initial
length of the bar. The dependence on the initial length of the bar comes about because there are that many more
molecules moving, so the change in length will be greater than that of a shorter bar.
But let’s think back to the jar. When you heat the lid, you’re also heating the glass, too. Doesn’t the glass also
expand? The answer is that it does, but it expands less than the material from which the lid is made. This means
that we somehow have to account for the fact that different materials expand or contract by different amounts
under the same temperature change.
Let’s try to arrange these materials on a scale. The way we account for the different rates of different materials in
out equation is via the coefficient of linear expansion, a . a has units of /°C (pronounced ‘per degree Celsius’) .
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4.2. Linear Expansion
A rod of a substance will increase its length for a given
temperature change. The increase in length depends on the
original length of the rod, the temperature change, and the
material of the rod. The increase in size of the object comes
about by the fact that an increase in temperature results in a n
increase in kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms which make
up the material. Increasing the movement of the molecules
forces it to occupy more space.
We define alpha (a), the coefficient of linear expansion. Tables of
values of alpha for various substances are found in handbooks of
physics.
The formula is: DL = a Lo DT
In this formula,
Lo = the original length of the rod a = the coefficient of linear expansion
DL = the change in length of the rod DT = the change in temperature
4.3 Area and Volume Expansion
Two-dimensional solid bodies also experience thermal area expansion. The formula is as follows:
DA = 2a Ao DT
In this formula,
Ao = the original area of the body a = the coefficient of linear expansion
DA = the change in area of the body DT = the change in temperature
Three-dimensional solid bodies experience volume expansion.

DV = 3a Vo DT
In this formula:
Vo = the original volume of the body
a = the coefficient of linear expansion
DV = the change in volume of the body
DT = the change in temperature
4.4. Expansion of Liquids and Gases

We have a minor problem with our expression for the thermal expansion of solids, which is that it only works for
solids. Neither liquids nor gases have a fixed shape when left on their own. The expression also fails if you have to
consider the expansion of a solid in all directions.
b is called the coefficient of volume expansion. For solids, b is approximately equal to 3a. This is true only when
the change in volume is small compared to the original volume. The problem is that for liquids and gases, b is very
large and this formula sometimes won’t work.
Liquids also experience thermal expansion. We introduce beta (b), the coefficient of volume expansion. There are
also tables of the coefficients of volume expansion.
DV = b Vo DT
Generally, liquids expand more than solids, and gases much more than liquids, for any given change in
temperature. This is because the molecules of liquids are not tied to each other and have more room and freedom
to vibrate than do the molecules or atoms in solids. The molecules of gases of course, are completely free to
move, and thus will move much more vigorously when heated than either solids or liquids
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The Interesting Case of Water
Most materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. Water is an exception. Between 0°C and 4°C,
water actually expands when cooled. Above this range, it behaves normally. Water therefore has its greatest
density at 4°C. This turns out to be quite important for things that live underwater. In the winter, you notice that the
top of a pond always freezes first. As the temperature decreases, there is a temperature gradient in the water.
The top will be cooler than the bottom because it is in contact with the cold air. When the water on the top of the
lake reaches 4°C, it becomes denser and sinks to the bottom of the lake, being replaced by warmer water from the
bottom. The water that is now on top cools to 4°C, and so on, until the whole lake is at 4°C.
The surface water cools even more, but now it is less dense than the water below it, so it stays on the top of the
lake and turns to ice (which is even less dense than cold water). If the ice sank instead of floating, the lake would
freeze all the way through and pretty much everything inside would die. The layer of ice additionally acts as an
insulator, keeping the rest of the water away from the surface and the colder environment.
EXAMPLE 1:
A steel rail of length 140 ft. Is laid down when the temperature is 20°F. What is the increase in length of this
rail when the temperature is 95°F?
DL = a Lo DT DL = (11 x 10-6/oF) (140 ft.) (75 oF) DL = 0.116 ft.
EXAMPLE 2:
An aluminium tank has volume 35 ft.3 What is the increase in volume of this tank when the temperature
increases from 30°F to 90°F?
It should be noted that a solid block of a substance increases in volume as the body is heated. Also, a
container has a bigger volume as the temperature of the container increases.
DV = 3a Vo DT DV = 3 (13 x 10-6/oF) (35 ft.3) (60 oF) DV = 0.0819 ft.3
EXAMPLE 3:
The manager of an airport accepts delivery of 1,000 gallons of avgas on a cool evening when the temperature
is 35°F. This avgas completely fills a 1,000 gallon aluminium tank. A warm front moves in the next morning
and the temperature rises to 95°F. How much avgas will overflow?
If the avgas costs £1.25/gal. what is the loss to the airport?
For the gasoline:
DV = b Vo DT DV = (0.58 x 1 0-3/oF) (1,000 gal.) (60 oF) DV = 34.8 gal.
For the tank:
DV = b Vo DT DV = 3(13 x 10-6/oF) (1,000 gal.) (60 oF) DV = 2.3 gal.
The new volume of the avgas is 1,034.8 gal. and the new volume of the tank is 1,002.3 gal. We note that 32.5
gallons of avgas will overflow!
Loss £1.25/gal. x 32.5 gal. = £40.63.
EXAMPLE 4:
A motorist puts 20.1 gallons of petrol in his gas tank on a hot summer day when the temperature is 95°F. He
uses 0.1 gal. in driving home. The temperature falls to 45°F that evening after a cool front has moved into the
area. How many gallons are in his tank the next morning when he leaves for work?
DV = b Vo DT DV = (0.58 x 10-6/oF) (20 gal.) (50 oF) DV = 0.58 gal.
There are 19.42 gallons of petrol in his tank the next morning!
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5.0 Thermodynamics Laws
5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Previously, the energy conservation law was defined; it says: "energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
only transformed from one form into another".
The first law of thermodynamics is an affirmation of the afore mentioned general principle, which refers in particular
to heat, as thermal energy, and to mechanical energy.
Before enunciating the law, it is necessary to first define what is meant by "system".
By system we mean: "a set of objects or matter, enclosed within clearly defined and identifiable borders".
The region outside the borders is called: "the surrounding
environment".
Confine
The system can be represented by a house, or by an
aircraft, or even by a gas cylinder.
The figure shows a system in general.
The inputs to the system and its outputs can also be
considered; in the case of a house, it could be the flow
and return of a heating system, or the entry of water from
the aqueduct and the exit of the water towards the sewer,
or even the noise that enters and that which comes out, or Ambiente
even more. circostante
The term "closed system" means a system that has no
energy exchange with the external environment: no exchange takes place, neither of light, nor of heat, nor of
matter (mass), or other, across the border or outline of the system, neither inward nor outward; however, there is a
peculiarity: the system boundary can be expanded or contracted without requiring any effort.
A closed system of this kind is represented by the cylinder and piston assembly, when the piston seal is considered
perfect, the thermal insulation of the cylinder is perfect and the piston is free to move back and forth along the
barrel, without any friction.
As indicated in the figure, the piston is able to compress the Confin
gas or to allow it to expand, without any passage of mass or
e
heat through the system boundary.
In practice these conditions are impossible to obtain in real Moviment
condition, because although excellent thermal insulation is o
achieved, there is always a heat exchange with the outside.
As for the first principle of thermodynamics, it is important to
remember that both work and heat are both energies in transit,
therefore they cannot be stored.
Let's consider two different conditions The first includes the case in which the piston compresses the gas in the
cylinder: during this action both the pressure and the temperature of the gas increase, i.e. the intrinsic energy of the
gas.
Since it has been assumed that the cylinder is perfectly isolated from the thermal point of view, so that the heat of
the gas cannot propagate outside the cylinder, the intrinsic energy of the gas corresponds to the work performed by
the piston on the gas.
In the second condition, shown in the figure, the piston is kept fixed in a certain position, but the cylinder is not
thermally insulated.
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Since the boundary is fixed, no work on the gas can be
performed: by supplying the gas with heat from the
Confine
outside, both its pressure and its temperature increase,
and consequently its intrinsic energy increases.
In both cases, the gas already had an intrinsic level of Posizione
energy before supplying or removing it from work or heat. fissa
This means that only the difference of intrinsic energies
is taken into account during transformations: final energy
minus initial energy.
In both cases there is no mass shift between the inside Calore
and outside of the cylinder, and if the fluid is not moving,
this intrinsic energy is called the "internal energy" of the fluid and is indicated by the symbol "u".
In a closed system in which a transformation takes place, without mass flow towards the outside or inside, and
during the transformation the quantity of heat "Q" enters the system, while the quantity "W" comes out, the First
Law of Thermodynamics establishes the following:
“The difference between the sum Q of the heat that enters the system as a whole, and the work W performed
by the system towards the outside, is equal to the increase [U2 - U1] of the internal energy of the system".
In mathematical terms: Q = W + [U2 - U1]
Q (heat entered the system) = W (work provided by the system) +
[U2 - U1] (increase of the internal energy of the system).
Every time a complete cycle is performed on a closed system, at the end of the cycle the conditions are the same
as those found at the beginning of the cycle.
For example, the piston moves towards the inside of the cylinder and then outwards, returning to the same starting
position.
In this case, although the system has received heat and work from the outside, in the end the same quantities were
transferred outside from the system, so the internal energy of the system, at the end of the cycle is equal to the
initial internal energy.
In this case the following relation can be written: Q = W, and the First Law of Thermodynamics can be stated in the
following way:
“When a closed system evolves following an entire cycle, the sum of the heat and
energy received by the external environment and entry inside the border, it is the
same as the overall work supplied or transferred outside by the system ".
5.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics is really a prelude to the second.
It states that the total energy output (as that produced by a machine) is equal to the amount of heat supplied.
Generally, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, so the sum of mass and energy is always conserved.
Physicists attempting to transform heat into work with full efficacy quickly learned that always some heat would
escape into the surrounding environment, eternally doomed to be wasted energy (recall that energy can not be
destroyed). Being obsolete, this energy can never be converted into anything useful again.
One physicist noted for significant experiments in this field is the Frenchman, Sadi Carnot.
His ideal engine, so properly titled the 'Carnot Engine,' would theoretically have a work output equal to that of its
heat input (thus not losing any energy in the process).
However, he fell into a similar trap as in the first law, and failed to conduct his experiments as would naturally
occur. Realizing his error, he concluded (after further experimentation) that no device could completely make the
desired conversion, without losing at least some energy to the environment.
Carnot created an equation he employed to prove this statement, and which is currently used to show the
thermodynamic efficiency of a heat machine:
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TL
efficiency = 1 -
TH
(the efficiency of a heat machine is equal to one minus the low operating temperature of the machine in degrees
Kelvin, divided by the high operating temperate of the machine in degrees Kelvin).
For a machine to attain 100% efficiency, temperatures of absolute zero would have to be incorporated. Reaching
absolute zero is later proved impossible by the Third Law of Thermodynamics (which would surface in the late 19th
century).
The irrevocable loss of some energy to the environment was associated with an increase of disorder in that
system. Scientists wishing to further penetrate the realm of chaos needed a variable that could be used to calculate
disorder. Thanks to mid-nineteenth century physicist, R.J.E. Clausius, this Pandemonium could be measured in
terms of a quantity named entropy1 (the variable S).
Entropy acts as a function of the state of a system - where a high amount of entropy translates to higher chaos
within the system, and low entropy signals a highly ordered state.
Like Carnot, Clausius worked out a general equation, his being devoted to the measurement of entropy change
over a period of time: (change)S = Q / T (the change in entropy is equal to the amount of heat added to the system
[by an invertible process] divided by the temperature in degrees Kelvin).
The beauty of this equation is that it can be used to compute the entropic change of any exchange in nature, not
solely limited to machines. This development brought thermodynamics out of the industrial workplace, and opened
the possibility for further studies into the tendencies of natural order (and lack therefore of), eventually extending to
the universe as a whole.
Applying this knowledge to nature, physicists found that the total entropy change (change in S) always increases
for every naturally occurring event (within a closed system) that could be then observed.
Thus, they theorized, disorder must be continually augmenting evenly throughout the universe.
When you put ice into a hot cup of tea (aristocrats of the Victorian era were constantly thinking of tea), heat will flow
from the hot tea to the cold ice and melt the ice in the beloved beverage. Then, once the energy in the cup is
evenly distributed, the cooled tea would reach a maximum state of entropy.
This situation represents a standard increase in disorder, believed to be perpetually occurring throughout the entire
universe.
Entropy
Specifically, is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system.
Darrell Ebbing, in the textbook General Chemistry, very usefully suggests thinking of a deck of cards. A new pack
fresh out of the box, arranged by suit and in sequence from ace to king, can be said to be in its ordered state.
Shuffle the cards and you put them into a disordered state.
Entropy is a way of measuring just how disordered that state is and of determining the likelihood of particular
outcomes with further shuffles. Of course, if you wish to have any observations published in a respectable journal
you will need also to understand additional concepts such as thermal non-uniformities, lattice distances, and
stoichometric relationships, but that’s the general idea.
The second law of thermodynamics (also known as ‘the entropy law’ or ‘law of entropy’) was formulated in the
middle of the nineteenth century by Clausius and Thomson following Carnot's earlier observation that, like the fall
or flow of a stream that turns a mill wheel, it is the "fall" or flow of heat from higher to lower temperatures that
motivates a steam engine.
The key insight was that the world is inherently active, and that whenever an energy distribution is out of
equilibrium a potential or thermodynamic "force" (the gradient of a potential) exists that the world acts
spontaneously to dissipate or minimize. All real-world change or dynamics is seen to follow, or be motivated, by
this law.
So, whereas the first law expresses that which remains the same, or is time-symmetric, in all real-world processes
the second law expresses that which changes and motivates the change, the fundamental time-asymmetry, in all
real-world processes.
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Clausius coined the term "entropy" to refer to the dissipated potential and the
second law, in its most general form, states that the world acts spontaneously
to minimize potentials (or equivalently maximize entropy), and with this, active
end-directedness or time-asymmetry was, for the first time, given a universal
physical basis.
The balance equation of the second law, expressed as S > 0, says that in all
natural processes the entropy of the world always increases, and thus
whereas with the first law there is no time, and the past, present, and future
are indistinguishable, the second law, with its one-way flow, introduces the
basis for telling the difference.
The active nature of the second law is intuitively easy to grasp and empirically
demonstrate. If a glass of hot liquid, for example, as shown in Figure-3, is
placed in a colder room a potential exists and a flow of heat is spontaneously
produced from the cup to the room until it is minimized (or the entropy is
maximized) at which point the temperatures are the same and all flows stop.
The glass of liquid at temperature TI is placed in a room at temperature TII
such that the disequilibrium produces a field potential that results in a flow of
energy in the form of heat from the glass to the room so as to drain the
potential until it is minimized (the entropy is maximized) at which time thermodynamic equilibrium is reached and all
flows stop.
This refers to the conservation of energy in that the flow from the glass equals the flow of heat into the room.
The two laws have far reaching ramifications in physics and the real world. One such is that no heat engine can
ever be 100% efficient, unless the exhaust temperature (known as the ‘sink’ temperature) is absolute zero.
Absolute zero is both theoretically and practically impossible to achieve.
Another ramification is the fact that no thermodynamics process can be reversed, precisely due to the first law
which states that not all the heat energy supplied can be turned into work.
The closest one can come to a fully reversible process is forcing a flow through a constricted pipe. Ideal means no
boundary layer losses. As the flow moves through the constriction, the pressure, temperature and velocity change,
but these variables return to their original values downstream of the constriction.
The state of the gas returns to its original conditions and the change of entropy of the system is zero.
Aerodynamicists call such a process an isentropic process. Isentropic means constant entropy.
The second law states that if the physical process is irreversible, the combined entropy of the system and the
environment must increase. The final entropy must be greater than the initial entropy for an irreversible process:
Summary
Thermodynamics is the study of the inter-relation between heat, work and internal energy of a system.
The British scientist and author C.P. Snow had an excellent way of remembering the three laws (including the 3rd
law):
1. You cannot win (that is, you cannot get something for nothing, because matter and energy are conserved).
2. You cannot break even (you cannot return to the same energy state, because there is always an increase
in disorder; entropy always increases).
3. You cannot get out of the game (because absolute zero is unattainable).
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6.0 - Gases
6.1 Ideal Gas Laws
We will next discuss the volume and density of gases under varying conditions of temperature and pressure.
Three gas laws, named after the scientists that discovered them, will be considered.
Boyle’s Law
A cylinder containing gas is fitted with a light piston. This cylinder contains a certain mass of gas and therefore a
certain number of molecules of gas. The gas has a definite absolute temperature. This temperature is a measure of
the average speed of the gas molecules in the sample. Some of the molecules are moving faster and some are
moving slower. The average speed determines the temperature.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant and the volume of the gas sample is decreased, the molecules, still
moving with the same average speed, are “squashed” into a smaller space (see figure 3.2).
The result is that the sides of the container experience more collisions per unit time. This results in an increase in
the absolute pressure the molecules exert on the walls of the container.
Note that a decrease in volume produces an increase in
absolute pressure. This is characteristic of an inverse
proportion. We write the equation as:
P1 V2
=
P2 V1
If we cross multiply in the above equation we reach the form in
which Boyle’s Law is usually written:
P1V1 = P2V2
Here P1 and P2 are the absolute pressures corresponding to
the volumes V1 and V2 respectively. In working with Boyle’s
Law, it must always be remembered to use absolute pressures.
EXAMPLE:
A cylinder fitted with a piston contains gas at a pressure of 35.5 lbs./in2 as indicated by a gauge mounted to
the outside of the cylinder. The atmospheric pressure is 14.5 lbs./in2 if the piston is forced down reducing the
volume in the cylinder to one fourth of its original volume while holding the temperature of the gas constant,
determine the new reading on the pressure gauge.
P1 = (35.5 + 14.5) lbs./in2. P1 = 50 ibs./in2 V2 = ¼ V1 P1V1 = P2V2
(50 lbs./in2) (V1) = P2 ( ¼ V1). Solving for P2 gives, P2 = 200 ibs./in2 absolute
We still must express this new pressure as a gauge pressure since the problem asked for the new reading on
the pressure gauge. Our final answer is:
P2 = (200 - 14.5) lbs./in2 = 186 lbs./in2
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Charles’ Law
Toward the end of the 18th century, investigations carried out by
French physicists, Jacques Alexandre Charles and Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac led to the discovery of a relation between the volume
and absolute temperature of gases under conditions of constant
pressure.
Let us again consider a sample of gas containing a definite number
of molecules. We stipulate that the pressure on this sample of gas
will remain constant. If the pressure is to remain constant, an
increase in absolute temperature must be accompanied by a
corresponding increase in volume (see figure 3.3).
We say that the volume is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. provided that the pressure remains constant. We
write the equation as:
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
The absolute temperatures must be either Kelvin,
or Rankin degrees
EXAMPLE:
A quantity of air occupies a volume of one cubic foot on a day when the temperature is 15°F. What will be the
volume of this quantity of air when the temperature increases to 85°F, and the pressure stays the same?
1 ft 3 V2
=
475 R 545 o R
o
Note that we have changed the temperatures from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Rankin, because we must
express the temperatures in absolute units. Cross multiplying, we obtain:
1 ft 3 ´ 545 o R
V2 = = 1.15 ft 3
475 o R
Failure to convert to absolute temperatures will always lead to incorrect answers when working with the gas
laws!
Gay-Lussac’s Law
This third gas law relates the absolute pressure to the absolute
temperature of a gas when its volume is held constant.
Again we consider a certain number of molecules of gas in a closed
container where the volume of the gas is held constant. If we
increase the absolute temperature of the gas, the average speed of
the molecules increases.
As these molecules strike the walls of the container they exert a
greater pressure since they are moving faster (see figure 3.4).
Using absolute pressures and temperatures the
following simple relationship is obtained:
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
This equation is referred to as Gay-Lussac’s Law.
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EXAMPLE:
The tyre of a bicycle is filled with air to a gauge pressure of 50.0 lbs./in. at 58°F. What is the gauge pressure in
the tyre on a day when the temperature rises to 86°F? Assume that the volume of the tyre does not change
and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lbs.fin.2
We must first convert to absolute temperatures and pressures.
P1 = 50.0 lbs./in2 + 14.7 lbs./in2 = 64.7 ibs./in2 T1 = 460 + 58°F = 518°R T2 = 460 + 86°F = 546°R
Substituting these values into Gay-Lussac’s Law gives:
Solving for P2, we obtain P2 = 68.2 ibs./in2. Finally, the new gauge pressure is obtained by subtracting the
atmospheric pressure from P2. 68.2 lbs./in2 - 14.7 lbs./in2 = 53.5 lbs./in2
6.2. The General (Ideal) Gas Law

The three properties, pressure, temperature, and volume are interrelated for a fixed mass (number of molecules) of
gas in such a way that if two of them change in value the third can immediately be determined. Combining the
three gas laws the following general gas law can be written:
P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
Note that this equation gives us the three gas laws that we have studied.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant, we can cancel the temperatures in the denominators and obtain:
P1V1 = P2V2 Boyle’s Law
If the pressure remains constant, we can cancel the pressures in the numerators and obtain:
V1 V2
= Charles’ Law
T1 T2
If the volume remains constant, we can cancel the volumes in the numerators and obtain:
P1 P2
= Gay-Lussac’s Law
T1 T2
EXAMPLE:
A tank of helium gas has a gauge pressure of 50.2 lbs/in2 and a temperature of 45°F. A piston decreases the
volume of the gas to 68% of its original volume and the temperature drops to 10°F. What is the new gauge
pressure? Assume normal atmospheric pressure.
We must change both temperatures to absolute units. We must change the original gauge pressure to
absolute pressure. We remember that when the final pressure is obtained it will be in absolute units. We also
note that V2 = 0.68 V1.
P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
We transfer V2 from the numerator on the right to the denominator on the left. We also transfer T2 from the
denominator on the right to the numerator on the left. In this way, we solve our formula for P2.
P1V1T2
= P2
T1V2
Next we substitute our known values:
P2 = 88.8 lbs/in2 Absolute P2 = 74.1 lbs/in2 (New Gauge Pressure)
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Alternate Form of the General (Ideal) Gas Law
The general gas law tells us that for a fixed quantity of gas, the expression PV/T is constant. Since PV/T is a
constant for a fixed mass of gas, we can set this expression equal to the product of the mass (m) of the gas and
what is referred to as a gas constant (R). This gas constant (R) varies according to the type of gas. Table 3.2 gives
values of R for various gases.
PV
We can write: = mR PV = mRT
T
mRT
If we divide both sides of this equation by V. we obtain: P=
V
m
We remember that the density of any substance is given by: r=
V
Therefore, we can write: P = rRT
The most important application of this formula enables us to obtain the density of any particular kind of gas if we
know its absolute pressure and absolute temperature.
P
We write the equation in the form: r=
RT
Note: When comparing the density of one type of gas
to another, we need to use equal temperatures and
pressures for each gas (since, as the above equation
shows, density changes with pressure and temperature
changes). The temperature and pressure we use for
this is known as Standard Temperature and
Pressure. These are 0oC and 1 atmosphere (273.15 K
and 760 mmHg).
EXAMPLE 1:
Find the density of air if the temperature is 80°F and the absolute pressure is 2,150 lbs./ft2
P 2150 lbs / ft 2 = 0.00233 slug/ft3
r= =
RT (1710 ft.lbs / slug oR)(540 o R)
Application of the General Gas Law to Compressors
We can apply the general gas law to the flow of air through the compressor of a turbojet engine. The function
of the compressor is to provide a large quantity of high pressure air to the limited space of the combustion
chamber. The reason for this is that the energy released in the combustion chamber is proportional to the
mass of air consumed. The pressure of the air when it leaves the compressor is called the compressor
discharge pressure (CDP) and the ratio of this to the compressor inlet pressure (CIP) is the compression ratio.
CDP
That is, Compression Ratio =
CIP
Note that the compression ratio can also be expressed as: Compression Ratio. = P2 / P1 =
where the 1’s refer to the inlet pressure and the 2’s to the discharge pressure.
Air entering a compressor having a compression ratio of 12.5:1 at a pressure of 14.7 PSIA will leave with a
pressure of: (12.5)(14.7) = 184 PSIA
If however, the temperature of the air is increased too much in the compression process the volume of a
quantity of air entering the combustion chamber will not be reduced significantly and the compressor efficiency
will be low.
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EXAMPLE 2:
A quantity of air occupying 1 cu.ft. at pressure of 14.7 PSIA and a temperature of 59°F enters the compressor
of a turbojet engine having a compression ratio of 12.5:1 and is discharged at a temperature of 2,000°F. With
what volume will this quantity of air enter the combustion chamber?
P1V1 P2 V2
Solving our general equation: = for V2 yields
T1 T2
P1V1T2 æ T öæ 1 ö
V2 = = V1 çç 2 ÷÷çç ÷÷
T1P2 è T1 øè P2 / P1 ø
Therefore, we can substitute our given values:
æ 2000 + 460 öæ 1 ö
V2 = (1 ft 3 )ç ÷ç ÷ V2 = 0.379 ft.3
è 59 + 460 øè 12.5 ø
EXAMPLE 3:
With what volume would the quantity of air of the previous problem enter the combustion chamber if the
discharge temperature of the compressor were 750°F instead of 2,000°F?
æ 750 + 460 öæ 1 ö
V2 = (1 ft 3 )ç ÷ç ÷ V2 = 0.187 ft.3
è 59 + 460 øè 12.5 ø
We see that the volume of the original cubic foot of air is less (0.187 ft.3) when the temperature is 750°F than it
is (0.379 ft.3) when the temperature is 2,000°F.
6.2 Specific heat

From what has been said about heat transfer above, it will be apparent that different materials have different
capacities for absorbing and transferring thermal energy. The thermal energy needed to produce a temperature
rise depends on; the mass of the material, type of material and the temperature rise to which the material is
subjected.
Thus, the inherent ability of a material to absorb heat for a given mass and temperature rise is dependent on the
material itself. This property of the material is known as its specific heat capacity.
In the SI system, the specific heat ...capacity of a material is the same as the thermal energy required to produce a
1 K rise in temperature in a mass of kg.
Therefore, knowing the mass of a substance and its specific heat capacity, it is possible to calculate the thermal
energy required to 4 produce any given temperature rise, from
Thermal energy, Q = mc Δt where c= specific heat capacity of the material (J/kgK) and Δ t is the temperature
change.
Specific heat at constant volume
If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with an amount of heat energy sufficient to raise the temperature by 1°C or 1 K while the
volume of the gas remains constant, then the amount of heat energy supplied is known as the specific heat
capacity at constant volume and is denoted by cv.
Note that under these circumstances (Figure 4.100(a)) no work is done, but the gas has received an increase in
internal energy ( U). The specific heat at constant volume for air ) is 718 J/kgK, this constant is well worth
memorizing!
Specific heat at constant pressure
If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with a quantity of heat energy sufficient to raise the temperature of the gas by 1°C or 1 K
while the pressure is held constant, then the amount of heat energy supplied is known as the specific heat capacity
at constant pressure and is denoted by cp.
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This implies that when the gas has been heated it will expand a distance h (Figure 4.100b), so work has been
done. Thus for the same amount of heat energy there has been a ri-increase in internal energy (U), plus work.
The value of cp is, therefore, greater than the corresponding value of cv.
Cp.= The specific heat capacity at constant pressure for air air is 1005 J/kgK.
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure will be greater than specific heat at constant volume, since work is done.
The charatteristic gas equation pV = mRT
R is the characteristic gas constant and for air, from the above table, is R = 287 J/kgK. This is related to the specific
heat capacities for air in the following way, i.e. R = cp — cv, you should check this relationship by noting the above
values of R, ci, and cv for air. This relationship (R= cp - cv) is not only valid for air, it is also valid for any perfect gas
that follows the ideal laws.
6.3 Work done by expanding gas

Most thermodynamic processes are carried out in order to do work - the
combustion of fuel inside your car engine, or inside an aero engine for example.
But as we saw previously, to do work, there must be some movement, and a
force in the same direction as that movement.
Consider a piston inside a cylinder as shown in Figure 3.14.
After both valves are closed, the gas is ignited and it expands.
This expansion pushes the piston down the cylinder, with a considerable force.
Hence, work is done and can be calculated by
Work = Force x Distance But the force on the piston is given by
Force = Pressure x Area
Where the Pressure is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder, and the Area is the
piston face area. Hence our Work formula is now
Work = Pressure x Area x Distance where ‘distance’ is the movement of the piston
If we simplify watch is shown in Figure 3.13, you will see that the distance
that the piston moves, multiplied by the Area of the piston, equates to the
increase in volume of the gas as it burns.
Our formula for work then becomes:
Work = Pressure x Change in Volume
i.e. Work = P ΔV
Where ‘Δ’ (delta) indicates a‘change in’ the quantity’ V.
This is the standard formula for Work done in a thermodynamic process (it
is only applicable to processes where the volume changes, if the volume
does not change, no work is done). It applies regardless of the direction of
work, so if an external force is applied to the piston, the volume of gas in
the cylinder will reduce.
The work required to reduce the volume is given by the same formula.
Thermodynamicists often simplify the formula to Work = P V
It makes certain assumptions, for example, that the pressure remains constant as the gas expands. In a piston
engine, this is not the case, as the pressure rises to a peak as the gas is burned, then reduces as the piston is
displaced. It is however, a fair assumption to make, in the case of a gas turbine engine, as the gas in the
combustion chamber is burned, and expands at constant pressure.
Even in the case of the piston engine however, the above formula can still be used in conjunction with some
complex calculus (which is not part of the EASA Part-66 syllabus, and way beyond the scope of these notes).
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Internal Energy
Whenever a gas increases in temperature, the molecules of the gas vibrate and move around more vigorously. It
is this increased kinetic energy that actually produces the increased pressure as they collide with each other and
with the walls of the container in which it is confined.
This kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature in the gas.
Thermodynamicists call the sum of this kinetic and potential energies in the gas, “Internal Energy”, symbol U, and
is measured in Joules.
When the temperature of a gas is increased, it will increase in volume (and provide work) or increase in internal
kinetic and potential (due to a rise in pressure) energies – that is, increase Internal Energy, or more likely, a
combination of both volume and internal energy changes.
Enthalpy
The combination of internal energy, and pressure and volume are the most likely things to change whenever a gas
is heated. Since this happens so often in thermodynamics, it is all grouped together and given its own name and
unit. It is called “Enthalpy” and given a symbol H. It is simply the sum of the internal energy plus the pressure
volume product.
Thus Enthalpy H = U + PV
Remember that PV is the work done when a gas expands when it is heated.
In fact, Enthalpy is the amount of energy in a gas which is capable of doing work.
7.0 – Expansion of Gases

An expanding gas, as we have noted in considering specific heats, exerts a force against its surroundings, its
expanding container, and so does work. The energy to do that work comes from the energy of random motion of
the molecules.
If this energy is replaced as fast as it is removed, by a flow of heat into the gas, the temperature can be
maintained constant. If, on the other hand, there is no flow of heat energy into the gas, the average energy per
degree of freedom will be reduced, that is, the temperature of the gas will drop.
A gradual expansion without change in temperature is termed isothermal. A gradual expansion without transfer of
heat to or from the gas is termed adiabatic.
An isothermal expansion must be gradual, for it takes time for heat to flow into the gas; a sudden expansion
must involve a drop in temperature and therefore cannot be isothermal.
An adiabatic expansion must be gradual, in order that the pressure shall be uniform throughout the gas at
every instant, and thus so that there shall be no energy in the form of wind. The italicized statements will be
taken as definitive in this book, but other usages will be found in some other books.
In general, we may expect some heat transfer to a gas during expansion. An adiabatic expansion is the limiting
case where there is none; an isothermal expansion is the particular case, and a most useful one, where there is
just enough to maintain the temperature constant. In considering specific heats, we have already discussed the
case of constant pressure, the "isobaric" case if you like, where there is just enough heat transfer to maintain
the pressure at a constant value.
The word "expansion" will be used; findings with regard to it will apply also, with appropriate chenges in sign, to
contraction or "compression".
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7.1 Isotermal espansion
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process, in which the
temperature of the system remain constant (T = const). The heat
transfer into or out of the system typically must happen at such a slow
rate in order to continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir
through heat exchange. In each of these states th e thermal
equilibrium is maintained.
For an ideal gas and a polytropic process, the case n = 1 corresponds
to an isothermal (constant-temperature) process.
In contrast to adiabatic process, in which n = κ and a system
exchanges no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0; ∆T≠0), in an
isothermal process there is no change in the internal energy (due to
∆T=0) and therefore ΔU = 0 (for ideal gases) and Q ≠ 0.
An adiabatic process is not necessarily an isothermal process, nor is
an isothermal process necessarily adiabatic.
In engineering, phase changes, such as evaporation or melting, are isothermal processes when, as is usually the
case, they occur at constant pressure and temperature.
7.2 Adiabatic Expansion and Compression

An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process, in which there is no heat transfer into or out of the system
(Q = 0). The system can be considered to be perfectly insulated.
In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred only as work.
The assumption of no heat transfer is very important, since we can use the adiabatic approximation only in very
rapid processes. In these rapid processes, there is not enough time for the transfer of energy as heat to take
place to or from the system.
In real devices (such as turbines, pumps, and compressors) heat losses and losses in the combustion process
occur, but these losses are usually low in comparison to overall energy flow and we can approximate some
thermodynamic processes by the adiabatic process.
In an ideal gas, molecules have no volume and do not interact. According to the ideal gas, pressure varies linearly
with temperature and quantity, and inversely with volume.
pV = nRT
where:
p is the absolute pressure of the gas
n is the amount of substance
T is the absolute temperature
V is the volume
R is the ideal, or universal, gas constant, equal to the product
of the Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro constant,
In this equation the symbol R is a constant called the
universal gas constant that has the same value for all
gases—namely, R = 8.31 J/mol K.
The adiabatic process can be expressed with the ideal gas law as:
pV g = constan or p1V1g = p2V2g
in which g = cp/cv s the ratio of the specific heats (or heat capacities) for the gas.
One for constant pressure (cp) and one for constant volume (cv).
Note that, this ratio = cp/cv is a factor in determining the speed of sound in a gas and other adiabatic processes.
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Other p, V, T Relation
On a p-V diagram, the process occurs along a line
( called adiabat) that has the equation p = constant / V.
For an ideal gas and a polytropic process, the case n= k corresponds to an
adiabatic process.
7.3 Engine cycle

General
We conclude our study of thermodynamics by considering the theoretical and practical cycles for the internal
combustion engine, which may be broadly divided into two types as:
• Those which make use of a series of non-flow processes to convert heat energy into work energy, e.g.
reciprocating piston engines.
• Those which make use of flow processes to convert heat energy into work energy, e.g. gas turbine engines.
In both types of engine, it is assumed that the working fluid is air. We start by considering the air standard cycle for
the constant volume or Otto cycle.
GAS TURBINE ENGINE
RECIPROCATING
PISTON ENGINE
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Constant Volume Cycle (Otto cycle)
The Otto cycle is the ideal air standard cycle for
the spark ignition piston engine. In this cycle it is
assumed that the working fluid, air, behaves as a
perfect gas and that there is no charge in the
composition of the air during the complete cycle.
Heat transfer occurs at constant volume and there is
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) compression and
expansion.
This cycle differs from the practical engine cycle in that
the same quantity of working fluid
used repeatedly and so an induction and exhaust stroke
are unnecessary.
'The thermodynamic processes making up a .complete
Otto cycle ( See Figure 7.1) are detailed below
1-2 Adiabatic compression. No heat transfer takes
place, temperature and pressure increase and the
volume decrease to the clearance volume.
2-3 Reversible constant volume heating, temperature
and pressure increase.
3-4 Adiabatic expansion (through swept volume). Air
expands and does work on the piston. Pressure
and temperature fall. No heat transfer takes place,
during the process.
4-1 Reversible constant volume heat rejection (cooling).
Pressure and temperature fall to original values.
Note that during the compression and expansion of the
working fluid, the ideal Otto cycle assumes that no heat
is transferred to or from the working fluid during the
process
The practical four-stroke cycle
The sequence of operations by which the four-stroke
spark ignition engine converts heat energy into mechanical
energy is known as the four-stroke cycle. A mixture of
petrol and air is introduced into the cylinder during the
induction stroke and compressed during the compression
stroke. At this point the fuel is ignited and the pressure
wave produced by the ignited fuel drives the piston down
on its power stroke. Finally, the waste products of
combustion are ejected during the exhaust stroke.
The cycle of events is illustrated in Figure 7.2 and consists
of the following processes:
1-2 Inlet valve is open and piston moves down cylinder
sucking in fuel/air mixture (charge).
2-3 With inlet and exhaust valves closed, the piston moves
up the cylinder and the charge is compressed. Ignition
occurs as cylinder rises and is complete at point 4.
3, 4,5, 6 The piston moves down the cylinder on the power-
stroke, work done by gas on piston.
5 The exhaust valve opens at this point, and pressure
decreases to near atmospheric at point 6.
6-1 Spent gases are exhausted as piston rises.
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Constant Pressure Cycle (The Brayton cycle)
The working cycle of the gas turbine: The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-
stroke piston engine. In the gas turbine engine
combustion occurs at a constant pressure, while in
the piston engine occurs at a constant volume. In
both engines there is an induction, compression,
combustion and exhaust phase.
As already mentioned in the case of the piston
engine we have a non-flow process whereas in the
gas turbine we have a continuous flow process. In
the gas turbine engine the Jack of reciprocating
parts gives smooth running and enables more
energy to be released for a given engine size, With
the gas turbine engine, combustion occurs at
constant pressure with an increase in volume,
therefore, the peck pressures which occur in
the piston engine are avoided. This allows the use
of lightweight, fabricated combustion chambers and
lower octane fuels, although the higher flame
temperatures require special materials to ensure a
long life for combustion chamber components.
The working cycle upon which the gas turbine
operates is known as the Brayton cycle. This
cycle is illustrated in Figure 4.115, and consists of
the following processes:
1-2 Frictionless adiabatic compression where at point 1 atmospheric air is compressed along the line 1-2.
2-3 Frictionless constant pressure heating. Where beat is added from the burnt fuel at constant pressure, thus
increasing volume.
With the gas turbine engine, combustion occurs at constant pressure with an increase in volume,
therefore, the peck pressures which occur in the piston engine are avoided. This allows the use of lightweight,
fabricated combustion chambers and lower octane fuels, although the higher flame temperatures require special
materials to ensure a long life for combustion chamber components.
3-4 Frictionless adiabatic expansion of the gases through the turbine.
4-4 Frictionless constant pressure heat rejection, through the jetpipe nozzle to atmosphere.
To ensure maximum thermal efficiency (see explanation of the second law) we require the highest temperature of
combustion (heat in) to give the greatest expansion of the gases. There has to be a lima on the temperature of the
combusted gases as they enter the turbine, which is dictated by the turbine materials. Additional cooling
within the turbine, helps maximize the gas entry temperature to the turbine.
The practical Brayton cycle - Although it can be seen from Figure 4.115 that the practical cycle follows fairly
closely to the ideal Brayton cycle, there are losses, which are detailed as follows:
1. The air is not pure, it contains other gases and water vapour.
2. Heat will be transferred to the materials of the compressor, turbine and exhaust units, so it is not a pure
adiabatic process.
3. Due to dynamic problems, such as turbulence and flame stability in the combustion chamber, a constant
temperature and hence a constant pressure cannot be maintained.
A further pressure loss occurs as a result of the burnt air causing an increase in volume and hence a
decrease in its density. These losses are indicated on the diagram by a drop between points 2 and 3.
4. The Brayton cycle assumes frictionless adiabatic operation and this is not possible in practice.
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7.4 Refrigeration and Heat Pumps
General
First of all, did you know that there is no such thing as cold? You can describe something as cold and everyone will
know what you mean, but cold really only means that something contains less heat than something else.
All there really is, is greater and lesser amounts of heat. The definition of refrigeration is The Removal and
Relocation of Heat. So, if something is to be refrigerated, it is to have heat removed from it.
If you have a warm can of pop at say 80 degrees Fahrenheit and you would prefer to drink it at 40 degrees, you
could place it in your fridge for a while, heat would somehow be removed from it, and you could eventually enjoy a
less warm pop. (oh, all right, a cold pop.)
But let’s say you placed that 40 degree pop in the freezer for a while and when you removed it, it was at 35
degrees. Even "cold" objects have heat content that can be reduced to a state of "less heat content". The limit to
this process would be to remove all heat from an object.
This would occur if an object was cooled to Absolute Zero which is -273º C or -460º F. They come close to creating
this temperature under laboratory conditions and strange things like electrical superconductivity occur
Refrigeration
How do things get colder? Things get cold because they lose heat by one or more of the following methods
Radiation, Conduction, Convention
The conductions are used extensively
in the design of refrigeration
equipment. If you place two objects
together so that they remain touching,
and one is hot and one is cold, heat
will flow from the hot object into the
cold object.
This is an easy concept to grasp and
is rather like gravitational potential,
where a ball will try to roll down an inclined plane. If you were to fan a hot plate of food it would cool somewhat.
Some of the heat from the food would be carried away by the air molecules.
When heat is transferred by a substance in the gaseous state the process is called convection. And if you kicked a
glowing hot ember away from a bonfire, and you watched it glowing dimmer and dimmer, it is cooling itself by
radiating heat away. Note that an object doesn’t have to be glowing in order to radiate heat, all things use
combinations of these methods to come to equilibrium with their surroundings.
So you can see that in order to refrigerate something, we must find a way to expose our object to something that is
colder than itself and nature will take over from there. We are getting closer to talking about the actual mechanics
of a refrigerating system, but there are some other important concepts to discuss first.
The States of Matter and something on latent heat: They are of course; solid, liquid and gas. It is important to
note that heat must be added to a substance to make it change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to a gas. It
is just as important to note that heat must be removed from a substance to make it change state from a gas to a
liquid and from a liquid to a solid.
Long ago it was found that we needed a way to quantify heat. Something more precise
than "less heat" or "more heat" or "a great deal of heat" was required. This was a fairly
easy task to accomplish. They took 1 Lb. of water and heated it 1 degree Fahrenheit.
The amount of heat that was required to do this was called 1 BTU (British Thermal Unit).
The refrigeration industry has long since utilized this definition. You can for example
purchase a 6000 BTU/H window air conditioner.
This would be a unit that is capable of relocating 6000 BTU's of heat per hour. A larger
unit capable of 12,000 BTU/H could also be called a One Ton unit.
There are 12,000 BTU's in 1 Ton.
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To raise the temperature of 1 LB of water from 40 degrees to 41 degrees would take 1 BTU. To raise the
temperature of 1 LB of water from 177 degrees to 178 degrees would also take 1 BTU. However, if you tried raising
the temperature of water from 212 degrees to 213 degrees you would not be able to do it.
Water boils at 212 degrees and would prefer to change into a gas rather than let you get it any hotter. Something of
utmost importance occurs at the boiling point of a substance.
If you did a little experiment and added 1 BTU of heat at a time to 1 LB of water, you would notice that the water
temperature would increase by 1 degree each time. That is until you reached 212 degrees. Then something
changes. You would keep adding BTU's, but the water would not get any hotter! it would change state into a gas
and it would take 970 BTU's to vaporize that pound of water. This is called the Latent Heat of Vaporization and in
the case of water it is 970 BTU's per pound.
What keeps that beaker of water from boiling when it is at room temperature? if you say it's because it is not hot
enough, sorry but you are wrong. The only thing that keeps it from boiling is the pressure of the air molecules
pressing down on the surface of the water.
When you heat that water to 212 degrees and then continue to add heat, what you are doing is supplying sufficient
energy to the water molecules to overcome the pressure of the air and allow them to escape from the liquid state.
If you took that beaker of water to outer space where there is no air pressure the water would flash into a vapour.
If you took that beaker of water to the top of Mt. Everest where there is much less air pressure, you would find that
much less heat would be needed to boil the water. (it would boil at a lower temperature than 212 degrees).
So, water boils at 212 °F at normal atmospheric pressure. Lower the pressure and you lower the boiling point.
Therefore, we should be able to place that beaker of water under a bell jar and have a vacuum pump extract the air
from within the bell jar and watch the water come to a boil even at room temperature. This is indeed the case!
A liquid requires heat to be added to it in order for it to overcome the air pressure pressing down on its' surface if it
is to evaporate into a gas. We just learned that if the pressure above the liquids surface is reduced it will evaporate
easier. We could look at it from a slightly different angle and say that when a liquid evaporates it absorbs heat from
the surrounding area.
So, finding some fluid that evaporates at a handier boiling point than water (i.e. lower) was one of the first steps
required for the development of mechanical refrigeration.
Chemical Engineers spent years experimenting before they came up with the perfect chemicals for the job. They
developed a family of hydroflourocarbon refrigerants which had extremely low boiling points. These chemicals
would boil at temperatures below 0 degrees Fahrenheit at atmospheric pressure.
So, finally, we can begin to describe the mechanical refrigeration process.
There are 4 main components in a
mechanical refrigeration system. Any
components beyond these basic 4 are called
accessories.
The compressor is a vapour compression
pump which uses pistons or some other
method to compress the refrigerant gas and
send it on it's way to the condenser.
The condenser is a heat exchanger which
removes heat from the hot compressed gas
and allows it to condense into a liquid. The
liquid refrigerant is then routed to the
metering device.
This device restricts the flow by forcing the
refrigerant to go through a small hole which
causes a pressure drop. And what did we say
happens to a liquid when the pressure drops?
if you said it lowers the boiling point and makes it easier to evaporate, then you are correct. And what happens
when a liquid evaporates? Didn't we agree that the liquid will absorb heat from the surrounding area?
This is indeed the case and you now know how refrigeration works.
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This component where the evaporation takes place is called the evaporator. The refrigerant is then routed back to
the compressor to complete the cycle. The refrigerant is used over and over again absorbing heat from one area
and relocating it to another. Remember the definition of refrigeration? (The removal and relocation of heat.)
Refrigerant Types
Remember that a refrigerant, in order to cool the space, must evaporate at the temperature of the space. So in the
case of an air conditioning unit, we need a chemical which will evaporate (boil) at the temperature of the room you
are trying to cool. In the case of a fridge, you need a chemical which will boil at the temperature of the inside of the
fridge. There are hundreds of chemicals which will do this. Several of the commonest are as follows:
Boiling
Refrigerant Formula temperature Properties Applications
o
C
Penetrating odour,
soluble in water.
harmless in Large industrial
Ammonia NH3 -33
concentration up to plants
1/30%, non flammable,
explosive
Little odour, colourless

C Cl2F2 as gas or liquid, non Small plants with
R12 Chlorodi- -29.8 flammable, non reciprocating
fluoromethane corrosive of ordinary compressors.
metals, stable
Non flammable, non Commercial plants

R11 C Cl3F 8.9 corrosive non toxic, with centrifugal
stable compressors.
Packaged air
Little odour, colourless
conditioning units
as gas or liquid, non
where size of
R22 CH Cl F2 -40.8 toxic, non irritating, non
equipment and
flammable, non
economy are
corrosive, stable
important.
C Cl2 F2 Offers approx. 20%

(73.8%) more refrigeration
R500 -33 Similar to R12
CH3CH F2 capacity than R12 for
(26.2%) same compressor.
C Cl F2 (48.8%)
Non flammable, non
C Cl Capacity comparable
R502 -45.6 toxic, non corrosive,
F2 - CF3 to R22.
stable
(51.2%)
Totally replaces other

F3CCH2F Non flammable, non
Freon types for auto
R134a Tetrafluoro- -26.6 toxic, non corrosive,
and aircraft
ethane stable
applications
Table 3.8: Some common refrigerants
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The range of refrigerants beginning with the ‘R’ prefix (R12, R22 etc.) are complex compounds of fluorocarbons or
hydroflourocarbons collectively known as ‘Freon’.
Other chemicals could be used and have been used in the past. Methyl bromide is a refrigerant but has almost
completely been phased out for safety and environmental reasons. Carbon dioxide (dry ice) has also been used as
a refrigerant (infact at one time Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia were the only two refrigerants in use) but is no
longer used because other complex formulas are much more efficient.
So is water a refrigerant? Remember that a refrigerant, in order to cool the space, must evaporate at the
temperature of the space. Unless the room you are trying to cool, or the inside of your fridge, is 100oC or more,
water will not work as a refrigerant at normal atmospheric pressure. You would have to reduce the pressure to
almost nothing before water will boil at 0oC (0.089 PSI to be exact). This is impractical.
However, if you want to cool something which is very hot (i.e. over 100oC) like the rods of a nuclear reactor, then
pouring water on it will do the job. In turning to steam (evaporating) the rods are cooled. This is how cooling
towers work – water is poured onto the hot object at the base of the cooling tower.
The water turns to steam and rises (because water vapour is lighter than air) and expands, which forces it to cool
(Charles’ Law). The cooled steam condenses into water which runs down the inside of the cooling tower and back
onto the hot object where the process repeats.
So, you have water, as a refrigerant, cooling an object in much the same way as Freon or Ammonia cools the
interior of your car, office or fridge.
But also, water can vaporise at temperatures below 100oC, thus missing out the boiling process. Hence water
which exudes from the pores of your skin when you are hot (sweat) evaporates, and in changing state absorbs the
heat from your skin, and cools you. Again water is a refrigerant. However, to be efficient, it usually helps to have a
breeze over the skin to help the evaporation process.
Heat Pumps
A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one location (the 'source') to another location (the 'sink'
or 'heat sink'), using work. Most heat pump technology moves heat from a low temperature heat source to a higher
temperature heat sink. Common examples are food refrigerators and freezers and air conditioners and reversible-
cycle heat pumps for providing thermal comfort.
Heat pumps can be thought of as a heat engine which is operating in reverse. One common type of heat pump
works by exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and condensing a refrigerant. In heating, ventilation,
and cooling (HVAC) applications, a heat pump normally refers to a vapour-compression refrigeration device that
includes a reversing valve and optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of heat flow may be reversed. Most
commonly, heat pumps draw heat from the air or from the ground. Air-source heat pumps do not work well when
temperatures fall below around −5°C (23°F).
According to the second law of thermodynamics heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter
area; work is required to achieve this. Heat pumps differ in how they apply this work to move heat, but they can
essentially be thought of as heat engines operating in
reverse.
A heat engine allows energy to flow from a hot 'source' to a
cold heat 'sink', extracting a fraction of it as work in the
process. Conversely, a heat pump requires work to move
thermal energy from a cold source to a warmer heat sink.
Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move
the heat, the amount of energy deposited at the hot side is
greater than the energy taken from the cold side by an
amount equal to the work required. Conversely, for a heat
engine, the amount of energy taken from the hot side is
greater than the amount of energy deposited in the cold heat
sink since some of the heat has been converted to work.
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The working fluid, in its gaseous state, is pressurized and circulated through the system by a compressor. On the
discharge side of the compressor, the now hot and highly pressurized gas is cooled in a heat exchanger called a
condenser until it condenses into a high pressure, moderate temperature liquid.
The condensed refrigerant then passes through a pressure-lowering device like an expansion valve, capillary tube,
or possibly a work-extracting device such as a turbine. This device then passes the low pressure, barely liquid
(saturated vapour) refrigerant to another heat exchanger, the evaporator where the refrigerant evaporates into a
gas via heat absorption. The refrigerant then returns to the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
In such a system it is essential that the refrigerant reaches a sufficiently high temperature when compressed, since
the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing from a cold fluid to a hot heat sink.
Similarly, the fluid must reach a sufficiently low temperature when allowed to expand, or heat cannot flow from the
cold region into the fluid. In particular, the pressure difference must be great enough for the fluid to condense at the
hot side and still evaporate in the lower pressure region at the cold side.
The greater the temperature difference, the greater the required pressure difference, and consequently more
energy is needed to compress the fluid. Thus, as with all heat pumps, the energy efficiency (amount of heat moved
per unit of input work required) decreases with increasing temperature difference. Thus, a ground-source heat
pump, which has a very small temperature differential, is relatively efficient. (Figures of 75% and above are
quoted.)
Due to the variations required in temperatures and pressures, many different refrigerants are available.
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and some heating systems are common applications that use this technology.
In HVAC applications, a heat pump normally refers to a vapour-compression refrigeration device that includes a
reversing valve and optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of heat flow may be reversed.
The reversing valve switches the direction of refrigerant through the cycle and therefore the heat pump may deliver
either heating or cooling to a building. In the cooler climates the default setting of the reversing valve is heating.
The default setting in warmer climates is cooling.
Because the two heat exchangers, the condenser and evaporator, must swap functions, they are optimized to
perform adequately in both modes. As such, the efficiency of a reversible heat pump is typically slightly less than
two separately-optimized machines.
8.0 - Latent Heat

8.1. Heat Exchange
When hot bodies and cool bodies are mixed heat exchange occurs. The heat lost by the hot body equals the heat
gained by the cold body:
Heat Lost = Heat Gained
On each side of this equation there is a wCDT term. In writing an expression for DT, we always express this change
as the larger temperature minus the smaller temperature.
EXAMPLE:
If 5,000 lbs. of sea water at 100°F are mixed with 7,000 lbs. of ordinary water at 40°F, what is the final
temperature of the mixture?
We note that, if the final temperature is T, the temperature 100° is more than T and the temperature 40° is less
than T. Therefore the temperature change of the sea water is (100 - T) and the temperature change of the
ordinary water is (T - 40).
Heat Lost = Heat Gained
In setting up the wCDT left and right members of the above equation, we will not include the units. However
we will note that the weights must be in lbs. and the temperature changes in Fahrenheit degrees.
(0.93) (5,000) (100 - T) = (1.00) (7,000) (T - 40) 465,000 – 4,650 T = 7,000 T – 280,000
745,000 = 11,650 T T = 63.9 oF
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Cooling and Heating Curves
When a substance changes phase, that is it goes from either a solid to a liquid or liquid to gas, the energy, it
requires energy to do so. The potential energy stored in the inter-atomic forces between molecules needs to be
overcome by the kinetic energy of the motion of the particles before the substance can change phase.
If we measure the temperature of the substance which
is initially solid as we heat it we produce a graph like
Figure 3.5.
Starting a point A, the substance is in its solid phase,
heating it brings the temperature up to its melting point
but the material is still a solid at point B.
As it is heated further, the energy from the heat source
goes into breaking the bonds holding the atoms in
place. This takes place from B to C.
At point C all of the solid phase has been transformed
into the liquid phase. Once again, as energy is added
the energy goes into the kinetic energy of the particles
raising the temperature, (C to D).
At point D the temperature has reached its boiling point
but it is still in the liquid phase. From points D to E
thermal energy is overcoming the bonds and the
particles have enough kinetic energy to escape from
the liquid. The substance is entering the gas phase.
Beyond E, further heating under pressure can raise the
temperature still further is how a pressure cooker
works.
Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of melting and boiling.
Note: Since ‘fusion’ (meaning ‘to melt’) is the opposite of ‘solidification’, the Latent Heat of Fusion is the same as
the Latent Heat of Solidification. Also, since ‘vaporisation’ is the opposite of ‘condensation’, the Latent Heat of
Vaporisation is the same as the Latent Heat of Condensation.
A heating curve summarises the changes: solid Þ liquid Þ gas
The principle of latent heat (especially of vaporization) is what is behind the operation of the fridge and air
conditioning system, water injection of gas turbine engines, and the cooling effect you feel when you perspire.
That principle is that if you make a fluid vaporize, it extracts heat (latent heat) to cause it to vaporize, but the fluid
does not change temperature.
8.2 Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation

The energy required to change the phase of a substance is known as a latent heat. The word latent means hidden.
When the phase change is from solid to liquid we must use the latent heat of fusion, and when the phase change is
from liquid to a gas, we must use the latent heat of vaporisation.
The latent heat energy required is given by the formula:
Q= m L
where m is the mass of the substance and L is the specific latent heat of fusion or vaporisation which measures the
heat energy to change 1 kg of a solid into a liquid.
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Some values of Specific Latent Heats of Fusion and Vaporisation are shown in table 3.6.
8.3 Further Discussion on Latent Heat

Each time water changes physical state, energy is involved.
In the vapour state, the water molecules are very energetic. The molecules are not bonded with each other, but
move around as single molecules. Water vapour is invisible to us, but we can feel its effect to some extent, and
water vapour in the atmosphere is a very important factor in weather and climate.
In the liquid state, the individual molecules have less energy, and some bonds form, break, then re-form. At the
surface of liquid water, molecules are continually moving back and forth from the liquid state to the vapour state. At
a given temperature, there will be an equilibrium between the number of molecules leaving the liquid, and the
number of molecules returning.
In solid water—ice the molecules are locked together in a crystal structure: a framework.
They are not moving around, and they contain less energy.
How do you make water evaporate? Here is a bowl of water. Make the water evaporate.
How did you make the water evaporate? Probably you added heat. You might have put it
out in the sun, or possibly put it over a fire. To make water evaporate, you put energy
into it. The individual molecules in the water absorb that energy and get so energetic that
they break the hydrogen bonds connecting them to other water molecules. They become
molecules of water vapour. Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to vapour. In
the process of evaporation, the molecule absorbs energy.
This energy is latent heat. Latent means hidden, so latent heat is "hidden" in the water
molecule--we can't feel it, but it is there. Wherever that individual molecule of water vapour goes, it takes that latent
heat with it. To get the molecule of water vapour to become liquid again, we have to take the energy away, that is,
we have to cool it down so that it condenses (condensation is the change from the
vapour state to the liquid state). When water condenses, it releases latent heat.
Now, how do you make ice melt? Here is a block of ice, water in the solid state. Make it
melt. Again, you probably melted the ice by adding energy. The additional energy was
absorbed by the individual molecules of water, which became so energetic that they
broke some of the hydrogen bonds holding the ice crystal together, and became liquid
(that is, the ice melted).
This energy is also latent heat, and each molecule of the liquid water is holding that
latent heat. To change the liquid water back to ice, you have to take that latent heat
away, or in other words, cool the water.
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Water could change directly from the frozen state to the vapour state without passing through the liquid state first.
This process is called sublimation. Water can also change from the vapour state to the frozen state without passing
through the liquid state. This is usually called deposition and is what you see when frost forms on grass or windows
on a cold night. (Sometimes the term sublimation is used when water changes state in either direction, that is,
from solid to vapour, or vapour to solid).
The really important thing to remember is that each time water changes state, energy is absorbed or released. This
energy is latent heat. Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released when a substance changes its physical state.
Latent heat is absorbed upon evaporation and released upon condensation to liquid (as in clouds). Latent heat is
also absorbed when water melts and released when it freezes.
How much heat does it take to get water to change state? if the water is at a temperature of 100 degrees C (that is,
the boiling point, or 212 degrees F) it takes an additional 540 calories of heat to convert one gram of water from the
liquid state to the vapour state. When the vapour converts to the liquid state, 540 calories of energy will be released
per gram of water. If you are converting solid water (ice) to liquid water at 0 degrees C, it will require about 80
calories of heat to melt one gram of ice, and the 80 calories will be released when the liquid water is frozen to the
solid state.
Water does not have to be at the
boiling point to evaporate. if you
don't believe this, set a pan of
water out in the sun and watch it
slowly disappear. The sun's heat is
not boiling the water, but it is
evaporating it. In a given amount
of water at a given temperature,
some molecules of water will have
more energy than others, so some
molecules will be able to
evaporate, while others remain in
the liquid state.
The lower the temperature of the
water, the more energy is required
for evaporation. If the water is
liquid at a temperature of 0 degrees C, the latent heat of vaporization is 597 cal/g, compared to 540 cal/g at 100
degrees C. in between, at 50 degrees C, an input of 569 cal/g would be required for evaporation.
It will take a total of about 720 calories per gram to sublimate water, that is change it directly from ice at 0 degrees
C, to vapour at 100 degrees C: this includes 80 calories from latent heat of fusion (melting) + 100 calories to raise
the temperature of the water 100 degrees C + 540 calories to make the liquid water evaporate (latent heat of
vaporization). Similarly, about 720 calories per gram will be released when water is changed directly from vapour to
ice, the process called deposition.
9.0 Thermal energy and heat of combustion

9.1 Thermal energy
Refers to several distinct thermodynamic quantities, such as the internal energy of a system; heat or sensible
het, which are defined as types of energy transfer (as is work); or for the characteristic energy or a degree of
freedom in a thermal system , where is temperature and is the Boltzmann constant.
Relation to heat and internal energy

In thermodynamic, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than
thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. Heat refers to a quantity transferred between systems, not to a
property of any one system, or 'contained' within it. On the other hand, internal energy is a property of a single
system. Heat and work depend on the way in which an energy transfer occurred, whereas internal energy is a
property of the state of a system and can thus be understood without knowing how the energy got there.
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In a statistical mechanical account of an ideal gas, in which the molecules move independently between
instantaneous collisions, the internal energy is the sum total of the gas's independent particles' kinetic energies,
and it is this kinetic motion that is the source and the effect of the transfer of heat across a system's boundary. For
such a gas, the term 'thermal energy' is effectively synonymous with 'internal energy'.
In many statistical physical text, "thermal energy" refers to, the product of Boltzmann’s constant and the absolute
temperature, also written as kBT. In material, especially in condensed matter, such as a liquid or a solid, in which
the constituent particles, such as molecules or ions, interact strongly with one another, the energies of such
interactions the contribute strongly to the internal energy of the body.
The term 'thermal energy' is also applied to the energy carried by a heat flow,[6] although this can also simply be
called heat or quantity of heat.
9.2 Heat of Combustion

The Calorific Power
During a chemical reaction, chemical compounds can be formed or the compounds can be split into simpler
compounds and sometimes even in the elements that make up the compounds.
These processes can be accompanied by a heat exchange: the heat can be absorbed or produced during the
reaction.
This heat is known as "reaction heat".
If the reaction occurs rapidly and the compounds combine by reacting with oxygen, heat is produced during the
reaction, known as the term "combustion heat".
To determine with sufficient precision the combustion heat of a given fuel, the experimental method is usually used,
and a tool called a "calorimetric bomb" is used.
The calorimetric bomb measures the heat produced by a mass of fuel, the weight of which is known, causing it to
burn with a known quantity of oxygen or air.
Consequently, the unit of measurement of the "combustion heat" is expressed in Joules per Kilogram.
A simple chemical analysis of the combustion products examines the main elements that make up a fuel, namely
coal, hydrogen and sulfur.
The values shown in the table are often called "calorific value".
ELEMENTO Calore di Combustione

Idrogeno 14,4 MJ / Kg
Carbone 33,7 MJ / Kg
Zolfo 9,1 MJ / Kg
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Module 2.3 Termodynamic - Problem
2.3.1.1 Problems (temperature scale)

1. Change 20°C to degrees F.
2. Change -15 °C to degrees F.
3. Change 86°F to degrees C.
4. Change -4°F to degrees C.
5. Change 100°F to degrees R.
6. Change 450°R to degrees F.
7. Change 100°C to degrees K.
8. Change 383 K to degrees C.
9. Gas turbine engine performance is very sensitive to variations in the temperature of the air. All engines are
rated with the air at a standard temperature of 59°F. What is the equivalent Centigrade temperature?
10. On some large commercial turbojet engines, the temperature at the front end of the combustion
section is approximately 400°C. What is this temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?
11. As air enters the combustion chamber of a turbojet fuel is added and the temperature is raised to
about 3,500°F in the hottest part of the flame. What is this temperature on the Centigrade scale?
2.3.1.1 Answers (temperature scale)

1. 68°F
2. 5°F
3. 30°C
4. -20°C
5. 560°R
6. -10°F
7. 373 K
8. 110°C
9. 15°C
10. 752°F
11. 1,930°C
2.3.3.0 Problems (heat transfer)

1. How much heat must be supplied to raise the temperature of 67 lbs. of ethyl alcohol from 32°F to 76oF?
2. How much heat is given up as 780 lbs. of steel cool from 90°F to 45°F?
3. If 1 lb. of vodka (alcohol) at 90°F is mixed with 0.2 lb. of water at 40°F what is the final temperature?
4. If 3 lbs. of hot water at 200 °F are poured into a 1.5 lbs. aluminium container at 40 °F, what is the final
temperature?
5. A house has an outside wall area of 3,000 ft2 These walls are insulated with corkboard 4 in. thick. The
inside temperature is 75°F and the outside temperature is 15°F. What is the heat loss per hour through
these outside walls?
2.3.3.0 Answers (heat transfer)
1. 2,064 Btu
2. 3,860 Btu
3. 79oF
4. 180oF
5. 13,500 Btu/hr
2.3.4.0 Problems (volumetric expansion)
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1. A 90 ft. aluminium rail is put in place on a hot summer day when the temperature is 85°F. What is the
decrease in length of this rail when the temperature is 35 °F?
2. A 150 ft. steel rail is put in place when the temperature is 35°F. What is the increase in length of this rail
when the temperature is 95°F?
3. A concrete bridge is laid down in sections with some space between sections to allow for expan-
sion. The length of one section is 250 ft. The lowest recorded temperature in the area is - 45 °F and the highest
recorded temperature is 115 °F. How much space should the builders leave between each section?
4. The volume of an aluminium tank is 200 gallons on a day when the temperature is 30 °F. It is
completely filled with gasoline from a supply truck. The temperature rises to 70°F when a warm front moves in.
How many gallons of gasoline overflow?
2.3.4.0 Answers (volumetric expansion)
1. 0.0585 ft
2. 0.099 ft.
3. 0.20 ft
4. 3.7 gallons
2.3.6.1 Problems (ideal gas laws)

1. A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The absolute pressure of the gas is 240 kPa
when the volume is 0.15 m3. What will the volume be when the absolute pressure of the gas is changed to 80 kPa
while the temperature is held constant?
2. A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The gauge pressure of the gas in the
cylinder is 335 lbs/in2 when the volume occupied by the gas is 72in3 What is the gauge pressure when the volume
is decreased to 60 in3? Assume atmospheric pressure to be 15 lbs/in2, and assume that the temperature is held
constant.
3. A sample of nitrogen is held at an absolute pressure of 1.50 atmospheres and a volume of 7.80 m3. A
piston gradually reduces the volume to 6.30 m3. The temperature does not change. What is the new absolute
pressure in atmospheres?
4. A volume of 1.35 m3 of air at 17°C is heated to 427°C while its pressure is held constant. What is the
volume of the gas at this elevated temperature.
5. A tank of carbon dioxide is maintained at an absolute pressure of 5,000 lbs/ft2. The temperature is 190°F.
What is the density of this carbon dioxide?
6. The air pressure and density at a point on the wing of a Boeing 747 flying at altitude are 70 kPa, and 0.9
kg/m3 respectively. What is the temperature at this point on the wing in degrees Centigrade?
7. The Goodyear non-rigid airship, the Mayflower, has a volume of 4000 m3 and is filled with helium to an
absolute pressure of 100 kPa. The temperature is 27°C. Find the density and total mass of the helium in the ship.
8. At an altitude of 8,000 ft. the absolute temperature of air is 500°R and the absolute pressure is 1600 lbs/ft2.
What is the density of air at this altitude?
9. A tank of carbon dioxide is maintained at an absolute pressure of 5,830 lbs/ft2 and a temperature of 70°F.
What is the density of this carbon dioxide?
10. A quantity of air occupying 0.9 ft3 at a pressure of 15 PSIA and a temperature of 40°F enters the
compressor of a turbojet engine having a compression ratio of 13:1 and is discharged at a temperature of 1,540°F.
With what volume will this quantity of air enter the combustion chamber?
3-42
Use and/or
2.3.6.1 Answers (ideal gas laws)
1. 0.45m3
2. 405 lb./in2
3. 1.86 atmosphere
4. 3.26 m3
5. 0.007 slug/ft3
6. - 2°C
7. 0.16 kg/m3, 640 kg
8. 0.00 188 slug/ft3
9. 0.01 slug/ft3
10. 0.3 ft3
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Module 2
Physics
2.4 Optics (Light)

Module 2.4 Optics (Light) 4-1

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4-2 Module 2.4 Optics (Light)
ITS Lombardo Mobilità Sostenibile governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
© Copyright 2011
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................. 3

Module 2.4 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement .......................................................... 5
Module 2.4 Optics (Light)..................................................................................................................... 7
1.0 Light ................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Wavelength, Frequency and Speed ..................................................................................................... 7
2.0 Laws of Reflection and Refraction.............................................................................................. 10
2.1 Reflection ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Plane surfaces .............................................................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Mirrors ................................................................................................................................................. 11
Plane mirrors ................................................................................................................................................ 11
Spherical mirrors .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Reflection of Spherical Mirrors .................................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Refraction ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Dispersion and Chromatic Aberration........................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Lenses ............................................................................................................................................... 15
The Converging Lens ................................................................................................................................... 15
The Diverging Lens ...................................................................................................................................... 19
The Power of a Lens .................................................................................................................................... 20
3.0 Fibre Optics................................................................................................................................... 21
3.1. General .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Definition of Fibre Optics and Data Link ....................................................................................................... 21
History of Fibre Optic Technology ................................................................................................................ 22
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fibre Optics................................................................................. 22
3.3 Basic Structure of an Optical Fibre ..................................................................................................... 24
Propagation of Light along a Fibre ............................................................................................................... 24
3.4 Optical Fibre Types ............................................................................................................................. 29
Single Mode Fibres....................................................................................................................................... 29
Multimode Fibres .......................................................................................................................................... 30
Properties of Optical Fibre Transmission ..................................................................................................... 30
3.5 The Transmission of Signals .............................................................................................................. 35
Analogue Transmission ................................................................................................................................ 35
Digital Transmission ..................................................................................................................................... 35
3.6 Optical Fibres and Cables .................................................................................................................. 35
Optical Fibre and Cable Design.................................................................................................................... 35
Multimode Step-Index Fibres........................................................................................................................ 36
Multimode Graded-Index Fibres ................................................................................................................... 37
Single Mode Step-Index Fibres .................................................................................................................... 39
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) ............................................................................................... 40
Power Meter ................................................................................................................................................. 41
Problems ............................................................................................................................................. 43

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© Copyright 2011
EASA 66 Level
Optics (Light) 2.4 2 2
Nature of Light; speed of light
Laws of reflection and refraction; reflection at plane
surfaces, reflection by spherical mirrors, refraction,
lenses
Fibre optics

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© Copyright 2011
Module 2.4 Optics (Light)
1.0 Light
1.1 Wavelength, Frequency and Speed
Light is difficult to define, it is a form of energy that travels in straight lines called rays and a collection of rays is a
beam. The ray treatment of light is termed geometrical optics, and is developed from the way light travels in straight
lines and the laws of reflection and refraction.
When light travels through very small objects and apertures it behaves in a similar manner to the waves created by
a pebble being dropped into the center of a pond, under these circumstances light travels as a wave. Light waves,
which are electromagnetic radiation , can travel through empty space and do so at a speed of about 3 x 108 m/s!
Light is given out or emitted by very hot objects, such as the Sun and cooler materials when electrons lose energy.
In this way light is able to transfer energy from one place to another, e.g. the solar cell converts light energy directly
into electrical energy.
There is a certain band of frequency of electromagnetic radiation that affects the retina of the human eye. We call
this band of radiation “visible light”. Sometimes the word “light” means only visible light and sometimes the word
“light” is used as a generic word to mean any kind of electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is a type
of wave. As in the case of all wave motion, the wave moves with a definite speed (c) called the speed of light.
The speed of light, 3.00 x 108 m/sec. or 300.000 Km/sec
The wavelength of visible light is usually measured in a unit called the Angstrom (Å). 1 Å = 10-10m
Various colours of visible light have characteristic wavelengths.
Table 4.1 is a list of some colours and their approximate

wavelengths.
Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation shorter than

4,000 Å are not visible and are called “ultraviolet” and
wavelengths longer than 7,000 Å are also not visible and
are called “infrared”.
We also note that “colours” such as “blue-green” also exist.
The wavelength would be about 5,000 Å.

Colours gradually change as the wavelength changes.
As in the case of all wave motion, the speed of electromagnetic radiation equals the frequency times the
wavelength. Therefore, for light, we have the relation:
c=fl
In table 4.2. we list some common types of electromagnetic radiation with ranges of frequency and wavelength.
Note that the above equation is always satisfied. As the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases in such a
way that the product equals the speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec.).
EM radiation consists of two different waves; an electrical
field (E field) and a magnetic field (B field) moving at 90
degrees to each other (Figure 4.1).
We see that both the electric field lines and magnetic field
lines vary sinusoidally.
The electric field lines lie in a plane that is perpendicular

to the plane of the magnetic field lines. All light radiation,
or electromagnetic (EM) radiation, consists of these
patterns of electric and magnetic field lines moving in free
space (vacuum) with speed (c) or in some other
transparent medium. We note that the frequencies and
wavelengths of the various types of EM radiation vary
greatly.
EXAMPLE1:
The frequency of an x-ray is
5 x 1018 Hz. What is the wavelength of this radiation?
c 3 ´ 10 8 m / sec .
c = f l. l= = .
f 5 ´ 10 18 Hz
= 0.6 x 1010m = 6 x 1011m
EXAMPLE 2
An FM radio wave has a wavelength of 6 m.
What is the frequency in megahertz?
c 3 ´ 10 8 m / sec
f= =
l 6m
f = 50 x 106 Hz = 50 megahertz
Table 4.2: Radiation types – their frequencies and

wavelengths

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We have already stated that the speed of light in vacuum (free space) is, to three significant digits, 3.00 x 108
m/sec. The speed of light is less in various transparent substances. We define the “index of refraction” (n) as the
ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the substance (v).
speed of light in free space c

n= =
speed of light in subs tan ce v
From this equation, we see that we can find the speed (v) in various transparent substances by using the relation:
c
v=
n
EXAMPLE:
Find the speed of light in water.
3.00 ´ 10 8 m / sec
v=
1.33
v = 2.25 x 108 m/sec.
Table 4.3: Indices of refraction for various substances

2.0 Laws of Reflection and Refraction
2.1 Reflection
Plane surfaces
Most surfaces are not optically smooth, in other words most
surfaces will reflect light in all directions.
Figure 1 (a) shows a normal surface under a microscope which is
uneven, under these circumstances tight rays will be reflected in all
directions, we call this diffuse reflection.
Figure 1 (b) shows light being reflected from a very smooth surface,
such as polished meta' or glass. Thus reflected light from a mirror,
which is essentially metal-coated glass, is regular and enables an
image to be seen by the human eye.
The way in which light is reflected from a surface is governed by the
laws of reflection.
Figure 2 shows an incident light ray, which represents the light
striking the reflecting surface. A further line leaving the surface
represents the reflected ray.
The angle that the incident light makes with an imaginary line drawn
at right angles to the reflecting surface, the normal, is known as the
angle of incidence. Similarly, the angle that the reflected light makes
with the formal is known as the angle of reflection.
The angle of reflection equals the angle of

incidence and this relationship, together with
the fact that these rays are all in the same
plane, is laid out in the laws of reflection.
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the
normal all lie within the same plane.
In law 2 above, the word plane means a two
dimensional space, such as a piece of
paper, where each of the angles and the
normal can be represented as a two-
dimensional diagram, similar to coplanar
forces you met earlier.
Thus a mirror with a flat rather than curved surface is called a plane mirror. For plane mirrors the image formed is
the same size as the object and the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. The image seen is
also virtual, in that it can seen on a screen and light rays do not pass through it.
Finally the image seen in a plane minor is laterally inverted or back to front. The effect of lateral inversion is easily
seen by looking at written text in a mirror.
K.P. = lmages from plane mirrors are virtual and laterally inverted.
Laws of reflection
1.The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence lie in the
same plane.
2.The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray makes to the
same normal.

© Copyright 2011
2.2 Mirrors
Plane mirrors
Plane mirrors are the most common optical devices we come across. The
ordinary household mirror is a sheet of flat glass, ‘silvered’ on the back with a
layer of metal paint (the metal is usually aluminium), which is then protected
by a coat of ordinary paint.
Light passes through the glass and is reflected by the silvering. A plane
wavefront is reflected as a plane by a flat mirror, and the geometry results in
the well-known rule:
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
The angles are shown in the diagram to the right, and are measured from the
normal line drawn at right angles to the surface.
As shown in the figure 4.14, the image of an object reflected in a plane mirror
is behind the mirror and as far from the mirror as the object is.
Figure 4.15: Incident angle (i)

and reflected angle (r)
Figure 4.14: Source and image in a mirror
Notice that light does not pass through the mirror, and the image is really an optical illusion. It isn’t really ‘there’ —
you couldn’t, for example, catch it on a photographic film placed at the image position.
The image is therefore a virtual image. Compare this image with
the one produced by the convex lens which is formed from rays of
light and can be caught on a photographic film. Our brain
perceives (‘sees’) virtual images by making them into ‘real’ ones
using another optical
device — our eyes.
An ordinary glass
mirror produces a
blurred image because
of multiple reflections
— see figure 4.17. Figure 4.16: Mirrors produce a
Such a mirror is not ‘virtual’ image
suitable for optical
instruments which need to give sharp images. There are two main
solutions to this problem.
Figure 4.17: Reason for the ‘blurred’ image of a mirror

Spherical mirrors
Spherical mirrors are used as reflectors in car headlamps, aircraft landing lights, searchlights and flash Iamps.
When a mirror has a curved surface the simple rules for
image position and site for plane mirrors no longer apply.
There are two types of spherical mirror, concave and
convex , see Figure 3.
In a concave mirror the center C of the sphere of which
the mirror is a part is in front of the reflecting surface,
Figure 3(a) and in a convex mirror, Figure 3 (b) it is
behind.
C is referred to as the center of curvature of the mirror,
and P which represents the center of the mirror surface
is referred to as the pole. The line produced by CP is
called the principal axis and AB is the aperture.
Note also that at the reflecting surface of a curved mirror
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
and the normal is still at tight angles to the curved
surface of the mirror.
The rays of light reflected from a concave mirror
converge at a single point F (Figure 4.(a)), while the
rays reflected from a convex mirror diverge (spread out)
from a single point F.
In each case F is the principal focus of the mirror and
the distance from F to P is called the focal length.
In both cases, the principal focus is approximately
halfway between the center of curvature of the mirror
and its pole, in other words
Focal Length = half the radius of curvature
f=r/2
The right rays from a concave mirror converge at the
principal focus and for a convex mirror they diverge from the principal focus
Images in curved mirrors - It is important when considering the use of curved mirrors to know exactly what type
of image will be formed according to the physical characteristics of the rnirrors.
So we need to be able to determine
the position of the image and whether the image is real or imaginary, inverted or upright, magnified or shrunk, etc.
This information about the image can be obtained either by drawing a ray diagram or by calculation using forrnulae.
In order to simplify the construction of a ray diagram we will
assume that all rays are paraxial, i.e. they are dose to the principal
axis and therefore the mirror aperture is represented by a straight
Ray diagrams - To determine the position and size of the image
any two of the following three rays (Figure 4.120) need to be
drawn:
1. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, which will be
reflected back through the principal focus E
2. A ray of light through the center of curvature C, which will
be reflected back through C.
3. A ray of light through F, which is reflected back
parallel.
Note that the rays drawn are for construction purposes and are not necessarily the rays by which the
image is seen.

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Reflection of Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirrors can be thought of as a portion of a sphere which was sliced away and then silvered on one of the
sides to form a reflecting surface.
Concave mirrors - were silvered on the inside of the sphere and convex mirrors were silvered on the outside of
the sphere.
Note that the image may be inverted or not, depending on whether the object is placed outside or inside the focal
point. They are virtual images in both cases.
Convex Mirrors - Convex mirrors are used to shrink the image, and therefore fit more detail into the mirror (such
as car rear-view mirrors). The focal point is at the half radius point (but behind the mirror. The image is virtual.

2.3 Refraction
The speed of light waves is a maximum in a vacuum and less in materials which are 'transparent’ to the waves.
As a general rule, electromagnetic waves cannot travel at all through ‘opaque’ materials containing free electrons
(e.g. metals) as the waves lose so much energy to the electrons. Bound charged particles (including electrons)
may also absorb energy from the waves, but do so at definite frequencies or bands of frequencies that depend on
the atoms or molecules of the medium.
We have noted that light waves travel more slowly in a transparent medium than in a vacuum. The diagram below
shows what happens as waves enter a transparent medium in which their speed is cm. Their frequency stays the
same but their wavelength gets less such that:
cm = flm
This change in speed also causes the refraction effect — the wave-fronts change direction when they enter or
leave the surface of the material at other than 90o (at an angle to the normal).
The diagram shows a set of parallel wavefronts of single frequency radiation entering a transparent medium. As the
leading edge enters the medium, the wave slows down but the 'outside’ section of the front does not, so it catches
up on the inside section. Inside the medium the distance between successive fronts is smaller and the direction of
travel of the wave has changed. Snell’s law of refraction follows directly from this effect.
Figure 4.2: Refraction of light as it travels from a material of low to a high refractive index
Refractive Index Varies with Wavelength

The speed of light in a given transparent medium is also
likely to vary with frequency - the refractive index is
different for different frequencies. The diagram below
shows how the refractive index of fused quartz and crown
glass varies with the vacuum wavelength of radiation
between short ultraviolet wavelengths (»200nm) and near
infrared (»750nm). Fused quartz is widely used in optical
devices as it is transparent over a wide range of
wavelengths.
Note that glass has a higher refractive index for light of
shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) than for longer
wavelengths: light of shorter wavelength is refracted more.
This is why prisms produce a spectrum from white light,
with blue light deviated more than red light. Figure 4.3: Refractive index
varies with wavelength

© Copyright 2011
Dispersion and Chromatic Aberration
Dispersion is a serious problem that the makers of
optical instruments with lenses have to solve.
Dispersion means that red light is brought to a focus
further away from a positive lens than blue light is.
This blurs images, an effect called chromatic aberra-
tion. Newton solved the problem for telescopes by
designing one in which the light was focused by a
curved mirror.
An achromatic lens can be made - a combined
double-lens using two different types of glass (e.g.
crown and flint glass). One lens is positive and
stronger than the other, negative, lens. The overall
combination is positive, but the negative lens is made
from a more dispersive type of glass so that the total
dispersion of the
combination can be made very small.
Figure 4.4: Dispersion and chromatic aberration
2.3 Lenses
The Converging Lens
How a Converging Lens Forms an image - We are familiar with convex glass lenses. They have equal surfaces
that we can think of as parts of a
sphere, and are called spherical
(or simple) lenses. Figure 4.5
shows what happens to the wave-
fronts of light waves when they
pass through a simple glass lens.
A lens like this, which alters a
plane wavefront to make the light
waves pass through a point, or
focus, is called a converging or
positive lens.
In the diagrams you can see that
the wavelengths of the light are
shorter after they pass across the
air—glass boundary.
This is because the speed of the
waves is less in glass than in air,
and the waves don’t go as far in
each period of the wave motion.
This drop in speed causes
refraction, meaning that the light
changes direction wherever the wavefront is Figure 4.5: Parallel
not parallel to the and point-source light rays being ‘focussed’ by a lens
boundary.
Wave diagrams like those in the diagram are hard to draw, and they also hide some of the features of the light
paths. Here, it makes sense to revert to an old but very useful model of light which assumes that light travels in
straight lines.
Where this model breaks down (as it will!), we shall use the more advanced wave model.
The following diagrams, (a) and (b) show just some of the light rays we could draw. The rays show the direction of
the waves, which means that the rays are at right angles to the wavefront.

When a ray hits the glass surface, it is refracted as shown. Notice in (b) that the light ray hitting the centre of the
lens does so at 90o and that light rays increasingly far from the centre of the lens hit the surface at smaller and
smaller angles. We will return to this soon.
Figure 4.6 shows light passing through a plane surface, such as

the surface of a glass block. The line at right angles to the
boundary is the normal, and we can see that the angle i made with
the normal by the incident ray is greater than the angler of the
refracted ray. At the same time, as i increases, so r increases,
while remaining less than i, see (b).
The light rays are obeying Snell’s law, the law of refraction:
sin i c
= =n
sin r cm
The constant n is the refractive index (air to glass for glass lenses).
Figure 4.7 which shows rays from a point-source passing through a
lens. The radius lines of the curved surface are shown extended
beyond the surface as normal lines. We can see again that the law
of refraction applies to the rays as they cross the air—glass
boundary.
The spherical geometry of the simple lens makes the rays
converge (but not accurately) to one point or focus. For parallel
rays (that form a plane wavefront), this point is called the principal
focus.
The distance of this point from the centre of the lens is called the
focal length of the lens, CF in figure 4.8.
A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the lens, at
equal distances from it,
F and F’.

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In practice, the focus for simple spherical lenses is only at a point if the diameter of the lens is very small compared
with the radius of curvature of its surfaces. Otherwise, the lens forms a partly blurred image. A lens defect like this,
caused either by the shape or the material of the lens, is called an aberration. For a lens with spherical geometry, it
is called spherical aberration. Removing aberrations is technically difficult, which explains why good optical
instruments, such as camera lenses, are expensive.

Predicting the image The diagram above shows how a simple lens forms an image of an object.
We can predict the position and size of an image either by drawing or by using formulae.
Drawing to find the image - We can draw any number of rays to help us find the position and size of an image,
but the three rays that are most helpful to draw are shown above, with the labels we use when drawing ray
diagrams.
Figure 4.8 shows an upright object OX close to a lens. In ray diagrams, the rays are assumed to change direction
at a line that represents a plane in the centre of the lens. The object could be anything, but by convention it is
drawn simply as an arrow.
Any ray that is parallel to
the principal axis of the
lens is refracted to pass
through the principal focus,
F. In this way, we can
predict the direction of the
ray labeled 1.
We use the same idea for
ray 2. Going through F’, it
emerges from the lens
parallel to the principal
axis.
The third useful line, for ray
3, goes straight through the
centre of the lens — it does
not deviate. But see the
close-up drawing. At the
centre of the lens, the two
faces are parallel to each
other. If the lens is thin
compared with the
distances of object and
image, the slight sideways
displacement of the ray is
not significant. All three
rays pass through the
same point, Y They all
started at X, and it is clear
that a screen placed at Y
would catch them all together again: Y is a focused image of X. Similarly, any point on OX would give a focused
image of itself somewhere between i and Y. IY is a real image.
These construction rays can be drawn to scale to find the position and relative size of the image of any object
placed in front of the lens. Objects viewed through a lens, and their images, are usually much smaller than the
distances they are from the lens. In such cases, it is best to make the vertical scale larger than the horizontal one.
Note that the image may be inverted, or not, real or virtual, depending on whether the object is placed behind or
in-front of the focal point.

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Focal point
Finding the image by formula It is usually quicker and more
accurate to find the position and size of an image by using the lens
1 1 1
formula:
+ =
u v f
where u is the distance of the object from the lens centre, the
object distance; v is the distance of the image from the lens centre,
the image distance; and f is the focal length of the lens. The
following diagram gives the geometry required to prove this formula
for a thin converging lens.
You can now find the position and size of any image simply by inserting
the other given values in the formula.
The Diverging Lens

Figure 4.11 to the right shows a lens with concave spherical surfaces
and what happens to parallel light rays (that is, a plane wavefront coming
from a distant object) when they pass through it. The rays are refracted
so that they seem to diverge from a single point, F.
This point is the principal focus of a diverging lens. As light doesn’t
actually come from the point, or pass through it, it is a virtual
Figure 4.12 shows how a diverging lens forms an image of an object. As
for a converging lens, you would see the image by looing at the object
through the lens.
But light doesn’t actually pass back through the diverging lens to the
image, so you cannot catch the image on a screen. It is
therefore a virtual image.
The sign convention The lens formula works for all
simple optical devices. But we have to know whether the
images, principal focuses - and even objects - are real or
virtual. Where they are virtual, the convention is to give
negative values to distances measured from them to the
lens or mirror. For example, the principal focus of a
diverging lens is virtual, so its focal length is given a
negative sign.
Suppose we place a real object 20 cm from the diverging

lens as shown in the figure 4.12. The principal focus of the
lens is 10 cm from the lens, so its focal length is
-10 cm. The lens formula gives:
So the distance of the image from the lens centre is 6.7 cm, and the negative sign tells us that the image is also
virtual.

The Power of a Lens
In optics, lenses are usually described in terms of their power. The more powerful the lens, the
closer to the lens is the image that the lens forms of a distant object. The power of a lens is
defined as the reciprocal of its focal length measured in metres:
1
Lens Power =
f
The unit of power is called the dioptre, symbol D, and so a lens of focal length +10 cm (0.1 m)
has a power of +10 D. A diverging lens of focal length -5 cm (0.05 m) has a power of -20 D.
This way of describing lenses lets us work out what happens when two lenses are used
together. The combined power of the lenses is simply the sum of the power of each lens,
bearing in mind their signs, as shown in figure 4.13.

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3.0 Fibre Optics
3.1. General
Definition of Fibre Optics and Data Link
Fibre optics uses light to send information (data). More formally, fibre optics is the branch of optical technology
concerned with the transmission of radiant power (light energy) through fibres.
A fibre optic data link sends input data through fibre optic components and provides this data as output information.
It has the following three basic functions:
• To convert an electrical input signal to an optical signal
• To send the optical signal over an optical fibre
• To convert the optical signal back to an electrical signal
A fibre optic data link consists of three parts - transmitter, optical fibre, and receiver. Figure 4.25 is an illustration
of a fibre optic data-link connection. The transmitter, optical fibre, and receiver perform the basic functions of the
fibre optic data link. Each part of the data link is responsible for the successful transfer of the data signal.
A fibre optic data link needs a transmitter that can effectively convert an electrical input signal to an optical signal
and launch the data-containing light down the optical fibre. A fibre optic data link also needs a receiver that can
effectively transform this optical signal back into its original form. This means that the electrical signal provided as
data output should exactly match the electrical signal provided as data input.
Figure 4.25: Parts of a fibre optic data link.

The transmitter converts the input signal to an optical signal suitable for transmission. The transmitter consists of
two parts, an interface circuit and a source drive circuit. The transmitter's drive circuit converts the electrical signals
to an optical signal. It does this by varying the current flow through the light source. The two types of optical
sources are light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.
The optical source launches the optical signal into the fibre. The optical signal will become progressively weakened
and distorted because of scattering, absorption, and dispersion mechanisms in the fibre waveguides.
The receiver converts the optical signal exiting the fibre back into an electrical signal. The receiver consists of two
parts, the optical detector and the signal-conditioning circuits.
An optical detector detects the optical signal. The signal-conditioning circuit conditions the detector output so that
the receiver output matches the original input to the transmitter. The receiver should amplify and process the
optical signal without introducing noise or signal distortion. Noise is any disturbance that obscures or reduces the
quality of the signal. Noise effects and limitations of the signal-conditioning circuits cause the distortion of the
receiver's electrical output signal.
An optical detector can be either a semiconductor positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) diode or an avalanche
photodiode (APD).
A fibre optic data link also includes passive components other than an optical fibre. Figure 4.25 does not show the
optical connections used to complete the construction of the fibre optic data link. Passive components used to
make fibre connections affect the performance of the data link.
These components can also prevent the link from operating. Fibre optic components used to make the optical
connections include optical splices, connectors, and couplers.
Proof of link performance is an integral part of the design, fabrication, and installation of any fibre optic system.
Various measurement techniques are used to test individual parts of a data link. Each data link part is tested to be
sure the link is operating properly.

History of Fibre Optic Technology
People have used light to transmit information for hundreds of years. However, it was not until the 1960s, with the
invention of the laser, that widespread interest in optical (light) systems for data communications began. The
invention of the laser prompted researchers to study the potential of fibre optics for data communications, sensing,
and other applications. Laser systems could send a much larger amount of data than telephone, microwave, and
other electrical systems. The first experiment with the laser involved letting the laser beam transmit freely through
the air.
Researchers also conducted experiments letting the laser beam transmit through different types of waveguides.
Glass fibres, gas-filled pipes, and tubes with focusing lenses are examples of optical waveguides. Glass fibres
soon became the preferred medium for fibre optic research.
Initially, the very large losses in the optical fibres prevented coaxial cables from being replaced. “Loss” is the
decrease in the amount of light reaching the end of the fibre. Early fibres had losses around 1,000 dB/km making
them impractical for communications use.
In 1969, several scientists concluded that impurities in the fibre material caused the signal loss in optical fibres. The
basic fibre material did not prevent the light signal from reaching the end of the fibre. These researchers believed it
was possible to reduce the losses in optical fibres by removing the impurities. By removing the impurities,
construction of low-loss optical fibres was possible.
There are two basic types of optical fibres, multimode fibres and single mode fibres.
In 1970, Corning Glass Works made a multimode fibre with losses under 20 dB/km.
This same company, in 1972, made a high silica-core multimode optical fibre with 4dB/km minimum attenuation
(loss). Currently, multimode fibres can have losses as low as 0.5 dB/km at wavelengths around 1300 nm. Single
mode fibres are available with losses lower than 0.25 dB/km at wavelengths around 1500 nm.
Developments in semiconductor technology, which provided the necessary light sources and detectors, furthered
the development of fibre optics. Conventional light sources, such as lamps or lasers, were not easily used in fibre
optic systems. These light sources tended to be too large and required lens systems to launch light into the fibre.
In 1971, Bell Laboratories developed a small area light-emitting diode (LED). This light source was suitable for low-
loss coupling to optical fibres. Researchers could then perform source-to-fibre jointing easily and repeatedly. Early
semiconductor sources had operating lifetimes of only a few hours. However, by 1973, projected lifetimes of lasers
advanced from a few hours to greater than 1,000 hours.
By 1977, projected lifetimes of lasers advanced to greater than 7,000 hours. By 1979, these devices were available
with projected lifetimes of more than 100,000 hours.
In addition, researchers also continued to develop new fibre optic parts. The types of new parts developed included
low-loss fibres and fibre cables, splices, and connectors. These parts permitted demonstration and research on
complete fibre optic systems.
Advances in fibre optics have permitted the introduction of fibre optics into present applications. These applications
are mostly in the telephone long-haul systems, but are growing to include cable television, computer networks,
video systems, and data links. Research should increase system performance and provide solutions to existing
problems in conventional applications.
The impressive results from early research show there are many advantages offered by fibre optic systems.
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fibre Optics
Fibre optic systems have many attractive features that are superior to electrical systems. These include improved
system performance, immunity to electrical noise, signal security, and improved safety and electrical isolation.
Other advantages include reduced size and weight, environmental protection, and overall system economy. The
following list details the main advantages of fibre optic systems.
Advantages of Fibre Optics
• System Performance
• Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity
• Lower signal attenuation (loss)
• Immunity to Electrical Noise
• Immune to noise (electromagnetic interference [EMI] and radio-frequency interference [RFI])

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• No crosstalk
• Lower bit error rates
• Signal Security
• Difficult to tap
• Nonconductive (does not radiate signals) - Electrical Isolation
• No common ground required
• Freedom from short circuit and sparks
• Reduced size and weight cables
• Environmental Protection
• Resistant to radiation and corrosion
• Resistant to temperature variations
• Improved ruggedness and flexibility
• Less restrictive in harsh environments
Silica is the principal, abundant, and inexpensive material (source is sand)

Despite the many advantages of fibre optic systems, there are some disadvantages.
Because of the relative newness of the technology, fibre optic components are expensive. Fibre optic transmitters
and receivers are still relatively expensive compared to electrical interfaces. The lack of standardization in the
industry has also limited the acceptance of fibre optics. Many industries are more comfortable with the use of
electrical systems and are reluctant to switch to fibre optics. However, industry researchers are eliminating these
disadvantages.
The cost to install fibre optic systems is falling because of an increase in the use of fibre optic technology.
Published articles, conferences, and lectures on fibre optics have begun to educate managers and technicians. As
the technology matures, the use of fibre optics will increase because of its many advantages over electrical
systems.
Frequency and Bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can be transmitted at one time.
In the early days of radio transmission

when the information transmitted was
mostly restricted to Morse code and
speech, low frequencies were (long
waves) were used. The range of
frequencies available to be transmitted
(which determines the bandwidth) was
very low. This inevitably restricted us to
low speed data transmission.
Figure 4.26: The Electromagnetic

Spectrum, with wavelengths measured in
Angstrom (10-10 m)
As time went by, we required a wider

bandwidth to send more complex
information and to improve the speed of
transmission. To do this, we had to increase the frequency of the radio signal used. The usable bandwidth is
limited by the frequency used – the higher the frequency, the greater the bandwidth.
When television was developed we again had the requirement of a wider bandwidth and we responded in the same
way – by increasing the frequency. And so it went on.

More bandwidth needed? Use higher frequency. For something like sixty years this became an established
response – we had found the answer!
Until fibre optics blew it all away.
The early experiments showed that visible light transmission was possible and we explored the visible spectrum for
the best light frequency to use.
The promise of fibre optics was the possibility of increased transmission rates.
The old solution pointed to the use of the highest frequency but here we met a real problem. We found that the
transmission losses were increasing very quickly. In fact the losses increased by the fourth power. This means
that if the light frequency doubled, the losses would increase by a factor of 24 or 16 times.
We quickly appreciated that it was not worth pursuing higher and higher frequencies in order to obtain higher
bandwidths if it meant that we could only transmit the data over a very short distance.
The bandwidth of a light based system was so high that a relatively low frequency could be tolerated in order to get
lower losses and hence more transmission range. So we explored the lower frequency or the red end of the visible
spectrum and then even further down into the infrared.
And that is where we are at the present time.
Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of wavelengths and is generally used for all fibre optic communications.
Visible light is normally used for very short range transmissions using plastic fibre.
3.3 Basic Structure of an Optical Fibre

The basic structure of an optical fibre consists of three parts; the core, the cladding, and the coating or buffer.
The basic structure of an optical fibre is shown in figure 4.27. The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material.
Dielectric material conducts no electricity. Light propagates
mainly along the core of the fibre. The core is generally made of
glass. The core is described as having a radius of (a) and an
index of refraction n1. The core is surrounded by a layer of
material called the cladding. Even though light will propagate
along the fibre core without the layer of cladding material, the
cladding does perform some necessary functions.
The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index
of refraction n2. The index of refraction of the cladding material is
less than that of the core material. The cladding is generally
made of glass or plastic. The cladding performs the following
functions:
• Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
• Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core
• Protects the fibre from absorbing surface contaminants
• Adds mechanical strength
For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an additional layer called the coating or buffer.
The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect an optical fibre from physical damage. The material
used for a buffer is a type of plastic.
The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents abrasions. The buffer also prevents the optical fibre from scattering
losses caused by microbends. Microbends occur when an optical fibre is placed on a rough and distorted surface.
Microbends are discussed later in this chapter.
Propagation of Light along a Fibre

The concept of light propagation, the transmission of light along an optical fibre, can be described by two theories.
According to the first theory, light is described as a simple ray. This theory is the ray theory, or geometrical optics,
approach. The advantage of the ray approach is that you get a clearer picture of the propagation of light along a
fibre. The ray theory is used to approximate the light acceptance and guiding properties of optical fibres.

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According to the second theory, light is described as an electromagnetic wave. This theory is the mode theory, or
wave representation, approach. The mode theory describes the behaviour of light within an optical fibre. The mode
theory is useful in describing the optical fibre properties of absorption, attenuation, and dispersion. These fibre
properties are discussed later in this chapter.
Ray Theory Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fibre. The first type is called meridional rays.
Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fibre. Meridional rays are used to illustrate the
basic transmission properties of optical fibres.
The second type is called skew rays. Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fibre without passing
through its axis.
Meridional Rays. - Meridional rays
can be classified as bound or unbound
rays. Bound rays remain in the core
and propagate along the axis of the
fibre. Bound rays propagate through
the fibre by total internal reflection.
Unbound rays are refracted out of the
fibre core. Figure 4.28 shows a
possible path taken by bound and
unbound rays in a step-index fibre.
The core of the step-index fibre has an
index of refraction n1. The cladding of a
step-index has an index of refraction
n2, that is lower than n1.
Figure 4.28 assumes the core-cladding interface is perfect. However, imperfections at the core-cladding interface
will cause part of the bound rays to be refracted out of the core into the cladding. The light rays refracted into the
cladding will eventually escape from the fibre. In general, meridional rays follow the laws of reflection and
refraction.
It is known that bound rays propagate in
fibres due to total internal reflection, but
how do these light rays enter the fibre?
Rays that enter the fibre must intersect the
core-cladding interface at an angle greater
than the critical angle (θ c). Only those rays
that enter the fibre and strike the interface
at these angles will propagate along the
fibre.
How a light ray is launched into a fibre is
shown in figure 4.29. The incident ray I1
enters the fibre at the angle θ a. I1 is
refracted upon entering the fibre and is
transmitted to the core-cladding interface.
The ray then strikes the core-cladding
interface at the critical angle (θ c). I1 is
totally reflected back into the core and
continues to propagate along the fibre. The
incident ray I2 enters the fibre at an angle
greater than θ a. Again, I2 is refracted upon
entering the fibre and is transmitted to the
core-cladding interface. I2 strikes the core-
cladding interface at an angle less than the
critical angle (θ c). I2 is refracted into the
cladding and is eventually lost. The light
ray incident on the fibre core must be
within the cone of acceptance defined by
the angle θ a shown in figure 4.30.

Angle θ a is defined as the acceptance angle. The acceptance angle (θ a) is the maximum angle to the axis of the
fibre that light entering the fibre is propagated. The value of the angle of acceptance (θ a) depends on fibre
properties and transmission conditions.
The acceptance angle is related to the refractive indices of the core, cladding, and medium surrounding the fibre.
This relationship is called the numerical aperture of the fibre. The numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the
ability of an optical fibre to capture light. The NA is also used to define the cone of acceptance of an optical fibre.
Figure 4.30 illustrates the relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices. The index of
refraction of the fibre core is n1. The index of refraction of the fibre cladding is n2. The index of refraction of the
surrounding medium is n0. By using Snell's law and basic trigonometric relationships, the NA of the fibre is given
by:
Since the medium next to the fibre at the launching point is normally air, n0 is equal to 1.00. The NA is then simply
equal to sin θ a.
The NA is a convenient way to measure the light-gathering ability of an optical fibre. It is used to measure source-
to-fibre power-coupling efficiencies. A high NA indicates a high source-to-fibre coupling efficiency.
Typical values of NA range from 0.20 to 0.29 for glass fibres. Plastic fibres generally have a higher NA. An NA for
plastic fibres can be higher than 0.50.
In addition, the NA is commonly used to specify multimode fibres.
However, for small core diameters, such as in single mode fibres, the ray theory breaks down. Ray theory
describes only the direction a plane wave takes in a fibre. Ray theory eliminates any properties of the plane wave
that interfere with the transmission of light along a fibre. In reality, plane waves interfere with each other. Therefore,
only certain types of rays are able to propagate in an optical fibre.
Optical fibres can support only a specific number of guided modes. In small core fibres, the number of modes
supported is one or only a few modes. Mode theory is used to describe the types of plane waves able to propagate
along an optical fibre.
Skew Rays. - A possible path of propagation of skew rays is
shown in figure 4.31: view A, provides an angled view and view
B provides a front view.
Skew rays propagate without passing through the centre axis of
the fibre. The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than the
acceptance angle of meridional rays.
This condition explains why skew rays outnumber meridional
rays. Skew rays are often used in the calculation of light
acceptance in an optical fibre. The addition of skew rays
increases the amount of light capacity of a fibre. In large NA
fibres, the increase may be significant.
The addition of skew rays also increases the amount of loss in a
fibre. Skew rays tend to propagate near the edge of the fibre core. A large portion of the number of skew rays that
are trapped in the fibre core are considered to be leaky rays. Leaky rays are predicted to be totally reflected at the
core-cladding boundary. However, these rays are partially refracted because of the curved nature of the fibre
boundary. Mode theory is also used to describe this type of leaky ray loss.
Mode Theory The mode theory, along with the ray theory, is used to describe the propagation of light along an
optical fibre. The mode theory is used to describe the properties of light that ray theory is unable to explain. The
mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behaviour to describe the propagation of light along a fibre. A set of
guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fibre.
Plane Waves. - The mode theory suggests that a light wave can be represented as a plane wave. A plane wave is
described by its direction, amplitude, and wavelength of propagation. A plane wave is a wave whose surfaces of
constant phase are infinite parallel planes normal to the direction of propagation.

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The planes having the same phase are called the wavefronts.
The wavelength (λ) of the plane wave is given by:
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, f is the frequency of the light, and n is the index of refraction of the plane-
wave medium.
Figure 4.32 shows the direction and wavefronts of plane-wave
propagation. Plane waves, or wavefronts, propagate along the fibre
similar to light rays. However, not all wavefronts incident on the fibre at
angles less than or equal to the critical angle of light acceptance
propagate along the fibre. Wavefronts may undergo a change in phase
that prevents the successful transfer of light along the fibre.
Wavefronts are required to remain in phase for light to be transmitted
along the fibre. Consider the wavefronts incident on the core of an
optical fibre as shown in figure 4.33. Only those wavefronts incident on
the fibre at angles less than or equal to the critical angle may
propagate along the fibre.
The wavefront undergoes a gradual phase change as it travels down
the fibre. Phase changes also occur when the wavefront is reflected.
The wavefront must remain in phase after the wavefront transverses
the fibre twice and is reflected twice.
The distance transversed is shown between point A and point B on figure 4.33. The reflected waves at point A and
point B are in phase if the total amount of phase collected is an integer multiple of 2p radian. If propagating
wavefronts are not in phase, they
eventually disappear. Wavefronts
disappear because of destructive
interference. The wavefronts that are in
phase interfere with the wavefronts that
are out of phase. This interference is the
reason why only a finite number of
modes can propagate along the fibre.
The plane waves repeat as they travel
along the fibre axis. The direction the
plane waves travel is assumed to be the
z direction as shown in figure 4.33. The
plane waves repeat at a distance equal
to λ /sin θ. Plane waves also repeat at a periodic frequency
b = 2p sin θ / λ. The quantity b is defined as the propagation constant along the fibre axis. As the wavelength
(λ) changes, the value of the propagation constant must also change.
For a given mode, a change in wavelength can prevent the mode from propagating along the fibre. The mode is no
longer bound to the fibre. The mode is said to be cut off. Modes that are bound at one wavelength may not exist at
longer wavelengths.
The wavelength at which a mode ceases to be bound is called the cut-off wavelength for that mode. However, an
optical fibre is always able to propagate at least one mode. This mode is referred to as the fundamental mode of
the fibre. The fundamental mode can never be cut off.
The wavelength that prevents the next higher mode from propagating is called the cut-off wavelength of the fibre.
An optical fibre that operates above the cut-off wavelength (at a longer wavelength) is called a single mode fibre.
An optical fibre that operates below the cut-off wavelength is called a multimode fibre. Single mode and multimode
optical fibres are discussed later in this chapter.
In a fibre, the propagation constant of a plane wave is a function of the wave's wavelength and mode. The change
in the propagation constant for different waves is called dispersion. The change in the propagation constant for
different wavelengths is called chromatic dispersion. The change in propagation constant for different modes is
called modal dispersion.

In a fibre, the propagation constant of a plane wave
is a function of the wave's wavelength and mode.
The change in the propagation constant for different
waves is called dispersion. The change in the
propagation constant for different wavelengths is
called chromatic dispersion. The change in
propagation constant for different modes is called
modal dispersion.
These dispersions cause the light pulse to spread
as it goes down the fibre (fig. 4.34). Some dispersion occurs in all types of fibres. Dispersion is discussed later in
this chapter.
Modes. - A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of an optical fibre.
Maxwell's equations describe electromagnetic waves or modes as having two components. The two components
are the electric field, E(x, y, z), and the
magnetic field, H(x, y, z). The electric field,
E, and the magnetic field, H, are at right
angles to each other. Modes travelling in
an optical fibre are said to be transverse.
The transverse modes, shown in figure
4.35, propagate along the axis of the fibre.
The mode field patterns shown in figure
4.35 are said to be transverse electric (TE).
In TE modes, the electric field is
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
The magnetic field is in the direction of
propagation. Another type of transverse
mode is the transverse magnetic (TM) mode. TM modes are opposite to TE modes. In TM modes, the magnetic
field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The electric field is in the direction of propagation.
Figure 4.35 shows only TE modes.
The TE mode field patterns shown in figure
4.35 indicate the order of each mode. The
order of each mode is indicated by the number
of field maxima within the core of the fibre.
For example, TE0 has one field maxima. The
electric field is a maximum at the centre of the
waveguide and decays toward the core-
cladding boundary. TE0 is considered the
fundamental mode or the lowest order standing
wave. As the number of field maxima
increases, the order of the mode is higher.
Generally, modes with more than a few (5-10)
field maxima are referred to as high-order modes.
The order of the mode is also determined by the angle the wavefront makes with the axis of the fibre.
Figure 4.36 illustrates light rays as they travel down the fibre. These light rays indicate the direction of the
wavefronts. High-order modes cross the
axis of the fibre at steeper angles. Low-
order and high-order modes are shown in
figure 4.36.
Before we progress, let us refer back to
figure 4.30. Notice that the modes are not
confined to the core of the fibre. The modes
extend partially into the cladding material.
Low-order modes penetrate the cladding

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only slightly. In low-order modes, the electric and magnetic fields are concentrated near the centre of the fibre.
However, high-order modes penetrate further into the cladding material. In high-order modes, the electrical and
magnetic fields are distributed more toward the outer edges of the fibre.
This penetration of low-order and high-order modes into the cladding region indicates that some portion is refracted
out of the core. The refracted modes may become trapped in the cladding due to the dimension of the cladding
region. The modes trapped in the cladding region are called cladding modes. As the core and the cladding modes
travel along the fibre, mode coupling occurs. Mode coupling is the exchange of power between two modes. Mode
coupling to the cladding results in the loss of power from the core modes.
In addition to bound and refracted modes, there are leaky modes.
Leaky modes are similar to leaky rays. Leaky modes lose power as they propagate along the fibre. For a mode to
remain within the core, the mode must meet certain boundary conditions. A mode remains bound if the propagation
constant b meets the following boundary condition:
where n1 and n2 are the index of refraction for the core and the cladding, respectively. When the propagation
constant becomes smaller than 2pn2 / λ, power leaks out of the core and into the cladding. Generally, modes
leaked into the cladding are lost in a few centimetres. However, leaky modes can carry a large amount of power in
short fibres.
Normalized Frequency. - Electromagnetic waves bound to an optical fibre are described by the fibre’s normalized
frequency. The normalized frequency determines how many modes a fibre can support. Normalized frequency is a
dimensionless quantity.
Normalized frequency is also related to the fibre’s cut-off wavelength. Normalized frequency (V) is defined as:
where n1 is the core index of refraction, n2 is the cladding index of refraction, a is the core diameter, and λ is the
wavelength of light in air.
The number of modes that can exist in a fibre is a function of V. As the value of V increases, the number
of modes supported by the fibre increases. Optical fibres, single mode and multimode, can support a
different number of modes. The number of modes supported by single mode and multimode fibre types
is discussed later in this chapter.
3.4 Optical Fibre Types

Optical fibres are characterized by their structure and by their properties of transmission. Basically, optical fibres
are classified into two types. The first type is single mode fibres. The second type is multimode fibres. As each
name implies, optical fibres are classified by the number of modes that propagate along the fibre. As previously
explained, the structure of the fibre can permit or restrict modes from propagating in a fibre. The basic structural
difference is the core size. Single mode fibres are manufactured with the same materials as multimode fibres.
Single mode fibres are also manufactured by following the same fabrication process as multimode fibres.
Single Mode Fibres
The core size of single mode fibres is small. The core size (diameter) is typically around 8 to 10 micrometers (µm).
A fibre core of this size allows only the fundamental or lowest order mode to propagate around a 1300 nanometre
(nm) wavelength. Single mode fibres propagate only one mode, because the core size approaches the operational
wavelength (λ). The value of the normalized frequency parameter (V) relates core size with mode propagation.
In single mode fibres, V is less than or equal to 2.405. When V ≤ 2.405, single mode fibres propagate the
fundamental mode down the fibre core, while high-order modes are lost in the cladding. For low V values (≤1.0),
most of the power is propagated in the cladding material. Power transmitted by the cladding is easily lost at fibre
bends. The value of V should remain near the 2.405 level.

Single mode fibres have a lower signal loss and a higher information capacity (bandwidth) than multimode fibres.
Single mode fibres are capable of transferring higher amounts of data due to low fibre dispersion. Basically,
dispersion is the spreading of light as light propagates along a fibre. Dispersion mechanisms in single mode fibres
are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Signal loss depends on the operational wavelength (λ). In single mode fibres, the wavelength can increase or
decrease the losses caused by fibre bending. Single mode fibres operating at wavelengths larger than the cut-off
wavelength lose more power at fibre bends. They lose power because light radiates into the cladding, which is lost
at fibre bends. In general, single mode fibres are considered to be low-loss fibres, which increase system
bandwidth and length.
Multimode Fibres
As their name implies, multimode fibres propagate more than one mode. Multimode fibres can propagate over 100
modes. The number of modes propagated depends on the core size and numerical aperture (NA). As the core size
and NA increase, the number of modes increases. Typical values of fibre core size and NA are 50 to 100 µm and
0.20 to 0.29, respectively.
A large core size and a higher NA have several advantages. Light is launched into a multimode fibre with more
ease. The higher NA and the larger core size make it easier to make fibre connections. During fibre splicing, core-
to-core alignment becomes less critical. Another advantage is that multimode fibres permit the use of light-emitting
diodes (LEDs). Single mode fibres typically must use laser diodes. LEDs are cheaper, less complex, and last
longer. LEDs are preferred for most applications.
Multimode fibres also have some disadvantages. As the number of modes increases, the effect of modal dispersion
increases. Modal dispersion (intermodal dispersion) means that modes arrive at the fibre end at slightly different
times. This time difference causes the light pulse to spread. Modal dispersion affects system bandwidth. Fibre
manufacturers adjust the core diameter, NA, and index profile properties of multimode fibres to maximize system
bandwidth.
Properties of Optical Fibre Transmission
The principles behind the transfer of light along an optical fibre were discussed earlier in this section. You learned
that propagation of light depended on the nature of light and the structure of the optical fibre. However, our
discussion did not describe how optical fibres affect system performance.
In this case, system performance deals with signal loss and bandwidth.
Signal loss and system bandwidth describe the amount of data transmitted over a specified length of fibre. Many
optical fibre properties increase signal loss and reduce system bandwidth. The most important properties that affect
system performance are fibre attenuation and dispersion. Attenuation reduces the amount of optical power
transmitted by the fibre.
Attenuation controls the distance an optical signal (pulse) can travel as shown in figure 4.37. Once the power of an
optical pulse is reduced to a point where the receiver is unable to detect the pulse, an error occurs. Attenuation is
mainly a result of light absorption, scattering, and bending losses. Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it
travels along the fibre. This spreading of the signal pulse reduces the system bandwidth or the information-carrying
capacity of the fibre. Dispersion limits how fast information is transferred as shown in figure 4.37. An error occurs
when the receiver is unable to distinguish between input pulses caused by the spreading of each pulse. The effects
of attenuation and dispersion increase as the pulse travels the length of the fibre as shown in figure 4.38.

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Figure 4.37. - Fibre transmission properties.
Figure 4.38: Pulse spreading and power loss along an optical fibre.
In addition to fibre attenuation and dispersion, other optical fibre properties affect system performance. Fibre
properties, such as modal noise, pulse broadening, and polarization, can reduce system performance.
Modal noise, pulse broadening, and polarization are too complex to discuss as introductory level material.
However, you should be aware that attenuation and dispersion are not the only fibre properties that affect
performance.
Attenuation - Attenuation in an optical fibre is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses. Attenuation
is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fibre. Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input
power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po). Optical input power is the power injected into the fibre from an optical
source. Optical output power is the power received at the fibre end or optical detector. The following equation
defines signal attenuation as a unit of length:
Signal attenuation is a log relationship. Length (L) is expressed in kilometres. Therefore, the unit of attenuation is
decibels/kilometre (dB/km). As previously stated, attenuation is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending
losses. Each mechanism of loss is influenced by material-material properties and fibre structure. However, loss is
also present at fibre connections. Fibre connector, splice, and coupler losses are discussed later. The present
discussion remains relative to optical fibre attenuation properties.
Absorption - Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fibre. Absorption is defined as the portion of
attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into another energy form, such as heat. Absorption in
optical fibres is explained by three factors:
• Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fibre material
• The intrinsic or basic material-material properties
• The extrinsic (presence of impurities) material-material properties

Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules or oxygen defects.
Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the glass fibre. Since intrinsic and extrinsic
material properties are the main cause of absorption, they are discussed further.
Intrinsic Absorption - Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic material-material properties. If an optical fibre were
absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets
the minimal level of absorption.
In fibre optics, silica (pure glass) fibres are used predominately. Silica fibres are used because of their low intrinsic
material absorption at the wavelengths of operation.
In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometres (nm) to 1600 nm. Figure 4.39 shows the
level of attenuation at the wavelengths of operation. This wavelength of operation is between two intrinsic
absorption regions. The first region is the ultraviolet region (below 400-nm wavelength). The second region is the
infrared region (above 2000-nm wavelength).
Figure 4.39: Fibre losses.
Intrinsic absorption in the

ultraviolet region is caused by
electronic absorption bands.
Basically, absorption occurs
when a light particle (photon)
interacts with an electron and
excites it to a higher energy
level. The tail of the ultraviolet
absorption band is shown in
figure 4.39.
The main cause of intrinsic

absorption in the infrared
region is the characteristic
vibration frequency of atomic
bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by the vibration of silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bonds. The interaction between
the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic field of the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption. Light energy is
transferred from the electromagnetic field to the bond. The tail of the infrared absorption band is shown in figure
4.39.
Extrinsic Absorption - Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fibre material. Trace metal
impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the fibre during fabrication. Extrinsic
absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these metal ions from one energy level to another.
Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced into the fibre. Water in silica glass forms a
silicon-hydroxyl (Si-OH) bond. This bond has a fundamental absorption at 2700 nm. However, the harmonics or
overtones of the fundamental absorption occur in the region of operation. These harmonics increase extrinsic
absorption at 1383 nm, 1250 nm, and 950 nm. Figure 4.39 shows the presence of the three OH- harmonics. The
level of the OH- harmonic absorption is also indicated.
These absorption peaks define three regions or windows of preferred operation. The first window is centred at 850
nm. The second window is centred at 1300 nm. The third window is centred at 1550 nm. Fibre optic systems
operate at wavelengths defined by one of these windows. Visible light has a wavelength between 400 and 750 nm.
Therefore all three of these wavelengths used in fibreoptic data transmission are within the infrared range.
The amount of water (OH-) impurities present in a fibre should be less than a few parts per billion. Fibre attenuation
caused by extrinsic absorption is affected by the level of impurities (OH-) present in the fibre. If the amount of
impurities in a fibre is reduced, then fibre attenuation is reduced.

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Scattering. - Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a
fibre. Density changes are produced when optical fibres are manufactured.
During manufacturing, regions of higher and
lower molecular density areas, relative to the
average density of the fibre, are created. Light
travelling through the fibre interacts with the
density areas as shown in figure 4.40. Light is
then partially scattered in all directions.
In commercial fibres operating between 700-
nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main source
of loss is called Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh
scattering is the main loss mechanism
between the ultraviolet and infrared regions as
shown in figure 4.39. Rayleigh scattering
occurs when the size of the density fluctuation
(fibre defect) is less than one-tenth of the
operating wavelength of light.
Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (1/ λ 4). As the wavelength
increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases.
If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering mechanism is called Mie
scattering. Mie scattering, caused by these large defects in the fibre core, scatters light out of the fibre core.
However, in commercial fibres, the effects of Mie scattering are insignificant. Optical fibres are manufactured with
very few large defects.
Bending Loss - Bending the fibre also causes attenuation. Bending loss is classified according to the bend radius
of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss.
Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fibre axis that occur mainly when a fibre is cabled.
Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fibre diameter. Microbend and macrobend
losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fibre loss caused by microbending can still occur even if the fibre is
cabled correctly. During installation, if fibres are bent too sharply, macrobend losses will occur.
Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fibre. Uneven coating applications
and improper cabling procedures increase
microbend loss. External forces are also a
source of microbends. An external force
deforms the cabled jacket surrounding the fibre
but causes only a small bend in the fibre.
Microbends change the path that propagating
modes take, as shown in figure 4.41.
Microbend loss increases attenuation because
low-order modes become coupled with high-
order modes that are naturally leaky
Macrobend losses are observed when a fibre
bend's radius of curvature is large compared to
the fibre diameter.
These bends become a great source of loss
when the radius of curvature is less than
several centimetres. Light propagating at the inner side of the bend travels a shorter distance than that on the outer
side. To maintain the phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must increase. When the fibre bend is less
than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must increase to a speed greater than the speed of light.
However, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light. This condition causes some of the light within the fibre to be
converted to high-order modes. These high-order modes are then lost or radiated out of the fibre.
Fibre sensitivity to bending losses can be reduced. If the refractive index of the core is increased, then fibre
sensitivity decreases. Sensitivity also decreases as the diameter of the overall fibre increases. However, increases
in the fibre core diameter increase fibre sensitivity. Fibres with larger core size propagate more modes. These
additional modes tend to be more leaky.

Dispersion There are two different types of dispersion in optical fibres.
The types are intramodal and intermodal dispersion.

Intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion occurs in all types of
fibres. Intermodal, or modal, dispersion occurs only in
multimode fibres. Each type of dispersion mechanism leads to
pulse spreading. As a pulse spreads, energy is overlapped.
This condition is shown in figure 4.42. The spreading of the
optical pulse as it travels along the fibre limits the information
capacity of the fibre.
Intramodal Dispersion - Intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion
depends primarily on fibre materials. There are two types of
intramodal dispersion. The first type is material dispersion.
The second type is waveguide dispersion.
Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colours of light travel through different materials and different
waveguide structures at different speeds.
Material dispersion occurs because the spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths' interaction
with the refractive index of the fibre core. Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the fibre material.
Different wavelengths of a light pulse that enter a fibre at one time exit the fibre at different times. Material
dispersion is a function of the source spectral width. The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can
propagate in the fibre. Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths.
Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode propagation constant (b) is a function of the size of the fibre’s
core relative to the wavelength of operation. Waveguide dispersion also occurs because light propagates differently
in the core than in the cladding.
In multimode fibres, waveguide dispersion and material dispersion are basically separate properties. Multimode
waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to material dispersion. Waveguide dispersion is usually
neglected.
However, in single mode fibres, material and waveguide dispersion are interrelated.
The total dispersion present in single mode fibres may be minimized by trading material and waveguide properties
depending on the wavelength of operation.
Intermodal Dispersion Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input light
pulse is made up of a group of modes. As the modes propagate along the fibre, light energy distributed among the
modes is delayed by different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along the fibre at
different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some modes travel longer distances.
Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over the same time span, as shown in
figure 4.43. The modes of a light pulse that enter the fibre at one time exit the fibre at different times.
This condition causes the light pulse to
spread. As the length of the fibre increases,
modal dispersion increases.
Modal dispersion is the dominant source of
dispersion in multimode fibres. Modal
dispersion does not exist in single mode
fibres. Single mode fibres propagate only the
fundamental mode.
Therefore, single mode fibres exhibit the
lowest amount of total dispersion. Single
mode fibres also exhibit the highest possible
bandwidth.

© Copyright 2011
3.5 The Transmission of Signals
Analogue Transmission
This is the simplest method. Although it is not generally used on aircraft systems, it is discussed here as a
background to digital techniques. The incoming information signal, speech, music, video etc. is used to control the
power output from the LED or the laser. The light output is, as near as possible, a true copy of the electrical
variations at the input. At the far end of the fibre, the receiver converts the light back into an electrical signal which
is, hopefully, the same as the electrical signal.
However, any nonlinearity of the characteristics of the transmitter or receiver will reduce the accuracy of the
electrical/optical (E/O) and optical/electrical (O/E) conversions and give rise to distortion in the output signal.
Another problem is noise. Since the receiver is receiving an analogue signal, it must be sensitive to any changes
in amplitude. Any random fluctuations in light level caused by the light source, the fibre or the receiver will cause
unwanted noise in the output signal. Electrical noise due to lightning, electromagnetic interference (EMI) or High
Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) will also give rise to electrical noise in the non-fibre parts of the system.
Digital Transmission
In a digital system, the information signal is represented by a sequence of on/off levels. The ‘on’ state is often
referred to as logic 1 and the ‘off’ state as logic 0. The 1 and 0 have no numerical significance and are just
convenient ways to differentiate between the two states.
The ‘yes’ and ‘no’ approach means that it ignores noise and distortion since all voltages above the threshold level
are recognised as logic 1 state and all below this level as a logic 0. The signal is then generated as a perfect copy
of the original signal.
3.6 Optical Fibres and Cables

Optical Fibre and Cable Design
Optical fibres are thin cylindrical dielectric (non-conductive) waveguides used to send light energy for
communication. Optical fibres consist of three parts: the core, the cladding, and the coating or buffer. The choice of
optical fibre materials and fibre design depends on operating conditions and intended application. Optical fibres are
protected from the environment by incorporating the fibre into some type of cable structure. Cable strength
members and outer jackets protect the fibre.
Optical cable structure and material composition
depend on the conditions of operation and the intended
application.
Optical Fibres
Optical fibres are classified as either single mode or
multimode fibres. Fibres are classified according to the
number of modes that they can propagate. Single
mode fibres can propagate only the fundamental mode.
Multimode fibres can propagate hundreds of modes.
However, the classification of an optical fibre depends
on more than the number of modes that a fibre can
propagate.
An optical fibre’s refractive index profile and core size
further distinguish single mode and multimode fibres.
The refractive index profile describes the value of
refractive index as a function of radial distance at any
fibre diameter. Fibre refractive index profiles classify
single mode and multimode fibres as follows:
• Multimode step-ondex fibers
• Multimode graded-index fibres
• Single mode step-index fibres
• Simgle mode graded-index fibres

In a step-index fibre, the refractive index of the core is uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at the core-
cladding boundary. Step-index fibres obtain their name from this abrupt change called the step change in refractive
index. In graded-index fibres, the refractive index of the core varies gradually as a function of radial distance from
the fibre centre.
Single mode and multimode fibres can have a step-index or graded-index refractive index profile. The performance
of multimode graded-index fibres is usually superior to multimode step-index fibres. However, each type of
multimode fibre can improve system design and operation depending on the intended application. Performance
advantages for single mode graded-index fibres compared to single mode step-index fibres are relatively small.
Therefore, single mode fibre production is almost exclusively step-index.
Figure 10-28 shows the refractive index profile for a multimode step-index fibre and a multimode graded-index
fibre. Figure 10-28 also shows the refractive index profile for a single mode step-index fibre. Since light propagates
differently in each fibre type, figure 4.44 shows the propagation of light along each fibre.
Previously you learned that fibre core size and material composition can affect system performance. A small
change in core size and material composition affects fibre transmission properties, such as attenuation and
dispersion.
When selecting an optical fibre, the system designer decides which fibre core size and material composition is
appropriate.
Standard core sizes for multimode step-index fibres are 50 µm and 100 µm. Standard core sizes for multimode
graded-index fibres are 50 µm, 62.5 µm, 85 µm, and 100 µm. Standard core sizes for single mode fibres are
between 8 µm and 10 µm. In most cases, the material used in the preparation of optical fibres is high-quality glass
(SiO2).
This glass contains very low amounts of impurities, such as water or elements other than silica and oxygen. Using
high-quality glass produces fibres with low losses. Small amounts of some elements other than silica and oxygen
are added to the glass material to change its index of refraction. These elements are called material dopants. Silica
doped with various materials forms the refractive index profile of the fibre core and material dopants are discussed
in more detail later in this chapter. Glass is not the only material used in fabrication of optical fibres. Plastics are
also used for core and cladding materials in some applications.
A particular optical fibre design can improve fibre optic system performance.
Each single mode or multimode, step-index or graded-index, glass or plastic, or large or small core fibre has an
intended application. The system designer must choose an appropriate fibre design that optimizes system
performance in his application.
Multimode Step-Index Fibres

A multimode step-index fibre has a core of radius (a)
and a constant refractive index n1. A cladding of slightly
lower refractive index n2 surrounds the core. Figure
4.45 shows the refractive index profile n(r) for this type
of fibre. n(r) is equal to n1 at radial distances r < a
(core). n(r) is equal to n2 at radial distances r ≥ a
(cladding). Notice the step decrease in the value of
refractive index at the core-cladding interface.
This step decrease occurs at a radius equal to distance
(a). The difference in the core and cladding refractive
index is the parameter Δ:
Δ is the relative refractive index difference.

© Copyright 2011
The ability of the fibre to accept optical energy from a light source is related to Δ. Δ also relates to the numerical
aperture by
The number of modes that multimode step-index fibres propagate depends on Δ and core radius (a) of the fibre.
The number of propagating modes also depends on the wavelength (λ) of the transmitted light.
In a typical multimode step-index fibre, there are hundreds of propagating modes.
Most modes in multimode step-index fibres propagate far from cut-off.
Modes that are cut off cease to be bound to the core of the fibre. Modes that are farther away from the cut-off
wavelength concentrate most of their light energy into the fibre core. Modes that propagate close to cut-off have a
greater percentage of their light energy propagate in the cladding. Since most modes propagate far from cut-off,
the majority of light propagates in the fibre core.
Therefore, in multimode step-index fibres, cladding properties, such as cladding diameter, have limited affect on
mode (light) propagation.
Multimode step-index fibres have relatively large core diameters and large numerical apertures. A large core size
and a large numerical aperture make it easier to couple light from a light-emitting diode (LED) into the fibre.
Multimode step-index fibre core size is typically 50 µm or 100 µm.
Unfortunately, multimode step-index fibres have limited bandwidth capabilities.
Dispersion, mainly modal dispersion, limits the bandwidth or information-carrying capacity of the fibre. System
designers consider each factor when selecting an appropriate fibre for each particular application.
Multimode step-index fibre selection depends on system application and design. Short-haul, limited bandwidth, low-
cost applications typically use multimode step-index fibres.
Multimode Graded-Index Fibres
A multimode graded-index fibre has a core of radius (a). Unlike step-index fibres, the value of the refractive index of
the core (n1) varies according to the radial distance (r). The value of n1 decreases as the distance (r) from the
centre of the fibre increases.
The value of n1 decreases until it approaches the value of the refractive index of the cladding (n2). The value of n1
must be higher than the value of n2 to allow for proper mode propagation. Like the step-index fibre, the value of n2
is constant and has a slightly lower value than the maximum value of n1. The relative refractive index difference (Δ)
is determined using the maximum value of n1 and
the value of n2.
Figure shows a possible refractive index profile
n(r) for a multimode graded-index fibre. Notice the
parabolic refractive index profile of the core. The
profile parameter (α) determines the shape of the
core's profile. As the value of α increases, the
shape of the core's profile changes from a
triangular shape to step as shown in figure 4.46.
Most multimode graded-index fibres have a
parabolic refractive index profile. Multimode fibres
with near parabolic graded-index profiles provide
the best performance. Unless otherwise specified,
when discussing multimode graded-index fibres,
assume that the core's refractive index profile is
parabolic (α =2).

Light propagates in multimode graded-
index fibres according to refraction and
total internal reflection. The gradual
decrease in the core's refractive index
from the centre of the fibre causes the
light rays to be refracted many times.
The light rays become refracted or
curved, which increases the angle of
incidence at the next point of refraction.
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence becomes larger than the critical angle of incidence.
Figure 4.48 shows the process of refraction and total internal reflection of light in multimode graded-index fibres.
Figure 4.48 also illustrates the boundaries of different values of core refractive index by dotted lines. Light rays may
be reflected to the axis of the fibre before reaching the core-cladding interface.
The NA of a multimode graded-index fibre is at its maximum value at the fibre axis. This NA is the axial numerical
aperture [NA(0)]. NA(0) is approximately equal to
However, the NA for graded-index fibres varies as a function of the radial distance (r). NA varies because of the
refractive index grading in the fibre’s core. The NA decreases from the maximum, NA(0), to zero at distances
greater than the core-cladding boundary distance (r>a). The NA, relative refractive index difference (Δ), profile
parameter (α), and normalized frequency (V) determine the number of propagating modes in multimode graded-
index fibres.
A multimode graded-index fibre with the same normalized frequency as a multimode step-index fibre will have
approximately one-half as many propagating modes. However, multimode graded-index fibres typically have over
one-hundred propagating modes.
Multimode graded-index fibres accept less
light than multimode step-index fibres with
the same core Δ. However, graded-index
fibres usually outperform the step-index
fibres. The core's parabolic refractive
index profile causes multimode graded-
index fibres to have less modal
dispersion.
Figure 4.48 shows possible paths that
light may take when propagating in
multimode graded-index fibres. Light rays
that travel farther from the fibre’s axis
travel a longer distance. Light rays that
travel farther from the centre travel in core material with an average lower refractive index.
Earlier, you learned that light travels faster in a material with a lower refractive index. Therefore, those light rays
that travel the longer distance in the lower refractive index parts of the core travel at a greater average velocity.
This means that the rays that travel farther from the fibre’s axis will arrive at each point along the fibre at nearly the
same time as the rays that travel close to the fibre’s axis.
The decrease in time difference between light rays reduces modal dispersion and increases multimode graded-
index fibre bandwidth. The increased bandwidth allows the use of multimode graded-index fibres in most
applications.
Most present day applications that use multimode fibre use graded-index fibres. The basic design parameters are
the fibre’s core and cladding size and Δ. Standard multimode graded-index fibre core and cladding sizes are
50/125 µm, 62.5/125 µm, 85/125 µm, and 100/140 µm. Each fibre design has a specific Δ that improves fibre
performance. Typical values of Δ are around 0.01 to 0.02. Although no single multimode graded-index fibre design
is appropriate for all applications, the 62.5/125 µm fibre with a Δ of 0.02 offers the best overall performance.

© Copyright 2011
A multimode graded-index fibre’s source-to-fibre coupling efficiency and insensitivity to microbending and
macrobending losses are its most distinguishing characteristics. The fibre core size and Δ affect the amount of
power coupled into the core and loss caused by microbending and macrobending.
Coupled power increases with both core diameter and Δ, while bending losses increase directly with core diameter
and inversely with Δ. However, while these values favour high Δ s, a smaller Δ improves fibre bandwidth.
In most applications, a multimode graded-index fibre with a core and cladding size of 62.5/125 µm offers the best
combination of the following properties:
• Relatively high source-to-fibre coupling efficiency
• Low loss
• Low sensitivity to microbending and macrobending
• High bandwidth
• Expansion capability
For example, local area network (LAN) and aircraft applications use multimode graded-index fibres with a core and
cladding size of 62.5/125 µm. In LAN-type environments, macrobend and microbend losses are hard to predict.
Cable tension, bends, and local tie-downs increase macrobend and microbend losses. In aircraft applications, a
cable-way may place physical restrictions, such as tight bends, on the fibre during cable plant installation.
The good microbend and macrobend performance of 62.5/125 µm fibre permits installation of a rugged and robust
cable. 62.5/125 µm multimode graded-index fibres allow for uncomplicated growth because of high fibre bandwidth
capabilities for the expected short cable runs onboard aircraft.
Single Mode Step-Index Fibres
There are two basic types of single mode step-index
fibres: matched clad and depressed clad.
Matched cladding means that the fibre cladding
consists of a single homogeneous layer of dielectric
material.
Depressed cladding means that the fibre cladding
consists of two regions: the inner and outer cladding
regions.
Matched-clad and depressed-clad single mode step-
index fibres have unique refractive index profiles.
A matched-clad single mode step-index fibre has a core
of radius (a) and a constant refractive index n1. A cladding of slightly lower refractive index surrounds the core. The
cladding has a refractive index n2. Figure 4.49 shows
the refractive index profile n(r) for the matched-clad
single mode fibre.
Figure 4.50 shows the refractive index profile n(r) for the
depressed-clad single mode fibre. A depressed-clad
single mode step-index fibre has a core of radius (a)
with a constant refractive index n1. A cladding, made of
two regions, surrounds the core.
An inner cladding region surrounds the core of the fibre
and has a refractive index of n2. The inner cladding
refractive index n2 is lower than the core's refractive
index n1.
An outer cladding region surrounds the inner cladding
region and has a higher refractive index n3 than the
inner cladding region. However, the outer cladding refractive index n3 is lower than the core's refractive index n1.

.
Single mode step-index fibres propagate only one mode, called the fundamental mode. Single mode operation
occurs when the value of the fibre’s normalized frequency is between 0 and 2.405 (0 ≤ V < 2.405). The value of V
should remain near the 2.405 level. When the value of V is less than 1, single mode fibres carry a majority of the
light power in the cladding material. The portion of light transmitted by the cladding material easily radiates out of
the fibre. For example, light radiates out of the cladding material at fibre bends and splices.
Single mode fibre cut-off wavelength is the smallest operating wavelength when single mode fibres propagate
only the fundamental mode. At this wavelength, the 2nd-order mode becomes leaky and radiates out of the fibre
core. As the operating wavelength becomes longer than the cut-off wavelength, the fundamental mode becomes
increasingly leaky.
The higher the operating wavelength is above the cut-off wavelength, the more power is transmitted through the
fibre cladding. As the fundamental mode extends into the cladding material, it becomes increasingly sensitive to
bending loss.
Single mode fibre designs include claddings of sufficient thickness with low absorption and scattering properties to
reduce attenuation of the fundamental mode. To increase performance and reduce losses caused by fibre bending
and splicing, fibre manufacturers adjust the value of V. To adjust the value of V, they vary the core and cladding
sizes and relative refractive index difference (Δ).
A single mode step-index fibre has low attenuation and high bandwidth properties. Present applications for single
mode fibres include long-haul, high-speed telecommunication systems. Future applications include single mode
fibres for sensor systems. However, the current state of single mode technology makes installation of single mode
systems expensive and difficult. Short cable runs, low to moderate bandwidth requirements, and high component
cost make installation of single mode fibre aircraft systems impractical at this time.
Therefore, field measurements may require two people.
The main field measurement technique involves optical time-domain reflectometry. An optical time-domain
reflectometer (OTDR) is recommended for conducting field measurements on installed optical fibres or links of 20
meters or more in length. An OTDR requires access to only one fibre end. An OTDR measures the attenuation of
installed optical fibres as a function of length. It also identifies and evaluates optical connection losses along a
cable link and locates any fibre breaks or faults.
End users can also measure fibre attenuation and cable plant transmission loss using an optical power meter and a
stabilized light source. End users use this measurement technique when optical time-domain reflectometry is not
recommended. Measurements obtained with a stabilized light source and power meter are more accurate than
those obtained with an OTDR. Measuring fibre attenuation and transmission loss using a power meter and light
source requires access to both ends of the fibre or link. An optical loss test set (OLTS) combines the power
meter and source functions into one physical unit.
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR)

End users use optical time-domain reflectometry to characterize optical fibre and optical connection properties in
the field. In optical time-domain reflectometry, an OTDR transmits an optical pulse through an installed optical fibre.
The OTDR measures the fraction of light that is reflected back due to Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel reflection. By
comparing the amount of light scattered back at different times, the OTDR can determine fibre and connection
losses. When several fibres are connected to form an installed cable plant, the OTDR can characterize optical fibre
and optical connection properties along the entire length of the cable plant. A fibre optic cable plant consists of
optical fibre cables, connectors, splices, mounting panels, jumper cables, and other passive components. A cable
plant does not include active components such as optical transmitters or receivers.
The OTDR displays the backscattered and reflected optical signal as a function of length. The OTDR plots half the
power in decibels (dB) versus half the distance. Plotting half the power in dB and half the distance corrects for
round trip effects. By analyzing the OTDR plot, or trace, end users can measure fibre attenuation and transmission

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loss between any two points along the cable plant. End users can also measure insertion loss and reflectance of
any optical connection. In addition, end users use the OTDR trace to locate fibre breaks or faults.
Figure 4.51 shows an example OTDR trace of an
installed cable plant. OTDR traces can have
several common characteristics. An OTDR trace
begins with an initial input pulse. This pulse is a
result of Fresnel reflection occurring at the
connection to the OTDR. Following this pulse, the
OTDR trace is a gradual down sloping curve
interrupted by abrupt shifts. Periods of gradual
decline in the OTDR trace result from Rayleigh
scattering as light travels along each fibre section
of the cable plant. Periods of gradual decline are
interrupted by abrupt shifts called point defects. A
point defect is a temporary or permanent local
deviation of the OTDR signal in the upward or
downward direction. Point defects are caused by
connectors, splices, or breaks along the fibre
length. Point defects, or faults, can be reflective or non-reflective. An output pulse at the end of the OTDR trace
indicates the end of the fibre cable plant. This output pulse results from Fresnel reflection occurring at the output
end-end face.
Attenuation - The accuracy of this test method depends on the user entering the appropriate source wavelength,
pulse duration, and fibre length (test range) into the OTDR. In addition, the effective group index of the test fibre is
required before the attenuation coefficient and accurate distances can be recorded. The group index (N) is
provided by fibre manufacturers. By entering correct test parameters, OTDR fibre attenuation values will closely
coincide with those measured by the cutback technique.
Test personnel can connect the test fibre directly to
the OTDR or to a dead-zone fibre. This dead-zone
fibre is placed between the test fibre and OTDR to
reduce the effect of the initial reflection at the
OTDR on the fibre measurement. The dead-zone
fibre is inserted because minimizing the reflection at
a fibre joint is easier than reducing the reflection at
the OTDR connection.
Figure 10-88 illustrates the OTDR measurement
points for measuring the attenuation of the test fibre
using a dead-zone fibre. Fibre attenuation between
two points along the test fibre is measured on
gradual down sloping sections on the OTDR trace.
There should be no point defects present along the
portion of fibre being tested.
OTDRs are equipped with either manual or
automatic cursors to locate points of interest along
the trace. In figure 4.52, a cursor is positioned at a distance zo on the rising edge of the reflection at the end of the
dead-zone fibre. Cursors are also positioned at distances z1 and z2. The cursor positioned at z1 is just beyond the
recovery from the reflection at the end of the dead-zone fibre. Since no point defects are present in figure 10-88,
the cursor positioned at z2 locates the end of the test fibre. Cursor z2 is positioned just before the output pulse
resulting from Fresnel reflection occurring at the end of the test fibre.
Power Meter
Test personnel also use an optical power meter and stabilized light source to measure fibre attenuation and
transmission loss in the field. Optical power meter measurements are recommended when the length of an
installed optical fibre cable or cable plant is less than 50 meters. A test jumper is used to couple light from the
stabilized source to one end of the optical fibre (or cable plant) under test. An additional test jumper is also used to
connect the other end of the optical fibre (or cable plant) under test to the power meter. Optical power meter
measurements may be conducted using an optical loss test set (OLTS). An OLTS combines the power meter and

source functions into one physical unit. When making measurements, it does not matter whether the stabilized
source and power meter are in one physical unit or two.
Power meter measurements are conducted on individual optical fibre cables installed onboard the aircraft. The
installed optical fibre cable must have connectors or terminations on both ends to make the measurement. If the
installed optical fibre cable does not have connectors or terminations on both ends, an OTDR should be used to
evaluate the cable. If the cable is too short for evaluation with an OTDR, cable continuity can be verified using a
flashlight.
Power meter measurements for cable assembly link loss require that test personnel clean all optical connections at
test jumper interfaces before performing any measurement. Test personnel should use cotton wipes dampened
with alcohol to clean connectors and blow dry before making connections. End users should also ensure that test
equipment calibration is current.
Power meter measurements connecting a test reference cable between the light source and power meter. The test
reference cable has the same nominal fibre characteristics as the cable under test. The optical power present at
the power meter is the reference power (P1). Disconnect the test reference cable and connect the optical fibre
cable under test between the light source and power meter using test jumpers. If possible, the test reference cable
should be used as the input jumper cable for the test cable measurement. The test jumper fibre properties, such as
core diameter and NA, should be nominally equal to the fibre properties of the cable being tested. The optical
power present at the power meter is test power (P2).
Test personnel use P1 and P2 to calculate the cable assembly link loss. The cable assembly link loss (BCA) of
optical fibre installed with connectors or terminations on both ends is
The cable assembly link loss should always be less than the specified link loss for that particular link.
Besides measuring individual cables, test personnel measure the transmission loss of installed fibre optic cable
plants. The transmission loss of fibre optic cable plants is measured using method B (multimode fibre) or (single
mode fibre). The procedure measures the internal loss of the cable plant between points A and B, plus two
connection losses. Figure 4.53 (A) illustrates the method for measuring the reference power (P1). Figure 4.53 (B)
shows the final test configuration for
measuring the cable plant test power
(P2).
The procedure is exactly the same as
described for measuring the link loss of
an individual cable assembly. The total
optical loss between any two
termination points, including the end
terminations, of the optical fibre cable
plant link is measured. The measured
cable plant link loss should always be
less than the specified cable plant link
loss.
Test personnel should conduct cable
assembly link loss, and cable plant
transmission loss measurements in
both directions and at each system operational wavelength. By performing these measurements in each direction,
test personnel can better characterize cable and link losses. Unlike optical time-domain reflectometry, bi-directional
readings are always possible when performing power meter measurements. In power meter measurements, by
definition, end users have access to both ends of the cable or cable plant.

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Problems
2.4.1.0 Problems (light)
1. What is the wavelength in meters of an FM radio wave having a frequency of 90MHz?

2. What is the frequency of an x-ray having a wavelength of 4 x 10-10 m?
3. What is the frequency in kilohertz of an AM radio transmission if the wavelength is 500m? (1 kHz = 1,000
Hz)
4. Find the speed of light in crown glass.
5. The speed of light in carbon tetrachloride is measured to be 2.05 x 108 m/sec. What is the index of
refraction of carbon tetrachloride?
6. Find the speed of light in a diamond.
2.4.1.0 Answers (light)
1. 3.33 m
2. 7.5 x 1017 Hz
3. 600 kilohertz
4. 2 x 108 m/sec.
5. 1.46
6. 1.24 x 108 m/sec

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Module 2
Physics
2.5 Wave Motion and Sound

Module 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound 5-1

on page 2 of this chapter.
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Module 2.5 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement _____________________________ 4
Module 2.5 - Wave Motion and Sound ________________________________________________ 6
1.0 - Wave Motion ________________________________________________________________ 6
1.1. Mechanical Waves ______________________________________________________________ 6
The Wave Formula ____________________________________________________________________ 7
1.2 Sinusoidal Wave Motion (Resonance) ________________________________________________ 8
1.3 Interference Phenomena __________________________________________________________ 9
Constructive and Destructive Interference __________________________________________________ 9
Noise Cancelling Headphones ___________________________________________________________ 9
1.4 Standing Wave _________________________________________________________________ 10
Producing Standing (or Stationary) Waves ________________________________________________ 10
Beats ______________________________________________________________________________ 11
Reflected Waves _____________________________________________________________________ 12
2.0 Sound ______________________________________________________________________ 12
2.1 Production of Sound _____________________________________________________________ 12
Propagation of Sound _________________________________________________________________ 12
Sound Needs a Medium to Travel ________________________________________________________ 13
2.2 Speed of sound _________________________________________________________________ 13
General ____________________________________________________________________________ 13
Supersonic Speed and Mach Number _____________________________________________________ 14
2.3 Intensity of Sound _______________________________________________________________ 14
Sound Waves and Resonant Vibrations ___________________________________________________ 15
2.4 Pitch and Quality ________________________________________________________________ 15
Pitch_______________________________________________________________________________ 15
Quality _____________________________________________________________________________ 16
2.5 Doppler Effect __________________________________________________________________ 16
2.6 Ultrasound ____________________________________________________________________ 17
Problem _______________________________________________________________________ 19
5-2 Module 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound

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EASA 66 Level
Wave Motion and Sound 2.5 2 2
Wave motion; mechanical waves, sinusoidal wave
motion, interference phenomena, standing waves
Sound: speed of sound, production of sound, intensity,
pitch and quality, Doppler effect

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Intentionally Blank

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Module 2.5 - Wave Motion and Sound
1.0 - Wave Motion
1.1. Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves can be classified as transverse or longitudinal according to how they travel. Both types of
wave can be demonstrated using a slinky (a long steel spring). The transverse wave occurs when the coils move at
right angles to the direction of motion of the wave, with the motion along the length of the slinky.
To produce a transverse wave, the slinky is rested on a flat surface and one end is moved from side to side, setting
up the oscillation and hence the traveling wave.
The end of the slinky can also be moved in and out along its axis. The coils undergo compression, followed by
rarefaction when the coils open out. Displacement of the coils is now along the axis of the spring.
When we start a wave in the slinky, either transverse or longitudinal. we can watch it travel from one end to the
other. Because it progresses along the slinky it is called a progressive wave. However, if the far end of the slinky is
fixed, waves are reflected back. These can combine with the next waves which are traveling forwards. At the right
combination of frequency and speed, the waves traveling in opposite directions can produce a stationary or
standing wave. Here we shall consider both types.

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The Wave Formula
There are many types of waves: light waves, sound waves, radio waves, cosmic rays, x-rays. communication
waves, waves on cords, etc. In our first discussion of waves, we will deal with that type which is called just “wave”,
that is, a water wave.
Let us assume that a stone is thrown into the middle of a
large, calm pond on a day when there is no wind. If there is
a perpendicular plane surface cutting the water surface
through a point where the stone hits the water, an observer
would see the water surface disturbed in such a way that a
curve would be visible. This curve would have a shape as
shown in figure 5.2.
In figure 5.2 it is important to note that the pattern of crests
and troughs is moving. If the stone hits the water surface at
the point (P), the pattern is moving to the right in the
diagram above. Of course, the entire pattern is moving out from point (P) in all directions, but we are looking in only
one direction. We should also note that the pattern is moving with a definite speed, called the wave speed (v).
The amplitude (A) of the wave is the greatest displacement from the rest position. The amplitude is shown in figure
5.2.
Another distance that we will need in our discussion of waves is the wavelength, l (Greek letter lambda). The
wavelength is defined as the distance from one point on the wave pattern to the next point in a similar position. The
distance from the top of a crest to the top of the next crest is a wavelength. Also the distance from the bottom of
one trough to the bottom of the next trough is also the same distance, one wavelength. The distance l is also
shown in the diagram.
Let us next consider sinusoidal wave motion impressed on a very long flexible cord by an oscillating body. Assume
that the oscillating body is a sphere attached to a vertical spring.
After the spring has been oscillating for some time, the physical situation is as shown in figure 5.3.
The frequency (f) of the oscillating body is defined as the number of complete oscillations in one second.
Frequency is expressed in cycles/sec. or Hertz. The period (T) is defined as the time for one complete oscillation. It
is expressed in seconds.
Let us suppose that the oscillating body completes 6 oscillations in one second. It follows that the time for one
oscillation is one-sixth of a second.
1
In this case: F = 6Hz and T= sec.
6
From this example we see that f and T are reciprocals of each other.
1 1
T= and f =
f T
We next seek a relationship between wave
speed (v), frequency (f), and wavelength (l).
We note that the wave moves forward a
distance of one wavelength in a time of one
period. Of course, the wave moves with speed
(v).
Since the distance equals the speed times the
time, we can write the equation:
l
l = vT =v fl=v v=fl
T

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EXAMPLE 1:
A body oscillates with a frequency of 8 Hz, and sends out a wave having a wavelength of 0.2 ft. What is the
speed of the wave?
V = (8 cycles/sec.) (0.2 ft.) = 1.6 ft./sec.
EXAMPLE 2
What is the wavelength of a wave moving with a speed of 5 ft./sec. If the frequency of the oscillating body
which is the source of the wave is 12 Hz?
v 5 ft / sec .
l= = = 0.417 ft.
f 12 cycles / sec .
EXAMPLE 3
An observer times the speed of a water wave to be 2 ft./sec. and notes that the wavelength is 0.5 ft. What is
the frequency of the disturbance that gives rise to this wave?
v 2 ft / sec .
f= = = 4 cycles / sec . = 4 Hz
l 0.5 ft.
1.2 Sinusoidal Wave Motion (Resonance)

In the case of water waves and in the case of waves on a very
long cord, we were able to neglect waves that were reflected
back along the medium. We now must consider reflected waves.
The most common example is the case of waves originating in a
disturbance impressed on a cord or string of a definite length.
Many musical instruments depend on such vibrations.
If a sinusoidal disturbance is impressed on a very long cord a
sinusoidal wave travels continuously along the cord. However, if
the sinusoidal wave meets a fixed end, a reflected wave moves
back along the cord.
The wave patterns which are observed are called the normal
modes of vibration of the cord. In figure 5.4. the length of the
cord is L. The wavelength in the various modes of vibration are
X. The n is the index of the mode. In the equations which follow,
n has an integral value, that is n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
We can write a general relation as follows:
2
ln = L
n
The vibration where n = 1 is called the fundamental mode of
vibration of the body. The other vibrations are called overtone
vibrations. Every body which can vibrate has a certain
fundamental mode of vibration of a definite frequency. If this
frequency is
impressed on the body, it will vibrate with a relatively
large amplitude. We say that the body is vibrating in
resonance with the impressed frequency.

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1.3 Interference Phenomena
Constructive and Destructive Interference
When two sinusoidal waves superimpose, the resulting waveform depends on the frequency (or wavelength)
amplitude and relative phase of the two waves. If the two waves have the same amplitude A and wavelength the
resultant waveform will have an amplitude between 0 and 2A depending on whether the two waves are in phase or
out of phase.
Noise Cancelling Headphones

Noise-cancelling headphones reduce unwanted ambient sounds (i.e.,
acoustic noise) by means of active noise control. Essentially, this involves
using a microphone, placed near the ear, and electronic circuitry which
generates an "anti-noise" sound wave with the opposite polarity of the
sound wave arriving at the microphone. This results in destructive
interference, which cancels out the noise within the enclosed volume of the
headphone.
Keeping noise low at the ear makes it possible to enjoy music without
raising the volume unnecessarily. It can also help a passenger sleep in a
noisy vehicle such as an airliner.
Another effect of constructive and destructive interference is the “dead

zones” produced when two identical waves emanate from separate
locations, as shown in figure 5.7.
Here, water waves are progressing from two points, causing destructive
interference where a peak from one source coincides with a trough from
the other source, the effect being to cancel each other at those points.
Striations (or “rays”) of undisturbed water result.

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1.4 Standing Wave
Producing Standing (or Stationary) Waves
Standing waves are set up in stringed instruments such as a guitar. What we see is the string vibrating from side to
side. At the moment that the string is plucked, a progressive transverse wave is set up traveling out from that
point. It meets the fixed end of the string and is reflected back. The amplitudes of the two waves add together as
they meet.
The string vibrates naturally at certain frequencies because it is fixed at both ends. When the outgoing and
reflected waves are added together subject to this condition, a stationary wave is set up in the string. If the string is
plucked centrally we get the fundamental mode (shape of wave). In this case, the string vibrates with maximum
displacement at the central position (called the antinode) and the displacement falls away to zero at the two ends
(called nodes).
Fundamental Frequency or 1st Harmonic
When a string on an instrument is

plucked, vibrations, that is, waves, travel
back and forth through the medium being
reflected at each fixed end.
Certain sized waves can survive on the
medium. These certain sized waves will
not cancel each other out as they reflect
back upon themselves. These certain
sized waves are called the harmonics of
the vibration.
They are standing waves. That is, they
produce patterns which do not move.
On a medium such as a violin string
several harmonically related standing
wave patterns are possible.
The first four of them are illustrated
above. It is important to understand that
for any one given medium fixed at each
end only certain sized waves can stand.
We say, therefore, that the medium is
tuned.
The first pattern has the longest
wavelength and is called the first
harmonic. It is also called the
fundamental.
The second pattern, or second harmonic, has half the wavelength and twice the frequency of the first harmonic.
This second harmonic is also called the first overtone. This can get confusing with the second member of the
harmonic group being called the first member of the overtone group.
The third harmonic, or pattern, has one third the wavelength and three times the frequency when compared to the
first harmonic. This third harmonic is called the second overtone.
The other harmonics follow the obvious pattern regarding wavelengths, frequencies, and overtone naming
conventions described in the above paragraph.
Depending upon how the string is plucked or bowed, different harmonics can be emphasized. In the above
animation all harmonics have the same maximum amplitude.

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This is for purposes of illustration. Actually, the higher harmonics almost always have maximum amplitudes much
less than the fundamental, or first harmonic.
It is the fundamental frequency that determines the note that we hear. It is the upper harmonic structure that
determines the timber of the instrument.
Beats
Suppose we tune two strings of a guitar to vibrate at almost, but not quite, the same frequency. Plucked
simultaneously, the volume of the sound produced by them appears to rise and fall continuously. This rise and fall
has a fixed frequency called the beat frequency.
What is happening is that the sound waves produced by the two guitar strings interfere and our ears detect the
variation of the resultant intensity. Maximum intensity is heard when the waves add together (interfere
constructively) and minimum intensity is heard when the waves cancel each other out (interfere destructively).
We can see what is happening by adding together the two separate waves as shown in the diagram below.
The resultant, obtained by the principle of superposition, is shown.

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Reflected Waves
Let us look in more detail at how to set up standing waves. We set off a short wave on a slinky which has been
firmly fixed at its far end. Assume that the wave consists of one and a half wavelengths. The wave travels along the
slinky until it reaches the far end.
At this point, the wave can travel no further forwards and is reflected back. This means that the velocity has
changed sign. In addition, the phase of the wave has changed. If the displacement of the forward wave is upwards
at the instant of time when it reaches the far end, then its displacement is downwards on reflection.
This makes sense. At the fixed end, the displacement of the incoming and outgoing waves sum to zero. This must
be so because there can be no displacement of the string at the fixed point.
The reflected wave is out of phase by it. It passes back 'through' the forward wave (think how ripples can pass
through each other on the surface of a pond). Where the two waves overlap, the displacement of the slinky is the
sum of the two waves. But, eventually, we see the reflected wave emerge complete and pass back along the
slinky.
The frequency, velocity and wavelength of the wave all remain the same in reflection. If no energy is lost at the far
end, the amplitude of the reflected wave equals that of the incoming one. The phase difference of p which we have
identified and is crucial to the setting up of standing waves.
When waves pass through each other, the displacement at any point is the sum of the individual displacements of
the two waves passing in opposite directions.
2.0 Sound
2.1 Production of Sound
Everyday we hear sounds from various sources like humans, birds, bells, machines, vehicles, televisions, radios
etc. Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.
There are also other forms of energy like mechanical energy, heat energy, light energy etc. We have talked about
mechanical energy in the previous chapters. You have been taught
about conservation of energy, which states that we can neither create
nor destroy energy.
We can just change it from one form to another. When you clap, a
sound is produced. Can you produce sound without utilising your
energy? Which form of energy did you use to produce sound?.
• Take a tuning fork and set it vibrating by striking its prong on a
rubber pad. Bring it near your ear.
• Now, suspend a table tennis ball or a small plastic ball by a
thread from a support (Fig. 1).
In the above activities we have produced sound by striking the tuning

fork. We set the objects vibrating and produce sound. Vibration means a kind of rapid to and fro motion of an
object. The sound of the human voice is produced due to vibrations in the vocal cords. When a bird flaps its wings,
do you hear any sound? Think how the buzzing sound accompanying a bee is produced. A stretched rubber band
when plucked vibrates and produces sound. If you have never done this, then do it and observe the vibration of the
stretched rubber band.
Propagation of Sound
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a
medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas.
Sound moves through a medium from the point of generation to the listener. When an object vibrates, it sets the
particles of the medium around it vibrating. The particles do not travel all the way from the vibrating object to the
ear. A particle of the medium in contact with the vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium position. It
then exerts a force on the adjacent particle.

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As a result of which the adjacent particle gets displaced from its position of rest. After displacing the adjacent
particle the first particle comes back to its original position. This process continues in the medium till the sound
reaches your ear. The disturbance created by a source of sound in the medium travels through the medium and not
the particles of the medium.
A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the particles of the medium set neighbouring particles
into motion. They in turn produce similar motion in others.
The particles of the medium do not move forward themselves, but the disturbance is carried forward. This is what
happens during propagation of sound in a medium, hence sound can be visualised as a wave.
Sound waves are characterised by the motion of particles in the medium and are called mechanical waves. Air is
the most common medium through which sound travels. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and
compresses the air in front of it creating a region
of high pressure.
This region is called a compression (C), as shown
in Fig. 2. This compression starts to move away
from the vibrating object.
When the vibrating object moves backwards, it
creates a region of low pressure called
rarefaction (R), as shown in Fig. 2. As the object
moves back and forth rapidly, a series of
compressions and rarefactions is created in the
air.
These make the sound wave that propagates
through the medium. Compression is the region of high pressure and rarefaction is the region of low pressure.
Pressure is related to the number of particles of a medium in a given volume. More density of the particles in the
medium gives more pressure and vice versa. Thus, propagation of sound can be visualised as propagation of
density variations or pressure variations in the medium.
Sound Needs a Medium to Travel
Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a material medium like air, water, steel etc. for its propagation. It cannot
travel through vacuum, which can be demonstrated by the following experiment.
Take an electric bell and an airtight glass bell jar.
The electric bell is suspended inside the airtight
bell jar. The bell jar is connected to a vacuum
pump, as shown in Fig. 3.
If you press the switch you will be able to hear
the bell. Now start the vacuum pump. When the
air in the jar is pumped out gradually, the sound
becomes fainter, although the same current is
passing through the bell.
After some time when less air is left inside the
bell jar you will hear a very feeble sound.
2.2 Speed of sound

General
Sound waves are usually defined as pressure waves in air or in some other material medium. Sound waves
originate in some vibrating body such as the oscillation of a person’s vocal cords or the periodic rotation of a
plane’s propeller.
As the source of sound vibrates, the air surrounding the source is periodically compressed and rarefied (made less
dense). This periodic change in the atmospheric pressure moves forward with a definite speed of propagation
called the “speed of sound”.

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The speed of sound in air is dependent on the temperature of the air. This is not surprising since the molecules of
air move faster in their random motion if the temperature is higher. Thus we should expect these pressure waves to
move somewhat more rapidly in warmer air.
The speed of sound in air is approximately 331.5 m/s at 0°C
At an air temperature of 20°C, the speed of sound increases to 344 m/s
If an ear and its eardrum are in the vicinity of a sound wave, the air which strikes that eardrum has a periodically
changing atmospheric pressure. If the frequency of the sound is middle C (256 Hz), and the atmospheric pressure
that day is 14.7 lbs/in2, 256 times each second the air pressure is slightly above 14.7 lbs/in2 and 256 times each
second the pressure is slightly below 14.7 lbs/in2 it should be emphasized that “slightly” means very small. The
human ear is a remarkably sensitive instrument. It can detect air pressure variations as small as about
0,000000005 lbs./in.2
Sound travels faster in liquids, and even faster still, in solids.
Supersonic Speed and Mach Number
Jet planes can travel at speeds greater than the speed of sound. In this case, we have a source of sound, the
plane, moving at a greater speed than the sound itself. The pressure waves of the sound all “pile up” and a very
strong V-shaped pressure “bow-wave” is produced.
A sonic boom results as this strong pressure ridge reaches the earth.
The Mach number is the ratio of the speed of the plane (v0) to the speed of sound (v). If a plane is travelling at
1.000 MPH and the local speed of sound is 750 MPH. the Mach number is calculated in the following way:
We say that the plane is travelling at Mach 1.25.
2.3 Intensity of Sound

For those working in the aviation industry it is important to understand something regarding the intensity of a sound
wave.
The intensity level (IL) of sound waves is measured in a unit called the decibel (after Alexander Graham Bell).
The equation is:
I
IL = 10 log
Io
In this equation IL is in decibels. The intensity, (lo), is the intensity of the “threshold of hearing”, the softest sound
that the average human ear can detect. Also in the equation, I is the intensity of the sound we are measuring.
We note that:
Io = 10-12 Watts/m2
We also review that the log 10n = n.
EXAMPLE:
The intensity of a given sound is 10~ Watts/rn2. What is the intensity level (IL) in decibels?
It should be noted that 120 db is the “threshold of pain”. Sound of this intensity is painful to the normal ear. If the
ear is continuously subjected to sound of this intensity, ear damage and hearing loss can result.
Those who work in the aviation industry should take precautionary measures and wear ear protectors.

© Copyright 2011
The intensity of sound decreases inversely with the square of the distance from the source of sound. Therefore,
doubling the distance from a source of sound decreases the intensity to one-fourth of the previous value.
A worker who is suddenly subjected to a very intense sound with unprotected ears should move as quickly as
possible away from the sound of the source.
Sound Waves and Resonant Vibrations
Intense sound waves can cause resonant vibrations in pieces of equipment. There is a fundamental mode of
vibration and a set of overtone vibrations (multiples of the fundamental) for any body that can vibrate. The
frequencies of these vibrations are all natural frequencies for the given body. Vibrations of moving parts of
equipment are often caused by “sympathetic vibrations” to some impressed sound wave.
The Italian tenor, Enrico Caruso, had a powerful voice. Wine glasses have a natural frequency of vibration.
As an attention getter at parties. Caruso used to sing the resonant note of a wine glass and cause the glass to
vibrate with such amplitude that it would shatter! Try it sometime!
2.4 Pitch and Quality
Pitch
Pitch is a term used to describe how high or low a note is being played by a musical instrument or sung seems to
be.
The pitch of a note depends on the frequency of the source of the sound.
Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), with one vibration per second being equal to one hertz (1 Hz).
A high frequency produces a high pitched note and a low frequency produces a low pitched note.
The pitch of the note increases the frequency of the wave. The time base scale on the oscilloscope is 2
sec/division. This indicates the scale across the screen, so each square width is equal to 2 second. By counting the
number of squares between consecutive peaks or consecutive troughs and multiplying it with the time-base the
time period of the wave can be calculated.
For example 4 squares between consecutive peaks give a time period of 4 x 2 = 8 seconds. The longer the time
period of the wave the lower is the frequency and the lower the pitch. Thus, the more waves that fit on a screen the
higher the frequency and pitch.

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Quality
This is used to describe the quality (or “timbre”) of the waveform as it appears to the listener. Therefore
the quality of a note depends upon the waveform.
Two notes of the same pitch and loudness, played from different instruments (guitar and flute) do not sound the
same because the waveforms are different and therefore differ in quality or tone.
The same note from different instruments has different qualities because the sounds from instruments are never
pure notes, i.e. of one frequency, the only exception being a tuning fork.
Rather they consist of one main note which is predominant and other smaller notes called overtones. The main
note or fundamental note is also referred to as the first harmonic and if it has a frequency f, the overtone with
frequency 2f is called the second harmonic and the overtone with frequency 3f is called the third harmonic and so
on. The sum of all the harmonics is the waveform and determines the quality of the sound.
2.5 Doppler Effect

The “Doppler effect” is named after Christian Doppler (1803-1853), the American physicist who first named the
effect.
The effect is present for all wave motion. However,
we will describe it for sound waves since it is most
easily understood for a case where it can be
observed (heard might be a better word).
Whenever you have stood on a railway platform and
a train blows its whistle as it approaches, passes,
and recedes, you have heard the Doppler effect.
In this case, the sound suddenly changes from a
higher pitch (frequency) as the source of sound
approaches to a lower pitch as the source of sound
recedes from your ear at rest on the station platform.
The change in pitch occurs at the instant the train passes. Before this instant the source of sound was approaching
your ear and after this instant, the source of sound is receding from your ear.

© Copyright 2011
There is another problem to be considered. Suppose that the source is at rest
and the ear is moving. Consider the figure 5.11.
As the ear moves to the left, it picks up more waves than it normally would if it
were at rest.
If the observer moves away from the source, the ear picks up less waves than
it would if it were at rest.
As a conclusion, note that the ear hears a higher frequency if source and
observer approach each other. Also, the ear hears a lower frequency if the
source and observer recede from each other.
2.6 Ultrasound
Is sound waves with frequency higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing.
Ultrasound is not different from "normal"
(audible) sound in its physical properties,
except that humans cannot hear it. This limit
varies from person to person and is
approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in
healthy young adults. Ultrasound devices
operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to
several gigahertz.
Ultrasonic testing - Is a type of Non Destructive Testing (NDT) commonly used to find flaws in materials and to
measure the thickness of objects.
Frequencies of 2 to 10 MHz are common, but for special purposes other frequencies are used. Inspection may be
manual or automated and is an essential part of modern manufacturing processes. Most metal can be inspected as
well as plastic and aerospace composites. Lower frequency ultrasound (50–500 kHz) can also be used to inspect
less dense materials such as wood, concrete and cement.
Ultrasound inspection of welded joints has been an alternative
to radiography for NDT since the 1960s.
Ultrasonic inspection eliminates the use of ionizing radiation,
with safety and cost benefits. Ultrasound can also provide
additional information such as the depth of flaws in a welded
joint.
Ultrasonic inspection has progressed from manual methods to
computerized systems that automate much of the process. An
ultrasonic test of a joint can identify the existence of flaws,
measure their size, and identify their location. Not all welded
materials are equally amenable to ultrasonic inspection; some
materials have a large grain size that produces a high level of
background noise in measurements.
Ultrasonic cleaning is a process that uses ultrasound (usually

from 20–40 kHz) to agitate a fluid. The ultrasound can be used
with just water, but use of a solvent appropriate for the object to
be cleaned and the type of soiling present enhances the effect. Cleaning normally lasts between three and six
minutes, but can also exceed 20 minutes, depending on which object has to be cleaned.[1]
Ultrasonic cleaners are used to clean many different types of objects, including jewelry, lenses and other optical
parts, watches, tools, coin car fuel injectors ect.
In aviation field are use, also, to clean some filters.

© Copyright 2011
© Copyright 2011
Problem
Problems (sinusoidal wave)
1. A water wave has a wavelength of 0.9 ft. and the wave speed is 4.5ft/sec. What is the frequency of the
disturbance setting up this wave?
2. A wave on a cord is set up by a body oscillating at 12 Hz. The wavelength is 0.25ft. What is the wave
speed?
3. A water wave is set up by a source oscillating at 12 Hz. The speed of the wave is 24ft/sec. What is the
wavelength?
Answers (sinusoidal wave)
1. 5 Hz
2. 3ft/sec.
3. 2 ft.

© Copyright 2011

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Module 2

Licence Category B1 and B2

Fondazione Istituto Tecnico Superiore

Module 2.1 Matter 1-1

1-2 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.1 Matter 1-3

1.0 Nature of Matter

1.1 Chemical elements

Particle Relative mass Electrical charge Comments

Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus

Module 2.1 Matter 1-5

Note that an element:

• consists of only one kind of atom,

1-6 Module 2.1 Matter

Note that a mixture:

• consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

Module 2.1 Matter 1-7

• Cation - A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations.

1.2 The Structure of Atoms

• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons

1-8 Module 2.1 Matter

Figure 1.3: The atomic structure of

Figure 1.4: Electron shell (orbit) designation

Figure 1.5: Electron arrangement of Hydrogen and Helium

Module 2.1 Matter 1-9

Figure 1.6: Electron arrangement of Lithium, Carbon and

Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium, Chlorine and

Figure 1.8: Electron arrangement of Potassium and Calcium

1-10 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.1 Matter 1-11

• 1 electron binding - monovalent

1-12 Module 2.1 Matter

Table 1.3: Electrons per shell

Module 2.1 Matter 1-13

2.0 Chemical Compounds

2.1 Adhesion and Cohesion

argon (18) 2.8.8

Covalent and Ionic Bonding

1-14 Module 2.1 Matter

and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo neon or

and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium and

Module 2.1 Matter 1-15

with two hydrogen - oxygen single covalent bonds.

with three nitrogen - hydrogen single covalent bonds.

with four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds.

1-16 Module 2.1 Matter

The molecule has one double covalent bond .

Module 2.1 Matter 1-17

Exemple of Ionic Bonding

The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2

Example 1 - A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. sodium +

Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7) Þ Na+ (2.8) Cl- (2.8.8)

ONE combines with ONE to form

Mg (2.8.2) + 2Cl (2.8.7) Þ Mg2+ (2.8) 2Cl- (2.8.8)

ONE combines with TWO to form see *

1-18 Module 2.1 Matter

Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.8.7) Þ Al3+ (2.8) 3F- (2.8)

ONE combines with THREE to form