Akaki Adventist Mission School

Unit-4
Cell Biology
Cell biology (cytology) is an academic discipline that studies about cells.
All living organisms are made up of cells.
 Unicellular organisms- are organisms made up a single cell that carries all functions.
e.g. Bacteria, Yeast & Protists (paramecium, euglena Amoeba….)
 Multicellular Organisms- are organisms made up of many (multi) cells.
e.g. Animals, Plants , most fungi
How did the modern cell theory developed?
The concept of cell theory on cell doctrine was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann
& has remained as the foundation of modern cell theory.
In 1855, Radolf Verchow proposed an important extension of the cell theory that “All living cells arise
from pre-existing cells”.
 It is implied that there was no spontaneous creation of cells from none living matter.
Different biologists have contributed their knowledge in the development of modern cell theory.
However, today the idea of those biologists extended in the light of our increased knowledge of
genetics & cell theory & now reads:
 All known living things are made up of cells.
 The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division (mitosis or meiosis).
 Cell contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
 All cells are basically the same chemical composition.
 All energy flow (the metabolism & biochemistry of life) occur within cells.
All living things share the following characteristics
 Movement- movement like locomotion & tropism
 Respiration- to release energy from food
 Sensitivity- to detect changes in the environment to give proper response
 Growth- Increase the protoplasm including the replacement of lost or injured body parts
 Reproduction- To pass genetic information onto the offspring
 Excretion- To get rid of wastes
 Nutrition- to intake & use of nutrients
How big are cells?
As a cell grows, its volume increases more quickly than its surface area
Different cells have different size. e.g. smallest bacterial cells are only just over 100nm in length.
 One hundred thousandth of the size of the chicken’s egg.
There are small units commonly used to measure the size of cell.
 Millimeter(mm) = ⁄ m
 Micrometer(µm) = ⁄ mm = ⁄ m
 Nanometer(nm) = ⁄ µm = ⁄ mm = ⁄ m
We can convert units from one to another.
Meter Millimeter Micrometer Nanometer
 To convert a large unit to next small unit, multiplying by 1000
e.g. Convert 3.5mm to µm

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 3.5mm 1000 = 3500 µm

 To convert a small units to the next large unit, dividing by 1000
e.g. Convert 87nm to µm
 87 ÷1000 = 0.087 µm
How can we find out how big cells are?
We can use two measuring devices with our microscope
 Stage micrometer- is simply a microscope slide with a finely divided scale marked on the
surface
 An eyepiece graticule- is a piece of plastic with less accurate scale fit into eyepiece of
microscope
We measure the size of the cell by corresponding division on the stage micrometer with division on
the eye piece graticule & this is called eye piece calibrating
 Calibrating the eyepiece (ocular) micrometer based on the stage micrometer is therefore
estimated.
Stage of calibration
 Insert the ocular micrometer into the eye piece lens
 Place the stage micrometer on the micrometer stage
 Position the ocular micrometer directly over the stage micrometer scales exactly matched
 Determine how many spaces (divisions) on stage micrometer corresponding to how many
spaces (divisions) on ocular (eyepiece) micrometer.
 E.g. Suppose each division on stage micrometer is 0.1mm (100 µm) & 12 divisions on stage
micrometer correspond to 24 divisions on eyepiece micrometer.
 Therefore, each division on eyepiece (ocular) micrometer = = 0.05mm=50µm
How we can make a rough estimate of the cell size?
Steps:
 Place slide of cells under microscope & focus at about magnification of 1000x
 Take away the slide & replace it with a plastic ruler
 Focus on the micrometer scale on the ruler
 Use to estimate the width of field of view (e.g. 2mm)
 Then replace your slide with cells & focus
 Count how Many cells fit the length away & withdraw into the field of view
 If 8 cells fit across the field of view the length of each cell is 2mm÷8 = 0.25mm(250µm)
e.g. 40 divisions on scale of an eyepiece graticule correspond to16 small divisions in the stage
micrometer. Each small division on the stage micrometer is about 10µm. If 4 cells fit across 40 divisions
of the eyepiece graticule, the length of each cell will be?
 40 divisions on eyepiece graticule = 16 small divisions on stage micrometer
 Each small division on stage micrometer = 10µm
 Each division = 10 µm; 16 divisions = 160µm
 4 cells fit across 40 divisions on eyepiece graticule; 4 cells cover 160µm
 So, the length of each cell is = 40µm
What are the consequences of the different size of cells?
As cells increase in size the surface area to volume ratio decreases
 This affects their ability to obtain the resources they need to carry out their metabolism

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A cell respires to release energy to derive all other cellular processes

 If it cannot release energy these all processes will slow down & the cell may die.
 Inorder to respire, cell needs oxygen which enters through the surface of the cell.
The amount of energy that must be released in respiration is decided largely by the volume.
 A large cell will have more processes happening (at least the same processing happening
faster) than smaller cells.
The amount of oxygen that can be delivered into the cell is decided largely by how much surface
there is, since it is through the surface of the cell that oxygen enters.
 As a cell gets larger the volume increases at a faster rate than surface area.
 So as a cell increases, the surface area to volume ratio decrease (small surface area to
volume ratio which lead to death of a cell)
 Having large surface area to volume ratio is important to the functioning of cells since it gets
materials, nutrients, oxygen & wastes into & out of it faster.
 Changing surface area to volume ratio has effect on the cell.
Types of cells
All cells share certain characteristics
 e.g. ever cell has cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes & genetic material.
Basically there are two types of cells
 Prokaryotic cells
 Have no nucleus & any membrane bounded organelles such as mitochondria & chloroplast
 Have circular DNA without protein
 Have small ribosome (70s)
 Divided by binary fission (mitotic cell division)
 Have large variety of metabolic pathways
 Are small & less complex than Eukaryotic cells
 Found in Eubacteria & Archaea bacteria
 Many biologists behave that prokaryotic cells were the first type of cells to be formed
when life was evolved.
 Eukaryotic cells
 Have nucleus & other membrane bounded organelles
 Have linear DNA associated with histone protein to form Chromatin
 Have large ribosome(80s)
 Divided by mitosis or meiosis
 Have a common metabolic pathway
 Are large & more complex than prokaryotic cells
 Found in human & other multicellular organisms(plants, animals, algae, fungi, protozoa)
 They were evolved from prokaryotic cells
How did Eukaryotic cells Originate?
Endosymbiotic theory explains how eukaryotes get their full membrane bound organelles while
evolving from Prokaryotes.
Over millions of years ancestral prokaryotic cells become more membranous
 The plasma (cell) membrane around the cell becomes more & more in folded until there was
an extensive membrane system in the cell.
 This would eventually evolve into the endoplasmic reticulum(EPR) of eukaryotic cells

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 The next stage of theory suggests that this membranous cell engulfed other smaller cells that
were better at respiring organic molecules to release energy(ATP)
 These engulfed prokaryotes would evolve into the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
 Mitochondria is the result of endocytosis of aerobic prokaryotic cell( bacteria)
 The cells that contained them were heterotrophic & the formers of animals, fungi,
protozoa
 Some of these cells with their primitive mitochondria also engulfed other, small prokaryotic
cells that could photosynthesize & would in time evolved into chloroplasts
 The cells that contained these would be autotrophic & the forerunners of plant cells.
 Chloroplast is the result of the endocytosis of photosynthetic prokaryotic cell.
Parts of the cells & their function
Eukaryotic cells generally have three main components
 A cell membrane, a nucleus & a variety of other organelles
Cell membrane
The membrane that surrounds & encloses a cell is sometimes called the plasma membrane or cell
membrane or cell surface membrane.
It plays a crucial role in:
Controlling what enters & leaves the cell
 It is semi (selectively) permeable membrane
 Plasma membrane moves substances into & out of the cell by:
Simple diffusion Active transport
Facilitate diffusion Passive processes Endocytosis Active Processes
Osmosis Exocytosis
Cell signaling
 Various molecules in the membrane allow the cell to recognized by hormones & immune
system(in animals) & growth regulator substances such as auxin (in plants)
Cell membrane isolate the cell from its environments
What is the plasma (cell) membrane like?
Plasma membrane is a complex barrier separating every cell from its external environments
It is a fluid mosaic of proteins floating in a phospholipid bilayer
The phospholipids have only two fatty acid (tails) & one phosphate group (head)
 The head is charged(so polar) & the tails are not charged(none polar )
 The two ends have different properties in water
 Phosphate head has hydrophilic properties in water & Fatty acid tails have hydrophobic
properties in water.
There are two models about plasma membrane
 The Davson-Danielli model
Davson-Danielli model suggested a kind of “Sandwich” of protein & phospholipid.
 Both proteins & Phospholipids were involved in the structure of plasma membrane.
 Protein was to form the bread of the sandwich with the phospholipid forming the tails
As more & more evidence accumulated about how molecules move across membranes, it become
clear that the Davson-Danielli model could not adequately explain all the new evidence.
 The model therefore had to be rejected

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 The Fluid mosaic model

Singer & Nicholson proposed a totally different arrangement of the phospholipids & proteins in the
plasma membrane.
 They retained the idea of a phospholipid bilayer, but rejected the sandwich arrangement
 They suggested that proteins were studded into the bilayer at different points & they also
suggested that the arrangement was not static, but was fluid & constantly changing.
 The fluid-mosaic model has become more sophisticated
Types of membrane proteins
Membrane proteins are the most important biologically, because they allow the cells to
communicate with their environments.
 Integral proteins(intrinsic membrane proteins )
They span the membrane & permanently connected to cell membrane
Some of these proteins play an important role in moving substances across the membrane.
There are two types of these proteins
 Channel proteins
 Have channel (small hole) through which specific ions can pass
 There are different channels for different ions
 Carrier protein
 Act as more sophisticated way to move large molecules through the membrane by
facilitate diffusion or active transport.
 Those used in active transport are called Pumps
 Peripheral proteins (extrinsic proteins)
They span only one layer of the membrane & not bonded to cell membrane strongly.
They have range of functions
 Some are enzymes (catalytic proteins)
 Other anchor integral proteins to the cytoskeleton
Other molecules present in plasma are
 Cholesterols
 Fit between the phospholipid molecules
 Make the plasma membrane more rigid & stable(reduce the fluidity of the membrane)
 Glycolipid (lipid + Carbohydrate)
 Helps the cells to recognize each other
 Glycoproteins (protein + carbohydrate)
 Help cells to recognize each other
 Allow other proteins to attach two adjacent cells together
 They also act as receptor sites for hormones & drugs
 The carbohydrate component of each cell can be cell-specific & so allow
identification of the cell by the immune system.
How do substances across the plasma membrane?
To pass through plasma membrane by simple diffusion particles must be:
 Small, lipid soluble & non charged
 This excludes particles such as ions or charged (need channel proteins) & large & lipid insoluble
e.g sugars, amino acids any large particles like proteins (need carrier proteins).
 This is because of the lipid nature of the plasma membrane.

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Substances move through plasma membrane by two processes.

 Passive processes
Relay on kinetic energy of the particles of the substances & concentration gradient.
 They need no extra energy from ATP, but in some cases carrier & channel proteins are
involved. e.g Simple diffusion, facilitate diffusion & osmosis
 Simple diffusion
Particles move from area of their high concentration to area of their low concentration
 Kinetic energy of the particles & their concentration difference drives the processes
 Diffusion continuous until concentration of the two areas (sides) becomes the same.
 At this point Particles will move equally in both directions.
 The concentrations are at equilibrium
The rate at which diffusion of particles across a membrane take place is influence by;
• The concentration gradient
A bigger concentration gradient results in faster diffusion than a smaller gradient.
• The thickness of the membrane(diffusion distance)
The shorter distance results in faster diffusion, but this does not work since all cell
membranes are the same thickness.
• The surface areas of the membrane.
If there is more membrane where diffusion can take place, diffusion will happen faster.

Rate of diffusion 𝜶
• Temperature
 At high temperature, particles have more kinetic energy so move faster
 Facilitate diffusion
Particles move from high concentration to low concentration through channel proteins (for ions) &
carrier proteins (for large & lipid insoluble particles).
The rate of facilitate diffusion is affected by
• The concentration gradient
• The thickness of the membrane
• Temperature
• number of channel & carrier proteins present on plasma membrane ( instead of surface area of
the membrane)
Osmosis:
Is the movement of water from a system with high water potential to a system with low water
potential
 It is a diffusion of water
Pure water has high water potential than any other system.
 It is defined as zero kpa (water potential of pure water is zero kilopascal)
All other systems (e.g. cells, solutions, suspensions) have a water potential that is lower than
that of pure water.
 Therefore, their water potential must be negative
 So, osmosis is the movement of water from a system of less negative water potential to
ones with a more negative water potential
 Water potential of a system is due to the concentration of free water molecules in the
system.
Rate of osmosis can be influenced by:
• Surface area of the membrane
• Difference in water potential
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• Distance the molecule must travel (diffusion distance)

What happens to cells placed in solutions of different concentration?
 The diffence in water potential between cell & solution will determine whether water enters or
leaves the cell by osmosis.
 When comparing the water potential of a solution & to that of a cell will describe it as;
hypertonic solution, hypotonic solution & isotonic solution.
Hypertonic Solution
 Solution with a lower (more negative) water potential than that of the sell.
 In this solution the cells lose water by osmosis & then shrink.
 If a plant cell is placed in this solution, there will be no pressure from the cytoplasm on the cell
wall.
 Cytoplasm shrinks too much, it loses contact with cell wall & we say the cell has been
plasmolysis (called Crenation for animal cells).
Hypotonic Solution
Solution with a high(less negative) water potential than that of the cell.
 The cells gain water by osmosis & swell up.
 In plant cells, because of the cell wall the cell cannot become larger & the condition is called
turgidity
 Turgidity is important in supporting young, non-woody plant stems.
The turgid cells will press against each other & this pressure will keep the plant up right.
Isotonic solution
 A solution with equal water potential with that of a cell.
 If we place a cell in isotonic solution water moves into the cell & out of the cell equally.
 The cell neither turgid nor shrink.
Active processes
Require ATP energy cellular metabolism e.g. Active transport, endocytosis & exocytosis
 Active transport
 Sometimes substances must be moved against their concentration gradient (from low
concentration to high concentration).
 This can only happen if metabolic energy is used to drive the process.
 ATP is broken down into ADP & Pi
 In active transport, proteins used to actively transport substances across the plasma
membrane are called Pumps.
 Endocytosis
 In this process large particles are engulfed by the cell (move into the cell).
 Part of the plasma membrane surrounds the particles to form a vesicle which is then
processed by the cell.
 APT is required to move membrane around the particles to form the vesicle. e.g:
 Phagocytosis (cell eating):
 This involves the creation of large pseudopodia (extension of the membrane) to
enclose large particles.
 Once enclosed by pseudopodia, they form an internal vesicle which is then moved
further inside cell.
 Pinocytosis ( cell drinking)
 This differs from phagocytosis only in scale.

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 It involves the injection of small particles (but too large to across the plasma by other
methods) & does not require the formation of large pseudopodia to engulf particles.
 receptor mediate endocytosis:
 The membrane infolded to form vesicle only in regions where particles have bound to
specific receptor.
 Binding stimulate infolding of the membrane
 Exocytosis:
 In this process, substances are moved inside to outside of the cell.
 The reverse of endocytosis
 It is a process by which enzymes & hormones are secreted.
 ATP is used to alter the configuration of the membrane.
Cell Organelles & their functions
 Cell contains variety of internal structures called Cell Organelles.
 Organelles often have their own membranes. e.g
 Nucleus:
 Have double membranes & found in all cells, except prokaryotic cells & in matured red blood
cells.
 Occupies 10% of the volume of a cell & is the largest organelle in animal cell.
 Have several components. e.g
 Nuclear envelope
 A double membrane that surround the nucleus.
 Has nuclear pore which allows the passage of some molecules between nucleus & cytoplasm.
 Nucleolus
 Is an organelle within the nucleus.
 Membrane bounded & is used to synthesize the component of ribosomes which can pass
through nuclear pores to cytoplasm.
 Chromatin
 Composed of DNA looped around histone protein.
 DNA contains genetic information for the production of proteins.
 Chromatin fibers are loosely dispersed throughout the nucleus, but before cell is about to divide
chromatin condense into distinct, recognizable structures called chromosomes
 Mitochondria:
 Double membrane organelle
 Site of cellular respiration (formation APT from catabolism of sugars, fats & other fuels it the
presence of oxygen)
 The inner membrane is folded into Cristae, which provide large surface area for electron
transport chain which produces most of the ATP.
 Some of aerobic reactions take place in the fluid matrix.
 Some cells that always need lots of energy have more than two (more) mitochondria. e.g
muscle cells, cells of iris of the eye, liver cells, sperm cells
 Ribosomes
 Site of protein synthesis & Common to all cells
 made up of RNA & proteins
 Found free in cytoplasm, but are also bound to membrane of rough E. Reticulum
 Each ribosome consists of two subunits that are made from RNA & protein.
 The subunits are made in nucleolus
 They are abundant in cells that secrete proteins.

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

 Network of interconnected membrane sacs & tubules (zigzag through the cytoplasm).
 The membrane is connected to nuclear membrane.
 There are two types of ER
 Rough ER
 Has ribosome on its surface& responsible for the manufacture & transport of protein to Golgi
body for modification.
 Abundant cells that secret proteins
 Produced proteins pass through small pores into lumen (inner space) of ER, they moved in a
vesicle to the Golgi body to be modified.
 Smooth ER
 Look smooth, because it lacks ribosomes on its surface.
 Responsible for the synthesis of lipids (oils, phospholipids & steroids).
 Smooth ER of liver cells detoxifies poisons & drugs.
 Also connected with carbohydrate metabolism & storage of calcium ions.
 Golgi Apparatus (body)
Consists of a number of flattened membrane bound sacs in which proteins are modified.
 Golgi bodies modify protein made by rough ER & lipids produced by smooth ER then sort &
package them into vesicles that go to various cell destinations.
 Synthesized proteins are added with sugar & phosphate.
 Lysosomes
Have no specialized internal structures & surround by single membrane.
Formed in Golgi body & contain digestive enzymes that break down cellular waste & debris.
They are responsible for intermolecular digestion of both intra & extra cellular substances.
They are found in all animals, but are most numerous in disease fighting cells such as phagocytic
cells of immune system.
Also abundant in organisms like Amoeba (e.g amoebas eat by engulfing small organisms by
phagocytosis then digest by enzymes secreted by their lysosomes).
Lysosomes can play a role in recycling of cell’s organelles & macromolecules.
 Proxisomes
Found in all eukaryotic cells & contain oxidative enzymes such as catalase & urate oxidase
They are small membrane bound vesicle containing enzymes that break down fatty acids,
amino acids & hydrogen peroxide
 Like mitochondria they are major site of oxygen utilization.
Organelles (structures) found in plants cells
 Cell wall
 Made up of cellulose (carbohydrate).
 Also found in bacteria, algae & fungi.
 Provide mechanical strength to the cell & maintaining or determining the shape of the cell.
 The Criss-cross arrangement of cellulose fibers in the cell wall give it both strength & elasticity.
 Because of there are gaps between fibers, cell wall is freely permeable.
 Vacuoles
It is central & permanent vacuole in plants.
Occupies 50-90% of the cell’s interior.
Contains fluid that stores a range of solutes.
It is a single membrane bound organelle & such membrane is called tonoplast.
It is important in
 maintaining turgidity
 Stockpiling (store) proteins or organic ions
 disposing of metabolic byproducts
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 Holding pigments & storing digestive compounds that defend the plant against herbivores.
 Chloroplast
Double membrane bound organelle found in plants & algae & it is site photosynthesis.
The outer & inner membranes are smooth.
There are two main regions in chloroplasts that are liked to stage of photosynthesis.
 Grana
 Membranous region & each of which is a thylakoid where light dependent reaction occur
 Fluid stroma
Region contains DNA, ribosomes & enzymes.
Where light energy is converted into chemical energy.
 Where light independent reaction take place.
How do biologists been able to study different organelles?
 This has been possible because of a technique called Cell fractionation
 The technique is used to separate different organelles based on their mass & size (density)
 The large organelle (e.g Nucleus) requires relatively low centrifuge speed to make it settle
out than smaller organelle (e.g ribosome), which require a much higher speed.
 The technique uses an Ultacenterfuge.
Steps:
• The sample is stored in a suspension that is:
 Buffered: to make the PH of the suspension neutral.
 Isotonic: to prevent osmotic effect on cell organelle
 Cool: to reduce overall activity of enzymes released later in the procedure.
• The cells are homogenized in a blander & filtered to remove debris.
• Homogenized sample is placed in an ultracentrifuge & spun at low speed
Nuclei settled out (why?)
 Supernatant (suspension containing the remaining organelles) is spun at higher speed.
 Chloroplast settles out (why?)
• The supernatant is spun at higher speed still.
 Mitochondria settle out.
• The process is repeated at ever higher speeds until all the organelles have been separated.
 Ribosomes are settled out at higher spun, because ribosomes are very small organelles.

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Work sheet
I. Write “true” if the statement is correct & “false” if not
1. All living cells have genetic material
2. The rate of active processes in a cell is closely matched with the number of mitochondria in that
cell.
3. According to Fluid-Mosaic model, phospholipid bilayer is flexible
4. Cell wall of plant cell is made up of phospholipid bilayer & semi permeable.
5. The first cell evolved on the earth was eukaryotic cell
II. Match column “A” with column “B”
A B
6. Move specific ions across the plasma membrane A. Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
7. Reduce fluidity of the cell membrane B. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
8. Has less negative water potential than the cell C. Carrier protein
9. Has ribosome on its surface D. Channel protein
10. Has equal water potential with the cell E. Mitochondria
11. Where components of ribosomes are made F. Grana
12. Control all activities of a cell G. Lysosmes
13. Where light-dependent reactions occur H. Nucleolus
14. Contain digestive enzymes I. Fluid stroma
J. Nuleus
K. Hypertonic solution
L Hypotonic solution
M. Isotonic solution
N. Cholesterol
III. Choose the correct answer for the following questions from the given choices
15. If a new seedling young plant stem is stand up right perpendicular to the soil on which it is
growing, the solution of the soil is
A. Hypertonic B. Hypotonic C. Isotonic D. More concentrated
16. Rate of diffusion decreases when;
A .Concentration difference increase B. Temperature increase
C. Surface area of the membrane D. Diffusion distance increase
17. Which of the followings is not passive process?
A. Phagocytosis B. Plasmolysis C. Crenation D. Peristalsis
18. In which of the following organelles more oxygen is consumed?
A. Chloroplast B. Endoplasmic reticulum C. Mitochondria D. Ribosome
19. What is the advantage of the inner mitochondrial cristae being highly folded?
A. To maintain turgidity of inner mitochondrial membrane
B. To increase surface area for electron transport system of ATP production
C. To make double membrane mitochondria
D. To leave substances in the mitochondria matrix to outside environment
20. In which plant organelle more oxygen is release?
A. Vacuole B. Chloroplast C. Mitochondria D. Nucleus
21. You liver detoxifies toxic substances, which organelle in your liver cells is responsible for this
function? A. Rough ER B. Golgi body C. Ribosome D. Smooth ER
22. If a suspension with a mixture of organelles is spun, which organelle needs high speed centrifuge
than the others to be settled to the bottom?
A. Ribosome B. Mitochondria C. Chloroplast D. Nucleus

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23. If a cell fails to modify synthesized proteins, which organelle is most likely not functioning?
A. Ribosome B. nucleus C. Golgi body D. Mitochondria
24. Which cell would be best for studying lysosome?
A. Muscle cell B. Phagocytic cell C. Nerve cell D. leaf cell of a plant
25. Cell wall of prokaryotes is made up of; A. Cellulose B. Chitin C. Protein D. Peptidoglycan
26. When the fluid outside a cell has a greater concentration of a given molecule than the fluid inside
the cell, the external fluid is;
A. Isotonic B. Hypotonic C. Hypertonic D. Diluted
27. The cell membrane is selectively permeable membrane. This means;
A. It is highly fluid B. It allows all materials to pass through
C. It allows only certain materials to pass through D. It contains more phospholipid bilayer
28. The process by which cell secretes molecules by fusing a transport vesicle is called_____
A. Pinocytosis B. Endocytosis C. Phagocytosis D. Exocytosis
29. If a 1.5% salt solution is isotonic to a certain plant cell, the cell will gain water when kept in which
of the following solutions?
A. 2% salt solution B. 2.5%salt solution C. 1.9 %salt solution D. 0.9% salt solution
30. The main component of plasma membrane is
A. Glycoproteins B. Glycolipids C. Cholesterols D. Phospholipids
31. Which of the following paired cellular structure is found in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
A. Cell membrane and Ribosome C. Mitochondria and lysosome
B. Ribosome and Mitochondria D. Nucleus and Ribosome
32. The function of Golgi body of the cell is
A. Protein synthesis C. Packing of protein for transport
B. Lipid synthesis D. Storage of waste products
33. During protein synthesis where does DNA is transcribed into mRNA?
A. Nucleus B. Ribosome C. Endoplasmic reticulum D. Golgi body
34. Biologists use cell fractionation technique to:
A. Determine cell type B. Compare eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
C. Separate one organelle from the others D. Know cell function
35. If a plant cell lacks Grana (stalk of thylakoid membrane) in its chloroplast, which of the reaction
cannot take place in that cell?
A. Light dependent reaction of photosynthesis C. Krebs Cycle of respiration
B. Light independent reaction of photosynthesis D. Calvin Cycle of photosynthesis
36. Which of the following organism first evolved on the earth?
A. Bacteria B. Fungi C. Protozoa D. Plants
37. Choose the organisms that belongs to both unicellular and prokaryotes?
A. Fungi B. Bacteria C. Protozoa D. Green algae

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38. Endosymbiontic theory states about;

A. Creation of living cells from non-living cells C. Evolution of modern organisms
B. Evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes D. Diffusion of substances across plasma membrane
39. Which of the following is not the function of plasma membrane?
A. It isolates cell from its environments B. It controls what enter & leave the cell
C. It helps the cell to communicate with its environments D. It stores genetic information
40. As the size of the cell increase, which of the following gets smaller?
A. The surface area of the cell C. The volume of the cell
B. The surface area to volume ratio of the cell D. The volume to surface area of the cell
41. Which of the following structure is common to both eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells?
A. Cell wall B. Mitochondria C. Genetic material D. Endoplasmic reticulum
42. Sodium ions enter and leave the cell by:
A. Simple diffusion B. Endocytosis & Exocytosis C. Active transport D. Facilitate diffusion
43. Which of the following factors decreases the rate of simple diffusion?
A. Diffusion distance B. Temperature
C. Concentration difference D. Surface area of the membrane
44. If the solution outside of the cell has more negative water potential than that of the cell, the
solution in the cell will be:
A. Hypotonic solution B. Hypertonic solution C. Isotonic solution D. Concentrate solution
45. Lose of turgor pressure cell can be resulted when the cell placed in:
A. Hypotonic solution B. Isotonic solution C. Hypertonic solution D. Dilute solution
46. Which of the following does not describe osmosis?
A. Movement of water from its high concentration to low concentration
B. Movement of water from less negative to more negative water potential
C. Movement of water from high water potential to low water potential
D. Movement of water from concentrate solution to dilute solution
47. In active transport, which of the following is used to move molecules against their concentration
gradient?
A. ATP from cell metabolism C. Channel proteins on the plasma membrane
B. Carrier proteins on the plasma membrane D. Kinetic energy of the molecule
48. Which of the following is not active process?
A. Phagocytosis B. Crenation C. Pinocytosis D. Receptor mediated Endocytosis

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49. To move through plasma membrane by simple diffusion particles must not be;
A. Small B. Lipid soluble C. Charged D. solid
50. Which of the following molecules reduces the fluidity of plasma membrane?
A. Glycoprotein B. Lipoprotein C. Glycerol of phospholipids D. Cholesterol
IV. Answer the following questions accordingly.
1. Differentiate between Sandwich model and Fluid Mosaic model of cell membrane structure
2. Explain how turgidity has effect on opening of stomata of plants during day (light) time
3. Why a cell has different organelles?
4. Explain how primitive prokaryotic cells have evolved into eukaryotic cells of eukaryotes.

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