Lecture 2

Chapter 1

Introduction: 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-2
The network core
 mesh of interconnected routers
mobile network
national or global ISP

 packet-switching: hosts break

application-layer messages into
packets
local or
• forward packets from one router regional
ISP
to the next, across links on path home network content
from source to destination provider
network
• each packet transmitted at full
datacenter
network

link capacity
enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-3
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 Transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R One-hop numerical example:
bps  L = 10 Kbits
 Store and forward: entire packet must arrive at  R = 100 Mbps
router before it can be transmitted on next link  one-hop transmission delay
 End-end delay: 2L/R (above), assuming zero = 0.1 msec
propagation delay (more on delay shortly)
Introduction: 1-4
Packet-switching: queueing delay, loss
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link

exceeds transmission rate (bps) of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills
up
Introduction: 1-5
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:

Forwarding: local forwarding table
 global action:
header value output link determine source-
 local action: move 0100 3
destination paths
arriving packets 0101 2

from router’s input

0111
1001
2
1 taken by packets
link to appropriate  routing algorithms
router output link 1

3 2
1
011

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-6
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching

end-end resources allocated to,

reserved for “call” between source
and destination
 in diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 circuit segment idle if not used by call
(no sharing)
 commonly used in traditional telephone
networks
Introduction: 1-7
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) 4 users

frequency
 optical, electromagnetic frequencies
divided into (narrow) frequency bands
 each call allocated its own band, can
transmit at max rate of that narrow
band time
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

frequency
 time divided into slots
 each call allocated periodic slot(s),
can transmit at maximum rate of
(wider) frequency band, but only time
during its time slot(s)
Introduction: 1-8
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

Example:
 1 Gb/s link
 each user: N

…..
• 100 Mb/s when “active” users 1 Gbps link
• active 10% of time

 circuit-switching: 10 users
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
 packet switching: with 35 users,
probability > 10 active at same time Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
is less than .0004

Introduction: 1-9
 Circuit Switching Vs Packet Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
 Works in physical layer  Works in data link layer and network
 Contiguous flow of data layer.
 No header  Store and forward
 Less efficiency  Pipelining
 Less delay  High efficiency
More delay

Introduction: 1-10
 Datagram switching vs Virtual switching
Packet switching are two types
Datagram switching Virtual Switching
 Connection less  Connection oriented
 No reservation (for memory, CPU, Reservation
processor, etc.)
Same order
 Out of order data flow (no contiguous data
flow) Low overhead
 High overhead (more header) Low packet loss
 High packet loss Used in X.25, ATM
 Used in internet (for IP network) High cost (due to efficiency and
 Low cost (due to efficiency and reservation reservation
 High delay Low delay
Introduction: 1-11
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner”?
 great for “bursty” data – sometimes has data to send, but at other times not
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss due to buffer overflow
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
• bandwidth guarantees traditionally used for audio/video applications

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching)

versus on-demand allocation (packet switching)?
Introduction: 1-12
Internet structure: a “network of networks”

 Hosts connect to Internet via access Internet Service

Providers (ISPs)
• residential, enterprise (company, university, commercial) ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current
Internet structure

Introduction: 1-13
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access
net
access
net
…
access
net

Introduction: 1-14
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP to

…

…
each other directly doesn’t scale:

…
O(N2) connections.
access access
…

net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… access
… … net
access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-15
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access
net
access
net
…
access
net

Introduction: 1-16
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access
net
access
net
…
access
net

Introduction: 1-17
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. who
will want to be connected
Internet exchange point
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access
net
access
net
…
access
net

Introduction: 1-18
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
… net
access
net
access
net
…
access
net

Introduction: 1-19
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai) may
run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users
… access
… access
net
access
net

net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
… net
access
net
access
net
…
access
net

Introduction: 1-20
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

At “center”: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international coverage
 content provider networks (e.g., Google, Facebook): private network that connects its data
centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs
Introduction: 1-21
Tier-1 ISP Network map: Sprint (2019)
POP: point-of-presence
to/from other Sprint PoPS
links to peering
networks

…
… … …
links to/from Sprint customer networks

Introduction: 1-22
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-23
How do packet loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packets queue, wait for turn
 arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link capacity: packet loss

packet being transmitted (transmission delay)

B
packets in buffers (queueing delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction: 1-24
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link for transmission
 determine output link  depends on congestion level of router
 typically < msec
Introduction: 1-25
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end
system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost

Introduction: 1-26
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:
 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link transmission rate (bps)  s: propagation speed (~3x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R  dprop = d/s
dtrans and dprop
very different Introduction: 1-27
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km

ten-car caravan toll booth toll booth

(aka 10-bit packet) (aka router)

 cars “propagate” at 100 km/hr  time to “push” entire caravan

 toll booth takes 12 sec to service through toll booth onto
car (bit transmission time) highway = 12*10 = 120 sec
 car ~ bit; caravan ~ packet  time for last car to propagate
from 1st to 2nd toll both:
 Q: How long until caravan is 100km/(100km/hr) = 1 hr
lined up before 2nd toll booth?
 A: 62 minutes

Introduction: 1-28
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km

ten-car caravan toll booth toll booth

(aka 10-bit packet) (aka router)

 suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first booth?
A: Yes! after 7 min, first car arrives at second booth; three cars still at
first booth

Introduction: 1-29
Packet queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing delay

 R: link bandwidth (bps)
 L: packet length (bits)
 a: average packet arrival rate
traffic intensity = La/R 1
 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small
 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large La/R ~ 0
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving is
more than can be serviced - average
delay infinite!
La/R -> 1
Introduction: 1-30
“Real” Internet delays and routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay measurement from source to
router along end-end Internet path towards destination. For all
i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination (with time-to-live field value of i)
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender measures time interval between transmission and reply

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction: 1-31
Real Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms 3 delay measurements
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms to border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic link
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms looks like delays
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms decrease! Why?
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org

Introduction: 1-32
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits are being sent from sender
to receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

link
pipecapacity
that can carry linkthat
pipe capacity
can carry
serverserver,
sends with
bits Rsfluid at rate
bits/sec fluid
R at rate
bits/sec
c
(fluid)
fileinto
of Fpipe
bits (Rs bits/sec) (Rc bits/sec)
to send to client
Introduction: 1-33
Throughput
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction: 1-34
Throughput: network scenario
 per-connection end-end
Rs throughput:
Rs Rs min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or Rs is
R
often bottleneck
Rc Rc
Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction: 1-35
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-36
Network security
 field of network security:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in
mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a
transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!
Introduction: 1-37
Bad guys: malware
 malware can get in host from:
• virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing object
(e.g., e-mail attachment)
• worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving object that
gets itself executed
 spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites visited, upload
info to collection site
 infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for spam or distributed
denial of service (DDoS) attacks

Introduction: 1-38
Bad guys: denial of service
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server,
bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by
overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts
around the network
(see botnet)
target
3. send packets to target
from compromised
hosts
Introduction: 1-39
Bad guys: packet interception
packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g.,
including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

Introduction: 1-40
Bad guys: fake identity

IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

……To learn more choose the course Network Security (CSE461),

Computer Security (CSE 460), Web Security (CSE 480)
Introduction: 1-41
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-42
Protocol “layers” and reference models
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”: Question:
 hosts is there any hope of
 routers organizing structure of
 links of various media network?
 applications
 protocols
 hardware, software …. or at least our
discussion of networks?

Introduction: 1-43
Example: organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)
gates (load) gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway landing
airplane routing airplane routing
airplane routing

airline travel: a series of steps, involving many services

Introduction: 1-44
Example: organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticketing service ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage service baggage (claim)
gates (load) gate service gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway service runway landing
airplane routing routing
airplaneservice
routing airplane routing

layers: each layer implements a service Q: describe in words

 via its own internal-layer actions the service provided
in each layer above
 relying on services provided by layer below
Introduction: 1-45
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex
system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
• change in layer's service implementation: transparent to rest of
system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system
 layering considered harmful?
 layering in other complex systems?
Introduction: 1-46
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network applications
• IMAP, SMTP, HTTP
application
 transport: process-process data transfer
• TCP, UDP transport
 network: routing of datagrams from source to
destination network
• IP, routing protocols
link
 link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements physical
• Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction: 1-47
 source
message M application Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
Introduction: 1-48
Chapter 1: roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 What is a protocol?
 Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Security
 Protocol layers, service models
 History
Introduction: 1-49
 ISO/OSI reference model
Two layers not found in Internet
application
protocol stack!
presentation
 presentation: allow applications to interpret
meaning of data, e.g., encryption, session
compression, machine-specific conventions transport
 session: synchronization, checkpointing, network
recovery of data exchange link
 Internet stack “missing” these layers!
physical
• these services, if needed, must be
implemented in application The seven layer OSI/ISO
reference model
• needed?
Introduction: 1-50
Chapter 1: summary
We’ve covered a “ton” of material!
 Internet overview
 what’s a protocol? You now have:
 network edge, access network, core  context, overview,
• packet-switching versus circuit-
switching vocabulary, “feel”
• Internet structure of networking
 performance: loss, delay, throughput  more depth, detail,
 layering, service models and fun to follow!
 security
 history
Introduction: 1-51
 Chapter 1: Exercises 1
 Consider, the NASA satellite station control room on Earth and a Rover on Moon is connected by a
100 Mbps point-to-point wireless link. The distance between from Earth to Moon (when they are
closest together) is approximately 384 x 10 3 km, and data travels over the link at the speed of light is
3×108 meter/sec.

 Question 1: How long does it take for a packet to travel from Rover to NASA satellite station control
room? Determine the answer in milliseconds.

 Question 2: Calculate the product of RTT and bandwidth for the link. Find the answer in Megabits.

 Question 3: A camera on the rover takes pictures of its surroundings and sends these to Earth. How
quickly after a picture is taken on rover, can it reach NASA satellite station control room on Earth
(ignore the processing delay)? Assume that each image is 25 MB in size. Find the answer in seconds.
Introduction: 1-52
 Chapter 1: Exercises 1- Solutions
 Question 1: Propagation delay on the link is (384 × 106) / (3 × 108)

= 1.28 seconds = 1280 milliseconds

Thus, the 1 RTT is = 1.28 seconds x 2 = 2.56 seconds.

 Question 2: The product of RTT and Bandwidth for the link is = 2.56 × 100 × 106 = 30.52 MB (approx.).

 Question 3: After a picture is taken it must be transmitted on the link and be completely propagated before
Mission Control can interpret it.

Transmission delay for 25 MB of data is = 5 x 41,943,040 bits/100 × 106 = 210 seconds. (approx.)

Thus, the total time required is = transmit delay + propagation delay

= 210 + 1.28 seconds = 211.28 seconds.

Introduction: 1-53
 Chapter 1: Exercises 2

 Consider a router A is transmitting packets, each of length L bits, over a single link with
transmission rate R Mbps to another router B at the other end of the link. Suppose that
the packet length is L= 4000 bits, and that the link transmission rate along the link to
router on the right is R = 1000 Mbps. Round your answer to two decimals after leading
zeros.

 Question 1: What is the transmission delay?

 Question 2: What is the maximum number of packets per second that can be transmitted
by this link?

Introduction: 1-54
 Chapter 1: Exercises 2 1- Solutions
 Question 1:
The transmission delay
= L/R
= 4000 bits / 1000000000 bps
= 0.000004 sec = 4 microseconds

 Question 2:
The number of packets that can be transmitted in a second into the link
=R/L
= 1000000000 bps / 4000 bits
= 250000 packets

Introduction: 1-55
 Chapter 1: Exercises 3
 Consider the queuing delay in a router buffer, Assume a constant transmission rate of R =
600000 bps, a constant packet-length L = 8000 bits, and a is the average rate of
packets/second. Traffic intensity I = La/R, and the queuing delay is calculated as I(L/R)(1
- I) for I < 1.
 Question 1: In practice, does the queuing delay tend to vary a lot? Answer with Yes or No
 Question 2. Assuming that a = 34, what is the queuing delay? Give your answer in
milliseconds (ms)
 Question 3. Assuming that a = 60, what is the queuing delay? Give your answer in
milliseconds (ms)
 Question 4. Assuming the router's buffer is infinite, the queuing delay is 2.1333 ms, and
811 packets arrive. How many packets will be in the buffer 1 second later?
 Question 5. If the buffer has a maximum size of 734 packets, how many of the 811
packets would be dropped upon arrival from the previous question?

Introduction: 1-56
 Chapter 1: Exercises 3 1- Solutions
 Question 1: Yes, in practice, queuing delay can vary significantly. We use the above formulas
as a way to give a rough estimate, but in a real-life scenario it is much more complicated.

 Question 2. Queuing Delay = I(L/R)(1 - I) * 1000 = 0.4533*(8000/600000)*(1-0.4533) * 1000

= 3.3043 ms.

 Question 3. Queuing Delay = I(L/R)(1 - I) * 1000 = 0.8*(8000/600000)*(1-0.8) * 1000 =

2.1333 ms.

 Question 4. Packets left in buffer = a - floor(1000/delay) = 811 - floor(1000/2.1333) = 343

packets.

 Question 5. Packets dropped = packets - buffer size = 811 - 734 = 77 dropped packets.
Introduction: 1-57
 Chapter 1: Exercises 4

 Consider the figure below, with three links, each with the specified transmission rate and
link length

 Assume the length of a packet is 12000 bits. The speed of light propagation delay on each
link is 3x10^8 m/sec.

 Round your answer to two decimals after leading zeros

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 Chapter 1: Exercises 4
 Question 1: What is the transmission delay of link 1?

 Question 2: What is the propagation delay of link 1?

 Question 3: What is the total delay of link 1?

 Question 4: What is the transmission delay of link 2?

 Question 5: What is the propagation delay of link 2?

 Question 6: What is the total delay of link 2?

 Question 7: What is the transmission delay of link 3?

 Question 8: What is the propagation delay of link 3?

 Question 9: What is the total delay of link 3?

 Question 10: What is the total delay?

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 Chapter 1: Exercises 4
Solutions:
 Question 1: Link 1 transmission delay = L/R = 12000 bits / 10 Mbps = 0.0012 seconds

 Question 2: Link 1 propagation delay = d/s = (3 * 1000) m / 3*10^8 m/sec = 0.00001 seconds

 Question 3: Link 1 total delay = d_t + d_p = 0.0012 seconds + 0.00001 seconds = 0.00121 seconds

 Question 4: Link 2 transmission delay = L/R = 12000 bits / 1 Mbps = 0.012 seconds

 Question 5: Link 2 propagation delay = d/s = (500 * 1000) m / 3*10^8 m/sec = 0.0017 seconds

 Question 6: Link 2 total delay = d_t + d_p = 0.012 seconds + 0.0017 seconds = 0.014 seconds

 Question 7: Link 3 transmission delay = L/R = 12000 bits / 10 Mbps = 0.0012 seconds

 Question 8: Link 3 propagation delay = d/s = (2 * 1000) m / 3*10^8 m/sec = 6.67E-6 seconds

 Question 9: Link 3 total delay = d_t + d_p = 0.0012 seconds + 6.67E-6 seconds = 0.0012 seconds

 Question 10: The total delay = d_L1 + d_L2 + d_L3 = 0.0012 seconds + 0.014 seconds + 0.0012 seconds = 0.016 seconds.
Introduction: 1-60