Advanced Thermodynamics

Sevan Karabetoglu, PhD

Week 9
Power Generation II
Content
Gas Power Cycle
 Brayton Cycle
 Ideal
 Irreversibilites
 Improvements of Brayton cycle
 Regenerative
 Reheat
 Intercooling

 Combined Power Cycle

 Cogeneration
 Thermodynamic Analysis with EES software
Open Brayton cycle: Components

Gas turbine power plants may operate on either an

open or closed basis. The open mode is more
common. This is an engine in which atmospheric air
is continuously drawn into the compressor, where it
is compressed to a high pressure. The air then
enters a combustion chamber, or combustor, where
it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs,
resulting in combustion products at an elevated
temperature. The combustion products expand
through the turbine and are subsequently
discharged to the surroundings. Part of the turbine
work developed is used to drive the compressor;
the remainder is available to generate electricity, to
propel a vehicle, or for other purposes. The working
fluid receives an energy input by heat transfer from
an external source, for example a gas-cooled
nuclear reactor. The gas exiting the turbine is passed
through a heat exchanger, where it is cooled prior to
reentering the compressor.
 Closed Brayton Cycle: Processes
the working fluid receives an energy input by heat transfer from
an external source, for example a gas-cooled nuclear reactor. 1  2  isentropic compression
The gas exiting the turbine is passed through a heat exchanger,
where it is cooled prior to reentering the compressor. 2  3  isobaric heat addition
3  4  isentropic expansion
4  1  isobaric heat rejection

ideal closed cycle gas turbine engine

 Closed Brayton Cycle: Ideal gas assumption for reversible case

T v kR R
s2  s1  c p ln 2  R ln 2 cp  cv 
T1 v1 k 1 k 1 1  P2 
 s1  s2    k 1  k 1 th ,br  1   p
r  
T p T2  P2 
k
P  k
T3 rp( k 1)/ k  P1 
s2  s1  cv ln 2  R ln 2    3  
T1 p1 T1  P1   P4  T4

qin  h3  h2  c p T3  T2 
qout  h4  h1  c p T4  T1 
wc  h2  h1  c p T2  T1 
wt  h3  h4  c p T3  T4 

th ,br 
wnet wt  wc
  1
 T4  T1 
qin qin T3  T2 
 Closed Brayton Cycle: Air-standart assumption for reversible case
Instead h  c pT use pr In an air-standard analysis two assumptions are always made:
p2 • The working fluid is air, which behaves as an ideal gas.
pr 2  pr1rp  pr1 • The temperature rise that would be brought about by combustion is
p1
accomplished by a heat transfer from an external source.
1 p
pr 4  pr 3  pr 3 4
rp p3

T2  T1  rp 
 k 1 k

k  c cv 
T4  T3  rp 
 k 1 k p
 Brayton Cycle: Air-standards ideal case
Ex 1: Air enters the compressor of an ideal air-standard Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K, with a volumetric flow rate of
5 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. Determine
a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
b) the back work ratio,
c) the net power.
 Brayton Cycle: Air-standards ideal case
Ex 1: Air enters the compressor of an ideal air-standard Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K, with a volumetric flow rate of
5 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. Determine
a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
b) the back work ratio,
c) the net power.

h1  300.19 kJ/kg T2  574.1 K

T1  300 K   Pr 2  rp Pr1  13.86 
Pr1  1.386 h2  579.9 kJ/kg
h3  1515.4 kJ/kg 1 T4  787.7 K
T3  1400 K   Pr 4  Pr 3  45.05 
Pr 3  450.5 rp h4  808.5 kJ/kg

wcomp 279.7
wcomp  h2  h1  579.9  300.19  279.7 bwr    39.6%
wturb 706.9
wturb  h3  h4  1515.4  808.5  706.9
 RT 1 p1 5 100 103
qin  h3  h2  1515.4  579.9  935.5 m 1 v1  1 m   5.807 kg/s
v1 p1 RT1  8314 28.97  300
wnet 706.9  279.7
th    45.7% Wnet  mwnet  5.807  706.9  279.7   2481 kW
qin 935.5
 Brayton Cycle: Air-standards irreversible case
Ex 2: Reconsider Ex 1, but include in the analysis that the turbine and compressor each have an isentropic efficiency of
80%. Determine
a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
b) the back work ratio,
c) the net power.

h2 s  h1
comp   h2  300.19  0.8  279.7  649.8 kJ/kg
h2  h1
h3  h4
turb   h3  h4  0.8  706.9  565.5 kJ/kg
h3  h4 s
qin  h3  h2  1515.4  649.8  865.6
wnet 565.5  349.8
th    24.9%
qin 865.6
wcomp 349.8
bwr    61.8%
wturb 565.5
Wnet  mwnet  5.807  565.5  349.8   1254 kW
 Improvements: Regenerative gas turbines
To avoid lost of the hot turbine exhaust gas to the surrondings, a heat exchanger called regenerator which allows the
air exiting the compressor to be preheated before entering combustor is used. Therefore the fuel consumption is
reduced. Besides, transferring heat from a source external to the cycle is required only to increase air temperature
from state x to state 3 rather than from state 2 to state 3 leads to the increament of thermal efficiency by reducing
heat added. The net work and back work ratio are not altered by the addition of a regenerator.
 Improvements: Regenerator effectiveness
A parameter to compare actual regenerator and ideal one. In practice values of regenerator effectiveness range from
60 to 80%. To increase the effectiveness above this range would require greater heat transfer area, resulting in
equipment costs that might cancel any advantage due to fuel savings. Moreover, the greater heat transfer area that
would be required for a larger effectiveness can result in a significant frictional pressure drop for flow through the
regenerator, thereby affecting overall performance.

hx  h2
r 
h4  h2
 Improvements: Regenerator effectiveness
Ex 3: A regenerator is incorporated in the cycle of Ex 1. Determine the thermal efficiency for a regenerator
effectiveness of 80%.

h1  300.19 kJ/kg h3  1515.4 kJ/kg

h2  579.9 kJ/kg h4  808.5 kJ/kg
hx  h2   r  h4  h2   762.8 kJ/kg

th 
 h3  h4    h2  h1 
 56.8%
 h3  hx 
 Improvements: Gas turbines with reheat
For metallurgical reasons, the temperature of the gaseous combustion products entering the turbine must be limited.
This temperature can be controlled by providing air in excess of the amount required to burn the fuel in the
combustor. As a consequence, the gases exiting the combustor contain sufficient air to support the combustion of
additional fuel. Some gas turbine power plants take advantage of the excess air by means of a multistage turbine with
a reheat combustor between the stages. With this arrangement the net work per unit of mass flow can be increased.
 Improvements: Gas turbines with reheat
Ex 4: Consider a modification of the cycle of Ex. 1 involving reheat and regeneration. Air enters the compressor at 100
kPa, 300 K and is compressed to 1000 kPa. The temperature at the inlet to the first turbine stage is 1400 K. The
expansion takes place isentropically in two stages, with reheat to 1400 K between the stages at a constant pressure of
300 kPa. A regenerator having an effectiveness of 100% is also incorporated in the cycle. Determine the thermal
efficiency, back work ratio and net work output.
h1  300.19 kJ/kg h3  1515.4 kJ/kg
h2  579.9 kJ/kg hb  h3  1515.4 kJ/kg
pa 300
pra  pr 3  450.5  135.15  ha  1095.9 kJ/kg
p3 1000
p4 100
pr 4  prb  450.5  150.17  h4  hx  1127.6 kJ/kg
pb 300

th 
 h3  ha    hb  h4    h2  h1 
 65.4%
 h3  hx    hb  ha 
bwr 
 h2  h1 

279.7
 34.6%
 h3  ha    hb  h4  807.3
Wnet  mwnet  5.807  807.3  279.7   3063 kW
 Improvements: Gas turbines with reheat
Does only reheat implementing to the ideal Brayton Cycle increase the thermal efficiency ?

T1

T4

 max 
T2 th  f  , max , x   ?
T4
T2
x
T2
 Improvements: Gas turbines with reheat
Does only reheat implementing to the ideal Brayton Cycle increase the thermal efficiency ?

th ,reheat 
T2  T2   T2  T3   T1  T4 
T2  T1   T2  T2 
T2  T2
T T   T3 T4 
T2  3  4    
th ,reheat 
 2T2  T2  T1   T3  T4 
 1
 T3  T4 
 1  2
T T2 
 1  2
T T2 
 2T2  T2  T1   2T2  T2  T1   T T 
T2  2  2  1 
 T2 T1 
2  
 T2 T2   T2 T2 
 k 1  k 1  k 1
T1  PH  T2  PH  T2  PR 
k k k

     
T4  PL  T2  PR  T3  PL 
T3 T4 T2 1 T1 T1 T4 
   
T2 T1 T2  x T2 T4 T2  max
1 1 1  
   
 x  max1  x  max  1
th ,reheat  1   1 th ,ideal  1 
    
2 x  2 x 
 max   max 
 1     
x  1 and 1     2 x   th ,reheat  th ,ideal
 max  x  max    max 
 Improvements: Gas turbines with intercooling
Although cooling a gas as it is compressed would reduce the work, a heat transfer rate high enough to effect a
significant reduction in work is difficult to achieve in practice. A practical alternative is to separate the work and heat
interactions into separate processes by letting compression take place in stages with heat exchangers, called
intercoolers, cooling the gas between stages.
 Improvements: Regenerative gas turbines with reheat and intercooling
Ex 5: A regenerative gas turbine with
intercooling and reheat operates at steady
state. Air enters the compressor at 100 kPa,
300 K with a mass flow rate of 5.807 kg/s.
The pressure ratio across the two-stage
compressor is 10. The pressure ratio across
the two-stage turbine is also 10. The
intercooler and reheater each operate at
300 kPa. At the inlets to the turbine stages,
the temperature is 1400 K. The temperature
at the inlet to the second compressor stage
is 300 K. The isentropic efficiency of each
compressor and turbine stage is 80%. The
regenerator effectiveness is 80%. Determine
a) the thermal efficiency,
b) the back work ratio,
c) the net power.
 Improvements: Regenerative gas turbines with reheat and intercooling
h1  h3  300.19 kJ/kg h6  h8  1515.4 kJ/kg
h2 s  411.3 kJ/kg h7 s  1095.9 kJ/kg
h4 s  423.8 kJ/kg h9 s  1127.6 kJ/kg
h4 s  h3 h2 s  h1 h4  454.7 kJ/kg
c   
h4  h3 h2  h1 h2  439.1 kJ/kg
h8  h9 h6  h7 h9  1205.2 kJ/kg
t   
h8  h9 s h6  h7 s h7  1179.8 kJ/kg
h5  h4 tr
r   h5  1055.1 kJ/kg case bwr Wnet Improvement on
h9  h4 reversible 0.457 0.396 2481 kW tr Wnet
 h  h    h8  h9    h2  h1    h4  h3   44.3%
th  6 7
regenerative 0.568 0.396 2481 kW 24% 0%

 h6  h5    h8  h7 
regenerative
0.654 0.346 3063 kW 43% 23%
with reheat

 h  h    h4  h3   293.4  45.4% 0.249 0.618 1254 kW

irreversible
bwr  2 1 Irreversible
 h6  h7    h8  h9  645.8 regenerative
0.443 0.454 2046 kW 78% 63%
with reheat and
Wnet  mwnet  5.807  645.8  293.4   2046 kW intercooling
Combined Power Cycle: Brayton and Rankine
A combined power cycle couples two power cycles such that the
energy discharged by heat transfer from one cycle is used partly
or wholly as the input for the other cycle. In a combined gas
turbine–vapor power cycle the stream exiting the turbine of a
gas turbine is at a high temperature. The two power cycles are
coupled so that the heat transfer to the vapor cycle is provided
by the gas turbine cycle, which may be called the topping cycle.

mv  h7  h6   mg  h4  h5 
Wgas  mg  h3  h4    h2  h1  
Wvap  mv  h7  h8    h6  h9  
Qin  mg  h3  h2 
Wgas  Wvap   h4  h1    h4  h5    h8  h9  
th   1   1  
Qin   h3  h 
2   h3  h 
2   h7  h 
6 
 Combined Power Cycle: Brayton and Rankine
Ex 6: A combined gas turbine–vapor power plant has a net power
output of 45 MW. Air enters the compressor of the gas turbine at
100 kPa 300 K, and is compressed to 1200 kPa. The isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is 84%. The condition at the inlet to
the turbine is 1200 kPa, 1400 K. Air expands through the turbine,
which has an isentropic efficiency of 88%, to a pressure of 100 kPa.
The air then passes through the interconnecting heat exchanger
and is finally discharged at 400 K. Steam enters the turbine of the
vapor power cycle at 8 MPa, 400C, and expands to the condenser
pressure of 8 kPa. Water enters the pump as saturated liquid at 8
kPa. The turbine and pump of the vapor cycle have isentropic
efficiencies of 90 and 80%, respectively. Determine
a) the mass flow rates of the air and the steam, each in kg/s,
b) the net power developed by the gas turbine and vapor power
cycle, each in MW.
c) Thermal efficiency of the combined power cycle
Combined Power Cycle: Brayton and Rankine
h1  300.19 kJ/kg
h6  183.96 kJ/kg
h2  669.79 kJ/kg
h7  3138.30 kJ/kg
h3  1515.42 kJ/kg
h8  2104.74 kJ/kg
h4  858.02 kJ/kg
h9  173.88 kJ/kg
h5  400.98 kJ/kg
mv  h4  h5 
  0.1547
mg  h7  h6 
Wgas  mg  h3  h4    h2  h1   Wvap  mv  h7  h8    h6  h9  
 mv 
Wnet  mg   h3  h4    h2  h1     h7  h8    h6  h9   
 mg 
Wgas  29.03 MW
mg  100.87 kg/s mv  15.6 kg/s 
Wvap  15.97 MW
Wnet 45000
th    52.7%
mg  h3  h2  100.87 1515.42  669.79 
Cogeneration: Waste heat
Cogeneration: Energy consumption
=28.5 PWh=100 EJ

  33%
Rejected Waste
Energy Energy
66.4
68%

Energy
Services
30.8
Cogeneration: Waste heat sources
 Basics: What is cogeneration ?

Cogeneration, otherwise known as combined heat and power (CHP), is

the simultaneous production of electricity and heat from a single fuel
source.
Electricity production generates a significant amount of heat which is
normally not captured or used in any way. A cogeneration system
recovers the heat for use in heating, cooling, dehumidification and other
processes.
Cogeneration is not a single technology, but an integrated energy system
that can be adapted to the needs of the energy end user. Cogeneration
can use a variety of fuels to provide reliable electricity, mechanical
power and thermal energy. Cogeneration units predominantly use
natural gas as their fuel source, which has a significantly lower emissions
factor than conventional grid electricity, which generally uses coal. The
traditional method of supplying energy to a site uses both grid-supplied
electricity and a separate fuel source for thermal demands. In a
cogeneration system, energy is supplied with a single fuel source and
waste heat is captured and used. As a result, cogeneration can generate
substantial savings for the end user.
 Basics: Benefits of cogeneration
Environmental
• Improved fuel efficiency – reducing the amount of fuel needed to provide
energy means that fewer resources are required
• Reduced CO2 emissions – through reducing fuel use and replacing coal with
natural gas, which has significantly lower CO2 content
• Reduced transmission losses – reducing the distance from generation to use.

Financial
• Reduced primary energy costs – natural gas is generally cheaper than grid-
purchased electricity.
• Flexible procurement – more choice of which fuel to purchase for use.
• Reduced network upgrade costs – with a reduced need to pay for expensive
electricity network upgrades if site energy demand increases.
• Reduced impact of a carbon price – the carbon price impact is greater on grid
electricity than on natural gas, so purchasing less grid electricity will reduce
exposure to a carbon price
Operational
• Increased thermal supply choices – this can lead to operational improvements
 Technology and Equipment: Topping and Bottoming Cycles

Cogeneration systems can be broken down into two basic power cycles types:
topping and bottoming cycles.

• In a topping cycle the input energy (fuel) is used first to generate power
and then waste heat is captured from this generation and used to provide
thermal energy for use in site processes. This cycle is also referred to as a
combined cycle arrangement. Turbine generators, steam turbine
generators and reciprocating internal combustion engine generators with
heat exchangers are examples of power topping cycles.

• In the bottoming cycle, the generation sequence is reversed. High

temperature heat is first generated to be used in a process such as steel or
concrete manufacture and then the heat from the process is captured and
used to generate electricity. This is generally through a steam or organic
Rankine cycle (ORC).
 Technology and Equipment: Topping and Bottoming Cycles

Topping cycle cogeneration systems consist of five basic components

• prime mover (turbine, engine or fuel cell). The prime mover is the first
stage in a cogeneration system and this equipment drives the electrical
generator and produces the heat by-product
• electric generator
• heat exchanger (heat recovery system)
• absorption cooling unit (if trigeneration)
• control system (control and operating strategy)

Examples of the major components of cogeneration are outlined in Table 1

The prime mover is the key component of a cogeneration system, as their

properties make them suitable for different circumstances. Selecting the right
type and size of prime mover is pivotal to ensuring a well-designed system

Cogeneration systems can be relatively complex and capital intensive and

should have a plant life of 20 years. Due to their lifespan they require careful
consideration when assessing viability
Cogeneration with Rankine Cycle: Process heat utilization
Many systems or devices, however, require energy input in the form of heat,
called process heat. Some industries that rely heavily on process heat are
chemical, pulp and paper, oil production and refining, steel making, food
processing, and textile industries. Process heat in these industries is usually
supplied by steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150 to 200°C (300 to 400°F). Energy is
usually transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another
fuel in a furnace. Industries that use large amounts of process heat also
consume a large amount of electric power. Therefore, it makes economical
as well as engineering sense to use the already-existing work potential to
produce power instead of letting it go to waste. The result is a plant that
produces electricity while meeting the process-heat requirements of certain
industrial processes. Such a plant is called a cogeneration plant. In general,
cogeneration is the production of more than one useful form of energy
(such as process heat and electric power) from the same energy source.
all the energy transferred to the steam in the boiler is utilized as either
process heat or electric power. Thus it is appropriate to define a utilization
factor for a cogeneration plant as

Wnet ,out  Q p ,out

u 
Qin
Cogeneration with Rankine Cycle: Ideal cogeneration plant
Ex 7: Consider the cogeneration plant shown left. Steam enters
the turbine at 7 MPa and 500°C. Some steam is extracted from the
turbine at 500 kPa for process heating. The remaining steam
continues to expand to 5 kPa. Steam is then condensed at
constant pressure and pumped to the boiler pressure of 7 MPa. At
times of high demand for process heat, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled to 500 kPa and is routed to the process heater.
The extraction fractions are adjusted so that steam leaves the
process heater as a saturated liquid at 500 kPa. It is subsequently
pumped to 7 MPa. The mass flow rate of steam through the boiler
is 15 kg/s. Disregarding any pressure drops and heat losses in the
piping and assuming the turbine and the pump to be isentropic,
determine
a) the maximum rate at which process heat can be supplied
b) the power produced and the utilization factor when no process
heat is supplied
c) the rate of process heat supply and the utilization factor when
10%of the steam is extracted before it enters the turbine and 70%
of the steam is extracted from the turbine at 500 kPa for process
heating.
 Cogeneration with Rankine Cycle: Ideal cogeneration plant

wpI  v8  p9  p8   0.001005   7000  5   7.03 kJ/kg

wpII  v7  p10  p7   0.001093   7000  500   7.10 kJ/kg
h1  3411.4 kJ/kg h5  2739.3 kJ/kg
h9  h8  wpI  144.78 kJ/kg
h2  3411.4 kJ/kg h6  2073.0 kJ/kg
h10  h7  wpII  647.19 kJ/kg
h3  3411.4 kJ/kg h7  640.09 kJ/kg
h11  144.78 kJ/kg
h4  3411.4 kJ/kg h8  137.75 kJ/kg
a ) m4  m7  m1  15 kg/s m3  m5  m6  0
Q p ,max  m1  h4  h7   41.57 MW  u  100%
b) m3  m6  m1  15 kg/s m2  m5  0
0

Wnet ,out  Q p ,out

Wnet ,out  m3  h3  h6   m6 wpI  20 MW Qin  m1  h1  h11   49 MW  u   40.8%
Qin
c) m4 h4  m5 h5  Q p ,out  m7 h7 m4  0.115  1.5 kg/s m5  0.7 15  10.5 kg/s m7  m4  m5  12kg/s
11  26.2
Q p ,out  26.2 MW  u   86.5%
43
Cogeneration with Rankine Cycle: Ideal cogeneration plant

h1  3411.4 kJ/kg h5  2739.3 kJ/kg

h9  144.78 kJ/kg
h2  3411.4 kJ/kg h6  2073.0 kJ/kg
h10  647.19 kJ/kg
h3  3411.4 kJ/kg h7  640.09 kJ/kg
h11  144.78 kJ/kg
h4  3411.4 kJ/kg h8  137.75 kJ/kg

Q p ,max  41.57 MW
Wnet ,out  20 MW  u  40.8%
Q p ,out  26.2 MW  u  86.5%
Thermodynamics: Engineering Equation Solver (EES)

Ex 9: Consider a cogeneration power plant modified with

regeneration. Steam enters the turbine at 9 MPa and
400°C and expands to a pressure of 1.6 MPa. At this
pressure, 35 percent of the steam is extracted from the
turbine, and the remainder expands to 10 kPa. Part of the
extracted steam is used to heat the feedwater in an open
feedwater heater. The rest of the extracted steam is used
for process heating and leaves the process heater as a
saturated liquid at 1.6 MPa. It is subsequently mixed with
the feedwater leaving the feedwater heater, and the
mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure.
Assuming the turbines and the pumps to be isentropic,
show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation
lines, and determine the mass flow rate of steam through
the boiler for a net power output of 25 MW
Thermodynamics: Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
Thermodynamics: Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
Thermodynamics: Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
Thermodynamics: Engineering Equation Solver (EES)