HSC ANCIENT HISTORY CORE STUDY: CITIES OF VESUVIUS

COURSE NOTES & WORKBOOKLET

Instructions:
● This booklet contains all teacher written notes based on the HSC syllabus dot
points.

● Read all supplied information. Complete all tasks as directed using the course
notes and information contained both within this booklet, the assigned
textbooks and any additional assigned material.
Core Study: Cities of Vesuvius – Pompeii and Herculaneum

Syllabus Outcomes

A student:
● AH12-1: accounts for the nature of continuity and change in the ancient world
● AH12-2: proposes arguments about the varying causes and effects of events
and developments
● AH12-3: evaluates the role of historical features, individuals and groups in
shaping the past
● AH12-4: analyses the different perspectives of individuals and groups in their
historical context
● AH12-5: assesses the significance of historical features, people, places, events
and developments of the ancient world
● AH12-6: analyses and interprets different types of sources for evidence to
support an historical account or argument
● AH12-7: discusses and evaluates differing interpretations and representations
of the past
● AH12-8: plans and conducts historical investigations and presents reasoned
conclusions, using relevant evidence from a range of sources
● AH12-9: communicates historical understanding, using historical knowledge,
concepts and terms, in appropriate and well-structured forms
● AH12-10: analyses issues relating to the ownership, custodianship and
conservation of the ancient past

Content Focus
Students investigate the range and nature of archaeological and written sources for
the study of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and explore issues relating to
reconstruction and conservation of the past.

In investigating this topic, students develop and apply their knowledge and skills to
understand different types of sources and relevant issues.

The Historical concepts and skills content is to be integrated as appropriate.

Content
Students investigate:

Survey
● ​the geographical setting and natural features of Campania (ACHAH365, ACHAH371)
● the eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum (ACHAH367,
ACHAH372)
● early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries
(ACHAH369)
● representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time (ACHAH383)

Focus of study
Investigating and interpreting the sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum
● the evidence provided by the range of sources, including site layout, streetscapes, public
and private buildings, ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues,
mosaics, human, animal and plant remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum, as relevant for:
– the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations (ACHAH374)
– the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves (ACHAH375)
– local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium (ACHAH373)
– everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water
supply, sanitation (ACHAH377)
– religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs (ACHAH376)
– the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture (ACHAH378)

Reconstructing and conserving the past

● changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies (ACHAH381,
ACHAH385)
● issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and
responsibilities (ACHAH370)
● ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains
(ACHAH370)
● value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions (ACHAH370)
BACKGROUND INFORMATION

In Ad 79 the long dormant volcano Mount Vesuvius erupted, completely burying the
flourishing provincial Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum beneath meters of ash,
stone and boiling mud. However, while the popular view amongst historians is to treat these
towns as outstanding examples of Roman towns, the cultural background of these towns is
more complicated. Pompeii and Herculaneum only became ‘Roman’ by conquest in 80Bc
after a five hundred year of Italic, Etruscan, Greek and Samnite influence. The ancient
history of these towns was Italic and the Oscan language was spoken alongside Latin
continuously until 79AD.

The Historical Context

When the Romans took control of Campania, Pompeii became a ​socius o ​ r ally of Rome and
Herculaneum was made a ​municipium​. Although self-governing and prosperous under
Roman rule, the allies grew to resent their ‘second class’ status and revolted against Rome in
what is known as the ​Social War​.

​ f Campania were defeated by the

Pompeii and Herculaneum joined the revolt. The ​socii o
forces of the Roman general Sulla in 89Bc, but they were not destroyed. Pompeii was made
into a Roman colony named ​Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompepeianorum, i​ n honour of Sulla.
Approximately 2000 Roman army veterans were settled in the area.

Many leading Roman built luxurious villas around the Bay of Naples. In the 1st century AD,
members of the Imperial family established residences there and on the Isle of Capri. Some
Roman aristocrats made their homes in Herculaneum rather than Pompeii.

The Romans carried out renovation and construction within the Smanite boundaries of
Pompeii and Herculaneum. This included the re-organisation and renovation of roads and
paths, public baths and civic centers and the buildings of distinctly Roman structures such as
basilicas, theatres, amphitheatres and arches. Roman law and government were maintained
through local council and public officials.

In AD62 an earthquake occured in Campania. Believed to have caused considerable damage

to both Pompeii and Herculaneum, evidence for this event comes from references in a letter
written by the Roman moralist and philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and archaeological
evidence of extensive repairs undertaken over a number of years. However, another theory
put forward by modern archaeologists/ historians is that while there is sufficient evidence to
explain repairs to the city of Pompeii after the undisputed earthquake of 62AD, some believe
that the extent of the ‘remodelling’ may also be due to other factors such as occupation
changes.

Extension Reading​ on the historical context of Pompeii and Herculaneum: pp2-8 of the
text “ pompeii and Herculaneum: Interpreting the Evidence by Brian Brennan and Estelle
Lazer.
HSC EXAMINABLE CONTENT

Part 1: Survey

Syllabus dot points:

● The geographical setting and natural features of Campania
● The eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and
Herculaneum
● Early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the
19th and 20th centuries
● Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time
 The Geographical setting and natural features of Campania

The Physical Environment

Pompeii and Herculaneum are both located in Campania, a fertile region (particularly rich in
phosphorus and potash owing to its volcanic soil) about 200km south of Rome.

The Campania landscape was

(and is) dominated by the volcano
Mt Vesuvius which is part of a
chain of volcanoes in the area
which includes Mt Etna and Mt
Stromboli. As a result,
earthquakes and tremors were
common in the area, and the
Romans even built hot spa health
resorts at Baia utilising the
Phlegraean fields (burning fields)
where geothermal activity
produced steam and bubbling
mud.

The climate was temperate with cooling coastal breezes in summer and short winters.The
mild climate and natural beauty of the environment attracted wealthy Romans to build
holiday homes in the area.

In ancient times, both Pompeii and Herculaneum were on the coast of the Bay of Naples. The
River Sarnus, which flowed into the Bay of Naples, provided safe anchorage for boats and a
Roman fleet was stationed at Misenum. The river Sarnus was also a main waterway used for
the transportation of goods. Its closeness to the sea made it easy to defend thus providing
economic growth and stability for the cities.

Founded on a small plateau of an ancient lava flow approximately 30 m high, Pompeii was
situated to the south of Mt Vesuvius. Herculaneum was built on a natural terrace 20m above
a beachfront approximately 7km from the base of Mt Vesuvius (east) and was near the Via
Antiniana (the main road connecting the major cities and the Bay of Naples). Houses were
built on terraces and vaulted passages led from the cardines (NS) to the waterfront.

Natural Features and Resources

In ancient times, extensive woodland covered large areas and crops such as barley, wheat
and a range of vegetables and fruits (eg chickpeas, cabbage, figs and olives) were grown on
the plain and slopes of Mt Vesuvius. The cultivation of vineyards and the production of wine
were important features of the local economy. Sheep and goats were raised for their meat,
milk, skins and wool. Local clay was also used to make pottery containers. Apart from
agriculture fishing was a major industry, particularly in Herculaneum, and the production of
fermented fish sauce garum​, w​ as a Pompeian speciality. The sea was also exploited for salt
used in preserving fish. The saltworks of Herakles, near the coast, was used by the people of
Pompeii to collect salt from the shallow ponds of seawater left to evaporate.

Activities
Read the source extracts below (which can also be found in your Antiquity textbook chapter
extract) and answer the questions that follow.

Questions
1. Using the notes and discussion, summarise the main geographical features of the
Campaigna area.
2. List the natural features of the area according to Pliny the Elder’s description in
Source 4.

3. Examine the fresco in Source 6.

a) Briefly describe what is depicted in the fresco.
b) Who do you believe the figure to be and explain how you know this.
c) What does this tell you about the possible occupation of the owner of the
house and the significance of this industry to the town? Explain.
d) What does this fresco tell you about Vesuvius pre 79AD?

4. a) According to Martial’s description, why was Mt Vesuvius important to the

people of Pompeii?
b) Explain how the fresco in source 6 supports Martial’s description.

5. Read the extract by Strabo below:

a) List the geographical and social information Strabo provides about the region of
Campania.
b) What impression does this give you about:
i) the relationship between Pompeii and its surrounds
ii) the importance of this city to Rome
c) How reliable do you consider this information to be? Explain.
The eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum

There is both archaeological (eg human remains, archaeological remains of the towns) and
written evidence (eg references by Suetonius, Dio Cassius, Martial) which provides
information on the volcanic eruption of Vesuvius in AD79. Our main source of evidence
comes from two letters written by Pliny the Younger for Tacitus. Based on the information in
these letters and modern scientific experimentation, the eruption of Vesuvius is divided into
two main phases:

Phase One: The Plinian Phase

Pumice and ashe are expelled from the crater to form a high eruption column stretching
approximately 20-30km above the volcano. The column is filled with super heated gases, ash
and pumice which produced a fallout with colour change; white in the lower section and grey
in the upper section.

Lapilli were blown in a SE direction toward Pompeii ata rate of 12-15cm an hour. By the end
of the first phase Pompeii was covered by 2.5-2.8m of ash and pumice. Haraldur Sigurdsson
(20th century volcanologist) believes that while there were few fatalities during this phase,
escape was difficult due to the amount of pumice and ash fall on the city. However, most
people were encouraged to escape before the second phase which was more lethal.
Phase Two: The Pelean Phase
This was marked by a ​nuee ardente​ (a series of hot gas and avalanches). The gases from
deep inside the volcano which mixed with ash and other debris to make the eruption column
of the first phase now cool and collapse on itself. This results in the old volcanic cone
imploding which produces a series of gases and surges. This was the most lethal part of the
eruption.

This second phase was marked by two different types of ash and pumice deposits:

1. Pyroclastic Surge​: this was a hot, moving cloud of ash and toxic gas that was
blasted vertically into the sky and eventually collapsed to the ground moving at
approximately 100km per hour.

2. Pyroclastic Flow​: this consisted of a hot, glowing avalanche of pumice, ash and
gases that poured down the sides of the volcano seconds after the surges. It also
moves at high speeds but follows depressions in the landscape.
Pompeii​ only experienced the pyroclastic surges unlike ​Herculaneum w
​ hich had ​both
pyroclastic surges and flows.

There were ​six​ surges in total which can be summarised as follows:

● S1​-nuee ardente serge that hit Herculaneum, not Pompeii
● S2 & S3​ - surges reach Herculaneum but not Pompeii
● S4​ - the lethal surge that hits Pompeii which is immediately followed by S4 and S5
● S6​ - covers the bodies in both Pompeii and Herculaneum

The first surge to reach Pompeii (S3) only reached as far north as the north wall of the town
in the early hours of the second morning. As a result, the poor air quality would have made
breathing extremely difficult and most people probably died from asphyxiation. This was
then followed by a deposit (A6) of pumice on the streets, roofs and gardens of the town. By
this stage, ground floors of buildings were already covered, leaving upper floors exposed.

The next surge (S4) overwhelmed Pompeii and killed any residents left alive. Surge 6 was the
most destructive, toppling walls of most buildings that were still exposed and burying the
bodies of the victims killed by Surge 4.

Questions
1. Define pyroclastic surge and pyroclastic flow.
2. Source Work​: Refer to Source 4.4 to answer the following questions:

1. Which surge killed the people who

were still in Herculaneum?
2. Compare the surge deposits.
Which leaves a greater trace in the
stratigraphic record? Explain why
this is so.
3. Consider the geographical
positions of Pompeii and
Herculaneum in relation to Mt
Vesuvius. Explain why:
a) Pompeii experienced
pyroclastic surges and not
pyroclastic flows.
b) Herculaneum experienced
both surges and flows.
4. Read p12 of your textbook on the dates
for the eruption. Summarise the argument
as to why the eruption dates are being
contested by archaeologists today. Do you
think these arguments are reliable?
Explain why/ why not.
Source Work: the letters of Pliny the Younger describing the eruption
Read the two letters by Pliny the Younger that follow, answer the questions and complete the
worksheet as directed.

Plinny Letter 6.16

My dear Tacitus,

You ask me to write you something about the death of my uncle so that the account you transmit to
posterity is as reliable as possible. I am grateful to you, for I see that his death will be remembered
forever if you treat it [sc. in your Histories]. He perished in a devastation of the loveliest of lands, in a
memorable disaster shared by peoples and cities, but this will be a kind of eternal life for him.
Although he wrote a great number of enduring works himself, the imperishable nature of your
writings will add a great deal to his survival. Happy are they, in my opinion, to whom it is given
either to do something worth writing about, or to write something worth reading; most happy, of
course, those who do both. With his own books and yours, my uncle will be counted among the latter.
It is therefore with great pleasure that I take up, or rather take upon myself the task you have set me.

He was at Misenum in his capacity as commander of the fleet on the 24th of August [sc. in 79 AD],
when between 2 and 3 in the afternoon my mother drew his attention to a cloud of unusual size and
appearance. He had had a sunbath, then a cold bath, and was reclining after dinner with his books.
He called for his shoes and climbed up to where he could get the best view of the phenomenon. The
cloud was rising from a mountain-at such a distance we couldn’t tell which, but afterwards learned
that it was Vesuvius. I can best describe its shape by likening it to a pine tree. It rose into the sky on a
very long “trunk” from which spread some “branches. I imagine it had been raised by a sudden blast,
which then weakened, leaving the cloud unsupported so that its own weight caused it to spread
sideways. Some of the cloud was white, in other parts there were dark patches of dirt and ash. The
sight of it made the scientist in my uncle determined to see it from closer at hand.

He ordered a boat made ready. He offered me the opportunity of going along, but I preferred to
study-he himself happened to have set me a writing exercise. As he was leaving the house he was
brought a letter from Tascius; wife Rectina, who was terrified by the looming danger. Her villa lay at
the foot of Vesuvius, and there was no way out except by boat. She begged him to get her away. He
changed his plans. The expedition that started out as a quest for knowledge now called for courage.
He launched the quadriremes and embarked himself, a source of aid for more people than just
Rectina, for that delightful shore was a populous one. He hurried to a place from which others were
fleeing, and held his course directly into danger. Was he afraid? It seems not, as he kept up a
continuous observation of the various movements and shapes of that evil cloud, dictating what he saw.

Ash was falling onto the ships now, darker and denser the closer they went. Now it was bits of pumice,
and rocks that were blackened and burned and shattered by the fire. Now the sea is shoal; debris from
the mountain blocks the shore. He paused for a moment wondering whether to turn back as the
helmsman urged him “Fortune helps the brave”, he said, “Head for Pomponianus”.
At Stabiae, on the other side of the bay formed by the gradually curving shore, Pomponianus had
loaded up his ships even before the danger arrived, though it was visible and indeed extremely close,
once it intensified. He planned to put out as soon as the contrary wind let up. That very wind carried
my uncle right in, and he embraced the frightened man and gave him comfort and courage. In order
to lessen the others fear by showing his own unconcern he asked to be taken to the baths. He bathed
and dined, carefree or at least appearing so (which is equally impressive). Meanwhile, broad sheets
of flame were lighting up many parts of Vesuvius; their light and brightness were the more vivid for
the darkness of the night. To alleviate people’s fears my uncle claimed that the flames came from the
deserted homes of farmers who had left in a panic with the hearth fires still alight. Then he rested,
and gave every indication of actually sleeping; people who passed by his door heard his snores,
which were rather resonant since he was a heavy man. The ground outside his room rose so high with
the mixture of ash and stones that if he had spent any more time there escape would have been
impossible. He got up and came out, restoring himself to Pomponianus and the others who had been
unable to sleep. They discussed what to do, whether to remain under cover or to try the open air. The
buildings were being rocked by a series of strong tremors, and appeared to have come loose from
their foundations and to be sliding this way and that. Outside, however, there was danger from the
rocks that were coming down, light and fire-consumed as these bits of
pumice were. Weighing the relative dangers they chose the outdoors; in my uncle’s case it was a
rational decision, others just chose the alternative that frightened them the least.

They tied pillows on top of their heads as protection against the shower of rock. It was daylight now
elsewhere in the world, but there the darkness was darker and thicker than any night. But they had
torches and other lights. They decided to go down to the shore, to see from close up if anything was
possible by sea. But it remained as rough and uncooperative as before. Resting in the shade of a sail
he drank once or twice from the cold water he had asked for. Then came a smell of sulfur, announcing
the flames, and the flames themselves, sending others into flight but reviving him. Supported by two
small slaves he stood up, and immediately collapsed. As I understand it, his
breathing was obstructed by the dust-laden air, and his innards, which were never strong and often
blocked or upset, simply shut down. When daylight came again 2 days after he died, his body was
found untouched, unharmed, in the clothing that he had on. He looked more asleep than dead.

Meanwhile at Misenum, my mother and I-but this has nothing to do with history, and you only asked
for information about his death. I’ll stop here then. But I will say one more thing, namely, that I have
written out everything that I did at the time and heard while memories were still fresh. You will use
the important bits, for it is one thing to write a letter, another to write history, one thing to write to a
friend, another to write for the public. Farewell.

Letter #2: Pliny Letter 6.20

My dear Tacitus,

You say that the letter I wrote for you about my uncle’s death made you want to know about my
fearful ordeal at Misenum (this was where I broke off). “The mind shudders to remember ... but here
is the tale.”
After my uncle’s departure I finished up my studies, as I had planned. Then I had a bath, then dinner
and a short and unsatisfactory night. There had been tremors for many days previously, a common
occurrence in Campania and no cause for panic. But that night the shaking grew much stronger;
people thought it was an upheaval, not just a tremor. My mother burst into my room and I got up. I
said she should rest, and I would rouse her (sc. if need be). We sat out on a small terrace between the
house and the sea. I sent for a volume of Livy; I read and even took notes from where I had left off, as
if it were a moment of free time; I hardly know whether to call it bravery, or foolhardiness (I was
seventeen at the time). Up comes a friend of my uncle’s, recently arrived from Spain. When he sees my
mother and me sitting there, and me even reading a book, he scolds her for her calm and me for my
lack of concern. But I kept on with my book.

Now the day begins, with a still hesitant and almost lazy dawn. All around us buildings are shaken.
We are in the open, but it is only a small area and we are afraid, nay certain, that there will be a
collapse. We decided to leave the town finally; a dazed crowd follows us, preferring our plan to their
own (this is what passes for wisdom in a panic). Their numbers are so large that they slow our
departure, and then sweep us along. We stopped once we had left the buildings behind us. Many
strange things happened to us there, and we had much to fear.

The carts that we had ordered brought were moving in opposite directions, though the ground was 
perfectly flat, and they wouldn't stay in place even with their wheels blocked by stones. In addition, it 
seemed as though the sea was being sucked backwards, as if it were being pushed back by the shaking 
of the land. Certainly the shoreline moved outwards, and many sea creatures were left on dry sand. 
Behind us were frightening dark clouds, rent by lightning twisted and hurled, opening to reveal huge 
figures of flame. These were like lightning, but bigger. At that point the Spanish friend urged us 
strongly: "If your  brother and uncle is alive, he wants you to be safe. If he has perished, he wanted 
you to survive him. So why are you reluctant to escape?" We responded that we would not look to our 
own safety as long as we were uncertain about his.  
 
Waiting no longer, he took himself off from the danger at a mad pace. It wasn't long thereafter that 
the cloud stretched down to the ground and covered the sea. It girdled Capri and made it vanish, it 
hid Misenum's promontory. Then my mother began to beg and urge and order me to flee however I 
might, saying that a young man could make it, that she, weighed down in years and body, would die 
happy if she escaped being the cause of my death. I replied that I wouldn't save myself without her, 
and then I took her hand and made her walk a little faster. She obeyed with difficulty, and blamed 
herself for delaying me. 
 
Now came the dust, though still thinly. I look back: a dense cloud looms behind us, following us like a 
flood poured across the land. "Let us turn aside while we can still see, lest we be knocked over in the 
street and crushed by the crowd of our companions." We had scarcely sat down when a darkness 
came that was not like a moonless or cloudy night, but more like the black of closed and unlighted 
rooms. You could hear women lamenting, children crying, men shouting. Some were calling for 
parents, others for children or spouses; they could only recognize them by their voices. Some 
bemoaned their own lot, other that of their near and dear. There were some so afraid of death that 
they prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the gods, and even more believed that there were no 
gods any longer and that this was one last unending night for the world. Nor were we without people 
who magnified real dangers with fictitious horrors. Some announced that one or another part of 
Misenum had collapsed or burned; lies, but they found believers. It grew lighter, though that seemed 
not a return of day, but a sign that the fire was approaching. The fire itself actually stopped some 
distance away, but darkness and ashes came again, a great weight of them. We stood up and shook 
the ash off again and again, otherwise we would have been covered with it and crushed by the weight. 
I might boast that no groan escaped me in such perils, no cowardly word, but that I believed that I 
was perishing with the world, and the world with me, which was a great consolation for death. 

At last the cloud thinned out and dwindled to no more than smoke or fog. Soon there was real 
daylight. The sun was even shining, though with the lurid glow it has after an eclipse. The sight that 
met our still terrified eyes was a changed world, buried in ash like snow. We returned to Misenum and 
took care of our bodily needs, but spent the night dangling between hope and fear. Fear was the 
stronger, for the earth was still quaking and a number of people who had gone mad were mocking the 
evils that had happened to them and others with terrifying prognostications. We still refused to go 
until we heard news of my uncle, although we had felt danger and expected more. 

You will read what I have written, but will not take up your pen, as the material is not the stuff of 
history. You have only yourself to blame if it seems not even proper stuff for a letter. Farewell.  

​ ranslated by Professor Cynthia Damon of Amherst College 

 T

 
Questions
Letter #1
1. List 4 things that the letter tells us about the eruption and its effect on the towns.
Explain how useful this information is to an historian and why.
2. What does Pliny the Younger say was his purpose in writing this account. How might
this affect its reliability? Explain why.

Letter #2
1. List 3 pieces of information that we learn about the eruption from this source.
2. How reliable is Pliny’s information here about the effect of the eruption?
3. What does the source reveal about Pliny’s attitude to other people in Misenum?
4. Why do you think that Pliny says the historian Tacitus would not find the material
worthwhile?
Activity: Reliability of Pliny’s Letter…

Assess the degree to which we can hold this source as reliable evidence.

Points For Points Against

Final Recommendation
 Impact of the Eruption on Pompeii and Herculaneum

The eruption changed the geography of the region around Vesuvius. Pompeii was covered by
4 meters of volcanic material, mainly hardened ash and pumice, while Herculaneum lay
beneath 25 meters of debris which cooled into a solid mass of
volcanic material.

The Sarnus River was turned from its course, the coastline was
extended into the Bay of Naples by about 500 meters and raised
by about 25 meters, making it difficult to locate the site of
Herculaneum.

The number of casualties if not known. Some scholars estimate

about 90% of Pompeii’s population (estimated to be
approximately between 10,000 -20,000) may have escaped in the
initial beginnings of the eruption. Those who remained (including
some animals) were crushed under falling debris, killed by hot
ashes or died of thermal shock. At Herculaneum, few human
remains have been found within the excavations and scholars
assumed most had escaped. However, later excavations in the
1990s discovered almost 300 skeletons in vaulted brick chambers
along the shoreline.
 Early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations
in the 19th and 20th centuries

The first excavations at Pompeii-

The first indications of buried ruins on the site of Pompeii were noted in the 16​th​ century
when Dominico Fontana, who was building an aqueduct, tunnelled into material and
unearthed ruins. An inscription found in the area confirmed that the site was from ancient
Pompeii and in 1748 King Charles of Naples turned his attention to excavation there. Interest
in Pompeii grew and popularisation of Pompeii was assisted by the publication of a series of
books of engravings and beautifully coloured drawings.

19​th​ century excavations-

Between 1806 and 1832, the great public buildings that stood around the ancient forum of
Pompeii had been excavated and a number of private houses.

By the 1830s, the forum of Pompeii had been uncovered and it was possible to visit the
theatre, the gladiator’s barracks, many houses and the amphitheatre. Work often proceeded
quickly because the ash and pumice was easily removed but the work was mostly done
unsystematically with little attention given to recording the exact find sites of objects. Work
moved from spot to spot all over the large site. Sometimes large numbers of workers were
employed at one time and immense damage was done. Collapsed two-storey buildings were
dug into and much of the information that might have come from a careful study of layers of
material was lost. The movement of huge quantities of ash and earth also med to much
confusion. The interest of the excavators was mainly in the appearance of the city as it was at
the time of its destruction in AD 79.

By 1860, one third of the 66 hectare (approximately 160 acres) site had been uncovered.
Earlier levels of occupation in the city did not really interest the excavators. Skeletons
discovered in the ruins were seen only as illustrations of the story of destruction. Visitors of
the town were only interested in the destruction and not interested in the long and varied
history of the settlement from earliest times.

It was only in the second half of the 19​th​ century that a more careful and systematic approach
to excavation was adopted under Giuseppe Fiorelli, superintendent from 1863. Up until then,
digging had been done here and there as interest was drawn to particular finds. Now, under
Fiorelli’s direction the whole site was carefully mapped, being arranged into nine regions and
then town blocks. Each building was numbered by region and block. Carefully, street by
street and block by block, each structure was investigated and all finds carefully plotted.
Fiorelli had a workforce of up to 700 men at times. Fiorelli was the most influential of the
archaeologist who worked on the site in the 19​th​ century.

Pompeii remained the most visited site during the late 19​th​ and early 20​th​ centuries. By
contrast, Herculaneum, which was not as extensively excavated, did not figure so
prominently on the itinerary of travellers.
At Pompeii in the early 20​th​ century, ​Vittorio Spinazzola​, who was
superintendent 1911-24, abandoned Fiorelli’s method of working on
complete blocks and concentrated instead of the reconstruction of
streetscapes and buildings. He was particularly interested in
reconstructing the upper storeys of buildings based on the indications in
the debris from the fallen buildings.

The appointment of ​Amedeo Maiuri​ as superintendent from September 1924 saw the
beginning of a grand period of excavation lasting thirty-seven years, during which time he
directed major work that uncovered significant structures such as the amphitheatre and
sports area. His most productive period was the 1920s to the outbreak of WWII. Excavation
ceased during the war, and Pompeii suffered serious
damage from the 160 bombs dropped by the allies in
1943. Digging was resumed in 1947. He was interested
in the earlier history of Pompeii and initiated
excavations aimed at obtaining a better understanding
of the pre-Roman and early Roman development of the
town. It was he who moved archaeological inquiry away
from an over-concentration on the destruction of AD 79
and the great houses of the wealthy.

Criticisms of Maiuri’s work:

Much of his excavation in Pompeii (1951-61) was rushed with few of the excavated buildings
restored or protected, and in the same period there was virtually no documentation, let alone
publication. It is easy in hindsight to criticise some of Maiuri’s methodology and
interpretations, but it should take nothing away from his tremendous contribution to our
understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The first excavations at Herculaneum

After the eruption of AD 79, the cities of Vesuvius lay buried for over a thousand years.
People living in Resina, a village that had grown up on the site of Herculaneum, sometimes
uncovered artefacts and caught glimpses of buried ruins. In 1709, some workers constructing
a well in the town of Resina discovered pieces of marble that they presented to an Austrian
King who ruled the area, he decided to sponsor the first excavations.

Over a period of 5 years the King’s men tunnelled into what had been the theatre of
Herculaneum and removed statues and marble columns and facings. These excavations were
little more than a treasure hunt and finds were quickly scattered as the King gave statues to
members of royal families in northern Europe. Objects recovered from the site were valued
only by antiquarians (collectors of ancient things) because they were old and beautiful. The
aim of the excavation was to search for spectacular individual finds rather than to
systematically work through all parts of a site. There was no real interest in the context of
where these objects were found or what they might reveal about ancient life. Much
destruction was caused by workers tunnelling through the hard volcanic material. Their
interest was only bringing out works that would be worth a great deal because of their
perceived artistic merit. Early workers faced great dangers from the collapse of shafts and
tunnels as they worked, or from pockets of poisonous gases trapped underground. Because of
this, work was suspended for many years.

19​th​ century excavations-

Scientific excavation of Herculaneum only really began in 1865 when Giuseppe Fiorelli
started his work on the site The funds were provided personally by Victor-Emmanuel, King
of Italy. During Fiorelli’s time, two town blocks were uncovered and a narrow strip of
buildings. The difficulty of cutting into the hardened volcanic deposits and the problems
caused by the modern houses and apartments that crowded in on the site or overlay it always
meant that progress was slow and the excavations were suspended in 1877. The ash and
pumice could be removed more easily at Pompeii, which was considered to be the premier
site in the 19​th​ century. Herculaneum was little visited as there was nothing spectacular to see
and interest in the site declined. In 1903 Charles Waldstein, Reader in Classical Archaeology
at Cambridge University, tried to launch an international organisation to fund excavations at
Herculaneum. He gained the backing of King Edward VII of Britain, but Italian sensitivity to
what was seen as foreign interference caused the plans to be abandoned.

20​th​ century excavations-

Work resumed at Herculaneum in 1927 as Italy under Mussolini became more interested in
its glorious ancient past and there were increased government funds for excavation. With
modern machinery, such as drills and earthmoving equipment, and excavation like an
open-cut mine was made and progress was many times swifter. Between 1927 and 1929 a
whole town block was excavated and many houses were exposed. In 1931-24 the Central
Baths on Herculaneum’s main street, were revealed along with more houses. During the
years 1933 to 1938, the sports area was excavated which added another piece to the plan of
the city. Likewise, the area towards the ancient waterfront with its terraced sacred area and
the impressive suburban baths were revealed. These early 20​th​ century excavations were
extremely difficult, given the hard volcanic material that encased everything. The success of
the dig is a testimony to the persistence of the excavators who were faced with huge
quantities of material to shift. The Second World War brought a halt to work. Little
happened in the post-war years because attention was focused on Pompeii.

New excavations in the early 1980s, under the direction of Giuseppe Maggi, reached the area
that had been the ancient beachfront. There was enormous international interest when three
human skeletons were found on the beach. Previously it had been thought that the very small
number of skeletons found on site at Herculaneum indicated that almost all the inhabitants
had managed to flee. Now this theory was proved to be wrong. With new interest and more
tourists, more funds for excavation became available.
An overview of the 19​th​ and 20​th-century ​excavations at Pompeii and
Herculaneum

Questions
Answer the following questions based on the text above and your textbook (if necessary)
1. Outline when and how Pompeii was discovered.
2. Explain the significance of the work done by Maiuri.
i) How did this differ to previous work done at Herculaneum?
ii) Explain why some people criticise the Maiuri’s work and whether you feel it’s
justified and why/ why not.
3. Outline when and how Herculaneum was originally discovered.
4. What was a major archaeology breakthrough in the excavation of Herculaneum
which increased people’s interest in the town?
5. Complete the archaeologist research summary sheet on your classroom.
 Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time

Pompeii and Herculaneum have been represented in art and literature, both factual and
fictional, since excavations began in the 18th century. The House of the Painted Capitals was
one of the main attractions and it was featured in many paintings by Romantic artists.
Mazois ​The Ruins of Pompeii (1824-1838) r​ ecorded in a watercolour the practice of
deliberately posing skeletons in staged tableaux for visiting tourists. It also inspired
neo-classical painting, architecture, interior decoration and furniture design.

Excavations of the cities coincided and helped to inspire the neo-classical movement of the
19th century which concentrated on the study and interpretation of ancient Greek and
Roman art. Artists used Pompeii as a setting to represent the decadence of Roman life. Even
20th century representations have been sensationalised, mainly through film adaptations of
Edward Bulwer-Lyton’s book.

20th century Romanticism

Once the Napoleonic Wars were over, increasing numbers of wealthy
British and Americans visited Pompeii and Herculaneum as part of
their “grand tour” of Europe. Pompeii’s fate was featured in the works
of musicians and writers. Charles Dickens and Mark Twain were two
writers who published their impressions, but it was the British novelist
Edward Bulwer-Lyton who wrote the most popular work of fiction in
1834. Bulwer-Lyton’s ​The Last days of Pompeii h ​ ad a dramatic plot and
romantic theme set against the eruption of Vesuvius and the
destruction of Pompeii. The British poet Shelly also recollected his visit
to Pompeii in his ​Ode to Naples​ and in 1827, the Italian composer
Giovani Pucini wrote the opera ​The Last days of Pompeii.

Film
In the late 19th century, popular interest in Pompeii and Herculaneum reached its height
then slowed in the 20th century - except for film. From 1913 - 1980s, at least 8 film versions
were made of Bulwer-Lyton’s ​The Last Days of Pompeii. ​A renewed interest in ancient
history and the conservation of world heritage sites such as Pompeii and Herculaneum in the
21st century has led to more modern day film adaptations and documentaries of
Bulwer-Lyton’s novel such as the 2003 BBC Documentary ​“Pompeii: the Last Days”​ and the
2014 Hollywood film ​“Pompeii”.​ Modern documentaries take a serious approach to
archaeology and the interpretation of sites, often using computer graphics to create virtual
representations of the site and the latest scientific developments in analysing the evidence.

Questions
1. Read chapter 4 of Bradley’s textbook and create a dot point summary of the different
interpretations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time.
2. Complete the 2 Activity questions on p49.
PART 2: FOCUS OF STUDY

INVESTIGATING
AND INTERPRETING
THE SOURCES FOR POMPEII AND
HERCULANEUM
 Plans and Streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum
The main cross roads of a roman town are the ​decumanus​ (decuman plural) and the cardo
(cardines plural). The street plans of both Pompeii and Herculaneum reveal a grid pattern.
At the time of the eruption, Pompeii covered 160 hectares with an approximate population of
15,000-20,000. There were large fortification walls that surrounded the city with eleven
watchtowers and 8 gates leading into and out of the city.

Pompeii Site Layout

The town plan of Pompeii reveals an organised townscape. The main streets inside the town
were a continuation of the main roads connecting Pompeii with Rome and other surrounding
towns. The Cardo Maximus ran south from Herculaneum, continued through Via Stabia and
out to Stabiae in the south. The Decumanus Superior joined the Via Nola in Pompeii and
continued to Nola in the south. The main streets also led to the ​Forum.

The urban structure of the city is called `ippodamea’. The city is subdivided into regular lots
formed by two decumani (EW streets) the Via Noloana and Via dell’Abbondanza; crossing at
right angles with three cardines (NS streets) the Via Mercurio/ Via delle Scuole, Via
Stabiana, Via Nocera. The lots were in turn subdivided by smaller streets into blocks
rectangular in shape (ie Fiorelli’s system).

Public buildings stood essentially in the area of the Civil Forum, the Quarter of theatres and
the Amphitheater. The city design appears to show no differentiation among the elite,
common and commercial zones. Commercialareas tended to gather in the busiest streets or
those close to the public buildings. Common houses stood principally in the quarters close to
the Palestra.

From the 2​nd​ century BC, the streets were paved with irregular blocks of lavie basalt (ie
volcanic stone). The road was raised slightly in the middle so that the water could run off to
the edges. Curbs were boarded by blocks in tufa rock, limestone or basalt, often perforated
to tie up the curtains of workshops. Narrow footpaths; made of cocciopesto (mix of
earth-resin or fatty lime), lavapesto (lava and resin or fatty lime) or river cobblestones (used
rarely), were laid above road level on either side. The fronts of buildings adjoined the
footpaths. Stepping stones (large round or oval blocks) in basalt were inserted in the street
surface to allow pedestrians to cross without getting their feet dirty.

Questions

Answer the following based on the notes and your street plan of Pompeii

1. Name the main streets in Pompeii.

2. From which town gates do these main streets lead?
3. Which streets lead directly to the Forum?
4. Explain the significance of the location of the Forum in relation to the town gates.

Herculaneum Site Layout

Located by the sea and smaller in size than Pompeii, Herculaneum was a small walled town
built on a hill. The city had two inlets (narrow bays); a larger one to the NE and a smaller to
the SW. Herculaneum was about 320m wide in the
EN direction and a bit more in the NS direction.
The area enclosed by the city walls was of about 20
hectares (of which only 4.5 hectares have been
excavated). At the time of the eruption there was a
population of approximately 4,000 inhabitants.

The city had a gridlike urban plan, articulated in at

least three streets (decumans) in a NW to SE
direction; intersected by 5 cardines perpendicular
to both the decumans and the coast line. The city
was in blocks subdivided into equal rectangular
lots (based on the Oscan one foot measurement)
with straight and regular streets, paved and well
drained. The lower decuman did not have any
direct exit to the outside of the city.

The main street, the Decaumanus Maximus, is

wide with well-constructed footpaths on both
sides, sheltered by overhanging roofs. The blocks
of houses reveal a social mix, ranging from large,
elegant houses to small workshop residences
housing artisans such as bakers and fullers. The public facilities are grand and elegant
buildings. Two baths, a theatre and a public exercise ground hint at others which may still
remain underground.

Questions

1. Examine the plans of Pompeii and Herculaneum:

a) What are the similarities in town planning of both cities?
b) What are the differences in town planning between the two cities?
2. Why is it not possible to make complete comparisons between the two cities?
3. Compare the buildings found in both towns. What do you think might yet be found in
Herculaneum that exists in Pompeii?
4. What aspects of life for the people in Herculaneum might these buildings reveal?
Explain how this would be beneficial to historians.

Fiorelli and Streetscapes

By 1863, Giuseppe Fiorelli had been appointed by the new King, Victor Emmanuel II, as
superintendent of Pompeii and was tasked to take charge of the excavations at the site. ​Up
until then, digging had been done here and there as interest was drawn to particular
finds. Buildings were generally classified based on the name of the ancient owner,
finds suggesting the profession of the last owner, some notable feature found in the
house, a striking object (eg sculpture) or a famous visitor.

Fiorelli introduced a more scientific approach to the excavations by firstly clearing away the
mounds of waste which were littered around the site of Pompeii, and then built roofs over
the sites that had been excavated in order to protect them from the sun and rain. He then
approached the excavations at Pompeii systemically by introducing a new type of mapping
system called the ​nomenclature​ system.

Under Fiorelli’s direction the whole site was carefully mapped and divided into nine regions
and then up to twenty two town blocks, or ​insulae​. Each building was numbered by region
and block. Each building could be identified by three numbers - the region, the block and
individual entrance number. For example: The House of the Faun = VII. 12.2; V (region), 12
(insulae/ city block) 2 (individual entrance number. Carefully, street by street and block by
block, each structure was investigated and all finds carefully plotted. This system was also
applied to excavations at Herculaneum.

Question
Discuss Fiorelli’s nomenclature system and the benefits it has for archaeologists studying the
sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
 Investigating and Interpreting the Sources for
Pompeii and Herculaneum

The Nature and Range of Sources

There are three broad categories of primary sources that throw light on the fate of the cities
of Vesuvius, as well as on their architecture, social structure, politics, commerce, religion,
and aspects of everyday life. However, while there is an abundance of archaeological and
epigraphic material, the literary sources, apart from Pliny the Younger, are relatively few and
fragmented. As Andrew Wallace-Hadrill says, ‘It is premature to say that we understand
Pompeii. It is at once the most studied and least understood of sites.’ 1

The ‘Pompeii paradox’ is that we simultaneously know a huge amount and very little about
ancient life there. It is true that the city offers us more vivid glimpses of real people and
their real lives than almost anywhere else in the Roman world ... but the bigger picture and
many of the more basic questions about the town remain very murky indeed.
​Source 5.2 Mary Beard, The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found , pp. 15 & 16

As an archaeologist, I am aware that ... we have only a narrow insight to any scene of the
past. Even if Pompeii provides a unique snapshot of a Roman colonial town, we are
missing most of the factors necessary to create an overall picture.
Source 5.3 Dorothea Castell, Funerary Inscriptions in Pompeii , p. 10

Questions
1. Summarise, in your own words, the views of Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Mary Beard
and Dorothea Castell (in the sources above) about the material remains at Pompeii,
in no more than a paragraph.
2. Define epigraphy.

Limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources

Despite the extraordinary range of archaeological sources that has come to light at both
Pompeii and Herculaneum, there are some significant ‘gaps’ in the evidence. There is a lack
of written sources from the people themselves about their everyday life, thoughts and
outlook on life. Graffiti inscriptions, written on the walls of buildings in both cities, provide
glimpses of personal thoughts, but their reliability is difficult to access. The lack of
excavations at Herculaneum also limits the amount of evidence available for a study of
everyday life.

The sites are also open to changing interpretations over time. With the introduction of new
technologies and methodologies and the discovery of new evidence, interpretations must
change. Historians and archaeologists may also unwittingly by viewing the evidence through
‘modern eyes’.

To make effective judgements historians must also decide how useful sources are for the
topics they are studying. An example of what questions should be asked is shown in the
following diagrams:
 Questions to ask of written sources

Questions to ask of archaeological sources

Question:​ explain why material remains are more valuable in understanding Pompeii and
Herculaneum than literary sources
 The Economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum

The economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum were influenced by their geographical position
by the sea and on the fertile volcanic soils of Vesuvius. They were based on agriculture and
fishing. Evidence from the buildings, frescoes and graffiti, inscriptions and artefacts tell us
that within the towns, many trades were practiced, there were many different types of shops
and workshops, and many different occupations were followed. However, compared to Rome
and neighbouring cities such as Puteoli, the economies of both Pompeii and Herculaneum
were small and depended on local agricultural produce and the fishing industry. Evidence for
this can be seen with the numerous working farms such as the Villa Rustica in Boscorale,
near Pompeii. These villas and market gardens, within the walls of Pompeii, provided wine,
olive oil, cereals, fruit, vegetables, meat and wool needed to supply both the retail and
industrial workforce. Evidence for the fishing fleets (for both cities) can be found in the large
volume of nets, hooks and other related materials found. Crustaceans (eg shellfish), molluscs
(eg clams) and fish were an industry within themselves and supplied the raw materials for
pompeii’s famous fish sauce ​garum.​

From the archaeological and written evidence it appears that Pompeii, unlike Herculaneum,
was a busy commercial center. Pompeii appears to have had over 600 shops where residents
could purchase produce, meat, bread, wine, and housewares. Artisans also operated private
shops where people could purchase goods ranging from masonry and carpentry to pottery
and metalwork. Marketswere held in open spaces across the city such as the Forum square.
In the Forum of Pompeii, a limestone measuring table (​mensa ponderaria)​ was located
near the markets. The weights were organised based on the Roman standard measures and
the contents could be poured through these cavities and collected in containers below.
Herculaneum also had an official set of weights.

Questions
Refer to pp 55-56 of the Brennan and Laser textbook for the following:
1. How many measuring tables did Pompeii have and what does this tell you about its
economy and industries?
2. Explain how the weights and measures were used in the marketplace.
3. What information does the inscription (on the weights) give you about the purpose of
the weights and their importance in both economic and political life?
4. What evidence do we have that suggests trade in Herculaneum?
5. What was ​Fortunate Campania ​and how does it relate to the economy of the towns?
 Commerce in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Agriculture, small-scale manufacturing and the widespread use of slavery were the
distinctive features of Pompeii’s economy. While these catered mainly for a local market,
there is evidence of trade with other places. Evidence for commerce and people’s occupations
in Pompeii and Herculaneum comes from the archaeological remains of houses, workshops,
shops, art works and road surfaces. While most of the people of Pompeii worked in small
workshops or businesses at home, from the archaeological evidence recovered, it is difficult
to establish the extent of household or domestic production or whether the goods were made
for members of the household or a wider market.

While it was largely an agricultural community, Pompeii also had a strong ​wool and textile
industry​. The production (ie spinning and weaving) of woolen cloth was generally done
within the household, but there were a number of workshops in Pompeii where larger scale
textile production was carried out. More than 15 ​fulleries​ (laundry) have been identified,
where newly woven cloth was washed, bleached and sometimes dyed. A dye works has been
uncovered in Region 1 with four dying vats, amphorae for the dyes and washing vats for the
final rinse. Paintings on the wall of one workshop show the stages involved in the cleaning
and processing of newly woven cloth, one of which involved treading the cloth in tubs in a
mixture of fuller’s earth, potash, soda and urine. Painted shop signs also advertised the
re-dying of clothes to restore faded colours. The workshop of Ubonius on the Stabian Way
specialised in dyeing and was equipped with a bronze boiler, 12 furnaces and a supply of
different coloured dyes in bottles.

Frescoes from the ​fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii showing the dyeing and cleaning of
cloth
The ​Fullonica of Stephanus​ is one of the most important and complete laundries found in
Pompeii​ where manufactured cloth was washed and stain removed. Stephanus' laundry was
built just after the ​earthquake​ of 62 CE, transforming a private house into a modern factory.
At the centre of the atrium of the ancient domus, the impluvium was converted into a tub for
washing.

In the forum of Pompeii the corporation of weavers, dyers and fullers dedicated a statue to
Eumachia (a wealthy women and public priestess) outside the building, The Eumachia,
which archaeologists believe to have served as a textile, cloth and/ or wool market. However,
archaeologists have now challenged the idea that the wool industry was an important part of
the economy of Pompeii and have questioned the use of the Building of Eumachia for this
purpose.

Felt making was another form of textile manufacture in Pompeii and four felt workshops
have so far been identified. Frescoes in the workshop of M.Vecilius Verecundus show
workers making felt. Other paintings show the selling of goods made from felt such as
slippers and blankets.

Pottery
Pottery was an important commodity in ancient times and most of the pottery found in
houses in Pompeii was made locally. Pottery was used for an extensive range of utilitarian
objects and containers such as lamps, jugs, strainers, bowls, plates and amphorae for wine
and oil. Several potters workshops have been found uncovered in Pompeii along with a fresco
that shows a potter using a kick wheel and Vulcan (the Roman god of fire and protector of
furnaces and kilns).

The clay used in pottery made in and around Pompeii is distinctive for its red colour and
volcanic properties. Australian ceramics expert Jaye Pont, has used technology to examine
the properties of clay used in red slip pottery vessels found in Pompeii. Being able to identify
the clay as coming from the Bay of Naples region, Pont was able to suggest that pottery
manufacture was an important and long established industry at Pompeii. Pompeian pottery
has been found in Greece, North Africa, Germany, Britain, Rome and other parts of Italy,
suggesting a fairly widespread export range. No pottery workshops have been found so far in
Herculaneum.

Bakeries
Bread was an important part of the diet and at least 10 different types were made. Twenty
eight ​pristrina​ (bakeries) have been found in Pompeii and a few (so far) in Herculaneum.
Some bakeries discovered were large with a number of millstones (made of hard basalt lava)
but no retail outlets. Others were smaller with ovens (similar to modern pizza wood fire
ovens) and a shop for selling the bread. Ovens were heated by vine faggots and round loaves
were marked into eight segments for easy breaking. Evidence for this comes from the bakery
of Modestus where 81 loaves of bread were discovered sealed in an oven. A wall painting
outside another shop shows loaves of bread stacked on a counter, together with a basket of
bread rolls.

In Herculaneum the intact bakery of Sextus Patulcus Felix has been found with milestones at
the rear of the shop. The mills were turned by small donkeys (the skeletons of which were
found nearby). Baking dishes, pans and mixing bowls were found in the bakery which
suggest that he specialised in cakes.

Garum
Pompeii was well known for its production of ​garum​ (fish sauce). It was highly valued and
there were various flavours which were determined by the quality of fish used (eg red mullet
and tuna were the best, followed by mackerel and sardines, then anchovies) and the method
of preparation. Salted and fresh fish were sold in the Macellum (in the forum) with the
wealthier families having a monopoly on its manufacture. Evidence comes from various
terracotta jars found both in Pompeii and Herculaneum, which have painted labels detailing
contents, manufacturer, shipper and the recipient. One man, Aulus Umbricius Scaurus,
made, exported and imported garum. The discovery of fish hooks, nets and a large wooden
boat at Herculaneum suggests that fishing was also of significance here.

Garum was made from fish guts and other parts 9eg gills, intestines, blood) normally
considered refuse. The manufacturing process is described by Seneca (who hated the smell)
as follows:

“​The entrails of sprats or sardines. The parts that could not be used for salting were mixed
with finely chopped portions of fish and with roe and eggs and then pounded crushed and
stirred. The mixture was left in the sun or a warm room and beaten into a homogenous
pulp until it fermented. When this liquamen, as it was called, had been much reduced over a
period of six weeks by evaporation, it was placed in a bucket with perforated bottom
through which the residue filtered slowly into a receptacle. The end product decanted into
jars was the famous garum: the dregs left over were also regarded as edible and known as
allec.”

As salt was indispensable to the production of this sauce, the Pomepians set up a salt plant.
Saltwater, washed up by the tides, entered a channel into shallow basins where it evaporated
in the sun. the salt would then be collected with spades from the final basin.

Question:​ describe what garum is and how it was made.

Wine and Olive Oil

The land around Pompeii featured different types of farms: luxury villas with agricultural
plots, working farms with absentee landlords called ​villa rusticae​, and tenant farmers
working smaller plots. These farms raised sheep, goats, cattle and produced a range of grain,
fruit and vegetable crops as well as olives and grapes.

Olive oil and wine were important local industries, both for local
consumption and for export. Many farms had their own presses
and vats for olive oil and wine production. Pliny the Elder
described Pompeian wine as dangerous because it could ‘​cause a
headache which lasts till noon on the following day’​. Pompeiian
wine was well known in ancient times and many ​amphorae​ carried
the label “Vesuvium’. Wine jars have been found inscribed with
names of families who produced them. Wine was exported , but
Pompeiians also imported wine from other places. Rich and
respected families in and around Pompeii
made their money from the production of wine
and olive oil. The wine industry also employed
many people to plant and tend vines, and to
harvest grapes and make the wine.
Wine presses (​torculariae​), fermentation rooms (​cellae vinariae)​ and round bellied
earthenware storage jars (​dolii)​ have been found in houses in Pompeii such as the Villa of
the Mysteries and in farmhouses (eg Villa Rustica at Boscoreale)
outside the town.

The Vettii family (of Pompeii) were wine producers and had
a series of frescos within their house showing ​putti ​(cupids)
involved in the production of wine.

Archaeologist Wilhelmina Jashemski has taken plaster casts of vine root systems in the
ground and established the presence of vineyards at various farms and evidence to support
the theory for the commercial production of wine in Pompeii.

Olive oil ​was used for cooking, lighting, massage, as a soap and
as the base for perfume. Much evidence has been uncovered to
show that it was an important industry in Pompeii. Stone presses
were used for most oil production,
several of which have been found in farmhouses and houses in
Pompeii such as the House of the Painted Capitals and the Villa of
the Mysteries. Timber wedge presses were used for extracting oil
for perfume as shown in frescoes from the House of the Vettii.
Metalworking
More than 12 workshops associated with metalworking have been found at Pompeii complete
with specialised tools and equipment. A metalworking shop equipped with a forge has also
been uncovered at Herculaneum. Shops were identified with signs and inscriptions and iron,
copper, bronze, silver and gold were the most commonly used metals in both towns.

Moulds and casts have been found within the shops, as well as objects like fish hooks, nails,
hinges, saws, hammers and other tools like braziers, pots, pans and dishes, lanterns, surgical
instruments like compasses, callipers, bronze pen and inkwells, surgical instruments, pots,
strainers, scales and surveying equipment, jewellery and statuettes. Evidence from frescoes
in the House of the Vettii show putti involved in the process of metalworking.

Commerce

Taverns and Bars

Shops selling food and drink were common in both
towns. Twenty ​cauponae (​ taverns or inns) have been
identified in Pompeii along with over 130 smaller
thermopolia ​(hot food and drink bars). Taverns
provided tables and chairs and usually had some type
of accommodation. The bars provided food as well as
drink, but did not usually provide seating and were
very small. Both types of establishments were also
associated with drunkenness, gambling and
prostitution.

Markets, Market and Flower gardens

Markets were an important form of retailing. In Pompeii there was a major mixed market
held in the forum once a week. Temporary stalls were set up which sold fresh fruit and
vegetables, spices, perfume, shoes, flowers and prepared food. There were also permanent
structures like the Macellum (a produce and fish market). Many people would have earned
income at the markets as stall holders, hawkers, auctioneers and officials. Slave markets
were held outside of Pompeii at the Vesuvian Gate.

While a lot of produce would have come into Pompeii from the surrounding areas, market
gardens and small orchards, have also been found within the walls of Pompeii. Wilhelma
Jashemski has made an extensive study of the gardens, vineyards and orchards (within the
city walls) and has shown that while some were grown for pleasure, others were commercial
ventures estimating that they took up almost 10% of the urban area. Evidence from plaster
casts of the root cavities of trees and vines show popular trees included olive, walnut,
almond, pear, apple, fig, cherry and laurel. Date palms, oleander, rosemary, acanthus and ivy
were also common. Cabbages, onions, garlic, lettuce, asparagus, cucumbers, beans, leeks,
radishes, turnips, parsnips and artichokes were some of the vegetables grown.

Flowers such as lilies, violas, valerian, iris and roses were popular in gardens. The discoveries
of small glass perfume bottles, pottery unguent containers, elaborate watering systems and
frescos of market stalls with women selling garlands and flower wreaths suggest there were
also commercial flower gardens in Pompeii.

Service occupations - Prostitution

Prostitution was recognised as an occupation and full time prostitutes had to be registered
with the aediles and pay tax. There were 3 main types of prostitutes in Pompeii - slaves,
freedwomen and foreigners. While some freeborn Romans could be prostitutes, wives,
daughters and granddaughters of patricians and equites were forbidden to become
prostitutes. Attractive, educated, high class courtesans were well kept by their lovers and
could afford luxurious homes.

Most of the 9 ​lupanar ​(brothels) found in Pompeii were located in

narrow streets to the east of the forum. Some were small single
rooms with a stone couch, to a large house with several rooms. The
largest brothel in Pompeii belonged to a man named Africanus and
was a two storey building with 10 bedrooms, toilet under the stairs
and erotic paintings over the doors of the cells (​cella meretriciae​).

Prostitutes rates (16 assi) were written on the walls in many parts of
the town as were their names (and some of their customers) in
graffiti. Prostitution was also conducted in other places such as the
public baths (where graffiti refers to hetrosexual and homosexual
enncounters), around the theatres and other public buildings at night
and also among the tombs. There is no evidence so far of brothels in
Herculaneum.
Occupations
The table below provides a summary of some of the occupations in Pompeii and
Herculaneum for which there is evidence yet it is plausible to assume that it was also
practised there.

Area Examples

Agriculture Farmer, grape picker

Animal Husbandry Herdsmen, pig breeder

fishing Fishermen, net maker

manufacturing Ironmonger, potter

textiles Fuller, weaver, dyer

Art and craft Gem cutter, fresco painter

commerce Money lender, landlord, baker

Food and drink Baker, inn keeper

construction Carpenter, stone mason

Technical occupations Doctor, architect, surveyor

Service occupations Bath attendant, barber, prostitute

Questions
1. Using the notes here, your textbook and the web link
https://sites.google.com/a/syd.catholic.edu.au/boudica/12-ancient-history/12-ah-ve
suvius/economy​, create a table summary of the main industries in Pompeii and
Herculaneum using the following headings:

Industry Description of Industry Evidence for Industry

2. Research Asellina’s bar. Besides the information it reveals about the economy, what
does it tell us about the role of women in Pompeii?
3. Using sources from pp 20-23 of your Antiquity textbook and your own knowledge,
write a response to the following: ‘​Discuss what the sources reveal of the
types of economic activity in Pompeii and Herculaneum.​ ​’
To help you plan your response:
● use your summary table to identify the main types of economic activity that took
place in Pompeii and Herculaneum - choose 3-4 to discuss in detail, you may also
want to summarise briefly the others under general headings like “service industries”,
“commercial activities” etc. Use these points to structure your answer in PEEL format

● draw meaning from a range of sources about the types of economic activity identified
and ​analyse​ it to support your arguments and relate it to the question. Your
response should be 3 pages in length!!!
 Public Architecture & the Economy: the Pompeian Forum

Being a Roman colony, Pompeii had close cultural connections with it. These connections
were reflected in all aspects of life, including public architecture. The public buildings in
Pompeii reflected the connections with the emperor and the Imperial family.

Architecture and Remodelling during the Augustan Age (31BC – AD14)

The Augustan Age in Pompeii, like in Rome itself, was marked by an extensive building
campaign. In Pompeii, the rectangular Forum was remodelled and the surrounding theatres
renovated. This system of remodelling exhibited the Roman ideals of rulership and
community.

The Forum of Pompeii

The Forum was a large rectangular space measuring 137m x 47 m surrounded by public
buildings where the political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities
took place. It was in the Forum that:

● Magistrates were elected

● Religious ceremonies were conducted
● People found out about local edicts and the latest news from Rome
● The Pompeian’s traded goods like grain, cloth and wool
● Elected officials regulated the trade through weights and measures
● Markets were held
● Lawyers and doctors were hired
● Patrons went to be seen and conduct business followed by entourage of clients

Access to the Forum was from two gates: the Via Marina or the Via dell’Abbondanza.
Monuments were built on the east, west and south side and a two storey colonnade (with
Doric columns) decorated the south side. The grey tufa paving of the Forum was replaced
with marble during the Augustan Age – 1​st​ century BC.

The busiest part of the Forum was on the south side where the government buildings were
placed. While the 3 buildings situated here are unidentified, it seems likely that they had
some civic function. They have been identified as being the meeting place of the Decurion,
the archive and the seat of the Duumviri.

West Side
The Basilica or law courts, dates to the 2​nd​ century BC and was on the west side of the Forum.
It contained a platform where political candidates gave speeches and canvassed support for
elections, and where senior magistrates would sit in judgement. The Basilica had 5 doors that
opened onto a vestibule or portico with 4 Ionic columns on the SW corner. The doors could
be closed with iron gates.

As trade increased the standard weights and measures – ​Mensa Ponderaria, ​the Forum
Holitorium (cereal market) and Temple of Apollo were also located here.

East Side
The east side of the Forum held both commercial and religious buildings. The ​Macellum
was the produce, meat and fish market. It was built on a rectangular plan with a porticoed
courtyard and a series of shops and small shrine on the south side. The walls were decorated
with a series of frescoes picturing foodstuffs and kitchenware.

Next to the Macellum were temples associated with the Imperial cult such as:

The Temple of the Public Lares​: dates to the Julio-Claudian period. Paved in marble it
contained a large apse with a podium for ststues of the Imperial family. Statues of the Public
Lares, protective divinities of the city, were also found here.

The Temple of the Genius Augusti​: is also known (incorrectly) as the temple of
Vespasian. Never fully completed, the building was dedicated to the Imperial cult and had a
small vestibule, small court and a small temple on a high podium accessible by two sides.

The Building of the Eumachia: ​the second most monumental building in the forum,​ ​it is
believed to have been a multi-purposed space provided for the people of Pompeii by the
public priestess Eumachia ( a priestess of Venus and protectress of the guild of fullones).
Dedicated to the Concordia Augusta and Pietas in both her name and that of her son –
Marcus Munistrius Fronto. The specific function of the building, however, is disputed. Some
historians believe it was the seat of the wholesale wool market, others in the display of fine
wool and cloth. Brian Brennan believes that it had a more civic function but the size of its
interior square makes this unlikely.

Questions:

1. Using your maps and the text above, make a list of the following using the dot points
as summary headings:
● Religious buildings in the forum
● Political buildings in the forum
● Commercial buildings in the forum
2. How were the Imperial connections with Rome and the Emperors reflected in the
forum?
3. Briefly explain the Hellenistic influences in the Forum.

Extended Response
Using all your knowledge of the Forum answer the following question:

With reference to evidence, explain the importance of the Forum to Pompeii

 Social Structure of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum reflected more than a century of Romanisation. The
basic unit of society was the ​familia​ (household), which included family members and
slaves. It was headed by the ​paterfamilias.​

There were three broad social classes: freedborn, freed (former slaves or ​liberti) ​and slaves.
Within these groups were distinctions between citizens and non-citizens, and privileged and
non-privileged. For example all freeborn had the right to vote but not all had the right to
stand for public office. Clothing also distinguished social class. Privileged citizens wore the
toga, others wore a loosely belted tunic similar to that worn by slaves.

The social structure of the provinces can be broken down as follows:

Freeborn Men
WIthin the broad social class of freeborn were the senatorial elite, members of the Roman
patrician class who had estates in Campania; the local elite, wealthy landowners and
businessmen who dominated local government, and ordinary citizens such as farmers,
shopkeepers and artisans.
Some local identities gained prestige from their wealth rather than a patrician background.
They gained status by fulfilling political roles and maintaining a network of socio-political
ties with friends (​amici)​ , clients (​clientelae​) and dependents. Marcus Holconius Rufus was a
prominent local citizen of Pompeii and an Augustale (a priest of the Imperial cult). He was
also a patron of the colony, town magistrate (​duumvir), ​a five year official and a military
tribune. The town erected a statue to him.

Freeborn Women
Women of Pompeii and Herculaneum were represented in all 3 social classes. While freeborn
women could not vote or stand for political office, they took an interest and may have had
some influence in local politics. Some freeborn women (such as Julia Felix - who owned an
apartment building) owned property and rented some of its rooms.

Women could own slaves and conduct business transactions. Evidence for this comes from a
waxed tablet which records a transaction between two women in AD61 involving a loan
which used 2 slaves as security. Freeborn women of wealthier families would have carried
out traditional duties within a Roman household, the supervising of one or two slaves and
spinning and weaving. Poorer freeborn women worked in a range of occupations outside the
household.

Freedmen
​ ere slaves who had been freed , either by their own purchase or their
Freedman or ​liberti w
owner’s grant. Many freedman kept close connections with their former owners and even
took their names. Freedmen made up a significant part of the population and by AD79 many
of them ran businesses, often with slaves they had purchased. Some freedmen remained in
lowly occupations but others gained considerable wealth as owners of estates and businesses.
One example are the Vettii brothers who were wealthy freedmen in Pompeii and successful
wine producers.

Freedwomen
Like their male counterparts, female slaves could be granted their freedom and become
liberti. Some freedwomen married well, established their own households and became quite
wealthy. Some freedwomen worked outside the household in the same occupations as poor
freeborn women. Others worked beside their husbands in various enterprises.

Slaves
Scholars believe that, like in Rome, slaves extensively populated Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Slaves were employed in upper class dwellings as washers, oven stokers, servers, cooks,
entertainers, nurses, tutors, clerks and secretaries among other things. On country estates
slaves were used for picking grapes, ploughing, harvesting and haymaking. Archaeological
evidence such as stocks and prison cells have been found on some estates such as the Villa of
Agrippa Posthumus at Boscotrecase, suggesting that slaves who worked on estates were
treated more harshly than their town counterparts.

Male slaves with an education were highly privileged and given higher status within the
household over other slaves. Female slaves were not permitted to marry and any offspring
they had, following the practice of Roman law, inherited the mother’s social status and
became the property of the owner.

Although there were clear social divisions between the classes, there were also opportunities
in these provincial cities for some groups to achieve social advancement or upward mobility.
Slaves could be freed and become freedmen but not citizens; the sons of freedmen could
become citizens.

Ingenui w ​ ere similar to freedman s they were rich but outside the social elite. Pliny refers to
them as the ‘​plebs media’​ . They were involved in trade and commerce and women in this
group were ‘psychologically and socially emancipated overall’ (E.Cantarella). Upper classes
of male society in both Pompeii and Herculaneum had a network of social connections with
friends, clients and dependents whose public and private interests they looked after. The
ingenui, in return, depended on them for political support.

Questions
Use the information on pp 39-41 of the Brennan/ Lazer text (and the notes) to answer the
following:
1. What were the criteria for being identified as one of the local elite?
2. What privileges did the populace have?
3. Describe the public roles open to women in Pompeii and the evidence to support it.
4. Describe the social position of slaves and freedmen in both towns.
5. Complete the source work hand out.
6. View the atomi summary of Pompeii’s social structure:
https://youtu.be/TUB0oZVgBKE​ making any additional notes/ summaries for this
dot point
 Local Political Life in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Pompeii and Herculaneum were, like all provincial towns, self-governing in local matters but
subject to Imperial laws from Rome as set out by Julius Caesar (ie the Lex Iulia Municipalis
45BC). This meant the acceptance of Roman magistrates and the payment of contributions
(ie taxes) to Rome.

Like most ancient societies, Pompeii and Herculaneum were both patriarchal and only male
citizens could vote. However, numerous examples of graffiti evidence painted around the
town indicate that most of the people who lived in Pompeii (eg women, actors and
innkeepers) were aware of politics and the role it played within society. According to
evidence from the Roman statesman Cicero, competition for the annual March elections for
the City Council in Pompeii were fierce and harder to win than those of the Roman Senate
(​p115 Bradley)​.

The political scene was dominated by the four largest. Wealthiest and most influential
families (eg the Holconii & Lucretti). The basis of their wealth was agriculture, trade and the
production of oil and wine. The leading families led the program for cultural renewal under
the Augustan reforms, including the improvement of social conditions for the
underprivileged, worship in the Imperial cult and imitation of all things Roman.
The two main political offices in Pompeii and Herculaneum were the ​duoviri​ and the
adeiles​. The colonial equivalent of the consuls in Rome (but unlike the consuls, they had no
military powers), the ​d​uumviri​:​ ‘the two men’, operated as co-mayors of Pompeii and could
only serve one year. Elections took place each year in the spring (March). They were also in
charge of justice.
There were two​ ​aedile​ ​positions and they were also elected annually from the citizen body.
They were lower ranking magistrates and described as ‘two men, for taking care of streets,
buildings, temples and public buildings’. Generally the aediles were responsible for day to
day administration of the town, supervising the markets and taking care of the temples and
streets.

Political Structure:
At its foundation in c. 80BC, the Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum was given a lex (or
charter), that set out the political and administrative structure still in use at the time of the
eruption in 79AD. The main political institutions at Pompeii were:

o ​ omitium​ or ‘people’s assembly:​ Made up of all adult, male citizens of the town
The c
(approx 80-100), including freedmen, they were chosen by a census of men who were
wealthy and influential. It functioned to elect magistrates and to vote honours. To qualify you
had to be over 25 years old and very wealthy.

o The ordo decurionum​: ​The legislative body of Pompeii, able to make decisions on any
matter that concerned the colony as a whole. Its members were part of the comitium and
called ​‘decurions’​. New members were elected every five years by their peers (not the
people)and it was likely they remained in their office until death.
o The magistracy​:​ Two duumvirs and two aediles (junior magistrates), who were
responsible for the judicial system, administration, public works, and buildings, municipal
cults and games-giving. The magistrates presided over proceedings in the ordo and elections
in the comitium. Every ​5​ years the duumvirs held a census to revise the list of ordo members
and were given the title ​quinquennial d ​ uumvirs. A​ candidate for magistracy must be male,
free-born, over 25, have a fortune above a certain level and have an unblemished reputation.
To become duumvir a candidate first had to be elected aedile.

o Other honours: The most prestigious honour to be bestowed on a citizen was that
of ​‘patron’​ of the town. A patron was formally selected by the town council to represent and
protect the interests of the community at Rome. E.G. Marcus Holconius Rufus and
Marcellus. Another rare, purely honorific title was that of ​‘military tribune'; t​ his was
awarded to a citizen of popular demand, presumably in return for services to the community.
E.G. Marcus Tullius and Marcus Holconius Rufus.

Political Election
Candidates for political office presented themselves to the voters (comitium) as pairs in an
election team. Following Roman practice, voters were divided into tribes who voted
separately. ​The vote (​suffragium​) was expressed in writing (​per tabellam)​ in a wax tablet
on which candidate’s name was engraved with a ​stylus.​ The tablet was deposited in a box
(​arca)​ or basket (cista) in your district, overseen by representatives from other districts,
usually three. The process was chaired and supervised by the proposed by the electoral
assembly ​duovirum,​ generally greatest in old, sitting in the stands (​suggestum​) assisted by
his collaborators, as the specialist ​Staccioli, RA ​says in his ​Manifesti elettorali nell'antica
Pompei.​ ​When two candidates for office had received a majority in that tribe, voting was
stopped. The candidates who secured the majority of votes (when counted) were declared
elected.

An important element of the process was ​the e ​ lectoral propaganda​. Archaeologists have
recovered many testimonies of election posters in ​Pompeii​: the 25,000 inscriptions or graffiti
appearing on walls of houses, some on the outside and others inside, tenth, about 2,500 are
election posters that provide us a lot of information. Some examples are:

I beg you to elect Marcus Epidius

Sabinus senior magistrate with judicial
power, a most worthy young man. The
venerable council is electing him. Good
fortune to Clemens, venerable judge.

Marcus Cerrinius for a​ edile.​ Some

people love him, some are loved by him,
I can’t stand him. - Who loathes, loves.

If integrity in life is thought to be of any use, this man, Lucretius Fronto is worthy of
great honour.
Valens, you’re sleeping; you’re asleep and dreaming; wake up from your slumber and
make Helvius Sabinus aedile.

If honour is bestowed on a man who lives modestly, a worthy honour should be given
to this young man, Cuspius Pansa.

For the health, return, and victory of Gaius ​Julius​ Phillipus, here, to his lares, Publius
Cornelius Felix and Vitalis Cuspius make an offering.

Some have certainly been directly commissioned by the candidate concerned, other are given
by members of the family, others show anonymous support or of certain social groups
(fullers, dyers, millers, poultry, harvesters, carpet makers or matting makers, ointments
vendors, fishermen , muleteers, onion sellers, jewelers, hairdressers, barbers, bakers, hatters,
..),or religious brotherhoods (devotees of Venus, devotees of Isis, ...); or groups of friends
(ball players, checkers players, comrades, friends amphitheater shows, the workers and the
poor, prostitutes ...); or of certain influential people. For example:

The late drinkers ask you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia eadile. Florus ad Fructus
wrote this.

All the deadbeats and Macerius ask for Vatia as aedile.

All the worshippers of I​ sis​ call for Cn. Helvius Sabinus as aedile.​

Priesthoods
Politics and the state religion were intertwined. As part of their way into political offices,
Roman politicians usually held prestigious priesthoods in the state and imperial cult. All
political meetings were accompanied by religious rites. ​The ​seviri augustales​ or priests of
Augustus​, were chosen in turn by the ​ordo decurionum​.

Herculaneum: ​appears to have a political set up similar to Pompeii, however it did not
suffer the imposition of a colony after the Social War of 91-87BC. Surviving inscriptions
demonstrate that Herculaneum was run by two annually elected duumvirs. Aediles, also
attested, would have supervised the markets, roads and public buildings. The town’s finances
may have been overseen by a third official, a quaestor, who is mentioned in a single
inscription. We do not have any evidence of the political councils in Herculaneum as yet.
A summary of the political offices can be found below:

Questions
Read p116 in the Bradley text.
1. Summarise the roles and responsibilities for each of the duoviri and aediles.
2. Explain the roles of the City Council and the People’s Assembly.
3. Why do you think these were such prestigious and sought after positions in the towns?

Read p117 “Election Fever in Pompeii”.

1. What evidence do we have of political candidates and elections in Pompeii?
2. How useful is this information for archaeologists and historians in studying local political
life at Pompeii? Explain your answer. 3. What
other political honours and offices could be attained at Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Summary notes​: View this lecture presentation on politics to provide you with a summary
and take additional notes as necessary: ​https://youtu.be/jqmEsmaa_3g
 Housing in Pompeii and Herculaneum

There are no standard Roman houses at Pompeii and Herculaneum. There are common
rooms and/ or architectural features; however houses were remodelled, rebuilt, extended or
subdivided according to the changing needs of their owners. According to archaeologist and
historian ​Andrew Wallace -Hadrill​, houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum reflected social
status and can be divided into 4 main types (based on size):

● Type 1​: one or two roomed houses, used as both residence and shop or workshop
● Type II​: from two to seven rooms, with larger workshops and living areas
● Type III​: the average Pompeian residence of between eight -thirteen rooms with a
combination of public and private spaces. Workshops or other shops were
incorporated into the house.
● Type IV​: the largest houses, designed for entertaining. They may have been created
from a number of smaller houses remodelled to make a single building. They
included quarters for a number of slaves.

Hadrill also believes that the distinction between public and private rooms​/ ​areas of the
house lies in both the scale and decoration. According to Vitruvius (an ancient Roman
architect), the amount or degree of privacy given to the Roman family is determined by the
degree of access to rooms by outsiders (i.e. des​i​gnated space for uninvited and invited
guests).

The lack of distinction between a place of work and a place of leisure is also apparent in
Roman house design. Business was regularly conducted at home and the distinction of
activity within the house corresponds to the distinction of time between morning and
afternoon. This is translated in design by having the areas designated for business and public
activity clustered around the main entrance (i.e. the atrium, tablinum, cubicula and other
smaller rooms which open from the atrium.) The areas that provide private entertainment
are characteristically clustered around the peristyle (eg Casa del Principe di Napoli at
Pompeii).

The typical Pompeian house of the first century

AD was the ​atrium h​ ouse. Many of the grandest
houses were situated on the most important
commercial streets and included a shop run by
the house-owner's slaves or rented out to
freedmen. Generally, houses were inward looking
and the façade of the house consisted of a plain
wall with a simple, undecorated doorway that opened into the entrance of the house. Rooms
opened onto an inner courtyard or garden (​hortus)​ rather than onto the street. If outer
walls had windows they were usually small and high (for security reasons), rather than
decorative. Upper floors had larger windows and balconies which admitted air and light. In
wealthier houses, interior walls were decorated with frescoes and floors with mosaics.
Statues, ponds and fountains were common.

In the earliest houses, the atrium had no opening in the roof and was the centre of domestic
activity focused on a fireplace. The Atrium was a covered forecourt which public and private
events took place in the household. Overtime the atrium developed into a space that was
more ceremonial and sacred. The family shrine that was dedicated to the household deities
was usually located in the atrium.

The Atrium’s were often decorated in black and white mosaics in geometrical patterns and
the ceilings (which few have survived) were decorated with wooden beams and sometimes
painted. Sometimes when the household became overcrowded, a second atrium might be
added to provide for the activities of the family. In the centre of the Atrium was a impluvium
which is a shallow pool that was used for collecting water.

The Tablinum was a room used by the owner to conduct daily

business and where the family and commercial documents were
kept. In some homes this room was used as a dining area, study
and bedroom. It could be closed off for privacy using curtains or
wooden panes such as in the ​House of the Wooden Partition​, in
Herculaneum.

The Peristyle was a colonnaded portico overlooking a garden, a

hallway next to the dining room usually lead to the peristyle. This are frequently consisted of
a garden and floor mosaics, wall paintings, crafted furniture, statues and fountains. Some of
the more elaborate peritstyles consisted of
trellises, flowers, ponds and fruit trees etc.

Houses were not heavily furnished and most

furniture was light and portable. A bedroom
generally contained a bed and small table. A
dining room contained 3 couches and low tables
which could be carried into the garden or
courtyard. Small cupboards stored clothing. In
Herculaneum some carbonised wooden furniture
has survived including tables, beds, small
cupboards and stools.
Other aspects of houses include:

Triclinia and cubicula

■ Separate dining room or Triclinium (‘three couches’)

■ Located off the atrium or looking onto the Peristyle
■ Larger residences had two Triclinia one for summer adjacent the garden and one for
winter next to the Tablinum
■ Most were fairly small with enough room for three couches, small, low, wooden,
bronze or marble table was placed in front of the couches, larger rectangular serving
table
■ Best preserved summer dining room is the house of the mosaic of Neptune and
Amphitrite in Herculaneum
■ Smaller rooms called cubicula possibly used for sleeping areas, usually adjacent to
main reception area or secondary atrium if the house had one, windowless and richly
decorated often with erotic scenes

Service areas

■ Service areas included areas for cooking, washing, private living and sleeping
quarters for the slaves, often accessed down long, dark narrow corridors e.g. The
House of the Vettii where the service area entered from the side of the atrium and
had its own courtyard leading to the kitchen lavatories and assortment of store rooms
and small sleeping rooms.
■ Kitchen culina was small only fitting two slaves, contained stone hearth with podium
and recess for firewood and charcoal, some had small brick oven, running water and
sink, smoke escaping through a hole in the roof, badly ventilated
■ Latrine located directly adjacent to or opened off the kitchen, both kitchen used the
same pipes for water supply

Cooling, heating and lighting of the house

■ Wealthier families designed their homes with terraces to catch summer seas breeze
and covered porticoes for shade, airy rooms adjacent to the gardens
■ Wooden partitions and shutters which folded or slid into the walls, curtains or nets
were used to protect and warm the house
■ Winter dining rooms painted with black background to absorb any heat in house
■ Natural light entered via the compluvium, windows and Peristyle or courtyard,
service areas were stuffy and dark, references to eye troubles - people suffered eye
strain due to poor lighting
 The main features of Roman housing design can be summarised as follows:

Latin Term Definition

fauces A narrow entrance corridor to the house

vestibulum A wider entrance hall/ corridor to the house

atrium Reception room, generally with a ​compluvium​ and ​impluvium

compluvium Opening (usually square) in the roof to allow light and rainwater into the
atrium

impluvium Shallow pool (rectangular/ square in shape) in the atrium which collected
rainwater from the compluvium

tablinum Room off the atrium, used for receiving clients and conducting business

peristyle Colonnade or covered walkway around a courtyard or garden

cubiculum A small windowless room, usually referred to as a bedroom

triclinium A dining room with a space for 3 long couches around a serving table

lararium Family shrine of the lares (the spirits of the entry of house)

Questions

1. Using your textbook, powerpoint and notes, summarise the main features of houses
in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
2. Describe the uses and features of individual rooms in houses.
3. What does housing reveal about society in Pompeii and Herculaneum?
4. What limitations are there in the evidence for housing?

Research

Using your textbooks and the internet, research the evidence for ​rented accommodation
and​ shops ​in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Provide paragraph summaries for each detailing
locations, features/ characteristics and specific examples.
 Case Study: The House of The Faun

The House of the Faun, made from tufa and dating from the late Samnite period, is one of
the best examples of the Hellenizing influences popular amongst the upper classes in this
time. It occupies one entire insula, is elongated in shape and is approximately 2,940 meters
square. Approximately two thirds of the house design is taken up by two peristyle courtyards,
while the remaining smaller portion is devoted to actual living space. The house also shows
signs of expansion and renovation in the late 2" century BC. It was the biggest and most
expensive house in Pompeii.

At the entrance of the house is a mosaic welcome mat. On it is written the Latin message
HAVE (meaning HAIL to you). This mat was either added after the Roman colony settled in
Pompeii in about 89 BC or shows that the original owners of the house know Latin. This is
known because the two languages mainly spoken in Pompeii at the time was either Oscan or
Samnian.

The House of the Faun had two atria and two peristyles. A Roman atrium is a rectangular
open air court with a shallow basin in the centre of the room to collect rainwater. This basin
is called the impluvium. The statue of the ‘Dancing Faun’ (by which the house was named
after) was found in one of the two atria, in the centre of the impluvium. The statue is made of
bronze. Around this atria are rooms that once held mosaic floor paintings and first style
decorations on the walls.
A peristyle is a large open courtyard surrounded by
columns. The one at the rear of the House of the Faun
is the larger of the two peristyles. The smaller one
includes a garden which may or may have not been
there in ancient times.

The identification with Hellenistic culture is further

evident with the famous Alexander mosaic, depicting
the battle between Alexander the Great and Darius.
Placed along the axis of the house so it would be visible
from both the internal peristyles, it was laid in an exedra especially des​i​gned for it and
flanked by two Corinthian pillars (on tall plinths) on either side. Directly in front of this
mosaic was another depicting the Nile with crocodiles, hippopotamus' and other exotic
creatures. Some other mosaics that were found in the House of the Faun include the Cat and
Hen Mosaic, the Dove Mosaic and the Tiger Rider Mosaic. All these Mosaics can now be
found in the Naples Museum.

Activity: Take a virtual reconstructed tour of the House of the Faun here -
https://youtu.be/PZi-10HxnhA

Other types of Houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum: Villas

Wealthy Romans built ​Villa of otium’s ​(large villas) in
the countryside and along the coast around the Bay of
Naples, as retreats from Rome and as places where
political matters could be conducted in impressive
surroundings. Almost 100 such villas have been identified
such as the ​Villa of the Papyri​ at the western end of
Herculaneum and the The ​Villa Poppaea a ​ t Oplontis.

Villa’s closer to the towns (urban villas) were generally large residences integrated within the
social and political life of the towns, with a working farm attached. One such example is the
Villa of the Mysteries ​at Pompeii. Built in the 2nd century BC and renovated about 60 BC
and again in the 1st century AD, the villa contained residential quarters overlooking the sea,
servants quarters facing the road, and an area for wine production. It also contained a series
of frescoes believed to reference the Dionysiac Mystery cults, providing evidence of the
‘fashion’ for hellenistic culture which the Romans admired.
Villa rustica’s ​(farmhouses) were another type of villa serving as working farms that were
either purely functioning as a rural estate or combined
with an elegant living area. They ranged from basic
shelters for workers to more comfortable houses
where the owners lived, such as the Villa Pisanella and
Villa Fannius (elegant living and farms) at Boscoreale.
These villas were decorated like city houses with
frescoes on the walls and mosaics on the floors. They
didn’t, however, contain the domestic peristyle
courtyards of the maritime and urban villas. Instead,
the internal courtyard was occupied by storage vats for
olive oil or wine such as the ​Villa Rustica​ at
Boscoreale.

Questions
1. Make a list of all the features of a villa built for leisure. Use the accompanying floor plan of
the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii to aid your description. 2.
Research in your textbook/ internet a nymphaeum. Describe what is was and where a
nymphaeum would be built in a luxury villa.
3. What other architectural features were noticeable in a villa?
4. Describe in detail one of the villas mentioned above.
 Everyday Life: Baths
Public ​Baths
To the Romans, bathing was a social occasion and the people generally visited the baths
daily. Some baths (​thermae)​ were communal, some private. Some were expensive and
some cheap. Few houses in either Pompeii or Herculaneum had private baths. ​There were
four public baths that can be found at Pompeii. These are the Forum baths, the Stabian
baths, the Central and the Amphitheatre baths.

All ​baths were designed in a common architectural formation which consisted of an

apodyterium (a c​ hange room; the antechamber of which displays 4" style painted stucco and
geometric patterns)​, frigidarium ​(a circular room with 3 recesses of cold water​), tepidarium
(contained a plunge bath), and ​caldarium (​ a hall with a circular basin for washing and a bath
for soaking).

Public baths were a very social place where friends met not only to exercise and bathe, but to
chat, have a massage, exercise and have a game of dice. Some people took their own personal
toiletries with them to the baths and some were attended by their slaves.

The Stabian Baths: Pompeii

The ​Stabian Baths a​ re the largest and oldest baths in Pompeii, ​but they were damaged badly
during the 62 AD earthquake; only the women’s quarters were being used at the time of the
eruption​. Taking their name from their location at the crossing point of the Via Stabiana and
the Via della Abbondanza, they developed around the Palestra or gymnasium; which was
surrounded on three sides by a Corinthian, stuccoed portico.  

While numerous periods of construction are evident, the present structure dates to the 2nd
Century BC. They were first enlarged during the Roman colonization of the town c. 80-70
BC, then again during the Empire and finally after the earthquake of AD 62. The north wing
appears to be the eldest part of the baths. It consists of a series of small rooms for individual
bathers, furnished by plunge baths and heated by braziers. The main part of the baths was in
the east wing and was divided into male and female sections.

To enter the baths,​ men would take the main entrance which was on the south side​. ​There
was also a second entrance for men on the west side which led to an open exercise area called
the palaestra. To the left of the palestra was the apodyterium. After undressing, the men had
a choice of either exercising or swimming. If they exercised, they could play several games.
The most popular game was a type of bowling, which was played along the paved alley. There
were also outdoor exercises such as ball games, weights, or rolling a hoop. The props for
these games were kept at the far end of the room.

When the men who had started off with exercising had worked up a sweat, they retreated to
the changing rooms and there they were scraped down and massaged. Then, if they wished,
they could take a swim through a shallow bath to clean their feet before going into the
swimming pool. Water exercise was also possible, as the pool was only about 1.2m deep.
While men were encouraged to swim, usually in the sea or a river, Men could also swim in
the interior pool (being only 1.2m deep). After this they would proceed to the heated baths.

Next to the palestra was the office of the baths

manager and public toilets were located near the north
end. Above this was a water tank, which used to be
filled by a treadmill operating two water wheels,
drawing water from a well. Later the water was
supplied by the Augustan aqueduct. ​Heating for the
hot baths was circulated in the hollow spaces below
the raised pavement which was supported by small
columns of bricks. Within the walls, heat came from a
furnace (praefurnium) between the two sections which
contained 3 cylindrical hot water boilers.

The women’s baths were only able to be reached by two corridors, coming from the west and
east side.​ ​A separate entrance from the palestra led down a corridor to the women's section.
It is also a similar sequence to the men's baths with the apodyterium (with a basin for cold
water) and niches for clothing. Off here are the tepidarium and the calidarium. Some of these
rooms are decorated in painted or plain stucco depicting imaginary architectural motifs. The
rooms on the west side feature a large open-air pool and a series of rooms where the athletes
could change and get ready for exercise. The outside of these rooms depict 4" style
decoration with architectural elements interspersed
with figures of athletes and gods.
Herculaneum
Herculaneum has two sets of public baths; one near the centre known as the ​Forum Baths
a​nd the ​Suburban Baths ​on the marina outside the city walls. As no dedicatory
inscriptions were found in the Forum Baths, it is assumed that they were a municipal
enterprise. However, it is believed that the Suburban Baths were a gift of the proconsul
Balbus and used chiefly by the rich.

The Forum Baths​, built in the Augustan period c.30-10 BC, occupied the southern end of
an entire block, fronting on 3 different streets. A patron could go direct to the baths or to the
open air palestra. The garden was surrounded by a columned portico from which open
dressing rooms, administrative offices and storage rooms. To one side was an open area for
exercise but a ball playing are was located on the upper floor. The staff's living quarters were
also on the upper floor.

There are numerous amounts of graffiti which decorate the various rooms in the baths,
particularly in the waiting room to the women's section. The plan of the baths follows the
standard Roman plan. Off the one entrance is a doorkeeper's toilet and cubicle.
The men's dressing room contains a marble bench running along 3 sides and recesses above
containing niches for clothes. The room is decorated in stucco with black, grey and white
marble on the floors. There are 2 basins, one in each end of the room; one in marble (for
washing hands) and the other lower down (used for washing feet) in the opposite corner. The
entire room was lit by a large, round window high in the south wall.

The tepidarium (warm room) opens off the dressing

room with marble benches and shelves on all 4 sides. It
is decorated in water themes with a huge Triton
surrounded by leaping dolphins. Next to this room is
the hot room where terracotta pipes (in the walls) were
used to heat the rooms. At one end is the hot water
immersion tank and a basin at the other (filled with cold
water), to wash the sweat out of ones eyes.

The cold room adjoins the dressing room. It is round

and vaulted with a skylight above. Evidence of bronze candelabra supports the idea that the
baths were used at night as well as during the day. The women's section is similar to the
men's except that it is smaller in size and lacks a cold room and plunge. A separate boiler
unit implies that the women preferred their water hotter than the men.
The Suburban Baths ​are unique in their
position. The main route to the baths led
through the Marine Gate and down a long ramp
to the entrance courtyard, an n elevated terrace.
On either side of the vestibule were two
cloakrooms. From here the patron passed
directly through the cold room to a waiting
room which was heated in winter.
The tepid room is decorated in the 4th style and
contained a heated swimming poo​l. ​On one side
is a small sudatorium (sweat room) and seats.
The hot room has a marble pool for hot water
immersion and a round marble basin for cold water. The plunge in the cold room was not
round (as usual) but rectangular.

The belvedere (for conversation or a snack) connects the hot room

and the corridor of the entrance vestibule. It has two wide picture
windows which overlook the sea and a third overlooking the marina.
The furnace room opens off the entrance vestibule and is complete
with boiler, pipes and wood stacked for the fire.

Questions
1. Referring to the powerpoint and notes above, describe the bathing process for men and
women in Pompeii and Herculaneum. 2.
Explain why (you think) men and women had separate bathing times and/ or entrances in
the public baths. 3.
What does the existence of the baths reveal about the people of these cities? (hint - consider
health and hygiene) 4.
Pompeii had two more baths than Herculaneum. What does this tell you about the
differences between the two cities?

Writing Task
Write a 10-15 line PEEL paragraph to answer the following question: ​What do sources A
and B reveal about baths and leisure in Pompeii and Herculaneum?
 Everyday Life: Water Supply and Sanitation

There is a lot of evidence for water supply and sanitation in both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Some of the archaeological evidence includes the structures which stored and carried water,
and the facilities (eg baths, fountains, toilets, gardens) that used it. The original water supply
for the towns relied on public and private well cisterns, but this was replaced by the imperial
aqueduct connected to the mountain springs in the Apennine Mountains. Water came to
both towns via a branch of the Augustan Aqueduct in Misenum.

In Pompeii, the water flowed from the aqueduct into a

brick holding tank, the ​castellum aquae,​ built on one
of the highest points of the town near the Vesuvian Gate.
From here, the water was gravity fed through three large
pipes to different parts of the town. Water was carried to
the public toilets, baths, pools and 14 secondary storage
towers which fed 42 public fountains in Pompeii.

Lead pipes beneath the footpaths carried water from the

storage towers to all parts of the town. Some private
houses were connected to the pipeline and had
running water and flushing toilets. Most larger houses
had cisterns which held rainwater (for household use) collected in the impluvium.

In Pompeii, some houses had a cesspit. These would have overflowed

into the street in heavy rain. Chamber pots were also used, with the
contents emptied in the street or onto public dung heaps. Three public
dung heaps have been found.

The toilets in a house was next to the kitchen (because of the common
water supply). It was flushed by piped water or kitchen waste. It is
probable that fullers left containers for urine collection outside their
workshops.

There were some drains under the forum area, though mostly the streets were the
stormwater and sewerage system. Overflow from cisterns and fountains constantly flushed
the waste from the streets. The lower gates (Nola, Stabia and Nuceria) had gutters for the
sewage to flow out and into the Sarno river. There were public toilets near the forum, in the
baths and the palaestra.

In both towns sanitation was high. Waste water from hoses flowed into the streets through
terracotta pipes set into wall outlets. Household waste water and sewage flowed along the
gutters on each side of the street, then into large, underground drains. Public toilets were
flushed with water and the sewage was carried away in drains. Raised stepping stones
allowed pedestrians to cross streets without getting their feet wet.

In Herculaneum, the terrain sloped down to the sea which helped water
flow and drainage. Overflow from cisterns and fountains flushed out
into the streets and were carried away, along with waste water and
sewage, into underground drains and the sewage system. Three main
lines have been found, aligned with the three excavated cardini. They
flowed downhill and into the sea. Written evidence discovered in
Herculaneum suggests that the towns officials were very serious about
keeping it clean:

“​If anyone wishes to dispose of dung in this place, he is advised that it

is not permitted. If anyone acts contrary to this notice, free persons
will be fined, slaves will be punished by beatings to their rears.” ​(CIL
IV 10488)

Unlike Pompeii, streets in Herculaneum didn’t need stepping

stones.

Question
Using Source A and your own knowledge, write a 10-15 line PEEL paragraph explaining the
ways in which water was distributed in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
 Leisure Activities: Entertainment in Pompeii and Herculaneum

There is a wide range of evidence for public and private leisure activities enjoyed in Pompeii
and Herculaneum. Ranging from theatres and public baths to smaller artefacts such as board
games and dice, the inhabitants of both towns appear to have enjoyed their leisure time.

Theatres & Amphitheatre

The most popular forms of entertainment in Pompeii (and perhaps the Campania region)
were the blood sports. These were held in Pompeii’s ​amphitheatre​ which was built around
70BC by the two duumviri, C.Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Porcius (at their own expense
according to an inscription) just outside the towns city walls.

Elliptical in shape, the

amphitheatre has two flights
of stairs on the side facing
the city center on the
external to allow spectators
to reach the upper section.
Additional entrances were
two single flight stairs and
four long corridors; the
outmost of which were paved to allow carts to
enter the arena.

The ​cavea​ (enclosure) was subdivided into lower

(​ima cavea​-reserved for authorities and nobility),
middle (​ima cavea - o​ pen to the general public,
though mostly reserved for men) ​and upper
(​summa cavea​ -the highest section and was
usually open to women and children) ​sections.
Large awnings were spread above the cavea to
protect spectators from the sun.

Refliefs, inscriptions, mosaics and frescoes provide

information about the different types of blood sports performed in the amphitheatre. These
included gladiator combats, wild beast shows and boxing.

The Palestra ​(Gymnasium)

Next to the amphitheatre was originally a small
palestra ​built during the second century BC.
During the reign of Augustus (1st century BC - first
century AD), a much larger palestra was built near
the amphitheatre, surrounded by a wall with a
columned portico on three sides. The palestra was
a form of public entertainment and exercise
ground , valued by the Romans for its Greek athletic tradition. Men and male inventus
(youths) would exercise here and practise sports such as running, discus, wrestling and
swimming. The swimming pool was in the center and surrounded by a double row of plane
trees.

At ​Herculaneum​, an entire block was dedicated to the palestra which was

originally shaded by umbrella pines. Located in the NE area of the town, it
dates to the first century AD and (like the palestra in Pompeii) also had a
columned portico on three sides. Above this was a large gallery where
officials and spectators could watch competitors. A large meeting hall joined
onto this with a cross shaped shallow pool dominated the area; the centre of
which held a bronze fountain in the shape of a serpent with 5 heads. A
smaller, deeper pool located on one side of the palestra may have been used
for swimming. Shops with apartments or inns above were along the street
front of the palestra.

Theatres
There were two theatres in Pompeii: the large (or Great) theatre and the ​Odeon​ (small
theatre). Traditionally plays were performed in the large theatre and the Odeon was used for
orchestral performances, lectures and poetry readings.

The Large Theatre: d ​ ating back to the 2nd century BC, the Great Theatre was large, and
open aired but could be covered with an awning if necessary.
It underwent restoration work during the Augustan period,
financed by M. Holconius Rufus and M.Holconius Celer
(according to an inscription). The cavea could hold
approximately 5000 spectators and was divided into the 3
traditional sections:
1. Ima Cavea - 4 large and low rows reserved for the
decurions’ ​bisellia​ (seats)
2. Media Cavea - subdivided into 5 sections and accessed
by 6 flights of steps
3. Summa cavea - also subdivided into 5 sections and
accessed by 6 flights of steps

The upper seating area was raised on a vaulted corridor (crypta), the middle and lower areas
rested directly on the ground; with the ​tribunalia ​(over the entrances to the orchestra)
reserved for distinguished spectators. The orchestra area was no longer used in the Roman
period.

The ​proscaenium​ (stage) was at the back of the orchestra (im high) which the actors reached
by two small staircases through two doors. Actors performed with the ​scaenae frons​ (stage
building/ backdrop) in the background; it was built on two levels with niches and aediculae
flanked by columns. It also had three doorways through which the actors could enter a large
room.
The ​velarium (​ awning) that gave shade to the building was supported by pilasters inserted
into the wall of the summa cavea. It was hoisted and
trimmed with ropes and pulleys. The velarium covering
the frons scaenae functioned the same. Typically
comedies, tragedies and farces were performed here.

The Odeion: l​ ocated at the side of the Great Theatre,

the odeion (or small theatre) held about 1000-1500 spectators and was intended for
programs such as concerts, poetry recitals and mimes. Built between 80-75BC by Marcus
Porius and Quinctius Valgus (followers of Sulla), the odeion had a permanent timber roof
sloping on 4 sides to cover the seating.

The seating area was divided into 2 sections, upper and lower. The first 4 rows are lower and
wider; reserved for the decurian’s seats and separated from the other sections by a banister.
A pair of telamon figures carved in tufa mark the ends of the parapets on both sides. The
pavement of the orchestra is in marble (​opus sectile)​ . The stage is characterised by three
central and two small side doors.

The Quadriporticus
The quadrangular portico (also known as the Gladiator
Barracks) extends to the south of the main theater and is
estimated to date to the first century BC. It is
surrounded by 74 tufa columns of Doric order in stucco.
Able to be entered from the Via Stabiana through an
open passageway behind the stage building of the
odeion, gave it a function as a meeting place even when
plays weren’t in progress. After the 62AD earthquake
the complex was converted into a l​udus gladiatorius​ -
gladiator barracks.
Theatre - Herculaneum
One of the first finds at ​Herculaneum​ was its theatre, first discovered in 1709 while digging a
well. The diameter of the exterior circle of the theatre measures 34 m, of which the orchestra
measures 9 m. In height the theatre measures 19.5 m and could hold about 2500-5000
spectators (about half of the theatre in Pompeii).

The ​scaenae frons​ was adorned with two superimposed rows of

pilasters and arcades with niches and doors, painted in red and
yellow, with two red marble columns and with two fluted
columns. Behind the stage was a narrow room (​postscenium)​
used as a dressing room and entered by a door at the back.

The orchestra was paved with thick slabs of giallo antico

(marble), of which fragments still remain. To the right and left
of the orchestra, supported by vaults and approached by stairs
near the ends of the stage were the large boxes (​tribunalia​),
probably reserved for the more important magistrates similar
in layout to the theatre at Pompeii.

All the seats and stairs are of tufa. The tiers of seats for the
spectators (​cavea​) are divided into six wedges by seven flights
of steps radiating from the orchestra and terminated by seven
exits (vomitoria). They are divided, parallel to the
circumference, by two passages (praccinctiones). The lowest
division, the ​ima cavea​ consists of four rows of somewhat broader seats, 18cm high and
90cm wide. This was the place of honour, and was approached by the orchestra entrances
which were closed off by bronze gates.

The vast majority of the spectators sat on the eleven tiers immediately above (​media cavea​),
and reached their seats by stairs connected with the passage dividing the ​ima cavea​ from the
media​. Above the media, and divided from it by a corridor, were three more rows of seats,
the ​summa cavea​.

Round the top of the ​cavea​ stood statues of the imperial

family and municipal benefactors, all larger than life, and six
bronze equestrian statues. The theatre was decorated with a
variety of different marbles and stauray, none of which
survive today.

The outside of the theatre was constructed of tufa in ​opus

reticulatum.​ The walls are faced in part with brick. The
lower part was adorned with superimposed rows of eighteen arches, supported on pilasters,
and the whole was covered with stucco, painted and decorated with marble cornices.Along
the exterior, at the back of the stage, was a portico of ​Doric​ order, with fluted columns,
coloured red below and white above.
(text source for Herculaneum theatre: ​https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/herculaneum-1/theatre​)
Other Entertainments - Drinking and Gambling
The amount of taverns and bars excavated in Pompeii suggest that drinking was a popular
pastime, particularly for men. Wine bars and taverns were found in most streets near the
gates of Pompeii and around the amphitheatre. Wine bars have also been uncovered in
excavated areas of Herculaneum along with painted signs outside the taverns which
advertised the different types of wine: “​Hedone says You can get a drink here for one as, if
you give two, you will drink better; if you give four, you will drink Falernian.”

Gambling ​was another popular pastime in taverns

and bars, but the baths as well. Evidence from mosaics,
frescoes and graffiti suggests that dice games were
common and there was a dice association. In a tavern
on the Via Stabiana (in Pompeii), the names of two
female gamblers are recorded on the wall, together
with the date and amount of their debt and the rate of
interest they were being charged. Knucklebones was
another popular game, but not always associated with
gambling. People also appear to have gambled on the
outcome of gladiator combats and cockfights.

Bone Dice - Naples Museum

Questions
1. Take a virtual 3D reconstructed tour of the theatre district here
http://publicvr.org/html/pro_pompeii.html

2. Read the entertainment and leisure section in your Bradley textbook. Summarise the role
of gladiators in blood sports and answer questions 1-4 in Activity 9.3 (p150)

3. Writing task - answer the following question: “​Explain what the sources reveal
about leisure activities in Pompeii and Herculaneum.” ​(2 pages)
To help you plan your response: identify the main leisure activities of the people of Pompeii and
Herculaneum and use them to structure your response
• use specific sources to illustrate your explanation - explain the relationship between the sources
and the conclusions you draw – be careful to avoid a source-by-source description.
 Food and Dining in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Food
The people of Pompeii and Herculaneum had access to a wide range of fresh produce. Simple
meals of bread, cheese, nuts and salads could be made quickly and easily. More elaborate
dinner party dishes would have taken more time and skill. From the evidence it appears that
the major food groups included vegetables (cabbage, onions, garlic, lettuce, asparagus,
cucumber, leeks, radishes, turnips), nuts and seeds (walnuts, almonds, chestnuts,
poppyseeds), seafood (fish, scallops, cockles, lobster, eel, lobster, cuttlefish, garum), meat
(sheep, pigs, cattle, goat, poultry, birds), pulses (peas, beans, lentils), cereals (barley, millet,
wheat-in bread) and fruit (figs, prunes, dates, pears, apples, cherries, pomegranates, olives
and grapes). The large number of bakeries suggests that bread was also an important part of
the diet.

The most reliable evidence for the food eaten in Pompeii and Herculaneum comes from the
carbonised remains of the food itself; which has been found in ovens, cooking pots and
dishes, root casts of vines and fruit trees, pollen from various plants found in the ash deposit,
the remains of fish and animals in the markets, and even food traces found in carbonised
feces in ancient toilets.

Frescoes showing banqueting scenes and recipes such as those of Alpicius also provide
information about food in Roman times. However, without corroborating archaeological
evidence, it can not be assumed that they are reliable sources about the food eaten in
Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Skeletal remains of the victims in the towns show that they were generally well-nourished,
suggesting a healthy diet.

Cooking and Dining

Food was generally prepared on small portable braziers or tripods
cooked over charcoal. Some houses had specific kitchen areas (eg the
House of the Vettii in Pompeii), but in most cooking could be done in
various rooms, in passageways or outdoors. Metal braziers, brick ovens
and fireplaces indicate where food was cooked and a range of pots and
pans and other utensils provide evidence of how it was cooked. It would
have been possible to bake, fry, boil or BBQ using the equipment
uncovered.

Ready cooked food was also available from some ​thermopolia​.

Evidence for cooking and food preparation comes from cooking and
eating utensils, cooking areas in houses, dining rooms and tabernae.

Wealthy Romans appear to have had a room specifically for dining

(​triclinium)​, however a number of other rooms could have also served
as a dining area. The triclinium had 3 couches on which diners
reclined. Food was placed on small couches near the dining
couches, with family and guests served by slaves. Most people would have eaten from pottery
bowls and plates and drunk from pottery vessels, although in wealthier homes tableware
such as silver spoons, made of silver, glass and bronze has been found.

Frescoes and contemporary literature suggest that dinner parties were popular amongst
wealthier families. These elaborate dinner parties would have had several courses served by
slaves along with entertainment from dancers and/ or musicians. Banquets normally
consisted of 3 main parts:
● Gustum/ gustatio/ promulsis​ (entree): could have included eggs, vegetables
(raw or cooked), herbs, lettuce, mushrooms, salted fish, oysters, mussels and snails.
● Mensae primae ​(main course): could include roasted or boiled meat, poultry and
meat delicacies. During this course wine (often mixed with water) was drunk.
● Mensa secundae (​ dessert): consisted of fruit or various kinds of sweets like honey
cakes.

Questions
1. List the main courses for a banquet and summarise the types of food eaten for each one.
2. Go to the following website and:
a) Summarise the different types of evidence for food and dining in a table with the
following headings:

Food or Dining Practice Evidence

Eg fish, bread etc Frescoes from the….

Epigraphic evidence..

Using the notes above, your textbook and the web link here:
https://sites.google.com/a/syd.catholic.edu.au/boudica/12-ancient-history/12-ah-vesuvius/
food-and-dining

b) Using the same web link, complete the 3 past HSC questions on food and dining
practices in BOTH Pompeii and Herculaneum. Use the mark range as a general guide
for writing length.
Everyday Life: Clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum

As very little clothing examples survive from both cities, the evidence for what people may
have worn comes from the various frescoes and statuary found in Pompeii and
Herculaneum.

The evidence suggests that most pompeians dressed as the Romans dressed. Males wore a
tunic, the basic item of clothing, which was a simple knee length garment. Most men of rank
and equestrian classes wore a tunic, belted at the waist and usually made from woollen
fabric. Only citizens were entitled to wear the toga (a long piece of cloth worn over the tunic
draped around the body over one shoulder), which was normally reserved for formal
occasions and usually in the Forum. Status was distinguished by stripes and colours. The
different types of togas worn included:
● The ​tunica laticlavis​ or the senatorial tunic had broad stripes that extended from
the shoulder to the hem.
● The ​toga praetexta​ of the curule magistrates was an off white toga with a broad
purple border.

Adult male citizens of high status also wore a personalised signet ring that was used to make
an impression in sealing wax in order to authorise documents.

Freeborn men and women wore similar clothing. Their basic item of clothing was a full, long
tunic (tunica) and assembled in two styles similar to the Greek style of tunic. The poorer
freeborn workingman, freedman and slave all wore similar tunics belted at the waist.

Women did not wear togas, just tunics. A married woman was also
expected to wear a ​stola​ - a​ long, sleeveless tunic, usually
suspended at the shoulders from short straps, worn on top of the
basic tunic. Worn by women of rank and as a symbol of marriage,
the stola enabled a woman to publicly proclaim her modesty and
respect for tradition. When outdoors in public, women also wore a
palla​ - a long cloak worn over a woman’s head. While women
of all three social classes wore similar styles of garments, the
quality and colour of fabrics may have varied. The clothing of poorer working women and
slaves would have depended on the type of work they did. Not all slaves were poorly dressed.

Women also took pride in their appearance, wearing jewellery, makeup and styling their hair
( such as with a ​v​ittae ​- a w​oollen headband) in various ways. Evidence for this comes from
a variety of objects discovered which includes ivory and bone combs, mirrors made of silver
and bronze, a range of cosmetic and perfume containers and an assortment of jewellery such
as rings, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, pins and brooches.

Questions
1. Summarise the clothing styles of men and women in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
2. Is it possible to distinguish social classes from the garments in frescoes? Explain why/ why
not.
3. How reliable are statues and frescoes as evidence of everyday clothing as worn in Pompeii
and Herculaneum? Explain your answer.
 Religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Religion was an important part of everyday life for the Romans, and the people of Pompeii
and Herculaneum worshipped a range of deities, particularly those of Greece and the East
(which were adapted to suit their needs). Proper worship of the gods was believed to ensure
peace, fertility and prosperity. In the Imperial Age, the cult of the Emperors (originating
under Augustus) was integrated into the state religion as a way of securing loyalty and
unifying the Empire.

Religion was also a part of politics. Men from leading families held priesthoods as part of
their political career; and each citizen had a political duty to carry out the correct rituals to
the gods to ensure prosperity, good luck and protection for the state and its people. Women
also held religious positions, as evidenced by the statues and inscriptions of priestesses such
as Eumachia and Mania.

Deities and the State Cult

The Romans were polytheists (worshipping many Gods). Some were adopted from the
Greeks and some were adopted from other cultures such as Egypt (see notes further down on
foreign cults).

The Roman god Jupiter was worshipped in Pompeii from at least

the 2nd century BC when the temple to Jupiter (protector of the
state) was built in the forum. After Sulla’s conquest of the city, this
temple was converted into a ​capitolium d ​ edicated to the
Capitoline Triad: ​Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.​ The temple
dominated the forum and was modelled on the Capitolium in
Rome, symbolising Rome’s power over Pompeii. It stood on a
podium 3 m high and contained statues of the 3 deities in a
colonnaded hall.

The Roman goddess ​Venus w ​ as the special protector of Pompeii. The

goddess ​Venus Pompeiana ​was the patron goddess of ​Lucius
Cornelius Sulla​ as well as of the city of ​Pompeii​. A temple to her was
built near the Marine Gate and she often appears in frescoes and (is
mentioned in) graffiti in taverns, houses, gardens, shops and gladiator
chambers. As the goddess of love and success she is often mentioned in
graffiti by people either pleading for her assistance in their romances or
cursing her for their lack of success.

Mercury​, the Roman god of trade, profit and

commerce, was another popular god who appears
frequently in frescoes and shrines associated with shops
and businesses.
The Imperial Cult
The Imperial cult first developed under the reign of
Augustus and evidence of this cults worship can be found
at both Pompeii and Herculaneum. Associated with the ​pax
Romana (​ peace of Rome), the divine spirit (​genius)​ of
Augustus was worshipped thus also providing associations
with good fortune (​fortuna augusta)​ . At Pompeii there was
a priest of Augustus (flamen Augusti) and a temple (the
Fortuna Augusta) was built at a crossroads one block from
the forum.

The Temple of the Genius Augusti: ​was another place which celebrated worship of the
Imperial Cult. Located in the forum, it was surrounded by a sacred enclosure. The marble
altar in the courtyard contains a relief depicting a sacrificial ritual. It was paid for by the
priestess Mamia.

The Augustales: ​were established in 14 AD when Augustus died and was defied. A small
group of men administered the cult in Rome and similar groups developed in towns like
Pompeii and Herculaneum. There were property qualifications for entry so it was usually the
leading members of the town that joined. However, slaves and freedmen could also
participate in the cult as “Servants of the Augustan Good Fortune”. Inscriptions have been
found suggesting associations with the Temple of Fortuna Augusta, and members could hold
office for multiple years. They acted on the orders of the officials of the town. A cult space
used by the Augustales has been discovered in Herculaneum.

Temples
Images of the gods were kept in temples, and rituals associated with the worship of the gods
were carried out by the priests there. So far, ten temples have been uncovered in Pompeii
(most in or around the forum)but, as yet, none have been excavated in Herculaneum.

Apart from the temples previously mentioned, a ​Temple of the Public Lares i​ n the forum
was dedicated to the spirits of the dead ancestors. The ​Temple of Jupiter Meilichios
(located away from the forum) was another important temple dedicated to farmers.
Questions
1. Use the following website links (and or p60 of your textbook) to make a summary table/
list of the main gods/ goddesses and temples in both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/history/gods-and-goddesses
https://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption/pompeii/public-buildings/temple-of-venus​ You
can use the sample table headings below as a guide:

God/ Goddess Function/ Description Town/ Evidence

2. What were the main features of temples and religious ritual in Pompeii?

State Religion: Foreign Cults

Hellenistic cults:​ ​The Greek gods, Apollo and Herakles, were worshipped in pre-Roman
Pompeii and Herculaneum and it continued until 79AD. Herakles/ Hercules was worshipped
in both cities with evidence of numerous statues and frescoes in Herculaneum and
dedicatory columns in the Triangular Forum in Pompeii. The Temple of Apollo in the
Pompeian Forum was given importance in pre Roman times and was rededicated in the 2nd
century BC. The festivals held in the forum (in honour of Apollo), were significant social
occasions. In the time of Augustsus, the worship of Apollo was associated with the Emperor
himself.

The cult of Dionysus: ​or Bacchus, was associated with a state of ecstasy that came from
intoxication by the god and was probably the earliest mystery cult in Pompeii. The greek god
of wine, actors, fertility and divine intoxication, Dionysus had been worshipped in Pompeii
during the Samnite period and a Dionysisan temple was found outside the city walls (dating
back to the 3rd/ 2nd century BC). Dionysian themes were popular in Pompeian decoration,
particularly the satyrs and maenads. Evidence for this can be seen in the fresco decoration of
the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii.

Ceres ​(Demeter in Greece): was popular in the Campania area and Pompeii had a public
priestess of Ceres. She was important in Pompeii because of the agricultural associations
with grain, fertility and abundance.
The Temple of Asclepius​ (Zeus Meilichios): dates from the 2nd century BC and, like the
Temple of Isis, was open to cult members only. It’s small layout suggests it originated from a
private initiative and was also located in the theatre quarter.​Egyptian Cults: The Cult of Isis ​-
was brought from Egypt to Pompeii and Herculaneum by Italian merchants.

Members tended to be mainly women but children, slaves, freedmen, traders, soldiers, high
and low officials also participated. The size of the temple in Pompeii (near the triangular
forum) suggests a small number of devotees, but its location implies there was public
approval for its construction and positioning near the other Greek buildings (ie the theatres)
in the town. There were two important ceremonies associated with the cult of Isis: ​The
festival of the finding of Osiris ​(inventio
Osiridis) and ​the Ship Launching festival
(​navigium Isidis).

The temple was open everyday and the white

robed priests (who were also eunuchs) began
the daily ritual ceremonies before sunrise and in
the afternoons. Isis was regarded as the ‘glory of
women’ and participation in the rites of
initiation brought enlightenment and rebirth.
She was also credited with the power to help
women in labour, and the offering of medical
cures through dreams and rituals.

The ceremony of the lustral waters is shown on a

famous fresco from Herculaneum. A priest is seen
holding a vessel (presumably with sacred water
from the Nile), while two other priests have sistra,
rattle-like musical instruments, in their hands, and
a third priest tends a fire on the Altar. Sistrum and
vessel with sacred water also appear in the picture
of a priest in the House of Loreius Tiburtinus
(II,2,2).

Unfortunately, we also have little information about

the initiation ceremony, unlike the more “public”
ceremonies they are not shown in wall paintings.
The chamber in the southern corner of the temple is
assumed to be the “initiation chamber”. It is farthest away from the entrance, and it
contained a supply of lamps, suggesting secret activities during the night. It is also worth to
note that the character of the decoration is different from the more public areas of the
temple, the wall paintings are dominated by pictures of Egyptian gods, while scenes showing
priests performing the daily ceremonies are lacking, showing that the chamber was devoted
to the more mystical aspects.

Questions
1. Make a list of the main foreign cults worshipped in Pompeii and Herculaneum.
2. Research the following foreign cults of Pompeii and Herculaneum: ​Osiris, Sarapis,
Harpocrates, Anubis, Lakshmi, Sabazius. ​Record the information in a table using
these headings: God/ Goddess, Origin, Responsibility, Evidence in Pompeii/
Herculaneum.
3. What do the discoveries of foreign cults tell us about the religious attitudes and
practices of the residents of Pompeii?

Household Religion
The whole of daily life for the Roman citizen was governed by religious observance and
​ rotected
religion played an important part in every household. Divine spirits called ​lares p
members of the household. The paterfamilias and his family would offer prayers to his
hearth, household gods and his ancestors. This would take place in the household shrine -
the ​lararium.​

The lararium took its name from the divine spirits who would protect the household. Each
day the paterfamilias was responsible for leading the household prayers at the shrine and for
carrying out rituals that would ensure the protection of the spirits. Offerings of incense,
flowers, fruit and special cakes were made at the shrine. They were also celebrated once a
month with a wreath and a portion of meat; or with the sacrifice of a lamb on important
occasions.

The lares are usually represented in frescoes and statues as two young men or youths,
dancing with short sleeved tunics swishing out. In one hand they hold high a rhyton and a
dish extended in the other. Lares can also be shown carrying a horn of cornucopia (ie horn of
plenty), or a wine bucket and sheaf of corn.
The other guardian spirit of the household was the ​genius, ​who ensured the future of the
family line (gens). Each genius stood for the head of the household and was represented as a
priestly male figure, usually shown in between the lares. Snakes​, often accompanying the
Lares​, are also symbols of good fortune and guardian deities that protect the home, shop,
neighbourhood, or temple.

The lararium could be an elaborate structure, a small shrine like cupboard or a painted
alcove usually placed in the atrium, near the entry to the house but they can also be found
near a kitchen or in the peristyle courtyard. There are three main types of lararia:
1. A simple niche in a wall to provide a resting place for the statuettes and the
background might be painted
2. Aedicula (a 3D miniature temple set on a podium)in wealthy homes; its sides are
lined with marble plaques or covered in painted stucco to imitate marble
3. A fresco on the wall to imitate an aedicula with the figures of the gods also painted.

The lararium was also the focus of worship of other gods connected with the
house and family. The ​penates w ​ ere the spirits of the pantry or food store.
Statuettes of the penates were placed on the table at meal times. Modern
interpretations of the penates view the gods connection with power (ie
potestats) of the master of the house. Prayers and offerings were also made,
usually near the fireplace, to Vesta - goddess of the hearth and home. The
fireplace was important as a source of light and heat for the home. Household
gods sought to save the family unit from evil.
Portraits of family ancestors (in the form of statues or wax masks) were kept in the house
(normally in the atrium), included in household rituals and honoured on important family
occasions, such as births, deaths and marriages.

Questions
1. Briefly describe the location, function and activities that were held at the lararia.
2. Describe the names and symbolism of the figures, including the snake in the fresco
below.

3. Read the following source about household religion from Cicero below:
“The most sacred, the most hallowed place on earth is the home of each and every
citizen. There are his sacred hearth and his household gods, there the very centre of
his worship, religion and domestic ritual.”
​Cicero, De Domo Sua, 41, 109
a) According to this source, what is the importance of household religion to the
people of Pompeii and Herculaneum? Support you answer with reference to
the source.

Tombs
Roman law prohibited the dead from being buried within the city
walls. As a result, the dead in Pompeii were buried outside the
city walls and along the main gates (eg Herculaneum Gate) in a
Necropolis.​ The simplest marking of a burial was with a
columella​ (stone marker) that was shaped like a stylised head
and shoulders of the deceased. A larger and more decorative
tomb, with inscriptions commemorating political careers, civic
service and benefactors to the people, allowed the great families
opportunities for competitive display of self-advertisement.
Some tombs were like altars and others
looked like small houses or temples.
Graves were dedicated to DM (dis
minibus - the manes) and to the named
deceased individual. As yet, there have been no tombs found in Herculaneum.

In the first century, the bodies were normally cremated and the ashes
were placed in a ​cinerary urn o ​ f pottery or glass buried within the
structure. Sometimes a coin was placed within the urn to pay the
ferryman Charon, who transported the dead to the Underworld via the
river Styx. Most tombs contained multiple burials.

There was no distinction of social class in death. Slaves, freedman, women and prominent
citizens were buried side by side. In some tombs, the ashes of slaves were placed in the
tombs of their master.

Some tombs were public monuments granted by the town council to honour the deceased.
Eumachia and Mamia (both priestesses) had seat tombs (​exedra)​ which were curved stone
seats for passes by to sit and rest.

Religious Rites
During the funeral itself, frankincense and perfumes were offered at the funeral pyre and
libations (liquid offerings) were made. A Banquet was often held near the burial site and
offerings of food were left for the deceased. A nine day mourning period followed and
offerings and another banquet was held to mark its end. The dead were remembered by the
living with special rites each year during the ​Festival of Parentalia​ (13-21st February)
when family groups celebrated by made offerings at their grave.

The Manes
The Romans believed the deceased entered a shadowy existence in the underworld. The souls
of who successfully made the transition from life to the underworld joined the ​manes
(spirits of the dead). Those who were not so fortunate were called ​lemures ​(hungry ghosts
without family) who were believed to prowl around the houses during the month of the
ancestors (May). On this day there was a special ritualistic feeding actions performed by the
paterfamilias who, looking away, would throw broad beans and say nine times: “​These I
send; with these beans I redeem me and mine”.
 1. Read the brief summary of Pompeii’s necropolis’ here:
http://pompeiisites.org/en/pompeii-map/analysis/the-necropolis-of-pompeii/​ and
make a list of the gates where tombs were found at Pompeii.

2. a) Read the article - “Remnants of Ritual: A discussion of burial practices and

material remains of Pompeian tombs” by ​Jennifer Geller here:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/949e/3de6fc8951a906141830ef5de1087de8921b.p
df​ and summarise the burial/ funerary practices of the Pompeians based on the
evidence uncovered.
b) What other evidence does Geller claim supports the notion of animal burials/
necropolis'?

3. a) Research more about the festival of Parentalia here:

https://historyandarchaeologyonline.com/appeasing-the-ancestors-the-parentalia-a
nd-feralia/​ and discuss the rituals and ceremonies that were held and why.
b) What was the ​Feralia? ​Describe what it was, when it was held and what it involved.

4. Refer to your notes, textbook and tomb inscription handout. What valuable
information do the inscriptions and tombs provide us about the lives and religious
beliefs of the inhabitants of Pompeii? Provide specific examples.

Writing Task
Using all the information overall, write a two page response to the following question:

With reference to sources and your own knowledge, explain what the evidence
reveals about religious beliefs and practices in Pompeii.
The Influences of Greek and Egyptian Cultures: Art & Architecture

Hellenistic (Greek) Influences

Greek influence in Pompeii and Herculaneum is evident in the art,
architecture and religion of the towns. Greeks had occupied the towns
early in their history and Romans generally had a fascination with all
things Greek. Frescoes on the walls of houses and public buildings are
an Italin practice, but they incorporate Greek elements (eg Greek
columns and scenes related to Greek mythology and religion). Statues
of Greek gods and heroes (eg Apollo and Hercules), also provide
evidence of Greek influence.

Frescoes and mosaics feature aspects of Greek drama which had been
absorbed into Roman culture (eg masks of comedies and tragedies).
Hellenistic influences can also be seen can also be seen in architectural
features such as the theatres (In the decoration and design of the large
theatre and the Odeon as previously mentioned (under entertainment)
as well as popular comedies, tragedies and farces that were hosted here),
temples and palestras.

The Greek artistic tradition is reflected in the many statues that were
direct copies of Greek originals. Greek continued to be spoken and some inscriptions and
graffiti were written in Greek (eg the inscription from the Temple of Jupiter in Pompeii and
the graffiti in the Suburban baths in Pompeii). Greek literature (eg Greek scrolls from the
Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum), drama and philosophy influenced the Roman world and a
Roman was regarded as being educated if he read and spoke Greek.

Egyptian Influences
Once Egypt became part of the Roman Empire (after 30BC- 1st century BC) and Egyptian
craftsmen began working in Italy, EGyptain scenes and motifs became very fashionable.
The Alexander mosaic (although Hellenistic themed) was created by an Egyptian craftsmen
along with another mosaic featuring exotic animals from both EGypt and the Nile. Statuettes
and amulets have been found of the Egyptian god Bes, protector of women and children, and
the Egyptian goddess Isis was also very popular (as previously mentioned under foreign cults
in Religion).

Questions
1. Explain what is meant by the term Hellenism.
2. What are the three different Hellenic architectural styles of columns found in
Pompeii? Give a brief description and evidence for each one.
3. Why are there traces of Hellenistic influences in both private and public architecture
in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Writing Questions
1. Read p54 of your textbook and complete the writing question (q3) on p55.
2. Complete this question in a paragraph 5-8 lines from the 2014 HSC: “​Briefly outline
Greek influences at Pompeii and Herculaneum. In your answer, use Source A and
your own knowledge.” (3)

Source A​: Image of actors rehearsing a play, found in the House of the Tragic Poet at Pompeii
 Reconstructing and
Conserving the Past

Syllabus dot points:

● Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies
● Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions
and responsibilities
● Ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains
● Value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions
 Changing interpretations
Impact of New Research and Technologies

When Pompeii and Herculaneum were first discovered there were no established methods of
excavation. There were no rules to follow in excavation, little concern for the context in
which artefacts were found and no precedent for record keeping or publication of reports.
Archaeology as a scientific practice did not exist. On his retirement in the early 1960s,
Amedeo Maiuri realised that Pompeii was in a bad way, commenting that ‘​what is left to do
is a complex, laborious and arduous, slow, and costly work of preservation, protection and
restoration”.

Equipped with new technology, archaeologists and historians approach the sites with fresh
perspectives. Archival material relating to the excavations is re-examined and the sites
themselves are re-excavated. New questions are asked of the sources and the evidence is
used to form new impressions, which often challenge previous research. Some of the issues
which reflect these developments (which haven’t already been addressed so far) include:

1. How destructive was the earthquake of AD62?

Archaeologists in the 1940s and 1990s believe the evidence of unrepaired buildings show
indicators of economic decline and social upheaval. These assumptions are based on the
number of buildings that were still unrepaired at the time of the eruption in 79 AD.

Other scholars like Alison Cooley suggests that 17 years was too long a period for repairs and
claims that the evidence suggests that the people of these cities may have been redecorating
their houses instead. However, modern research by volcanologists and seismologists refutes
these claims by suggesting that there may have been successive tremors leading up to the
eruption supporting Pliny's claim that many houses and shops were still occupied while
others were being repaired.

To reach a conclusion here you would need to determine what is most likely to have caused
the damage that was being repaired. Was it the earthquake, restoration, remodelling or the
eruption itself?

2. Differing Interpretations of buildings: Room use

There are 3 main sources that provide information on Roman dwellings; Vitruvius, Pliny the
Younger and Varro. But, these works concentrate on the Roman ideal and may not be
applicable to the provincial towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum whose styles were adapted
for local conditions.

The main difficulty is that many rooms had multiple functions. Different activities could take
place in rooms at different parts of the day and furniture was generally lightweight and
portable. Australian archaeologist Penelope Allison challenges interpretations based on
assumptions about how rooms were used and what they were called in Roman times.
New Technologies: ​With the use of science, technology and specialist multidisciplinary
teams from all over the world, an increased emphasis on documentation, and new
information gained from re-examinations of former excavated sites, new interpretations are
being made. As well, the very richness of the Vesuvian area is continuing to turn up new
results.

Computers have played an invaluable part in recording, storing and comparing photographs,
plans, maps and tens of thousands of finds. They provide instant, permanent access to
virtually limitless amounts of information. For example:
● a map of the town, the geology of the area and the plans of every building and street
can be drawn and examined in detail on a computer screen.
● if the foundations of a house are all that have been found, the computer can build up
an image of what the house might have once looked like.
● they can store and compare detailed records of thousands of finds down to the tiniest
fragment of pottery or a coin.
● high-resolution digital cameras and
sophisticated computer technology such as the
computer software known as AutoCAD, or
computer-aided design, can create
three-dimensional models, which has led to a
fast-paced digital revolution in recent years.
● the use of iPads introduced by the Pompeii
Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia
in 2010 has speeded up the completion of
forms, and are used for technical drawings,
stratigraphic diagrams and excavation notes.
They allow the rapid dissemination of
information between experts in the field.
Other technology includes:
● Infra-red photography and digital
multi-spectral imaging, which allows
the extraction of information the
human eye fails to capture with its
receptors for red, green and blue, has
been used to reveal the writing on the
carbonised scrolls found at the Villa
of the Papyri, without damaging the
scrolls.
● Medical imaging: X-rays and CT
scans have been used to carry out
non-invasive work on the fragile casts
of Pompeii, especially to elicit new information from some of the epoxy resin casts of
bodies.
● 3D laser reconstructions have been used on Pompeii’s Forum.
 ● The techniques of forensic medicine have helped determine how people died, and
how healthy they were at the time of death.
● Microscopy can determine the point of origin of building materials used in the cities.
● The techniques of dendrochronology have been used to establish dates when wooden
objects were made and where the timber came from.
● DNA testing has been used to determine sex and hereditary illnesses of victims.

Questions
1. List the benefits that CT and DNA scans have brought to archaeology and the
interpretation of evidence at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
2. Briefly explain how computer technology has enhanced the archaeological study and
interpretation of artefacts from the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
3. Research: complete the activity on p 58 of your Antiquity 2 text - questions 1&2.
 Issues of Conservation and Reconstruction
The sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum have been damaged by 200 years of excavation,
exposure, poor restoration work and poor site management. The pressures of tourism have
also contributed to site damage. More than 1 million tourists visit Pompeii each year and
almost half that number visit Herculaneum. Today, conservation programs are being
undertaken in both sites and management plans are in place which restrict tourist access to
some areas to try and reduce some of the damage they cause.

Poor Conservation and Restoration

The seven main risks to World Heritage sites like Pompeii (according to Henry Cleere -
ICOMOS World Heritage Consultation Adviser) are:
● Pollution from the atmosphere and other anthropogenic (pollutants caused by
humans) causes
● Natural disasters
● Looting
● Unsympathetic urban and infrastructural planning
● Inadequate site management and conservation
● Over excavation
● Tourism
Pompeii and Herculaneum are, today, basically open air museums which (combined) include
almost 2,000 buildings, many kilometers of roads and paths, thousands of square meters of
frescoes walls and paved and mosaic flooring still vulnerable to the forces of decay. The sites
still present enormous difficulties in balancing and the need for research and conservation
with the demands for tourism, which is the main form of revenue. ICOMOS ​(​International
Council on Monuments and Sites) ​reports from 2000 and 2001 provide details of the
problems facing the sites.

Poor Restoration Work

Much of the early restoration and conservation work was poorly done. Firms undertaking
this work, some associated with the Neapolitan mafia, did not have the specialized skills or
knowledge required. They used inappropriate methods and materials which caused further
damage, eg roofs constructed over parts of the House of Meleager in Pompeii and the House
of the Mosaic Atrium in Herculaneum collapsed, damaging walls and floors. Modern
mortars and plasters used to re-attach ancient painted plaster to walls were incompatible,
causing plaster to crack.

In the past, some excavators have been more concerned

with speed rather than preservation and as a result,
uncovered structures have deteriorated. Where internal
walls have been exposed to the elements, frescoes have
faded. Protective awnings and roofs are also deteriorating.

Rain, rising damp and mould have also caused damage,

especially to floor mosaics and painted surfaces. Water
pools on mosaic floors and against walls, creating damp
areas which carry salts into the fabric of the walls behind the painted plaster.

Further damage has been caused by

inappropriate materials such as steel reinforcing
beams in concrete. Where the concrete has
flaked away and exposed beams, the steel has
rusted and expanded causing further damage.
Poor quality mortar has been used to protect
ancient stonework. Over time, this mortar has
cracked, allowing water, vegetation, and fungi to
penetrate, contributing to the decay of the

plaster. Unsuitable conservation materials such as resin varnish and wax coatings have been
used to restore painted surfaces but have sealed the paint against the damp and salt building
up behind the plaster. In the College of the Augstales in Herculaneum, wooden ceiling joists
and other timber features have been covered with layers of glass or fiberglass, creating a
microclimate that is now crumbling the wood.

Damage from vegetation

Vegetation (eg brambles, fennel, fig, valerian etc), especially ivy, has grown over walls and
roofs. The roots of the ivy has lifted the plaster from walls and the weight of the vegetation
has caused walls to crumble and collapse. It’s been estimated that thousands of square
meters of floor surfaces, including mosaics, have been destroyed by the invading weeds. As
well as weeds, there are microbiological infestations of algae, fungi and lichen, particularly in
areas where there is poor drainage.

Environmental Factors
Being in an earthquake prone area means that the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum are
subject to frequent tremors and eruptions. Such seismic activity shakes the foundations of
the ancient cities, causing damage to excavated (and possibly unexcavated) ruins.

In Herculaneum, pigeons have caused a lot of damage to the buildings by nesting in the
ruins, pecking at beams, doors and window frames of carbonised wood. The high acidic
content of their droppings has damaged frescoes and mosaic floors. Falcons are now being
used on the site in an effort to scare pigeons away.

Poor Site Protection and Management

Both Pompeii and Herculaneum have been subject to looting since the earliest excavations.
AN onsite museum at Pompeii was closed in 1975 as a result of theft, and in 1977 thieves cut
14 frescoes from the walls of the House of the Gladiators. In 1990 a storeroom was robbed at
Herculaneum and more than 250 artefacts were taken. Between 1975 and 2000, it’s
estimated that more than 600 items were stolen from the sites.
The Neapolitan Mafia (the Camorra) has taken a keen interest in the sites and it’s been
suggested that they have infiltrated the ranks of site guards and have pressured previous site
superintendents into giving them lucrative contracts for conservation and restoration work.
However, protection and security of the sites has improved, but recent theft of frescoes show
that there is still room for improvement.

Site management of the cities has been inadequate from the beginning. There is no
requirement, nor provision, for visitors to check in large bags and backpacks before
entering. The absent vigilance of guards enables people to walk freely around the sites
unsupervised, leaving the site vulnerable to theft and vandalism. Proper signage and
explanations would encourage more interest and respect for the sites, helping tourists
appreciate their historic significance.

Questions
1. a) Using p200 of the Bradley text, define “conservation”.
b) What is restoration? Explain the difference between this and conservation.
c) Which of the two do you feel is more appropriate to apply to the site? Explain your
answer.
2. Using your texts and powerpoint notes, make a mindmap/ list of the conservation
issues at both Pompeii and Herculaneum. Explain any similarities or differences.
3. Complete all questions on p62 & 63 of your Antiquity 2 text.
4. a) Research the ​Herculaneum Research Project​ (HCP). Outline the project’s
membership, its aims, techniques, finance and results.
b) Read the article on the House of the Bicentinery at Herculaneum
http://www.getty.edu/conservation/our_projects/field_projects/herculaneum/overv
iew.html​. Outline the aims, methods and success of this project.
c) How effective and significant are these programs in achieving their aims? Explain
your answer with reference to the articles/ research you’ve done.
5. Open this link:
https://sites.google.com/a/syd.catholic.edu.au/boudica/12-ancient-history/12-ah-ve
suvius/conservation-and-reconstruction​ , read the information and complete ​either
the 2018 ​or​ 2011 past HSC questions.
6. Take a virtual Tour of the site here and make your own judgements about the
restoration and conservation events of the site. The entire tour takes 2hours but you
can fast forward to get to the areas you want to see - there’s no text or commentary
but music: ​https://youtu.be/gaJPcKLyXLQ
 Italian and International Contributions and Responsibilities

Italian Contributions and Responsibilities

In 1997 the Italian Government passed a law which allowed the Superintendent of
Archaeology in Pompeii to keep all gate receipts to spend in Pompeii. This has helped to
provide better site management, facilities for tourists and to help fund archaeological work.

The Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei (or more fully, the ​Soprintendenza Speciale
per i Beni Archeologici di Pompei, Ercolano e Stabia​) is the Italian organisation
responsible for the Vesuvian sites. On its website, under ​Who We Are​, it describes itself this
way: ​“The Special Superintendency for the Archaeological Heritage of Naples and Pompeii
(SANP) is a decentralized body of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities, vested
with special independent status, whose sphere of competence is the preservation,
conservation and public utilization of archaeological resources.”

It was instituted with Presidential Decree on the 26th November 2007 and brings together
the Archaeological Superintendency of Pompeii, which had previously been granted
independent scientific, organizational and financial autonomy through Law on the 8th of
October 1997, and the Archaeological Superintendency of Naples and Caserta. The territorial
scope of its competence currently encompasses the entire province of Naples and, in addition
to Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Vesuvian sites, (​ ​http://pompeiisites.org​),​ it also includes the
Phlegraean area around the city of Naples, the Naples National Archaeological Museum and
the Sorrento coast (​http:\\sbanap.campaniabeniculturali.it​).”

In 2008 ​the Italian government enlisted the assistance of a retired lawman, Renato Profili
(the former prefect of Naples) to map out a strategy to combat neglect and degradation at the
site. Profili was given special powers for one year so he could bypass the Italian bureaucracy
and speedily bolster security and stop the disintegration of the sites. Italy’s culture minister,
Sandro Bondi, directed Profili to crack down on “blatant abuses” like unlicensed tour guides
and the souvenir vendors who aggressively approach tourists.
Bondi also requested that Profili explore “new forms of innovative management” in which
private sponsors might be recruited to finance improvements in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The 2010 building collapses coincided with a short-lived initiative called ​PompeiViva
(Pompeii Lives), w​ hich aimed to attract more visitors and to provide an “experience” for the
visitor. Some of the events and experiences were: performances in the Large Theatre with the
seating concreted over to accommodate the audience; A tour through the House of Julius
Polybius which included commentary by a hologram of Julius himself; and what was called
the “Site-event of the Casti Amanti”, in which a metal walkway was erected through the
restored House of the Chaste Lovers for tourists to look at the house and observe
archaeologists at work. PompeiViva collapsed in 2011 with allegations of corruption and
mismanagement. The building collapses highlighted the neglect the site was suffering
beneath the facade of the PompeiViva exhibits.
Questions

1. Briefly outline some of the responses by the Italian government in regards to its
responsibilities for managing and conserving the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
2. Claudio Velardi, culture and tourism chief for the Campania region, which includes
Pompeii, has suggested an “American style” sponsorship of the site, in which a
business would receive image benefits i(f not a tangible financial return). However,
an article published in 2008 “​Saving Pompeii From the Ravages of Time and
Tourists”​ by Art and Design recorded the response to this stating: “...​around the
globe there is always considerable unease with the notion of the privatization of
cultural heritage. “Pompeii is a government responsibility; it’s a World Heritage
site, and they don’t want it to become too much of a Disneyland,”​ (Steven J. R. Ellis
of the University of Cincinnati, a director of a research project at Porta Stabia,
Pompeii) and that “T​he concern is that private investment will swing interests into
making money at Pompeii rather than its cultural upkeep and the assurance that
funds are given over to conservation,”​ (Dr. Ellis)
a) What are the positive and negative points of this argument?
b) How much of the responsibility of the sites conservation and study should be
a shared responsibility?

International Contributions and Responsibilities

After the earthquake of 1980, the desperate condition of the sites caused international
concern. The Italian Government accepted financial aid from the European Economic
Community and allowed joint venture projects between Italian specialists and university
based teams from other countries.

New excavations were halted and projects were undertaken to stablise structures, halt
further damage and carry out conservation. The University of Leden, the Spanish School at
Rome, the Anglo American Project, the British School at Rome and the Philodemus Project
(involving the Brigham Young University and the University of California) have made
valuable contributions to our knowledge of the sites through re-excavation, documentation,
interpretation and conservation of different aspects of the sites or objects found within them.

Australian specialists have been involved in some of these projects. AN Australian team with
members from a number of universities examined and documented three houses, including
the House of the PAinted Capitals in Pompeii. Archaeologist and physical anthropologist
Estelle Lazer, has also examined the human remains from Pompeii. The Herculaneum
Conservation Project is an example of international co-operation, involving the British
School at Rome and the Packard Institute, working with Italian archaeologists and other
specialities.

In 1998, UNESCO declared Pompeii and Herculaneum part of a World Heritage Site. The
committee considered the impressive remains of the towns and their associated villas, buried
by the eruption of AD79, “provide a complete and vivid picture of society and daily life at a
specific moment in the past, without any parallel in the world”.
Management plans have introduced rotational access to sections of both sites. Sections of
insulae, roads and buildings are sectioned off to minimise tourist traffic. Barriers have been
erected to protect sections of some buildings. Better educational signage and programs have
been introduced and the training of guides has been improved.

With the aid of technology, features of buildings have been carefully photographed,
documented and catalogued. Computerised technical and thematic maps of the Campaigna
area, Pompeii and Herculaneum have been made. From 2003, the process began to move all
original pottery, columns, capitals and decorations to museums. Reproductions are intended
to replace them on site.

Questions
1. Research the Anglo American Project and the Philodemus Project (Herculaneum)
and provide a detailed outline of their aims, membership and works (including
examples), and the significance of these works in contributing to our understanding
of the sites as well as their conservation.
2. Using this weblink and the information from p222-226 of the Bradley textbook and
http://pompeiisites.org/en/the-great-pompeii-project/​, outline the aims, techniques,
members and focus of the Great Pompeii Project. You can find out more information
about this project from an online lecture here
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rjty5hHzOZg​ (if you’re interested)
3. Using your textbooks and notes, discuss the issues concerning site management of
both towns and any realistic/ possible solutions that can help manage and/ or
improve these issues (also consider the role of international communities and
organisations).
4. Using this weblink,
https://sites.google.com/a/syd.catholic.edu.au/boudica/12-ancient-history/12-ah-ve
suvius/conservation-and-reconstruction​ answer the 2014 past HSC question.

Value and Impact of Tourism: Problems and Solutions

Tourists are both the best and worst friends and
enemies of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Heavy tourist traffic contributes to the erosion of

roads and footpaths. Lead water pipes have been
exposed and broken, and kerbstones have
collapsed. Deliberate vandalism has occurred
because of poor supervision, and modern graffiti
has been scrawled on painted surfaces. Columns
have been pushed over, people have damaged walls
by climbing on them, pieces of mosaics, plaster,
pottery and marble have been removed from the
sites.
Questions
1. Read the relevant information in your textbook and summarise/ List the main issues
facing the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum due to tourism.
2. Read the article “Presenting Pompeii: Steps toward reconciling conservation and
tourism at an ancient site” by Alia Wallace on your google classroom. List the points
Wallace puts forward to manage tourism at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and
summarise the reality of these arguments.
3. Read source 79 regarding the UNESCO site management plan in your textbook and
answer the relevant questions on p70 of your textbook.
4. Create a mind map or list to sum up the value, impact, problems and solutions of
tourism at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
5. Using this weblink
https://sites.google.com/a/syd.catholic.edu.au/boudica/12-ancient-history/12-ah-ve
suvius/conservation-and-reconstruction​ , choose to answer ​either​ the 2007 ​or​ 2009
past HSC questions.
 Ethical Issues: the study and display of Human Remains

The People of Pompeii- Bodies as Evidence

There are two types of physical evidence that give us information on the people of Pompeii.
These are:
1. the plaster/ resin casts of the victims
2. the skeletal remains (ie the actual bones themselves)

The twentieth century archaeologist, Guiseppi Fiorelli, introduced the method of pouring
plaster into the cavities left by the people and animals of Pompeii. As a result, it is possible to
make deductions about the manner of their deaths. Fiorelli’s casts also provided evidence of
food, plant and tree roots and furniture.

Apart from the casts, skeletal remains have also been found at Pompeii. Generally these
bones were ignored by early excavators and stored in various buildings around Pompeii in
the ancient bath houses, where they became mixed up and intermingled. As a result, the
bones today can only be studied individually creating the problem of identification.

The bones themselves are an important source of information as they are the remains of
people who died at the same time of the same cause. They can also give us information about
sex, age at death, height, population affinities, disease or injury and other factors which help
to create an overall picture of the inhabitants of Pompeii.

Who did not escape the eruption?

While Historians commonly believe it was women, children and the elderly that failed to
escape the 79 AD eruption, there is no concrete basis for this based on the skeletal remains.
From the case study done on approximately 300 Pompeian skeletons, it appears that there
were roughly equal numbers of both male and female victims. It is harder to determine the
number of child victims as their bones are smaller and may have been missed during
excavations or crushed. The plaster casts of children give a more accurate indication of the
child victims.

In Pompeii, Estelle Lazer has spent numerous years studying the skeletal remains. She first
examined those from the House of Menander where Lazer discovered that some of the
skeletons had been assembled from a number of
different skeletons. Lazer then examined the remains
of more than 300 people stored in the Sarno Baths.
Using techniques of anthropolgy and forensic
medicine, she investigated sex, age, height, signs of
disease and the relationship between the victims. Her
results can be summarised as follows:

Medical Problems​: S ​ tudies on the skulls have

shown that some of the female victims suffered from a
condition known as HFI. This condition is normally associated with post-menopausal
women and gives them masculine features such as facial hair and obesity. There is also
evidence of healed fractures, brain damage and surgery.

Height: ​The average height of the Pompeian women was approx 1.54 meters tall and 1.64
meters for a man. The heights calculated from the victims of Herculaneum were slightly
greater. The height estimates give an indication to the general health and nutritional status,
thus the people of Pompeii were generally well nourished.

Dental:​There were some indications of gum disease and cavities in the teeth. Teeth were
also ground down to varying lengths from the chewing of grindstone fragments found in the
bread. It is plausible to suggest that this could have led to painful infections and bad breath.

Overall, the skeletal remains seem to point to affixation (suffocation) as the cause of death,
and most victims' lungs were blocked by a plug of mucus and ash.

The Skeletons of Herculaneum

For a long time only a few skeletons were found at Herculaneum leaving many archaeologists
like Amedeo Maiuri (director of Pompeii and Herculaneum 1924-1964) to assume that most
of the residents had escaped.

In 1982 twelve boat chambers were unearthed revealing 300 skeletons, 80 of which have
been excavated. It is believed that these people had sought refuge /shelter in the boat sheds
and were killed by the 1st surge fromVesuvius. The victims postures indicate that they died
instantly, suggesting the cause of death was thermally induced fulminant shock and not
suffocation, which is believed to have killed many of the inhabitants of Pompeii.

The skeletons, entombed in the ash from the first (and covered
by subsequent) surge are lying down or partially leaning up to a
few tens of cms above the chamber floor. The patterns of bone
coloration and dental enamel cracks suggest the victims were
exposed to a temperature of about 500°C. The flexation of the
hands and feet and occasional spine extension of the skeletons
are evidence of instantaneous muscle contractions having
occurred before the ashbed contracted.
Dr Sarah Biesel, Amercian archaeologist and anthropologist, has undertaken a similar study
of the Herculaneum skeletons like Dr Estelle Lazer did in Pompeii. Biesel examined the
remains to establish levels of health and socio-economic status as well as the cause/s of
death. Some of Biesel’s conclusions were highly speculative however, especially those about
the identity and occupation of individuals. A subsequent and more detailed examination of
the remains was conducted by an Italian team, led by Luigi Carpasso between 2000 and
2002.

Ethics and the Display of Human Remains

For centuries it has been common practice to display the remains of ancient civilizations in
public areas, such as museums, for public curiosity and scientific study. In more recent
times, debate has been centered around the ethical practices of such displays.

In the last decades of the 20th century codes of ethics regarding the ownership and display of
human remains were developed by museums, universities and some archaeologists. While
the Council of Australian Museum Directors passed a resolution that human remains would
not be displayed in public, the International Council of Museums disagreed. Rather than
baning the display of human remains ICOM encouraged sensitivity to community reactions.

While this is the attitude in many western countries, cultural sensitivity about the display of
human remains varies from community to community. In Italy, there is a long tradition of
displaying the bodies and body parts of saints, bishops and priests in religious contexts such
as churches. The skeletons of Pompeii, and in particular, Herculaneum have provided
valuable information of life in ancient Rome and of what happened during the eruption.
What should happen to the skeletons now? Should they be displayed and, if so, in what
context in the place where they were found or in a museum? Should they be buried and it so
how and where?

Questions
1. Research the work of Fiorelli and his plaster cast technique. Describe how it was
done, what it revealed (make a list of some specific examples of other things as well as
the bodies) and how it has contributed to our understanding of the inhabitants of
Pompeii and Herculaneum. You can use the following sites:
http://www.pompeii.co.uk/CDROM/FRAMES/FIORELLI.HTM​ and
https://pompeii-eruption.weebly.com/plaster-casts.html​ as a start.
2. Summarise the work of Estelle Lazer on the bodies of Pompeii. Outline the
significance of her work to our understanding of the past.
3. Read the article here: ​https://moatmtv.weebly.com/herculaneum-skeletons.html​ and
summarise what what happened to the people of Herculaneum.
4. What is the discrepancy between Biesel’s conclusions and other scholars of how the
people in Herculaneum died? (note: you may need to consult the Brennan textbook
for this information)
5. a) Outline the argument for displaying human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
b) Does this argument apply to both the plaster casts and the skeletal remains or is it
 just the skeletal remains that are an issue? Explain.
c) Do you think it’s appropriate for other cultures to impose their views on other
cultures? Explain.
6. Writing Task​: Using all the information you have gathered, answer the following
question in 2-3 pages: ​“What does the study of human remains reveal about
everyday life in Pompeii and Herculaneum?” ​Ensure you utilize information from
both archaeological and written sources to support your answer!