SW010103 HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY AND FIELDS OF SOCIAL

WORK
Total Credits: 3

Total Hours: 54

Course
Outcomes
● Understand the history of social work approaches with
respect to underlying ideologies and philosophies.
● Appreciate social work as a profession and to recognize the
need and importance of Social Work Education, Training and
Practice.
● Identify the importance of professional values and ethics in
social work practice.
● Understand different fields of social work intervention and
the issues and concerns of social work practice in India.
● Understand the social movements and role of social reformers
in social welfare.
● Understand the present issues faced by social work profession.

Course Outline
Module 1 Social Work and Related Concepts-Definitions

UNIT 1: Social Work, Social service, Social Reform, Social

Welfare, Social Policy, Social Action,

UNIT 2: Social Legislation, Social Defence and Social Work

Education

UNIT 3: Historical development of social work in England,

USA and India

UNIT 4: Social Movements and contribution of Indian Social

Reformers to Social Welfare
Module 2 Analysis of various approaches to Social Work through
different ages
UNIT 5: A framework to different
approaches-Benefactor-beneficiary ideology, Religious charity,
state sponsored charity and welfare, organized or scientific charity,
Professional social work.

UNIT 6: Systems perspective, Rights based

approach, Ecological perspective and strengths perspective in
Social work

Module 3 Sources of Social Work Philosophy

UNIT 7: Moral & Religious values in Social work

philosophy-Christian, Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist traditions

UNIT 8: Ideologies: Gandhian ideology-Sarvodaya, andyodaya,

charka,

UNIT 9: Liberalism, Humanism, Socialism, democracy

Module 4 Social Work profession

UNIT 10: Identification of Social Work as a Profession

UNIT 11: Values & Principles of Social

Work,

UNIT 12: Methods and functions of

Social work.

UNIT 13: Ethics in Social Work, Code

of Ethics

UNIT 14: Role and skills of professional social worker

Module 5 Fields of Social Work
UNIT 15: Family, School, Industry, Development NGOs,
Hospital and Health Setting, Correctional
settings, Unorganized sector,

UNIT 16: Community-Rural and Urban, Environmental issues

UNIT 17: Social Work with Children, Youth, Women,

 Elderly, Persons with Disabilities

Module 6 Reflections on Social work Profession

UNIT 18: Indigenization of Social Work Education and

Practice, Collaboration and networking,

UNIT 19: Voluntarism Vs

Professionalism

Professionalization &

Managerialism,

UNIT 21: Role of Government and voluntary organizations in

promoting social welfare and social work profession in India

UNIT 22: Professional Associations for social workers:

International, National and Regional.
References

1. Bhanti, Raj.(1996). Field Work in Social Work Perspective. New Delhi:

Himanshu Publications.
2. Choudhary, Paul. (1983). Introduction to Social work. New
Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons.
3. Dasguta, S.(1967). Towards a philosophy of Social Work in
India. New Delhi: Popular Book Services
4. Dinitto, Diana, M. (2008).Social Work Issues and
Opportunities in a challenging profession (3rd edition).
Chicago: Lyceum Books
5. Fink, Arthur, et al. (1985).The fields of Social Work.
Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage Publications.
6. Friedlander, Walter, A. (1968). Introduction to Social Welfare,
Prentice Hall
7. Gore, M. S. (1965). Social Work and Social Work
Education. Bombay: Asia Publication House.
8. Hepworth, Dean, H (2010). Direct Social Work Practice-Theory and
skills (8th edition). New York:Brooks/Cole.
9. Konopka, Gisela.(1958). Social Work Philosophy.
Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press.
10. Mclunis-Dittrich, Kathlee. (1994). Integrating Social
Welfare Policy and Social Work Practice. New York:
Brooks/Cole.
11. Palackappilly, George & Felix T.D.(1998). Religion &
Economics ,Gandhism, Buddhism. AIDBES, SPCI House

12. Wadia, A. R (1961). History and Philosophy of Social Work in

India.New Delhi: Allied Publishers
 Social work

Social work is a profession primarily concerned with the remedy to

psycho-social problems and deficiencies which exists in the relationship between the
individual and his social environment. This phenomenon always existed in the society
in one form or the other, but achieved its scientific basis in the last decades of 19th
century.
People in distress, destitution and deprivation have been helped in
the past by individuals joint families, caste communities, religious institutions
motivated by religious philosophy that assumed ‘charity’ as a reward or medium for
salvation, humanism, philanthropy, humanitarian feeling, democratic ideology,
equality of all citizens; regard for human personality; respect for other’s rights
including the indigents, the handicapped, the unemployed, emotionally challenged
and above all, those in need. The charitable work taken up by individuals and some
voluntary organizations came to be termed as social work in the due course of time.
The most frequently seen misconception about social work is that
people mistake charity, alms giving and voluntary activities as social work, but this in
reality is not social work, as it does not provide any permanent solution to the
person’s problems and does not empower a person to face his problems by himself.
Social work aims at making a person self-dependent and self-reliant. It attempts to
explore the casual factors behind the problem and tries to solve them scientifically.
Therefore, it is visualized that social work is scientific process for helping to the
needy suffering from material deficiencies, physical disabilities, mental disorders,
emotional disturbances and so on by using knowledge in human relationship and
methods and skills in dealing with them.
Speaking in a nut shell, social work intended to assist individuals,
families, social groups and communities in sorting out their personal and social
problems and permanently solving those problems through a systematic process.
Definitions:

 Friedlander (1951) defined, “Social work is a professional service, based on

scientific knowledge and skill in human relations, which assists individuals, alone
or in groups, to obtain social and personal satisfaction and independence”. This
definition of Friedlander is considered as one of the most comprehensive
definitions of social work. According him, social work is a profession like other
professions, through which a trained social worker with scientific knowledge and
outlook in handling human relations, helps individuals and groups to have social
and personal satisfaction.

 Stroup (1960) defined social work as “an art of bringing various resources bear
on individual, group and community needs by the application of a scientific
method of helping the people to help themselves”.

In his definition Stroup gave a different look to social work saying

it an art. He said that it is an art of bringing the people into the position where they
themselves will be able to solve their problems.

Indian Authors:

Most of the definitions given by the Indian authors reflect the

understanding of social work in the context of Indian social situation, though some of
them still stick to the foreign view point.

 Indian Conference of Social Work (1957) unanimously defined social work as

“a welfare activity based on humanitarian philosophy, scientific knowledge and
technical skills for helping individuals, groups or community, to live rich and full
life”.

The above definition suggests that social work is a welfare activity

which has a scientific basis in dealing with the problems of individuals in the society.
 With the contemporary point of view, it has been defined according
to the idea jointly formulated by the International Association of Schools of Social
Work (IASSW) and International Federation of Social Work (IFSW) in their
conference in 2001 in Copenhagen that, “The social work profession promotes social
change, solving problems in human relationship and empowerment; and liberation of
people to enhance well being, utilizing the theories of human behaviour and social
systems. Social work intervenes at the point where people interact with their
environments. Principle of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social
work”.
It is the most comprehensive and most recent definition of all
discussed so far. It has been formulated with the collaboration of two premier bodies
of professionals who guide and supervise intellectual pursuits in social work
profession all over the world. This definition encompasses almost all the issues of
social work such as social change, social relationship, social problems, human
salvation, resources, social environment, human rights, social justice etc.

From the deeper analysis of all the definitions cited and

discussed both from Indian and foreign perspectives of social work profession, it
can be submitted that:

i) Social work is a professional practice which critically involves professional

knowledge, skills, tools and techniques for dealing with human behaviour

ii) It mainly emphasizes on the analysis and synthesis of human behaviour for
establishing a growth-producing relationship

iii) It is concerned with individual and social problems which are solved by applying
different methods and techniques.

iv) As a practice giving much emphasis on social adjustment.

v) Its main objective is to help the individuals to become self-dependent.

vi) It aims at permanent solution of problems and prevention of their occurring
through proactive measures.

vii) It relates the available resources with the needs of individuals, groups and
community at large.

viii) It also integrates and coordinates the means and resources of social development.

ix) It believes in democratic values.

x) It is based on humanitarian philosophy

Social Service, Social Defence, Social Security and Social Welfare

 Social Service
Every civilized society makes provision for varied kinds of
services such as health, housing, education, recreation, etc. Broadly speaking, social
service connotes “an act of helpful activity; help” (Webster’s Encyclopedic
Unabridged Dictionary; 1996). Thus, social service in its broadest sense, means any
aid or assistance provided by society to enable its members to optimally actualise
their potentials to effectively perform the roles expected or prescribed by society and
to remove obstacles that come in the way of personality development or social
functioning. Cassidy (1943) describes “social services” as those organized activities
primarily and directly concerned with the conservation, the protection and the
improvement of human resources”, and may include “social assistance, social
insurance, child welfare, corrections, mental hygiene, public health, education,
recreation, labour protection and housing” (Friedlander, 1963). These services are
rendered to all the members of a society, irrespective of their religion, caste, race,
language, region, culture, etc.
The two other terms used in literature are: public services and
social welfare services. Public services are envisaged and organized by the State as an
institution created by society to manage its affairs. Social welfare services are
envisioned and provided by people in society as enlightened persons for promoting
human and social development. Despite this fine distinction, both the terms are quite
often used interchangeably. On the other hand, social welfare services are those
social/public services specifically visualized and designed for the weaker and
vulnerable sections of society to enable them to effectively compete with other
sections of society.

The characteristic features of social services are:

1) they are visualized and organized by society/state.
2) such services directly benefit all sections of society.
3) the services encompass everything having a direct bearing on the quality of life of
people.
4) these services aim at promoting human and social development, protecting human
rights of people and creating a sense of duty among them towards society.

Social services are very important for social work because the latter:
1) concerns with promoting human and social development.
2) seeks to enhance effective social functioning and create new social institutions
required to modify the existing institutions.
3) aims at promoting ‘sustainable’ development by conserving and developing
environment, so that enough resources may be left for future generations also to
enable them to lead proper life.

 Social Defence
In an age where it is strongly advocated that criminals are not born
but are created by adverse and oppressive social conditions, a concern for the
protection of society, as also for promoting the interests of offender as a human
person belonging to a civilized society, social defence is gaining wide currency. In its
narrowest sense social defence, confines to the treatment and welfare of persons
coming in conflict with law. In the broader context, it includes within its ambit the
entire gamut of preventive, therapeutic and rehabilitative services to control deviance
in general, and crime, that may lead to social disorganization. Thus, social defence is
a deliberate and organized effort made by society to defend itself against the
onslaught of disruptive forces which endanger its law and order, impeding its’
socioeconomic development. The magnitude of violation of the prevalent laws has
made it essential to formulate policies and plans and organize programmes to prevent
illegal activities, as well as and treat and rehabilitate the offenders in order to help
them contribute their best towards effective functioning of society.
Social defence includes measures to prevention and control of
juvenile delinquency and crime, welfare services in prisons, aftercare services for
discharged prisoners, probation services, suppression of immoral traffic, prevention of
beggary and rehabilitation of beggars, prevention and control of drug abuse and
alcoholism and treatment and rehabilitation of the affected. Correctional services
which are part of social defence programmes employ social workers as care workers,
probation officers, managers of juvenile cadres, etc.

 Social Security
Every person wants protection against any kind of unforeseen
event which may endanger his safety and threaten the continuity of his income. This
security has been guaranteed to people through varied kinds of institutions. Initially,
this was provided through the family, occupational guilds, and in India more so by the
joint family and caste system which in the course of time is disintegrating. The
proliferation of science and technology, the increase in trade and commerce lead to
widespread migration, a change in value systems – increase individualism and
materialism – and rapid urbanization. This has forced a sizeable section of society that
is unlettered, unemployed and poor to lead sub-human life added to this insecurity.
Realizing that some deliberate efforts were required to ensure security, for the first
time in 1935 in England, Sir William Beveridge2 , came forward with the idea of
‘social security’ as means of protection against five great giants: want, disease,
ignorance, idleness and squalor.

The International Labour Organization (1942) defined social security “as the
security that society furnishes through appropriate organization, against certain
risks to which its members are exposed.”

Friedlander (1963) thought social security as a programme

of protection provided by society against those contingencies of modern life-sickness,
unemployment, old age, dependence, industrial accidents and invalidism against
which the individual by his own ability or foresight, cannot protect himself or his
family.

Thus, the major characteristic features of social security are:

i) it is a security deliberately provided as a matter of right, by collective efforts of

people in society

ii) it protects people against different types of contingencies – biological, economic

or even bioeconomic – that confront people from cradle to grave.

iii) such contingencies imperil the working capacity of people and disrupt the
continuity of income and impair their ability to lead a decent and dignified life

iv) contingencies are such that it is impossible for common people to effectively face
the challenges posed by them, utilizing their own as well as their dependants’ private
resources.

v) such collective endeavours made may or may not require the beneficiaries to
contribute nominally, for the benefits which they may avail of in case of occurrence
of certain specified kinds of contingencies

vi) Social security benefits may be in the form of cash, kind or both

vii) Social security provides the necessary confidence that, benefits adequate in
quality and quantity will be available whenever required.

There are three major forms of social security:

1) Social insurance
2) Public/social assistance, and
3) Public or social services.
 In social insurance, prospective beneficiaries are required to
make some very nominal contribution for the benefits which they are given in case of
occurrence of contingencies. These benefits are so decided that they may be able to
cater to assumed average need. However, in certain cases, special exemption may be
granted from the requirement of payment of contributions.

Public/social assistance may be given in cash and / or kind to

enable people to meet the existing actual need and to lead a minimum desirable
standard of living. There is a subtle difference between public and social assistance.
Public assistance is provided through the State exchequer after assessing the existing
actual need and ensuring that prospective beneficiaries fulfill certain prescribed
eligibility requirements – family responsibility and morality. Social assistance is
provided to indigent people considered to be eligible based on specified criteria, by
some civil society organizations to enable them to satisfy their basic minimum needs.

Public/social services are made available by the state/ society to

promote human/social development. Sometimes a very fine distinction is made
between public and social services, the former organized and provided by the state
and the latter by society through some civil society initiative.
A professional social worker needs to understand the concept of
social security because he works for promoting human and social development,
improving peoples’ participation in various types of programmes directed towards
guaranteeing a minimum desirable standard of living to every one.

The term ‘Social security’ is very complex and comprehensive. Its

meaning and scope differ from country to country, according to prevailing traditions,
ideals and social legislations. In some of the countries, it includes only income
security while in other countries; it covers a wide field of social life. The following
definitions reveal the term in its true respective:

1. According to Sir William Beveridge “Social security is an attack on five giants,

viz., want, disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness.”
 Security against want implies that everyone in the society should
get the reasonable remuneration for his service by which he/she can lead a life with
minimum standard of living. Security against disease means to provide medical
facilities to every citizen according to his/her income or means of life. Security
against ignorance means providing greater educational facilities to all members of the
society. Security against squalor means security against those evils which come
through the unplanned growth of cities or the evils relating to health and sanitation.
Security against idleness refers to the provision for adequate employment
opportunities for every citizen as per his/her capacity.

2. International Labour Organization says, “It is a security that society furnishes

through appropriate organization against certain risks to which its members are
exposed. These risks are essentially contingencies against which individuals of small
means cannot effectively provide by his own ability or even in private combination
with his fellows”.

3. Walter Friedlander defined social security as “a program of protection provided by

the society against the contingencies of modern life-sickness, unemployment, old age,
dependency, industrial accidents and invalidism against which the individual and his
family cannot expected to protect themselves by his own ability or foresight”.

It is evident from the above definitions that, social security

attempts to provide ‘safety net’ in the society to ensure that no citizen falls into
destitution and poverty due to reason beyond their control. It is a set of policies and
programmes set up by the government that assures all the citizens protection against
sickness, unemployment, dependency, accidents, disability etc. The concept of social
security springs from the ideals of human dignity, equity and social justice. It is one
of the most important foundations on which social welfare state stands. In a
democratic state, social security is a right of the citizens.
Methods of Social security

Basically there are two methods applied in the field of social

security, namely:
1. Social Assistance
2. Social Insurance

Though, these two method differ in their evolutionary process and

approach, they have been designed to serve the same ends, and both are
supplementary and complementary to each other.

 Social Assistance

Social assistance is the oldest measure of social security measures.

There are evidences that provisions similar to modern social assistance existed
centuries ago. In India, the kings and landlords used to provide security to their
subjects in the cases of emergencies and family destitution. The practice of ‘Zakat’ in
the Islam law is well documented in this regard. This was a poor tax levied on the rich
people by Muslim kings. The money raised through this tax was spent for the purpose
of providing welfare and social security of needy. In Europe social assistance can be
traced back to the Elizabethan poor law of 1601. It was the first country to start and
regularize social assistance in its rudimentary form. Gradually this concept spread
over all the British colonies and later on to other nations around the globe.

According to International Labor Organisation social assistance

is “service or scheme, which provides benefits to persons of small means as of rights
in amount sufficient to meet the minimum standard of needs and financed from
taxation”. All social assistance schemes are funded through general revenue rather
than individual contribution, with statutory scales of benefits provided according to
the person’s means of survival. Conditions of entitlement are prescribed by statutes
and require that the prospective beneficiaries have limited means and assets. The
assessment of economic status of the applicant is known as ‘means test’. Social
assistance very closely associated with social work services in many countries
(especially developing countries). The social workers are often required not only to
assess the claimant’s eligibility, but to provide case work services and encourage the
client to become selfsufficient. Social assistance represents the unilateral or collective
responsibility of the community towards its dependent groups. Thus, it is provided by
the society or the government to poor and needy individuals.

There are four types of benefits provided through the method of

social assistance, namely:

Benefits based on means test:

Benefits based on means test are provided after the test of income, assets, or capital,
which the applicant may survive on.

The advantages:
i.They redistribute resources to the most needy
ii.They are progressive in the sense that they redistribute resources vertically from
rich to poor.
iii.They are based on the idea of social justice and equality.
iv.They stand on the ground of humanitarian philosophy.
v.They are concern about reduction of suffering.

Disadvantages:
I. They are complex and difficult administer
II. They often fail to reach those in real need, because of ignorance, fear, stigma and
complexity attached to them.
III. They create a ‘poverty trap’ creating disinterest to work hard.

Discretionary benefits:
Discretionary benefits are generally provided at the discretion of
officials. Because some needs are unpredictable. Many social assistance schemes have
some kind of discretionary element to deal with urgent or exceptional needs; where
social assistance is tied to social work; discretionary payments may also be used as a
provision for discretionary benefits is generally seen as a necessity, because it is
impossible to provide for needs in advance. However, in the circumstances where
other benefits are inadequate to meet the basic needs, discretionary benefits are liable
to be called on more frequently than is appropriate administratively. Frequent use
makes the process of claiming an act of personal supplication.

The element of discretion in discretionary benefits varies. In

some cases the ‘discretion’ is the discretion of agency, in others; it is the discretion of
an individual officer. The basic rationale for discretionary benefits is the need for
flexibility and discretion which is reserve to large national agency does not always
achieve that.

Universal benefits
Universal benefits which also are known as ‘demo grants’ are the
benefits given to whole categories of the population, like children or old people,
without any other tests. The benefits administratively simple, but their wide coverage
tends to make them expensive. The opponents of universal benefits have argued for a
different type of social security system, a citizen’s income, which would be
tax-financed and unconditional. They hold view that it would be expensive, would
undermine incentives to work, and that is apparent simplicity would prove illusory,
when special circumstances arise. Its proponents argue that it would be simpler, fairer,
and would protect those in need more effectively than the current systems.

 Social Insurance

Lord Beveridge defined social insurance as “giving in return for

contributions, benefits up to subsistence level, as of rights and without the means test
so that individual may built freely upon it. Thus, social insurance implies that it is
compulsory and that men stand together with their fellows”. This method of social
security is built on the principle of ‘mutual aid’.
The basic elements of social insurance are:

1. Social insurance is financed by the contributions, which are normally shared

between the employers, workers with the participation of the state in the form of
supplementary contribution and other subsidies from the general revenue. The
worker’s contribution in this regard is determined on the basis of level of income.
2. Participation in the social insurance is compulsory and there is a requirement of
legal process in its execution.
3. The contributions are accumulated in a special fund, out of the contribution are
paid
4. The person’s right to benefit is secured by his own contribution without any test
of needs or means.
5. The benefits are not directly related to contributions. There is a component of
redistribution in the programmes, and lower wage earners generally get back
proportionally more that the higher wage earners.

Advantages of social insurance:

 The level of feeling secure is higher among the participant in this scheme
 It is a reliable way of raising funds for the benefits
 The benefits under this scheme are almost undeniable once the contributions are
made

Disadvantages of social Insurance:

 This scheme ignores large number of people such as, unemployed, women home
makers, chronically sick, old, infirm and disabled people.
 Poor people are unable to pay the contributions. As a result they are put out of the
system of the scheme.

Social insurance as a method of social security now-a-days is

widely used by most of the countries of the world. Due to their contributory funding,
the clear links between contributions and benefits, and assured guarantees involved
in the entitlements, it is believed that social insurance is preferable to other methods
of social security. One of the prominent reasons why governments of many nations
prefer this method is that it reduces the burden of the government in providing social
security to its citizens. It puts a heavy pressure on the government of developing
nations to take the responsibility of ensuring social security to all its citizens.

Social Security in India

In India, the care and protection of the needy and the helpless has
always been regarded as a ‘pious duty’ of any one who undertakes them. Social
security as a practice in our country has been in existence since ancient days in the
form of care and protection by some traditional institutions such as, joint families,
caste panchayats, village panchayats religious institutions and charitable institutions
which were based on the ideas of charity, philanthropy and social responsibility to
support persons without means and capacity to have a descent living. These
institutions used to provide assistance to the needy in times of natural calamities,
misfortunes and other risks common to social life. One can find from the ancient
Indian literature such as Arthashastra and Manusmriti that the social structure in the
ancient times was so evolved and codes so designed that they automatically came to
look after the social security of the needy people. The main purpose was collective
security of life and property, freedom from wants and misery and security against
common risks.

How ever, due to the advent of the process of industrialization

and subsequent urbanization, the traditional structure of Indian society started
changing. Joint families and religious institutions as agents for social security became
weak. Incidence of industrial accidents leading to disability and destitution and lack
of family support increased at an alarming rate. Formation and growth of slums in the
urban areas led to sharp drop in the quality of life of the people. People had to face
more complex problems in the modern life. The traditional institutions failed to
adequately deal with the ever growing complexities of emerging problems.
Consequently, it became the responsibility of the nation state to provide organized
social security measures to all its citizens.
 Before Independence:

Before independence the progress in social security under the

auspices of government support was to slow to meet the requirements. On the other
hand, the need for social security measures could hardly be exaggerated in our
country where the income of the majority of the people was so slender that it did not
allow for any savings for the time of misfortunes. In times of sickness, unemployment,
disabilities, untimely death of the earning member these people suffered an almost
limitless depression in their already depressed standard of living.

In 1923, the passing of ‘Workmen Compensation Act’ was

marked with the watershed of social security measures in the country. Under this Act,
compensations were provided to the employees or their dependent members in case of
employment injuries, death or disabilities. Besides, A few employers had been
providing such benefits as pension, provident fund, gratuities and some other
amenities to their employees for many years, but these could merely touch the fringe
without coming to grips with the problem itself. Before independence, there was no
attention for the suffering of the people who were out of work, but were suffering
from many problems due to different reasons.

 After independence:

After the independence of India more meticulous planning and

intensive programmes for social security of the people were undertaken in the country.
The constitution of India as the apex custodian of many different social provisions,
preserved a place for several provisions for social security under different articles,
such as:

 Art.39 of the Indian constitution provides for the rights to an adequate means of
livelihood for all.

 Art.41 declares that, the state shall within the limits of its economic capacities
and development makes effective provisions for securing public assistance in
case unemployment, old-age, sickness, disablement and other cases of undeserved
want.

 Art.43, assures that the state shall endeavor to secure to all its workers,
agricultural industrial or otherwise, work, living wage, and conditions of work
ensuring a decent standard of life.

In India, looking into the socio-economic conditions of the

majority of the people, the social security measures designed to cover two priority
areas of the population namely:
a) Measures for employed people in different sectors
b) Measures for Poor and marginalized people

a) Measures for Employed people in different sectors:

Security measures under this category are covered for the people
who are employed in different sectors-primary, secondary and tertiary when they are
encountered with some contingencies while in the job or after the job.
The major social security measures for industrial workers and
other employed people can be discussed in the following lines in relation to different
social legislations.

1. Workmen Compensation Act, 1923:

This act is recognized as one of the landmarks of social security

system in India. The beginning of systematic measure for social security in India
marked with the passage Workmen Compensation Act, 1923. Prior to this act, it was
almost impossible for an injured work man to recover or get compensation for his
injury due to accident during ordinary work hour. The dependants of the deceased
workman could rarely claim compensation for the loss of life. In the year the
government made proposal for a bill to provide compensation to the workmen. The
proposal gained public support and finally, the Workmen Compensation Act was
passed in March 1923. Since then several amendments have been made for the
development of its rules in response to the changing needs of the workmen in the
country.

Objective:

To impose an obligation upon the employers to provide to the

workers/employees or their legitimate dependents with compensation for any
industrial accidents in the work environment.

Coverage:

It is applicable to the whole of India, to persons employed in the

factories, mines, plants, ships, circus, railways or any other establishment that run
with power and employing 20 or more persons.

Eligibility:

In case of death of the worker, dependents are paid the

compensation and in case of disability the workman is paid the compensation
depending on the type of disability and not in lie of the wages he/she received.

Benefits:

Compensation in cash or kind for death, partial or total disability

and occupational diseases include following kinds of benefits: 1. Sickness benefits 2.
Disablement benefits 3. Dependents benefits 4. Medical benefits and 5. Maternity
benefits

2. Employees State Insurance Act, 1948

The Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948 is one of the

pioneering measures in the field of social Insurance in the country. Numbers of efforts
had been made to bring about a suitable scheme for providing and regulating the
insurance of employees in different establishments in India. The subject of health
insurance for industrial workers was first discussed in 1927 by Indian Legislature.
Later the Royal Commission on Labour stressed the need for health insurance for the
workers of India. In 1943, Proff. B.P. Adarkar, an officer on special duty was
entrusted with the responsibility to draft a suitable scheme for providing health
insurance to all the workers. The government considered Proff. Adarkar’s report in
the year.
The Adarkar plan and various other suggestions emerged finally
as Workmen’s State Insurance Bill in 1946 and was modified by the select Committee
as ‘Employees’ State Insurance Bill’. The Employees’ State Insurance Act came into
force from 19th April, 1948. Since its enforcement the act has undergone several
amendments from time to time in response to the changing needs of the workers.

Objetive:

The aims at providing for certain cash benefits to employees in

case of sickness, maternity benefits, medical facilities in cash and kind and other
provisions as demanded by the situation of the employee concerned.

Coverage:

The implementation of the act is territorial in nature, It applicable

all over India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir, in all the non-seasonal
establishments using power and employing ten or more employees and non-power
using manufacturing units or establishments employing 20 or more people or the
factories and establishment to which law is made applicable.

Eligibility:

Employees drawing the wages amount not exceeding Rs.10000

and employed in or outside the premises of the establishment under the supervision of
principal employer.
Benefits:

Benefits in cash or kind for sickness, disability, dependability,

maternity and deaths under this act include:
1. Sickness and extended sickness benefits
2. Disablement benefits
3. Dependents benefits
4. Medical benefits
5. Maternity Benefits
6. Funeral benefits (Incase of death of the employee)

3. Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provision Act, 1952

The matter of bringing about a suitable act like Employees

Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Act was not a product of a single discussion in
India. It took several efforts to create the act. Numbers of attempts were made to
conclude the work in the tripartite meetings in which representatives from Central and
state governments and employers and the employees took part and brought to a
common consensus. In 1948, a non-official Bill was introduced in this regard to
provide some workers with provident fund. After many attempts the government of
India on 15th November, 1951 promulgated an ordinance on Employees provident
Fund and finally the Employees’ Provident Fund Act came into force on 4th March,
1952. The Act was passed in a view to making some provision for the safe future of
the industrial worker after his or for his dependents in case of his early death.

Objective:
The main objective of the Act is to provide substantial security
and timely monetary assistance to the industrial employees and their families when
they are in distress or unable to meet family and social obligations in time of old age,
disablement, early death of breadearner or any other contingencies including
provision compulsory PF, pension, and deposit linked insurance to the employees etc.
Coverage:

The provisions of the act extend to whole of India except the State
of Jammu & Kashmir and also the State of Sikkim where it has not been notified so
far after its annexation with the Union of India in the factories or establishments
having more than 20 employees.

Eligibility:

Employees drawing wage not exceeding 6,500 rupees in a month.

Benefits:

Pension, PF, deposit linked insurance, refundable withdrawals in

time of emergencies. Along with the passing of the Employees Provident Fund Act,
there was a felt unmet need of working towards developing another scheme which
could stand strong for the basic needs of the suffering workers of the country. In this
regard, several successful and unsuccessful attempts were made to meet the existing
and emerging gaps in the field of labour welfare. Consequently, in the year 1971, a
law was passed as ‘Employees’ Family Pension Scheme, which to some extent
succeeded in meeting the needs of the good cause but could not cover the larger needs
of family members of workmen in the country.

Imbibing the spirit of these provisions of the Constitution the

Employee Provident Fund & Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 was enacted by
Parliament which came into force with effect from 14 March, 1952. Presently, the
following three schemes are in operation:

1. Employees' Provident Fund Scheme, 1952

2. Employees' Deposit Linked Insurance Scheme, 1976
3. Employees' Pension Scheme, 1995 (replacing the Employees'
Family Pension Scheme, 1971).
 Originally these Acts were applicable only to Indian workers. The
Government of India vide its notification dated 1st October, 2008 has broadened the
scope of the Employees Provident Fund Scheme, 1952 and Employees Pension
Scheme, 1995 to include specific category of Indian employees working outside India
and employees other than Indian employees, holding other than Indian Passport, and
working for an establishment in India.

4. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961

The maternity Benefit Act is a piece of social legislation enacted

to promote the welfare of working women in India. Prior to the passing of the law,
working women and their children had to face many problems as they were not
entitled to certain rights which are now ensured under the act. This badly affected the
job performance and economic status of the women in our country. After 1924 a Bill
was brought before the parliament by private members urging the government to
make it compulsory for the employers to provide special benefits to the working
women in time of their maternity. Though this Bill was not accepted by the
government then, The Royal Commission on Labour had stressed the need for a
suitable maternity legislation for the women employed permanently in non-seasonal
factories. With the active support of the Commission, different states took lead role in
bringing about their respective laws for the working mothers and finally the central
government was bound to pass the Maternity Benefit Act in the year 1961.

Objective:

To provide maternity benefits in cash or kind before and after the

birth which include:
1. Prohibiting pregnant women from work for specific period
after and before delivery.
2. Payment of certain monetary benefits for women when they
are absent on account of their pregnancy or delivery etc.
Coverage:

Factories or establishment to which law is made applicable from

time to time as per the need of the time.

Eligibility:

The woman should have been covered under the ESI Act, 1948.

Benefits:

Leave with pay up to 6 months (six weeks before and after birth)
and full payment incase of miscarriage.

5. Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972

In the early days the employers used to pay some extra amount, a
form of reward to their employees for their good, efficient dedicated service for a
certain period when the employees used to retire from their work. It was totally at the
will or pleasure of the employer, this gratuitous giving slowly became a regular event
in the employment and took the form of compulsory gratuity in the due course of time.
As time passed situation demanded to make it obligatory on the part of the employer
looking at the larger interest of the workers. Consequently the government has framed
a gratuity scheme and brought about a law to regulate the payment of gratuity to the
employees in the country. The Payment of Gratuity Bill was passed in December
1971 and came into force in September 1972. The Act provides for the compulsory
payment of gratuity to employees engaged in factories, mines, plantations, railway
companies, transport companies, shops and other establishments as applicable by the
act of the government from time to time.

Objective:
To provide payment of gratuity on ceasing to hold office.
Coverage:
Persons employed in factories, mines, plants, railways or any other establishments.

Eligibility:

Persons having served for at least 5 years continuously.

Benefits:
Benefits in cash in accordance with 15 days wage for every one year of service.

b) Measures for poor marginalized people:

In view of bridging this gap, certain schemes have been initiated

by the government in the form of social assistance. The main aim of these schemes is
to provide basic minimum support to the marginalized neglected section of the
population such as widows, elderly, unemployed, destitute etc. India has also
developed a wide range network of Public Distribution System to cover people below
poverty line to assure them minimum food security.

1. Widow Pension Scheme

2. Old age Pension scheme
3. Unemployment scheme
4. Public Distribution Scheme etc.

The implementation of social security legislations of country

suffer from various defects such as uneven scope, inadequacy benefits, and multiple
implementing agencies leading to duplication of and overlapping of schemes and their
services. The statutory social security in India caters to the needs of only a small
proportion of the population. Even all the workers in the industries are not covered as
smaller establishment and those drawing salary exceeding certain limits are excluded
from the benefits of various social security programmes. In addition to that a vast
majority of labour force working in the agriculture and other unorganized sectors are
not entitled to such benefits of social security programmes. It is undeniable fact that
agricultural workers occupy a major portion of the Indian work force. This section of
people face maximum uncertainties due to various reasons such as crop failures,
ineffective credit facilities and unpredictable weather conditions, but there is no
organized social security programme or schemes to cater to the needs of these groups.

Though the above mentioned schemes are functional in our

country, the administrative machineries designed to implement them are very weak
and some of the schemes are out dated ones and are hardly applicable in the present
situation. For instance, the monthly supports for the old-age pension or widow
pension are so meager that they can hardly afford to provide any support or relief to
the beneficiaries. Also the schemes suffer from prolonged administrative procedures
and corruption of the government officials. So it is urgently required that the priorities
of social security schemes should be established regarding the target groups and
resources should be channelized appropriately. However, in spite of these draw backs,
social schemes can contribute a lot towards social protection if they are adequately
supported with adequate resources, carefully designed to meet local needs, and
integrated into national policy committed to providing reliable social protection to
excluded majority.

 Social Welfare
All civilizations since time immemorial have been striving for
the well being of mankind. Our sages pray that ‘all may be happy’ and devised social
systems and institutions to promote the welfare of all. Coming from welfaren,
‘welfare’ connotes “the state or condition with regard to good, fortune, health,
happiness, prosperity, etc”. (Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary, 1996).
Dasgupta (1976) observed that social welfare refers ‘to the entire package of services,
social and economic, that deal with income support, welfare provisions and social
security on one hand, and the whole range of social services, on the other.’ Wilensky
and Lebeaux (1957) define social welfare as those formally organized and socially
sponsored institutions, agencies and programs which function to maintain or improve
the economic conditions, health or interpersonal competence of some parts or all of
the population. Wilensky and Lebeaux identify two dominant conceptions to social
welfare - the residual, that assumes social welfare institutions coming into play only
when the normal structures of supply, the family and market break down, and the
institutional, that holds welfare services as normal, “first line” functions of modem
industrial society.
According to Friedlander (1963), social welfare is the organized
system of social services and institutions, designed to aid individuals and groups to
attain satisfying standards of life and health, and personal and social relationships that
permit them to develop their full capacities and to promote their wellbeing in
harmony with the needs of their families and the community.”

The major traits distinguishing social welfare structure are:

1) a formal organizational structure
2) social sponsorship and accountability
3) absence of profit motive
4) integral view of human needs
5) direct focus on human consumption needs.
Social Welfare as conceived by Skidmore, Thackeray and Farley
(1991), ‘encompasses the well-being and interests of large numbers of people,
including their physical, mental, emotional, spiritual and economic needs... social
welfare includes the basic institutions and processes related to facing and solving
social problems.” Zastrow (1978) thought social welfare aimed at ‘fulfilling the social,
financial, health and recreational requirements of all individuals in a society. Social
welfare seeks to enhance the social functioning of all age groups, both rich and poor’.
Thus, social welfare operates when other institutions in our society such as the market
economy and the family fail to meet the basic needs of individuals or groups of
people. Durgabai Deshmukh, the first Chairperson of Central Social Welfare Board
(1960) unequivocally thought social welfare to be distinct from the general social
services such as education, health, etc. Social welfare is specialized work for the
benefit of the weaker and more vulnerable sections of the population and included
special services for the benefit of women, children, the aged as well as the physically,
mentally and socially challenged.
In other words, social welfare is a specifically designed system of
services and institutions aimed at protecting and promoting the interests of weaker
and vulnerable sections of society, who left to themselves, will not be in a position to
maximally develop and effectively compete to enter the mainstream and to live with
liberty, decency and dignity. Important characteristics of social welfare are:
1) existence of a deliberately organized system of services and institutions.
2) specifically catering to the needs of the weaker and vulnerable sections of society.
3) recognizes that the weakness and vulnerability are not from any personal fault of
people.
4) it protects and promotes the interests of the vulnerable, enabling them to realize
whatever potentials, talents, abilities they may have, to carve out a dignified place for
themselves in society, and to effectively discharge the duties and responsibilities of
positions they occupy.

 Social Legislation

Legislative measures are the other significant factors stimulating

planned change in India. Several efforts have been made both before and after the
independence to bring about some effective social legislation to take the hold of
various social problems which were deeply felt to be dangerous to the society. A
number of social legislations have been passed for the benefit and interests of women,
dalits, tribals, labours, peasants, backward classes. Some of those important
legislations are:
i) Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929: This Act was amended in the year 1974
which restricts marriage for girls below the age of 18 years and for boys below 21
years. It has greatly affected the health and economic status of the families in India.

ii) The Special Marriage Act, 1954: It permits the marriage without the consent of
the parents, inter-caste marriages and divorce.

iii) The Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 permits widow remarriage positively
affecting the life after widowhood.

iv) The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 which prohibits giving and taking dowry in
marriage and ensures security to women by controlling dowry deaths.
v) The Removal of Untouchability Act, 1955 prohibits untouchability in any form
and prescribes punishment for practicing untouchability. It has brought tremendous
change in the life suffering of the untouchbles in India affecting their socio-economic
and educational disabilities.

vi) Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1989 has provided protection to the weaker
members of the society against atrocities and exploitation by the other groups.

vii) The Hindu Adoption and Maintainance Act, 1956 gives rights to the women to
adopt a child in certain conditions.

viii) The Hindu succession Act, 1956 guarantees rights for the women as a daughter,
wife and mother to property

ix) Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 restrict discrimination in the wages between the
male and female workers.

x) Prevention of Child labour Act, 1986: It works on the prevention of children

from working in hazardous works. It aims to secure the rights of the children for safty,
education, good health and food security.

xi) Prevention of Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Which aims to protect women
from violence in their families which hinders their rights to safe and peaceful and
dignified life.

xii) Right to Education Act, 2009: It was a landmark legislation which attempted the
universalization education for all children below the age of 14 years

xiii) Protection of Women from Sexual Harassment Act, 2012: Looking into the
needs of the time this act was brought into being. It aims to protect women from
sexual harassment of any form, anywhere- workplace, public place, home etc.
 Thus, there are hundreds of social legislations which were enacted
to meet the dire needs of the time. Each legislation has its problem-connected
background which stood detrimental to our social development. It compelled our
authorities to enact a legislation to suppress the problem and protect the society
against some harmful practices. Every legislation aims at change in the unwanted
situation connected to a particular issue. Many of the enacted legislations have
successfully suppressed the unwanted situation thereby bringing suitable changes in
the society which contributed for the development of the society.

Social Justice and Social Policy

 Social Justice
Justice is the hallmark of any civilized society. fiat justicia
ruat coleum (let heavens fall, justice has to be done) has been the guiding principle
followed by all civilized societies. Aristotle perceived justice as a “virtue of the soul
distributing that which each person deserved”. Its origin, according to Cicero, is
traced to the divine law of eternal and immutable morality, making people duty
bound.
The term justice is too broad that it eludes any precise
definition (Dias; 1985). The nature and form as also the methods and manners of
administration and systems of justice vary depending upon the values and norms
prevailing at a point in time, in a particular society. These systems, broadly speaking,
take two approaches: protective – safeguarding people against abuse and exploitation,
and promotive – creating such conditions in society as may spontaneously ensure
equality, freedom, fraternity and provide special opportunities to those who for some
reason lag behind and are out of the mainstream.
The term ‘justice’ is used in two senses: the abstract –
referring to a code of conduct, legal as well as moral, which promotes people’s
welfare, and the concrete – denoting the faithful implementation of existing laws.
Justice gives rise to a sense of duty and concern for others, as well as creates and
sustains trust and confidence among people.
 Not only does it generate an atmosphere of peace and
tranquility, but it also sustains law and order thereby optimizing the personal and
social functioning.
Social justice, a part of the larger framework of justice,
implies within its ambit the idea of ‘just distribution’ of benefits in order to create a
just society. It is dynamic; what is socially just keeps changing with time and space.
Allen (1950) thought the concept social justice to be vaguely defined. To some it
meant ‘distribution’ or ‘redistribution’ of wealth; some others interpreted it as
equality of opportunity - a misleading term, since opportunity can never be equal
among beings, who have unequal capacities to grasp it.
Social Justice impels to establish a just social order by
favouring the removal of structural and systemic inequalities in order to ensure
equalization of opportunities to weaker and vulnerable sections of society, who either
because of being subjected to social suppression and oppression or being the victims
of varied kinds of disabilities and handicaps, are prone to be misused and even abused
and exploited. Thus, social justice, in its narrowest sense, means rectification of
injustice in personal relations of people and in broader terms refer to the removal of
imbalances in the political, economic and social life of people.
Social justice, according to Justice Krishna Iyer (1980), is a
generous concept assuring every member of society a fair deal - remedial of injury,
injustice, inadequacy or disability suffered by a member for which he is not directly
responsible. The concept broadly encompasses not only distribution of means,
benefits, burdens, etc. throughout the society (Miller, 1972) but also biological, social,
economic and cultural development of individual in a society (Govind, 1995). India
characterized by fairly widespread and serious problems of unemployment, poverty,
illiteracy, ill-health and insanitation, stood committed to promote welfare of people;
Article 38 of the Constitution of India proclaims our commitment to promote the
welfare of people by securing and protecting as effectively, a social order in
which justice – social, economic and political – are preserved. The specific
objectives of social justice are to:
1) ensure the ‘rule of law’
2) guarantee ‘equality of opportunity’
3) ensure special opportunities to weaker and vulnerable sections
4) ensure equality of outcome
5) prevent abuse and exploitation of weaker and vulnerable sections
6) preserve the religion and culture of minorities, providing them the necessary
freedom to pursue and propagate them without endangering public order and peace.
Wherever discrimination, abuse and exploitation existed in the
name of colour, caste or creed, some kind of arrangement for social justice
spontaneously evolved; e.g. in the United States, a system of affirmative action
eventually evolved to provide special opportunities for the development of Blacks and
the native Red Indians. In India, where social stratification in the form of caste
prevails, the Constitution of India assigned special privileges to Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes as well as the ‘Other Backward Classes’.

 Social Policy
Policy, broadly speaking, refers to a framework within which a vowed
objectives are to be attained. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary (1996)
defines policy as “a definite course of action adopted for the sake of expediency,
facility, etc.” Social policy includes those courses of action adopted by the
government which relate to the social aspects of life, action which is deliberately
designed and taken to improve the welfare of its citizens (Eyden, 1969). Kulkarni
(1987), explained that the key word ‘policy’ implied the adoption of a sagacious
course of action in order to achieve the desired objective(s). In other words, what is
pragmatic is called policy and what is based on principles is referred to as
doctrinaire.”

Kulkarni (1978) noted that ‘social policy’ denotes three specific areas;

i) the social objectives of state policy, including economic growth;

ii) the policy with regard to the promotion of social services as an integral part of a
developing economy
iii) the policy governing promotion of social welfare services as a part of development
plans.
 Thus, social policy is a framework within which, the state as
protector and promoter of the interests of society as also of human rights of people,
conduct its affairs so that the goal of welfare of all may be promoted by organizing a
series of services in diverse fields of nutrition, water supply, education, health,
housing, employment, recreation, etc. The salient features of social policy include:
1) responsibility for conducting the affairs of society
2) a specific framework within which or the affairs of society are to be conducted
3) addresses people in general and aims at providing social services – direct and
general.
4) promotes human and social development.
Whereas social policy concerns itself with providing social
services to improve the life and living of people in general, social welfare policy
relates itself to the organization of specially designed social welfare services for
weaker and vulnerable sections of society to enable them achieve parity with other
sections of the society. Modernisation of society through adoption of science and
technology, improving the national standard of living, building up civic and political
institutions to suit the changing needs, and the establishment of an open, pluralistic
society of equal opportunity, could with all these elements be regarded as the pith and
substance of social policy (Kulkarni, 1987).
The basic source of social policy is the Constitution of a
country and the various social enactments that ensue, promoting proper human and
social development. The social policy in India is enunciated in the Directive
Principles of State Policy (Part IV of the Constitution). Noteworthy has been the
drastic change in social welfare policy of the Government of India after 1991, during
which the policy of liberalization, privatization and globalization were adopted as part
of the Structural Adjustment Programme.
Social Policy is a selected course of action adopted by the
government or any responsible body for the welfare and development of its people. It
portrays the guidelines for undertaking activities in specific fields. Numbers of
national policies in India so far have been made and adopted by respective
governments at different points of time to change certain situation for the
development of the society. Some of those policies can be named here under:
i) Industrial Policy of 1948 which aims at the industrial growth of the nation.
ii) New Industrial Policy, 1991: This policy aimed at bringing large amount of
economic reforms through liberalization, globalization etc.
iii) National Policy for Agriculture seeks to actualize the vast untapped resources of
Indian agriculture, strengthen rural infrastructure to support faster agricultural growth,
promote value addition, Accelerate agro-business, create agricultural employment in
rural areas, secure a fair standard of living for the farmers and agricultural workers
etc.
iv) National Employment Policy: the main objective of the policy is to provide a
framework for achieving remunerative and decent employment for women and men in
the work force. Specifically, it aims to accelerate employment opportunities in the
organized sectors and improving the quality of job in unorganized sectors. Skill
development is another goal of this policy.
v) National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 seeks to create habitat
friendly atmosphere in the cities and support people living in a decent standard of
habitat.
vi) National Policy for person with Disability (2005) is another vital policy for
social change and social development. It focuses on prevention of disabilities,
rehabilitation of the persons with disabilities and their welfare.
vii) The national Policy for Older Person (1999): It stresses on encouraging
individuals to make provisions for their on and for their spouse’s old age, encouraging
the family members to take care of their older members, supporting the NGOs
working for the support of the older persons, promoting research and training
facilities for the cause of the older persons
viii) National Policy for Education (1986) is another important policy for social
change and development. It has laid a vivid agenda for the development of education
system at all levels.
ix) National Health Policy (2002): aimed at developing good infrstructure and other
basic amenities for health improvement.
x) National Food policy: This policy aimed at ensuring food security to the poorest
of the poor in the country.
 Programmes in India in different fields of socio-economic
development under different policies

A programme is a series of activities to achieve predetermined goals.

There are thousands of programmes operative in India in different fields of
socio-economic development under different policies. A few of most important ones
like:
i) Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (April 1, 1999) : It aims to Bring the
assisted poor families above the poverty line by organizing them into Self Help
Groups (SHGs) through the process of social mobilization, their training and capacity
building and provision of income generating assets through a mix of bank credit and
government subsidy.

ii) Swavalamban(2010): pension scheme to the workers in unorganized sector. Any

citizen who is not part of any statutory pension scheme of the Government and
contributes between Rs. 1000 and Rs. 12000/- per annum, could join the scheme. The
Central Government shall contribute Rs. 1000 per annum to such subscribers.

iii) National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) (2011):

iv) Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (2001): Providing additional wage

employment and food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in
rural areas.

v) Sabla or Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls:

Empowering adolescent girls (Age) of 11–18 years with focus on out-ofschool girls
by improvement in their nutritional and health status and upgrading various skills like
home skills, life skills and vocational skills. Merged Nutrition Programme for
Adolescent Girls (NPAG) and Kishori Shakti Yojana (KSY).

vi) Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (2008): Health insurance to poor (BPL),
Domestic workers, MGNERGA workers, Rikshawpullers, Building and other
construction workers, and many other categories as may be identified by the
respective states

vii) Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (2007): Achieve 4% annual growth in

agriculture through development of Agriculture and its allied sectors during the XI
Plan period

viii) Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (2000): Good all-weather road
connectivity to unconnected villages

ix) Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana(2010): Integrated development of

Schedule Caste majority villages in four states

x) National Social Assistance Scheme(1995) : Public assistance to its citizens in case

of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and in other cases of undeserved
want

xi) Midday Meal Scheme(1995): Lunch (free of cost) to school-children on all

working days

xii) Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (2005): Legal
guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every financial year to adult
members of any rural household willing to do public work-related unskilled manual
work at the statutory minimum wage

xiii) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (2004): Educational facilities (residential

schools) for girls belonging to SC, ST, OBC, minority communities and families
below the poverty line in Educationally Backward Blocks

xiv) Janani Suraksha Yojana (2005): One-time cash incentive to pregnant women
for institutional/home births through skilled assistance
xv) Integrated Rural Development Program (1978): Self-employment program to
raise the income-generation capacity of target groups among the poor

xvi) Integrated Child Development Services (2005): Tackle malnutrition and health
problems in children below 6 years of age and their mothers

Social Work and Social Action

 Social Work
Social work which emerged out of the need to provide poor
relief in a systematic manner gradually evolved into a semi - profession and
eventually into a profession having expert knowledge and technical skills intended at
helping the needy. During the initial stages it was concerned with assisting people to
resolve their psychosocial problems obstructing their effective social functioning. In
course of time, it was realized that social living operated at three distinct levels:
individual, group and community. Social work eventually developed three distinct
methods for each of these levels - Social Casework dealing with individuals, Social
Group Work with groups and Community Organization with communities. In course
of time, they were accepted as the three primary methods of social work.
The realization of a need to extend various social welfare
services as well as gathering validated knowledge culminated in the development of
two auxiliary methods of social work namely, Social Welfare Administration and
Social Work Research. Later, it was understood that psycho-social problems had their
origins in faulty social structures and systems. This led to the formulation of Social
Action, another auxiliary method, as a weapon capable of bringing about desired
social changes in society.
Experience with interventions and research on social services
undertaken have continuously established that various dimensions of social reality
remain largely inseparable, and that social reality has to be taken as an integrated
whole. Consequently, Social Workers thought of integrating the primary and
secondary methods and today social work practice is integrated involving all the six
methods according to situational requirements.
 In order to understand what Social Work is, it appears essential
to examine some key definitions evolving over the years.
Social Work is a form of persistent and deliberate effort to
improve living or working conditions in the community or to relieve, diminish or
prevent distress, whether due to weakness of character or to pressure of external
circumstances. All such efforts may be conceived as falling under the heads of charity,
education or justice, and the same action may sometimes appear as one or another
according to the point of view (Flexner, 1915).’ Cheyney (1926) includes in Social
Work all “voluntary attempts to extend benefits in response to needs which are
concerned with social relationship and which avail themselves of scientific knowledge
and employ scientific methods.”
According to Arthur E. Fink (1942) “Social work is the
provision of services to aid individuals, singly or in groups, in coping with present or
future social and psychological obstacles that prevent or are likely to prevent full or
effective participation in society,” J. P. Anderson (1945) identifies Social work as ‘a
professional service rendered to people for the purpose of assisting them as individual
or in groups, to attain satisfying relationship and standards of life in accordance with
their particular wishes or capacities and in harmony with those of the community.’
Helen I. Clarke (1945) defined Social Work to be ‘a form of professional service
comprising a composite of knowledge and skills, parts of which are and parts of
which are not distinctive of social work, which attempts, on the one hand, to help the
individual to satisfy his needs in the social milieu and on the other to remove, as far as
possible, the barriers which obstruct people from achieving the best of which they are
capable.’ Friedlander (1963) opinioned Social Work to be ‘a professional service
based upon scientific knowledge and skill in human relations which assists
individuals, alone or in groups, to obtain social and personal satisfaction and
independence.’ Boehm (1959) thought Social Work sought ‘to enhance the social
functioning of individuals, singly and in groups, by activities focused upon their
social relationship which constitute the interaction between man and his environment.
These activities can be grouped into three functions, restoration of impaired capacity,
provision of individual and social resources and prevention of social dysfunction.’
 A perusal of the above definitions clearly indicate the
difficulty in defining social work. Yet, keeping in mind its evolution from a service to
profession, and its concern from helping people in need, to changing the social system,
let us attempt to define Social Work:
“Social work is a professional kind of work, either
honorary or paid, undertaken by making use of scientific knowledge and
technical skills with humane and democratic outlook, to render help to people in
need to enable them to realize their potentials and expend them optimally, to
perform their social roles effectively and to live in a free, decent and dignified
manner, particularly by introducing required changes in personality as well as
social structure.”

The important characteristics of social work are:

1) it is a specialized kind of work

2) undertaken by persons with special training
3) social work education and training has specialized body of scientific knowledge
and technical skills,
4) has a democratic and humanitarian value base
5) adopts an appropriate strategy depending on the nature of problem it deals with and
its root causes - the personality structure, group dynamics and the defective social
system – and introduces changes in the personality structure of person faced with
problem and/or bring about transformation in social structure as well as system.
6) strives towards human and social development, guarantees human rights and
ensures performance of social duties and obligations towards family, the community
and society at large.
7) The social worker may accept (and generally does accept) compensation for the
work undertaken by her/him, either from those who engage her/him or benefit from
her/him work. However, altruistic considerations may impel him/her to provide
services in an honourary manner.
 Social Action
The concept of Social Action, generally speaking comprises
of three components:
(1) the social being,
(2) a social context or situation, and
(3) inspiration.
Social Action originated in Sociology, where it is ‘analysed in terms
of typical actors in typical situations, by identifying actors’ goals, expectations and
values, the means of achieving those goals, the nature of situation and the actor’s
knowledge of that situation’ (Ambercombie, Hill and Turner, 1986). Action is to be
distinguished from behaviour in that it involves meaning or intention.
Social Action as an auxiliary method of Social Work is
considered different from that in Sociology. A review of available literature on social
action reveals that there is no unanimity regarding the concept of Social Action; it has
quite often been confused with community organization, community work and
community action.
It was Mary E. Richmond (1922) who coined this term for mass
movement through propaganda and social legislation. Since then, a number of
definitions have been given by various writers on the subject. Some noteworthy
among them are as under:
Kenneth L.N. Prey (1945) defines Social Action as ‘the
systematic, conscious effort directed to influence the basic social conditions and
problems out of which arise the problems of social adjustment and maladjustment to
which our service as social workers is directed.’ Social Action in its basic nature is
non-violent. Undoubtedly, there are times when vested interests (of the privileged,
elite) in society and the powers which exercise domination and rule, want to
perpetuate the status quo.
They are threatened by the organized strength of the people (the
deprived) involved in Social Action, and direct the state machinery to suppress the
voice of dissent, by resorting to violent methods. Although there are some writers like
Britto (1980), who advocate the conflictual nature of the social action process, at the
practical plane it has to adopt and follow the methods and techniques, which are
within the accepted legal framework and non-violent. Thus, these two types of
approaches may bring about a change of heart among the elite and lead to a social
transformation through changes in policies, laws and enforcement machinery,
ultimately resulting in promotion of human and social development.

Social Reform

The term ‘social reform’ denotes to the process of changing

existing values, beliefs, ideology, attitude and opinion of the people against an issue
or a set of issues. According to Webster’s Encyclopedic Dictionary the term ‘reform’
means “the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt or unsatisfactory,
etc”. Broadly speaking social reform refers to eradication of immoral, unhealthy,
corrupt and wrong practices which thwart human and social development. M.S. Gore
while defining social reform said, “Social reform involves a deliberate effort to bring
about change in social attitudes, culturally defined role expectations and actual
patterns of behaviour of people in a desired direction through a process of persuasion
and public education”. It can be said that it is a process of change from inside the
mind of the people concerned.

In the context of social work, social reform may be referred to as

a process of change or replacement in the institutions, which have totally or partially
become irrelevant to the contemporary social order or causing loss to the quality of
life, along with deprivation, unrest and misery to sizeable section of the society. The
study of social reform is important for the professional social workers because they
are concerned with improving the social functioning of the people by introducing
desired changes in social structure and system. The objectives of social work cannot
be attained till varied kinds of social evils and unhealthy and undesirable rituals and
practices continue to exist in the society. In social reform, the reformer is working for
himself as ell as for/with others to remove hindrances and to create favourable
condition for social progress. Social reform basically aims at changing those elements,
which may sometimes include the basic values and social institutions in the concerned
community. It attempts to bring about changes in the attitude and opinion of the
society, so that the prevailing social evils of the society may be eradicated. The efforts
to prevent and eradicate the evils such as untouchability, child marriages, dowry, sati,
gender discrimination etc. are some of the examples of the activities of social reform
in India.
India has been a great land of great pioneers of social reforms.
We have had in India some great reformers starting from Raja Rammohan Roy to
M.K. Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, Dayananda Saraswati, Gopabandhu Das, Dr. BR
Ambedkar and many others (about whom you will know in the discussion in the this
paper). The untiring efforts of these social reformers had resulted in the improvement
in the lives of people in various ways.

It is clear from the above discussion that when social evils start
manifesting themselves on a very large scale and become fairly widespread to
influence the life of large number of people, some enlightened people start giving a
serious thought to them and devising measures to get rid of them; and it is at this
juncture that social reform begins.

Relation between social work and social reform

The relation between social work can be viewed in terms of the

similarities they share and the difference they maintained.

Similarities:

 Both the concepts have stemmed from the idea of promoting human happiness by
reducing sufferings .
 They are based on humanitarian values.
 Most of the social reformers are often identified as social workers. Because some
approaches of social reform are identical with the methods of social work.

Differences:
 Social work is a profession, with all the professional characteristics while social
reform is a voluntary activity with human instinct.
 Social work is neither a movement nor it attempts to change values and
institutions. It provides services without touching the existing values. It intends to
help the people in problems to help themselves through a scientific process.
 Social reform on the other hand, is process sometimes takes the form of
movement and attempts to change the values and social institutions persuasion
and education.
 Social work uses personal relationship as medium of its practice, but social
reform impersonal tactics for achieving its objectives.
 Social work uses its own methods, skills, tools and techniques for its practice,
where as social reform does not need any method, tools or techniques for its
practice.
 Social reform involves radical change in the social system, but social work is
mainly concerned with assisting the individual in freeing himself/herself from
his/her maladjustment in the social life. fighting for the equal rights of women,
pleading for a better deal of the weaker section, movement for stopping the
practice of dowry and sati etc are the best example of social reform, where as
running institutions for helping handicapped children, organization for
community services, provision for educational services, running vocational
training centers for neglected and delinquents etc are the examples of social work.
 Social reform is actual field for voluntary leader, where as social work is
increasingly interested in professional workers.

Social work has a historic identification with social reform but it

often has been viewed to be conservative than innovative. But with the change of
social set up, important changes have been taken places in social work practice for
system change as well for more effective delivery of social services. In a view to the
ever-growing complexities of the emerging problems in the social life of individuals,
groups and communities, more attention is being given to prepare professionals who
can be more competent in dealing with the emerging problems.
 Social Work Education
Introduction
During the last part of the 19th century, social
work education in the U.S. emerged from the development of the social sciences, the
opening of colleges and universities to women and the pressure from philanthropic
organizations to develop training or educational courses that focused on organizing
and managing institutions and charities (Austin, 1997). As early as the mid-1800’s
organizations such as the Associations for Improving the Conditions of the Poor and
the Charity Organization Societies begin providing in-service training for their
volunteers, but it was not until a crisis that left the country in an economic depression
in the early 1890’s that leaders of charity organizations began to ask for formal
courses in colleges and universities in order to have a better educated, paid workforce.
The emphasis shifted from a moralistic perspective on helping to one based on
scientific principles (Frumkin & Lloyd, 1995). The quest for evidence-based practice
knowledge continues today although there continues to be a dualism in social work
education. On the one hand, social work education focuses on professional
socialization that, in part, consists of teaching the underlying values and ethics of the
profession. This is the “heart” of the profession; whereas, knowledge and skills are
taught that increasingly are supported by empirically-based research. Social work
education has also strived to teach about ways of knowing that are specific to
particular cultures. The challenge in developing global standards for social work
education rests with balancing these components.
Methods of social work practice, including practice skills in and
knowledge of assessment; relationship building and helping processes; research; and
the promotion of care, mutual respect, and mutual responsibility within societies, and
the paradigm of the social work profession, including respect for the dignity and
worth of all human beings, inter-connectedness across systems, the importance of
advocacy, and a focus on capacity building and empowerment, recognizing the
strengths and potential of all human beings.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN USA

Social work has developed through centuries like any other discipline.
• This discipline attained a professional status very recently.
• It was developed through the practice of charity, social service, welfare
measures, etc.
• The earliest forms of social work activities were started in the USA from time
immemorial. The history of social work in the USA can be divided into the
following stages.
• i.The Colonial Period (1620-1776)
• ii.The civil war and Industrial Revolutions (1776-1860)
• iii. The Industrialization -The human side (1860-1900)
• iv. Social work,seeking professional characteristics (1900-1930)
• v. Highly professionalized discipline(1930-onwards)

• The charity organization society movement was started in the USA at Buffalo in
1877. • The New York Charity Organization Society made revolution in the field
of organized charity work within 15 years by extending its activities to 92
American cities.

• The charity organization societies started in Boston and Philadelphia in 1878

operated on the following principles:
• i. Detailed investigation on applications for charity.
• ii. A central system of registration to avoid duplication.
• iii. Co-operation between various relief agencies.
• iv. Extensive use of voluntary friendly visitors.

• Rapid urbanization, industrialization and immigration produced social settlement

movement in the USA.
• This movement combined social advocacy and social service with proper
intervention through group work and neighbourhood organization strategies.
• The settlement house workers established neighbourhood centres and offered
services such as citizenship training, adult education, counselling, recreation and
daycare.
• The social group work, social action and community organization methods have
emerged from Settlement House Movement.

• The rapid growth of manufacturing industries aggravated the pathetic condition

of children, so Children Aid Society (1853) and Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children (1857) were started in New York City.
• This led to the formation of Child Welfare Movement. The aim of the agencies
was to rescue children from inadequate homes and from the streets.

• The employment of paid staff and their training by Charity Organization

Societies (COS) facilitated a shift from the unorganized charity and social service
to the beginning of an organized and systematic social work.
• The first such training centre organized by New York Charity Organization
Society (NYCOS) in 1898 is currently known as the Columbia University.

• Hospital based training and social work services were also initiated around the
same time at Boston Hospital.
• World War I provided unique opportunities for social case workers to prove the
necessity of their skills.
• Thus the prestige of social work rose up in war related activities such as the Red
Cross home services.

• Mary E Richmond could be considered the first professional social worker in the
US.
• Later on she became practitioner, teacher and theoretician of the Charity
Organization Movement.
• In the National Conference on Charities and Corrections held at Toronto, she
advocated the establishment of training schools for professional social workers
(1897).
 • The other group of social workers like Hane Addams, Florance Kelly, Edith
argued for bringing of legislation to improve the working conditions of
neighbourhood organizations.
• The book 'Social Diagnosis' by Mary Richmond in 1917 is considered as the
foundation for the theoretical basis of social work.
• Chicago School and Boston school formed the second and third schools of social
work in the USA respectively.
• The American Association of Schools of Social Work was founded in 1919 to
facilitate communication among the schools.

• In a quest for professional unity, several social work organizations merged in

1955 to form the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). With a
membership of in excess of 100,000 NASW is currently the main social work
organization in the world.

• The Council of Social Work Education (CSWE) shaped in 1952 became the
standard-setting organization for social work education.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN USA ,UK ,

INDIA

INTRODUCTION

• Religious motive which were called ‘charity, ‘Poor Relief’, ‘Philanthropy’, and
‘Social reform’
• the emphasis being primarily on the soul of the giver to attain salvation rather than
the good done to the recipient. “In some Mohammedan countries at present day
reliance on providing for the relief of need by alms of the faithful still continues.
• Christianity and Judaism there is a call to comfort the weak hearted, to raise up them
that fall, and to loosen those whom Satan has bound: a call which has contributed
most powerfully to our modern desire to rehabilitate the offender and the disabled, to
provide kindly care for the old and the ailing and to understand and to help rather than
condemn the social misfit”

History of Social Welfare before Professional Social Work in United Kingdom

Phase I - Social Welfare during Prehistoric era (up to 1200 AD)

• From the Garden of Eden the concept of sharing is innate in human beings. The
feelings of belonging, the readiness to mutual protection, were just as essential as the
selfish desire to dominate other weaker human beings.
• Though there was mutual aid in that society often the old, the sick, the crippled and
the handicapped were killed or abandoned by the tribe since they were a burden to the
community.

Phase II – Church and Charity (From A.D. 1200to A.D. 1500)

Phase III – Charity from Church to Government (From A.D.1501 to A.D.1600)

Phase IV -The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601

• (a) The able-bodied poor who were forced to work in the house of correction and to
whom citizens were forbidden to give alms.
• (b) The impotent poor who were unable to work; namely are, the sick, old, blind,
deaf-mute, lame, and mothers with young children. They were given out-door relief
such as food, clothes, and fuel in their own homes.
• (c) Dependent children, who were orphans abandoned by their parents, or whose
parents were poor, were placed in ‘free homes’ (any citizen who was willing to take
them without charge).

Phase V – Poor Law Reform of 1834 The need for Poor law reform was influenced
by…..
• “(a) Economic Theory of laissez-faire presented by Adam Smith advocated that the
state should not interfere with private economy and certain of his followers pleaded
for the elimination of poor relief.
• (b) Thomas R Malthus (1798) in his famous ‘Essay on Population’ pleaded that the
poor relief tended to encourage paupers to have more children in order to get relief for
them, and tended to raise the price of food, which again impoverished the working
class.
• (c) A parish minister in Scotland, Reverend Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847),
organized a programme of private charity on the principle of neighborly aid”

Poor law reform

• Severe opposition to the Poor Law practice, the rising number of paupers, and the
heavy increase in the poor tax burden led to the appointment of the ‘Royal
Commission for enquiring into the administration and practical operation of the Poor
Laws’
• The factory Act of 1833 prohibited the employment of children less than nine years.
• The Prison Act of 1877 made prison by provide better food, ventilation, the cleaning
of cells, bedding and blankets, and medical care during illness.

Poor Law Reform…. Growth of Voluntary Institutions

• During the 19th century certain social reformers like Francis Place, Robert Owen,
Richard Cobden and many others started certain movements to earn rights for the
laborers and the formation of trade unions.
• The mushrooming of institutions private charities was greatly criticized as a waste of
money and having overlapping activities.
• In order to overcome the chaos and the lack of coordination between the many
charitable church and philanthropic societies Charity Organization Society (COS)
(G.R.Madan, Indian Social Problems, 2010, p. 39) was formed in London in 1869.

Charity Organization Society (COS)

• The innovation caused the unmasking of many ‘professional beggars’ and people
received aids from the public.
• A group of citizens were working as volunteers in the city, which was divided into
districts. The example of the London COS was followed in other large cities in
England and Scotland and later it reached the USA.
• In 1884 the first settlement house in the world known as, ‘Toynbee Hall’ was
established. Its objective was to promote education and culture, gather information
regarding the conditions of the poor and the need for social reform, and the general
awakening of popular interest in social and health problems and social legislations.
• The growth of voluntary institutions created a need for trained workers to serve the
people, giving birth to Social Work education. “Octavia Hill was conducting training
in England as early as 1873. Series of lectures followed in London throughout the
1890s.”
• Thus, the first recognized Social Work education was started in the year 1903, the
school of Sociology in London, with a two year course of theory and practice that
grew from the efforts of the COS and “professionalizing effect” (M.Healy,
International Social Work, 2001, p. 21).

History of Social Welfare before Professional Social Work in United States of

America Development of Social Welfare before 1900
• From the beginning of the seventeenth century the colonist from England and other
countries brought with them the customs, traditions, laws and institutions from the
mother country.
• The traditional resources of the mother country such as church, charities, hospitals,
and alms houses did not exist in the settlements.
• According to the Elizabethan Poor Law, it is the responsibility of the local church to
take care of the destitute. Every town made provisions to the maintenance of the poor
by supplying food, clothing, firewood and house hold essentials to persons with legal
settlements.

Alms-house
• The introduction of alms-house care did not improve the conditions of the poor. In
alms-houses, old, sick, tramps, vagabonds, blind, deaf-mutes, cripples, idiots and
insane, orphans, foundlings, unmarried mothers with their children, prostitutes, and
criminals were all put in these houses− often without separation of the sexes or
age-groups.

Poor Relief
• “a) Private Charity Societies took initiatives to start orphanages and asylums,
because they objected to the placement of children and helpless invalid and old people
in mixed alms houses where they are forced to live with people with other deviant
behaviors. Private relief societies were often affiliated with churches, fraternal orders
or national benevolent associations, and they became the leading progressive element
in American Social Welfare during the 19th century.
• b) The states themselves assumed responsibility for certain classes of the poor such
as the insane, feeble-minded and convicted offenders for whom there were no
adequate facilities.
• c) Some local public relief authorities, under the influence of state boards of charity,
began to question the old concepts of poor relief….” (Friedlander, Introduction to
Social Welfare, 1950, p. 87).

Private Charities
• After the reform in the poor relief act, private charities took the lead role in
addressing the issues of the disadvantaged. However the activities of these private or
religious agencies were often limited to aid for special local groups
• In 1817 a constructive remedy for people in economic need was set up, the New
York Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, aiming to scientifically understand the
causes of poverty and to develop a model for rehabilitation instead of mere palliative
of financial issues.
• The society assigned volunteers called ‘visitors of the indigent’ as its agents. It
established an employment bureau, a savings bank and encouraged the foundation of
Mutual Aid-Mutual Life insurance groups to protect their members against economic
hazards.
• Church and Charitable Organizations Association for improving the condition of the
Poor was started in 1843 in New York. The Association assigned ‘friendly visitors’ in
every sub district of the city in order to determine the need and the individual
measures necessary in each individual case.

Birth of COS in United States of America

• In the economi depression of 1873
• Reverend S.Humphreys Gurteen, who had been previously in London and was,
acquainted with the Charity Organization Society, organized in 1877, the first society
of this type in the United States in Buffalo, New York.
• Although the founders of these societies believed that poverty was caused by
personal fault, the friendly visitors found there were other factors that caused
destitution. They recognized that unhealthy neighbourhood and housing conditions
prevented the maintenance of health and morals and low wages did not allow for the
purchase of adequate food and clothing − even with careful housekeeping and
thrifting

C.O.S
• The introduction of C.O.S. gained momentum in promoting and enforcing social
legislation for improvement of housing, clearance of slum. The societies established
employment bureaus, loan societies, workshops, laundries, ‘wayfarers’ lodges,
shelters, training centers for the rehabilitation of the handicap, blind, deaf, and
crippled. They also created domestic training of girls, hospitals, dispensaries, visiting
nurses, recreation and summer camps, nurseries for young children, and related
facilities.

Settlement House Movement

• The development of modern industry brought masses of workers and their families
into the city. They lived in overcrowded quarters without comfort or space for their
children, while relatives and friends were left in native rural villages and towns where
they had come from. Large number of the immigrants coming as immigrants to the
USA lived in overcrowded flats and unsanitary conditions.
• There was not much mutual understanding among the different racial and religious
backgrounds, and they spoke different languages. In 1887 Neighbourhood Guild of
New York City was founded based on the idea of Toynbee Hall in England. Soon
Hull-House in Chicago, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889,
became popular

HULL HOUSE MODEL

• They met the needs of the neighbourhood through various programs: day nursery
and kindergarten, discussion and study groups, School of music, dramatics, and arts,
classes in rhythm and dancing, and workshops for children and adults. Later the
Hull-house organized playgrounds and summer camps for children. School reforms
activities which grew from the experiences of Hull-House (Friedlander, Introduction
to Social Welfare, 1950, p. 112).
• Residents of settlement houses became the champions of Social reforms and they
became the pioneers of social Action Many active workers and volunteers of the
Charity Organization Societies felt the need for a deeper understanding of the
behavior of individuals and of social and economic problems. This led to the
organization of the first Social Work courses in New York in 1898

EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Evolution of Social Work education in the world
• In 1998 the NASW declared it the 100th anniversary of the Social Work
profession.
• a) Social Work education evolving in the United States and Europe was
an indigenous response to the conditions of livelihood and the rapid development in
the nineteenth century.
• b) Social Work was introduced by the Americans and the Europeans to
other countries in Asia and Africa as experts to address the problem of
“underdevelopment”.
• c) The introduction and reintroduction of modern Social Work in the
countries of former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc, including Russia, the nations of
Eastern Europe, China, and Vietnam under the foreign influence (M.Healy,
International Social Work, 2001, p. 20).

• “Two social movements in Social Welfare that began at the end of the nineteenth
century shaped the development of the profession of Social Work: the Charity
Organization Societies and the settlement house establishments,” (Van Wormer,
1997). Van Wormer, K. (1997). Social Welfare: A World View. P.162
• The social movements gave birth to social organizations in the Charity Organization
Society in 1869 and the settlement house, Toynbee Hall in 1884 in London. Within
less than a decade, the United States adopted the concept of COS in 1877. This is one
of the earliest welfare model transfers shared in human services. The Hull House was
founded in 1889 following the visit of Jane Addams to Toynbee Hall
 “Social Work education emerged almost simultaneously in Britain,
the United States, and the European continent at the turn of the century, quickly
progressing in each location from lectures to full-time training” (De Jongh J. , August
8-11,1972, pp. 22-36). De Jongh, J. (August 8-11,1972). A retrospective view of
Social Work education. . In I. I. Work(IASSW) (Ed.), New Themes in Social Work
Education (Proceedings), XVIth International Congress of Schools of Social Work, pp.
22-36. The Hague, Netherlands, New York: IASSW. In 1897, Mary Richmond (Mary
Richmond, 1917) urged for more of an organized training during her speech at the
National Conference on Social Work. The summer institute started by the Hull house
in Chicago became a summer school in philanthropic work in the year 1898, founded
by New York COS, in response to Mary Richmond.

Important Years and Events

International Conference
• In 1928 the first International Conference of Social Work was held from July 8th to
13th in Paris, and it drew 2,481 delegates from 42 countries (Organisation of the
International Conference of Social Work, First Conference July 8-13, 1928).one
section of the conference was devoted to Social Work education. The world meeting
in Social Work and Social welfare became regular after the first conference.
• The 1928 conference was also the birth place of three major organizations,
International Associations of Schools of Social Work (IASSW), International
Federation of Social Workers (IFSW), and the International Council for Social
Welfare (ICSW).

Origin of Social Work education in INDIA can be traced under three main heads
• 1) Social Welfare in the ancient and medieval period
• 2) Social Work during British period
• 3) Social Work after Independence.

1. Social Welfare in the Ancient and Medieval Period

• “The responsibility for individuals in need of special assistance was shared by the
rulers, the rich, and also by individual members of the general community” The rulers
took charity as a sense of pride and religious duty by providing welfare measures for
the people.
• “Religion emphasized the values of charity, philanthropy, and mutual help. The
giving of alms, the feeding and care of destitute, were considered acts of religious
merit. The temple gave shelter to the homeless.
• The joint family provided for the care of the aged members and for the physically
handicapped, the chronically ailing, and the mentally deficient. Caste and community
councils were often responsible individuals in need of help
• Kulavaka Jataka tells that Buddha was born in to a noble family. While he was
young he gathered thirty men of the village and influenced them to do public good.
They got up early and rallied forth with their clubs to roll out the stones that lay on
highways and village roads, they cut down trees, made rough places smooth, dug
water tanks, and built halls.
• Kautilyas Arthasastra refers to the constructive work for public good as the joint
efforts of the villagers. One of the important forms of Social Work in ancient India
was free food and education for poor lads by learned teachers was called Vidyadana −
It is considered to be the best of all gifts. Even the poorest man gave something to eat
to hungry students.
• During the thirteenth century the Muslims instilled the same spirit of social service
through the field of religion and education. Payment of Zakat or “poor tax”, was the
essential reward of Islam Cont……

2. Social Work during the British Period

• During the death of Aurangazeb in 1707, India was the scene of conflict. The British
who came as traders, took advantage of this conflict and succeeded in establishing
their defacto rule over India. The British rule and power in India was transferred from
East India Company to the crown in 1858. The Social Work profession during the
British period passed through various phases
• (i) Social reforms: 1780-1880
• (ii) Social service Organisations: 1880-1900;
• (iii) Welfare of the Harijans, Tribals and Industrial workers:1900-1920;
• (iv) Preventive and Protective legislations: 1920-1936;
• (v) Dawn of Professional Social Work in India 1936.
Social Reforms 1780 to 1880
• Social reform in India was the endeavor of the powerful influence of early Christian
missionaries. The work of Christian missionaries aroused various leaders of modern
thought. The missionaries attacked the various evil social customs prevailing at the
time. The impact of Western education also affected the Indian mind. Indian
reformers learned about the liberal ideas and equality of rights among sexes in
European countries − they were affected by their social system.
• The Indian society is caste-ridden, convention-ridden and priest-ridden. Those who
suffered the worst from these evils were women.
• Kulinism was the practice by which it was socially possible for even a hundred
women to be given in marriage to one Brahmin by reason of his KUL (high status).
Widows were subjected to a life of austerity and subjection if they refused to
immolate themselves (Natarajan S. , 1959, pp. 23-24).
• Raja ram Mohun Roy (1722-1833) was the first Indian who raised a defensive
reaction against the social evils. As a religious reformer educationist and Social
Worker, he is the symbol of the efforts of the Indian mind to face the challenges of
transition. He published the first tract against SATI in 1818. He was also the founder
of Brahmo Samaj (1828), a sect against idolatry which included social reform as an
integral part of the mission.
• Justice Ranade (1842-1901) was a great social reformer. In 1887 an organization for
social reform came to being known as Indian Social Conference. M.G. Ranade would
give an address and summarize the social picture. The subject covered a wide range:
infant marriage, abolition of dowries, the position of widows, education of girls,
temperance, social purity, intermarriage between castes, and charities, and
Hindu-Muslim unity (Manshardt 1967 p.33).

Social Service organizations (1880-1900)

• The social reform movement spread throughout the country, and there was emphasis
on the expansion of education. The British educators had introduced a new pattern of
thinking based on rational thinking, democracy, and liberalism. The work of
missionaries and their rationalistic way of thinking, linked with modern science, had a
great appeal to the Indian intellectual. There were significant changes taking place in
the economic life of the country.
• The villagers started to migrate in increasing numbers to the new industrial towns.
Pandita Ramabai, an Indian Christian missionary, established the Arya Mahila Samaj
in poona under prarthana samaj. Jotibal Phule – a non Brahmin worker and a
campaigner for caste reforms-organized a number of Social Work institutions,
orphanages, and school for girls. In 1887

Social Welfare agencies from 1900 – 1920

• In 1904 the Indian Social conference was attended by Muslims, Sikhs, Arya
Samajists and Brahmos, Theosophists, Buddhists and Rationalists from all over India.
• In 1905 the Servants of Indian Society was founded, in 1908 the Bombay
Association established a Seva Sadan, in 1911 the Social Service league was founded,
and in 1922 after the India Industrial Welfare conference Social Work from
1920-1936 From Ameliorative to Prevention Social Legislation Gandhiji and Social
Work Social Welfare Agencies Women Welfare Prohibition Goverment and Welfare
Programmes Professional Social Work

BIRTH AND EARLY GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL WORK

EDUCATION IN INDIA
• A settlement house-like agency, the Nagpada Neighbourhood House, was founded
in 1926 in the slums of Bombay, India by Dr. Clifford Manshardt-an American
missionary.
• From the experience he gained in the settlement, Manshardt was very convinced
“that the standard of Social Work in India could not be raised appreciably until a
permanent School of Social Work was set up to engage in a continuous study of
Indian social problems and to offer training for Social Work on a graduate basis”
• Clifford Manshardt sought the help of an Indian industrialist for finance and
opened the first professional Social Work school in the name of Sir Dorabji Tata
Graduate School of Social Work in Bombay in 1936.

Professionalization of Social Work Practice in India

In the ancient times, the poor, destitute, handicapped, weak and
helpless were looked after by joint family, caste panchayats, the village community
and religious institutions in the Indian society. But with process of development and
expansion of urbanization and growth of industrialization, the ancient social security
and welfare system started changing its role in relation to the changing needs of the
needy individuals. The emergence of industrial revolution in the 18th century brought
about different types of social problems having social significance. It led to
malfunctioning between family members, families, groups and community etc. Hence,
everywhere social relationship was either broken or was challenged to break.
Complexity of social problem was at its peak. Consequently, non-trained, unscientific
and traditional way of solving social problems was not able to confront such emerging
social problems. Hence, it required scientific outlook and approach to tackle the
situation. This situation forced the men of social concern to involve in developing
new methods, tools and techniques to deal with such problems of the society.
Subsequently, social work passed through different stages of development to achieve
professional status which we see today.
Social work, as a profession, originated in the 19th century. The
movement began primarily in the United States and England. After the end of
feudalism, the poor were seen as a more direct threat to the social order and so the
state formed an organized system to care for them. In England, the Poor Law served
this purpose. This system of laws sorted the poor into different categories, such as the
able bodied poor, the impotent poor, and the idle poor. This system developed
different responses to these different groups. Social work involves ameliorating social
problems such as poverty and homelessness.
The 19th century ushered in the Industrial Revolution. There was a
great leap in technological and scientific achievement, but there was also a great
migration to urban areas throughout the Western world. This led to many social
problems, which in turn led to an increase in social activism. Also with the dawn of
the 19th century came a great "missionary" push from many Protestant denominations.
Some of these missions’ efforts (urban missions), attempted to resolve the problems
inherent in large cities like poverty, prostitution, disease, and other afflictions. In the
United States workers known as "friendly visitors", stipended by church and other
charitable bodies, worked through direct relief, prayer, and evangelism to alleviate
these problems. In Europe, chaplains or almoners were appointed for administer the
church's mission to the poor.
 Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a founder of the U.S. Settlement
House movement and is considered one of the early influences on professional social
work in the United States.
During this time, rescue societies were initiated to find more
appropriate means of self-support for women involved in prostitution. Mental asylums
grew to assist in taking care of the mentally ill. A new philosophy of "scientific
charity" emerged, which stated charity should be "secular, rational and empirical as
opposed to sectarian, sentimental, and dogmatic. " In the late 1880s, a new system to
provide aid for social ills came into being, which became known as the settlement
movement. The settlement movement focused on the causes of poverty through the
"three Rs" - Research, Reform, and Residence. They provided a variety of services
including educational, legal, and health services. These programs also advocated
changes in social policy. Workers in the settlement movement immersed themselves
in the culture of those they were helping.
In America, the various approaches to social work led to a
fundamental question – is social work a profession? This debate can be traced back to
the early 20th century debate between Mary Richmond's Charity Organization Society
(COS) and Jane Addams's Settlement House Movement. The essence of this debate
was whether the problem should be approached from COS' traditional, scientific
method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House Movement's
immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client.
Even as many schools of social work opened and formalized
processes for social work began to be developed, the question lingered. In 1915, at the
National Conference of Charities and Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the
topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He contended that it was not because it lacked
specialized knowledge and specific application of theoretical and intellectual
knowledge to solve human and social problems. This led to the professionalization of
social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method.
In India, we have been experiencing social work in different forms
from Vedic period to till date. Originally, social work in India was in the form of
charity. Gradually, it developed into voluntary social work, constructive social work
under the leadership and guidance of Mahatma Gandhi.
 However, social work took the face of a profession after the
establishment of Sir Dorabji Tata School of Social Work in Bombay in the year 1936.
A brief account of different forms of social work practice in India can be stated in the
following lines.

Voluntary Social Work in India

The word volunteer is derived from the Latin word ‘Volunas’
which means desire or instinct to do something by will alone. It is act of providing
physical, material and nonmaterial help to any individual, group or community that is
unable to meet the basic needs of life. Social work in this form is in existence from
the very existence of Indian society. To provide voluntary service has been rooted in
the spirit of the Indians since long. History witnesses how the Indians have
concentrated in to serve the needy through ‘dana’, ‘sramadana’, ‘seva’ etc for the
destitute in the society.

Constructive Social Work in India

Constructive social work is all about the
activities undertaken with the purpose of reconstruction of the society out of social
benevolence. In Indian context, it is spoken with reference of Gandhiji, who used the
term ‘seva’ in place of ‘help’. His mission was to reconstruct Indian society from its
village level. He proposed 18 plans for the reconstruction of Indian society. They are:

1. Communal Harmony
2. Removal of Untouchability
3. Progression
4. Khadi
5. Gram Udyag
6. Naitalim
7. Adult Education
8. Village Hygiene and Sanitation
9. Service to backward classes
10. Emancipation of women
11. Health education
12. Encouraging national education
13. Native care
14. Removal of economic disparity between the rich and poor
15. Establishment of organizations for youth, farmers and labours.
16. Self-purification (good thinking)
17. Physical labour
18. Sarva Dharma Sambhab

This set of programmes enabled the people o be aware of

new dimensions to their capacities and strength. The basic aim of constructive
programmes was to bring about total change in the society by generating will and
strength in the mind and body of the people themselves. Gandhiji felt that the
involvement of constructive organizations would serve two basic purposes i.e.:

I. This programme would substitute dependency on government for socioeconomic

development with reliance on the people themselves.
II. Constructive organization would be able to win support and sympathy of all
sections of the society and this would help in creating necessary climate for
socio-economic development of the people.
Gandhian way of social work was based on satya (truth),
ahimsa (non-violence), aparigraha (non-possession), non-stealing, Abhay
(fearlessness), niswarth (selflessness) etc. Different ashrams were established in
different places of India, based on Gandhian ideology. However, Gandhiji used
‘spiritualism’ as the technique of social work practice.

Contribution of Socio-religious Reform Movements and Reformers

The genesis of social reform movements can be traced back

to the work of Raja Rammohan Roy, who sowed the seeds of social and religius social
reforms. A numbers of reformers like Isawar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule,
Sashipada Banerjee, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Swami
Vivekanda, Balsashtri Jambedkar, in different parts of the country for a period of
almost a century concentrated their efforts on reforming certain feature of Indian
society such as caste system, child marriage, practice of sati, widowhood, idol
worship, gender discrimination an inequality etc. the ideals of justice, liberty and
equality were underlying principles of these reform movements. They put their efforts
on providing services to the people affected by the harmful practices of Hinduism
through school education and propaganda. They also worked for spreading education,
and supported the concerned governments to pass responsive legislation to eradicate
those defective social practices which hindered in the process of social progress.
Some of the organizations that played significant role in the development of such
movement were Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Theosophical Society,
Ram Krishna Mission, Indian Social Conference; Servants India Society, Social
Service League etc.
The contribution of reform movements to social work practice in
India can be discussed under the two following points:

1. Brahmo Samaj:
Founded as Brahmo Sabha on 20th August, 1828 by Raja
Ram Mohan Roy, it was renamed Brahmo Samaj about a year later in 1929.
Brahmo Samaj was first rationalistic and intellectual
movement in India. It believed in one universal God and prayer, meditation, reading
from Upanishads was used as a medium to worship God. Ram Mohan Roy
(1772-1833) was the first great modern reformer, and has been called `The Father of
Modern India` for good reason.
There was no place for temple, rituals, sacrifices, priest etc. in
the Samaj. It believed in progressive social practices and propagated it.
After death of Raja in 1833 the Samaj found a new leader in
Debendranath Tagore who joined Brahmo Samaj in 1842 and infused a new life into it.
Under his active leadership Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1978 which raised the age
of presage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys 18 to 21.Under his leadership
new branches of Sabha were established in various towns of India. Earlier Tagore
founded Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839 that engaged in search of spiritual truth.
 Debendranath Tagore reshaped Brahmo Samaj and gave it a
shape of formal religion. He compiled prayers, books and even prescribed Brahmo
form of worship. Debendranath handed over the leadership of Samaj to young and
dynamic Keshab Chandra Sen and made him Acharya. Keshab Chandra Sen who
joined Samaj in 1858 and popularised the movement in Bengal and in other parts of
India. He helped in transformation of Brahmo Samaj into an All India Movement.
Under him leadership scriptures of all religion were read at Samaj meetings. Keshab
Chandra Sen openly opposed caste system. He advocated inter-caste marriages and
opposed child marriages, polygamy etc.
He was instrumental in enactment of number of social
legislations like passage of Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, legalization of
non-ritualistic or Brahmo form of marriages by enactment of Native Marriage Act of
1872 (popularly known as the Civil Marriage Act). It fixed the minimum age for the
groom and bride at 18 and 14 respectively.
The radical views and preaching’s of Keshab Chandra Sen got
him into trouble and Debendranath dismissed him from the office of the Acharya in
1865. Keshab Chandra Sen along with his followers left the parent body in 1866 and
formed Brahmo Samaj of India. The other faction under Debendranath came to be
known as Adi Brahmo Samaj.
Another schism/split in Brahmo Samaj took place in 1878. It
was initiated by progressive followers of Brahmo Samaj of India like Anand Mohan
Bose, Bipin Chandra Pal, Surendranath Banerjee etc. who formed Sadharan Brahmo
Samaj. The split took place because of the rising conflict in the ideology and the
practices of the Samaj. Confrontation resulted because certain close disciples of
Keshab Chandra Sen began to regard him as an incarnation. Moreover, Keshab’s
authoritarian approach in interpretation of words etc. further dissuaded the followers
with rational and independent thinking. The division in Brahmo Samaj of India was
finally precipitated by the fact that Keshab married his eldest daughter in an orthodox
family of Maharaja of Cooch Behar according to traditional Hindu customs and rituals.
Both bride and bridegroom were not yet of marriageable age. Thus several
movements spearheaded by Brahma samaj has gone a long way to make service reach
at the level of the people and consolidate the position in the society.
2. Prarthana Samaj :
It was another samaj which aimed at reforming Hindu
society was founded in 1867.The samaj believed in monotheism and worship in one
almighty. In order to end end social evils it started many institutions like orphanages,
education societies etc. It also condemned the ban on widow remarriage, opened
widow ashrams and vehemently supported the cause of widow remarriage. It started a
plan for adult literacy and advocated for giving women their rightful place in the
society.
Justice Ranade the main supporter of Prarthana Samaj believed that
religion and society could not be separated from each other as well as religion and
politics. A socially degenerated society cannot demand, obtain and enjoy political
rights. Therefore, he suggested that religion and society must be reformed for
successful political set up. Due to his effort, the Deccan Education Society was
founded.

3. Arya Samaj :
The Arya Samaj was a militant reform movement basically
revivalist in nature. It was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 at
Bombay.
In order to realize his aims, Dayananda launched a 4 point
programme which included:
1. Religious reform,
2. Social reform,
3. Expansion of education and
4. Political emancipation of the country from foreign dominion.

Arya Samaj under the leadership of Dayananda

Saraswati attacked idolatry, polytheism, Brahamin sponsored religious rites and
superstitious practices. It advocated social equality improvement in status of women
and denounced untouchability, caste rigidities and encouraged rationality. It also
disregarded authority of later Hindu scriptures like Puranas. However, Dayananda
regarded Vedas as infallible and fountainhead of knowledge and gave the popular call
‘go back to Vedas’.
 Dayanand published his views in his famous work Satyartha
Prakash (the light of truth) in Hindi. He accepted doctrine of karma but rejected
theory of niyati (fatalism). Sum total he advocated physical, social and spiritual
welfare of mankind which is relevant with the holistic approach adopted in the
modern social work. He gave a wider concept of Aryan religion. He was first man to
advocate concept of ‘Swaraj’ and gave the political Slogan of ‘India is for Indians’.
He gave emphasis to education in order to diffuse knowledge and dispel ignorance.
He pleaded for national unity which based on the acceptance of Hinduism and the
authority of the Vedas by all Indians. The samaj fought to to integrate all Hindus
breaking the narrow barriers of castes and sub-castes. It spread the ideal of equality
among the people.
Liberal/moderate amongst Arya Samaj like Lala Hans Raj, Lala
Lajpat Rai established Anglo-Vedic School at Lahore in 1886. Many
Schools/Colleges for boys and girls were opened. The education at Anglo-Vedic
Schools/Colleges combined best of modern (western) and classical (oriental) studies.
The most phenomenal achievement of Arya samaj has been in the field social reform
and spread of education. The samaj based its social programme entirely on the
authority of the Vedas, conditioned by rationalism and utilitarianism. The DAV
institutions spread all over the country are the standing proof of the educational
achievement of the samaj.

4. Ramakrishna Mission :
A movement is a much wider entity than an institution and
is more dynamic than a sect. the Ramakrishna movement satisfies both the conditions.
This movement has witnessed great dynamism and absorbing power. That’s why it
speculated that it is going to be a powerful influence in the next century. Several
modern thinkers have envisaged a major role for the Ramakrishna movement in the
future transformation of human consciousness.
The Ramakrishna movement has upheld its common
characteristics, eastern traditions and values. For instance it believes in no miracle and
never encouraged miraculous power as it sees, it as a hindrance to spiritual progress.
The followers are expected to be free from religious hypocrisy and spiritual
pretension.
 Swami Vivekananda, one of the greatest thinkers of India
founded Ramkrishna Mission in 1896 to carry out humanitarian and social work to all
without any distinction, especially to help poor and destitute. Basic motto of the
mission was to provide social service to people, spread the meaning of Vedantic
spiritualism and strive for harmony among various faiths and cults.
Vivekananda established the monastic order after name of
his guru or spiritual preceptor Ramkrishna Paramhansa of Dakshineswar, Calcutta
who believed in universalism in religion and whose main concern was religious
salvation and not social salvation. He later established Belur Math near Calcutta in
1899, which became the centre of Mission activities. Another centre at Mayawati near
Almora was established later. He was a Vedantist and he interpreted Vedanta in the
light of modern age and this finally came to be known as Neo-vedantism.
Swami Vivekananda established spiritual supremacy of
India at the World Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893. He was first
Indian to question the superiority of west instead of defending his religion. Valentine
Chirol author of Indian Unrest described Vivekananda’s teachings as one of the major
causes of nationalist movement in India. He was spiritual precursor of India’s
freedom movement.

5. Theosophical Movement :
It was founded by H.P. Blavatsky of Russo-German origin in
New York with Colonel H.S. Olcott (American) in 1875. They arrived in India in
1879 and established the headquarters of the society at Adyar near Madras in 1882.
The society believed that oriental religion, especially Hindu religion and its classics,
ancient thoughts, had answers to all human miseries. It believed in reincarnation,
theory of karma, transmigration of soul, and drew inspiration from philosophy of
Upanishads and also from different schools of thought like Yoga, Vedanta etc.
Theosophist popularized the study of oriental classics especially Upanishads and
Bhagwat Gita.
Annie Besant joined the society in England in 1889 and
came to India in 1893 after death of Balvatsky. She played very important role in
popularizing and propagating theosophy in India. She became president of the society
after death of Olcolt in 1907. She translated Bhagwat Gita in English. The society did
commendable work under Besant in the field of education. She laid the foundation of
Central Hindu College at Benaras in 1898 that later became nucleus for formation of
Benaras Hindu University in 1916. She very boldly opined that after ending social
evils there was no difficulty in political rights.

6. Young Bengal Movement :

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31) a lecturer of English
literature and History at Hindu College, Calcutta along with some English educated
Bengali youth popularly known as Deiozians, formed Young Bengal Movement at
Calcutta. It was a radical movement. The movement attacked old traditional and
decadent customs. It advocated women’s rights and educated the public on
socio-economic and political issues. It developed a revulsion against Hindu religion
and culture to such extent that its followers deliberately started drinking wine, eating
beef etc.
The movement urged people to cultivate and practice all
virtues and abhor vices in every form and shape. It encouraged free discussion on all
subjects with rationality/logic.

7. Parsis Reform Movement:

Rahanumai Mazdayasanan Sabha or religious reform
association was founded by western educated progressive Parsis like Naoroji Furdonji,
Dadabhai Naoroji, J.B.Wacha, S.S.Banglee, K.R.Cama- in 1851 with the objective of
social regeneration of Parsis, removal of purdah system, raising the age of marriage,
education of women. Rast-Gofter (voice of truth) propagated the message of the
association. Even Parsi religious rituals and practices were reformed and Parsi creed
was redefined.

8. Wahabi Movement :
The earliest organized Muslim response to the western influence
in India came from Wahabi Movement founded in India by Shah Walliullah who was
influenced by teachings of Abdul Wahab of Saudi Arabia. Syed Ahmad of Rae Bareli
(1786-1831), a disciple of Shah Abdul Aziz, eldest son of Walliullah popularized the
teachings of the latter and also gave it political colour. It was a revivalist movement
with slogan to return to pure Islam. Jihad was declared with the prime objective of
converting Dar-ul-Harb () into Dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam). land of infidels
Accordingly Abdul Aziz issued a fatwa. Syed Ahmad of Rae
Bareli became sworn enemy of British. He established permanent centre at Patna and
started movement of religious reform and initiated campaign with the help of frontier
tribes. However, he had to face Sikh power on the north-west. Syed Ahmad of Rae
Bareli lost his life in a battle at Balakot. In the Revolt of 1857, Wahabis played a
notable role in spreading anti British sentiments. British crushed the movement in
1870s. Wahabis considered Sher Ali, the assassinator of Lord Mayo, a martyr.

9. Aligarh Movement :
It was a Reformist Movement founded with prime focus to
modernize Indian Muslims. It was started by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-98) who
retired from the government service (Judicial Service) in 1876. He was prepared to
accept the official patronage and reconcile the differences of the community with that
of the government, and develop the Muslims, socially and economically. He was
convinced that in order to get larger share in government job modern education was a
must. He tried to modernize Muslim community and propagated his ideas through his
writings in the journal named Tahzib-al-Akhlaq (improvement of manner and
morals).
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advocated rational approach towards
religion and emphasized on reinterpretation of Kuran in the light of reason to suit the
new trend of time.He condemned the system of piri (mystic faquirs being treated as
teacher/guru) and muridi (disciple) and institution of slavery in Islam. With full
official backing from government Sir Syed founded Aligarh School in 1875, which
was upgraded as Mohammodan Anglo Oriental College, which became nucleus for
formation of Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.
He stressed the need for Hindu-Muslim unity. However he did
not associated himself with INC and asked Muslims to stay aloof from political
movements and urged them to be loyal to British in order to get maximum benefits.
10. Deoband Movement :
It was an important Revivalist Movement founded in 1867 by two
theologians Muhammd Qasim Nanatavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi at Deoband,
Shahranpur in 1866.
It discouraged English education and criticized western culture and
trained students for preaching Islamic faith. There was wide gulf between Deoband
and Aligarh movements. It issued fatwa against Sir Syed Ahmed’s Organisation in
1888. It welcomed the formation of INC and supported it.
Despite the best endeavours made by the intellectuals to appeal to
the masses, their appeal for all practical purposes remained confined to the urban
middle classes, particularly the educated sections. Moreover, traditions die very hard.
The evils associated with caste and customs proved to be hard to eradicate from
Indian consciousness. It was really very difficult to bring about changes in the long
established customs and traditions and deeply rooted prejudices. Child-marriage and
enforced widowhood remained as pressing a problem as ever. The fact of widespread
illiteracy remained a great obstacle to the realization of Social and Cultural Change.
The intellectual ideas and activities could not, therefore, stir the minds of the general
public. It can rightly be said about the movement that the lamp had been lighted but
the light was flickering.
The intellectuals did have certain concrete gains to their credit. It
was greatly due to their constant endeavours that abolition of Sati and legalisation of
widow-marriage were achieved during the nineteenth century. The intellectuals’
debate and discussion, even if they failed to bring about any concrete change
immediately, raised the level of consciousness.
Another significant contribution of the intellectuals lay in the realm of female
education. It laid the foundation for emancipation of women.

Contribution by the Individual Reformers

Some enlightened persons gifted with special instincts and

indomitable courage to fight against the defective practices by spearheading the
movements for the wellbeing of the society. Their personal effort and contribution to
the social reform process and social work practice at large can be stated in the
following lines:

i) Raja Rammohan Roy is considered as the greatest Indian of the nineteenth

century who sowed the seeds of socio-religious reforms in the fertile soil of India. He
invested most of his talent and vigour to towards the abolition of the heinous practice
of ‘Sati’. He supported the cause of widow remarriage and female education in India.
His opined that only by freeing women and by treating them as human beings, Indian
society can free itself from social stagnation.

ii) Iswar Chandra Vidysagar was the second great social reformer of the
nineteenth century. He advocated for widow remarriage, economic self reliance,
women’s education and abolition of polygamy. He collaborated with Raja Rammohan
Roy for passing Widow Remarriage Act in 1856. His efforts and
contribution to the social reform movement and to social work practice in India can
never be underestimated.

iii) Bal Shastri Jambedkar, the first professor of Elphistone College, Bombay was
another father figure in the history of social reform in India. He condemned the evil
custom of ‘Sati’ and female infanticide as well trafficking in female children. He tried
for framing laws for abolishing such practices. In order to make these laws widely
acceptable by the people he connected them with the sanctions of religious scriptures.

iv) Gopal Hari Deshmukh of then Bombay was another pioneer of social reform
movements in India. He promoted modern education and established dispensaries,
maternity homes, orphanages etc for the needy people.

v) Sasipada Banerjee was a notable reformer of Bengal who worked for the cause
of women’s education and widow remarriage. He himself married a widow. He
arranged several widow marriages and gave shelter to destitute widows in his home.
He was also deeply interested in taking up welfare works for the labour class.
vi) Jyotirao Phule was an active reformist in Poona. He worked for the
development of women and for the education of weaker section of the society. He
also worked towards the improvement of living of the peasants of Maharastra. He
established the Satya Sodhak Samaj in 1868 especially for the socio-economic
upliftment of the lower caste people in India.

vii) Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who had deep interest in the work of social services,
established the Servants of India Society and undertook many social service activities
for the well being of the people.

viii) Dayananda Saraswati opposed caste system and child marriage.He attacked
idolatry, polytheism, Brahamin sponsored religious rites and superstitious practices.
He vehemently advocated social equality improvement in status of women and
denounced untouchability, caste rigidities and encouraged rationality. Sum total he
advocated physical, social and spiritual welfare of mankind which is relevant with the
holistic approach adopted in the modern social work. He gave a wider concept of
Aryan religion. He was first man to advocate concept of ‘Swaraj’ and gave the
political Slogan of ‘India is for Indians’. He gave emphasis to education in order to
diffuse knowledge and dispel ignorance.

ix) Swami Vivekananda: Swami Vivekananda, one of the greatest thinkers of India
founded Ramkrishna Mission in 1896 to carry out humanitarian and social work to all
without any distinction, especially to help poor and destitute.Basic motto of the
mission was to provide social service to people, spread the meaning of Vedantic
spiritualism and strive for harmony among various faiths and cults.
Vivekananda established the monastic order after name of his guru or spiritual
preceptor Ramkrishna Paramhansa of Dakshineswar, Calcutta who believed in
universalism in religion and whose main concern was religious salvation and not
social salvation. He later established Belur Math near Calcutta in 1899, which became
the centre of Mission activities. Another centre at Mayawati near Almora was
established later. He was a Vedantist and he interpreted Vedanta in the light of
modern age and this finally came to be known as Neo-vedantism.
Swami Vivekananda established spiritual supremacy of India at the World Parliament
of Religions held at Chicago in 1893. He was first Indian to question the superiority
of west instead of defending his religion. Valentine Chirol author of Indian Unrest
described Vivekananda’s teachings as one of the major causes of nationalist
movement in India. He was spiritual precursor of India’s freedom movement.

Analysis of various approaches to social work through different ages.

 Benefactor – Beneficiary Ideology

Benefactor gives benefits and beneficiaries receive them. A
beneficiary is natural person o communities, receives money or other benefits from a
benefactor.
In simple terms – “A person makes contribution to make good efforts for the welfare
of other person or persons or towards the fulfilling of a noble cause “
 Here the giver of the contribution --- Benefactor
 The ultimate person/persons or the cause for which the
contribution is made/used --- Beneficiary

In this approach, the usual practice was that some of the well
placed people with some spirit of service organized activities, with a feeling that they
were going out of their way to help improvident and downtrodden brethren. Such an
attitude created feeling of benevolence and superiority on the part of the benefactor
and a sense of obligation and inferiority on the part of the beneficiaries.

 Religious charity
This approach was adopted and followed by various religious
organizations in olden days. The term charity refers to “charitable actions, as alms
giving or performing other benevolent actions of any sort for the needy with no
expectation of material reward.”
Most of the religions have advocated charity as essential virtue
their followers must possess and an essential element in the practice of all religions.
In Hinduism, the importance of charity was referred in RIGVEDA. It encourages
charity by saying that “Many the one who gives shine most”. Charity has been
glorified as an exercise in spirituality and rinse (varied kinds of debts every Hindu
owes) a duty to be performed by every Hindu. Bhagavad-Gita insisted that the
privileged class has moral duty to serve the poor.
Buddhism emphasized on ‘punya and dan (charity).
Christianity advocates brotherly love .in Islam, charity has been equated with
prayerfulness. According to this approach peoples in need where directly helped with
money and material .this approach not a scientific approach for solving the problems
of people .it could not achieve the real objectives of development of people .this
approach make people dependent.

 State sponserd charity and welfare

In state sponsored charity and welfare the benefactor was the
state creating institution like alms houses ,work houses prison etc .the beneficiary
where the people to be dealt with the state to ensure good living in the society.
During the muslin and mughal period, social institutions
underwent changes and the state also took some share of responsibility of providing
welfare services to the population. In this connection the famous reform of Sher shah
suri , Akbar etc may be mentioned. There was arrangement for supervision of the
charity by the rulers.
During Hindu periods, the sources of welfare activity were
joint family, caste system and the village panchayath provided mechanism, which
would meet the needs of the sick, the aged, the destitute and the handicapped
members of the community.

 Organized/scientific charity
This is an organized system of social services designed to help
individuals groups or communities through establishing institutions like schools,
hospitals, counseling centers, rehabilitation centers, correctional, welfare centers
etc .the centers are made more scientific, systematic and organized.
The two types of organized and scientific charity approaches
were Charity Organization Society (COS) and settlement houses. By ‘scientific’
means that help should base their effort on the factors of the situation of that helping
should be rational, with a clear idea of means and ends .if also aims the moral
improvement and effective regulations of this organized stigmatized working class
people.

 Professional social work

The professional work has a scientific basis and a progressive
approach and instead of offering palliatives, it emphasis preventive aspects and
undertake long term rehabilitation. This kind of s.w on a professional basis is slowly
but steadily getting established in India. The training of professional social workers
started in 1936 by TIS, Bombay. At present, there are large number of universities
and other institutions in India imparting social work training in various places and at
various levels .since social workers using specialized skills or work on a full time
basis, they have a right to be paid for their work just as in other professions.

System Perspective/system Theory

 System perspective provides the best theoretical basis for the study of human
communication. Systems Theory explains human behavior as the intersection
of the influences of multiple interrelated systems. Even for individual issues,
families, organizations, societies, and other systems are inherently involved
and must be considered when attempting to understand and assist the
individual. According to this theory, all systems are interrelated parts
constituting an ordered whole and each subsystem influences other parts of the
whole. A set of things or parts forming a whole.
 A complex unity formed of many often diverse parts subject to a common plan
or serving a common purpose.
Eg : Individuals , Families, Computers etc

System theory and Social Work Practice

 Systems theory offers a way of conceptualizing the relationship between
people and their environment.
 The Emphasis is on the ‘goodness of fit’ between the client and their
 environment.
 Workers can focus on how family, community, social, economic and political
factors affect the client’s situation.

Five Principles of System

 All systems seek goal attainment and balance.
 All systems have boundaries.
 All systems are made up of subsystems.
 The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
 All systems create feedback.

The key assumptions of systems theories are that:

 individuals function as a part of many systems - they are affected by these
systems and affect the systems
 because systems are in dynamic interchange, a change in one part of the
system will have consequences for other systems
 problems arise because of a misfit between individuals and the systems of
which they are a part
 the role of the social worker is to enhance the fit between the individual and
the systems affecting them

How does it work?

 The worker aims to enhance the fit between the individual and their
environment.
 This is done by developing, maintaining or strengthening supportive
interventions and reducing, challenging or replacing stressful systems.

Social worker should:

◦ think strategically about the possibilities and limitations for change in
the different systems affecting the client’s environment
◦ have an understanding of the possibilities for intervention in each
system
Strengths of System theory
◦ Focus on interactions between individuals and systems
◦ Fosters sustained change between individuals and their social
environment
◦ Can move beyond ‘presenting problem’ and look into into other more
far-reaching problems and concerns
◦ Recognizes the value of the social context, especially the contribution
of formal and informal social systems

Weaknesses
◦ its underlying assumptions are questionable e.g. change in one part
may not lead to change in another – can underestimate the resistance to
change in a system
◦ can deny individual responsibility for change
◦ can bind workers and clients into long-term interactions with no
beginning or end .

Ecological perspective(Environment)

Ecology, the study of the relationships between organisms

and their environments, is a vibrant interdisciplinary field encompassing both the
natural and the social sciences. In the social sciences, ecological theories, research,
and intervention models focus on the complex, dynamic, and reciprocal relationships
between human organisms and a range of environmental contexts, from family and
immediate milieu to larger sociocultural, political, and institutional arrangements.
The present thinking on the ecological approach suggests
that the primary premise explaining human problems is derived from the complex
interplay of psychological, social, economic, political and physical forces. Such a
framework accords due recognition to the transactional relationship between
environmental conditions and the human condition. This perspective allows the
practitioner to effectively treat problems and needs of various systemic levels
including the individual, family, the small group, and the larger community. In
essence, the practitioner can easily shift from a clinical role to a policy and planning
role within the board framework of the ecological approach.
Presently, six distinct professional roles have evolved from
the ecological framework. These six professional roles allow the practitioner to work
effectively with five basic dient systems-the individual, the family, the small group,
the organization, and the community. The six professional roles are defined as
follows:
1) Conferee:
2) Enabler:
3) Broker:
4) Mediator
5) Advocate:
6) Guardian

The core characteristics of the ecological approach to practice as follows:

1. The environment is a complex environment-behavior-person whole,
consisting of a continuous, interlocking process of relationships, not arbitrary
dualism.
2. The mutual interdependence among person, behavior, and environment is
emphasized.
3. Systems concepts are used to analyze the complex interrelationship with the
ecological whole.
4. Behavior is recognized to be site specific.
5. Assessment and evaluation should be through the naturalistic, direct
observation of the intact, undisturbed, natural organism environment system.
6. The relationship of the parts within the ecosystem is considered to be
orderly, structured, lawful, and deterministic.
7. Behavior results from mediated transactions between the person and the
multivariate environment.
8. The central task of behavioral science is to develop taxonomies of
environments, behaviors, and behavior-environment linkages and to determine
their distribution in the natural world.
(Detailed Notes)
The term Ecological Perspective is a concept from the science
of ecology that refers the study of organisms and how they interact with their
environments. In 1973, Carel Germain borrowed the term and used it to explain the
way sociologists and social workers should study the interactions of people and
groups within social and cultural environments.
The ecological perspective was developed based on the
biological science of ecology, which views all living organisms within their social and
physical environments and examines the exchange of people with their environments
(Gitterman,2009 ).

The individual, the family, the small group , the organization, and the
community are the five basics client systems.

The six professional roles are defined as follows :

1. Conferee
2. Enabler
3. Broker
4. Mediator
5. Advocate
6. Guardian

 The ecological perspective to social work practice requires a specific “ecological”

vocabulary, which includes such words as adaptedness, stress, and person:
environment fit.

 Adaptedness :
It refers to a positive and healthy fit between the person and
her/his environment. This is where individuals feel that their environment is providing
the necessary and useful resources to meet their needs.

 Experiencing stress : leads to a poor level of adaptive fit and often leads to
individuals seeking help from social workers.
 The social worker is tasked with collaborating with the individual to improve the
level of person: environment fit, which might involve changing the individuals
perceptions and behaviours, changing the response from the environment, or
trying to improve the quality of exchange between the individual and his/her
environment.
 Those in need of social assistance are those at the bottom of the hierarchy , such
as deeply impoverished families.
 Helps social worker to find out how a person or group of people landed in the
position they’re in will help a social worker by giving them a look into some of
society’s problems and what demographics they affect most.

 Life model approach : aims to improve the level of fit between people and their
environments. The level of fit can be improved by either:
I. Mobilizing and drawing on personal and environmental resources to eliminate or at
least alleviate stressors and the associates stress
II. Influencing social and physical environmental forces to be responsive to people’s
needs

Characteristics of the Ecological Approach

 The environment is a complex environment behaviour - person whole , consisting
of a continuous, interlocking process of relationships , not arbitrary dualism.
 The mutual interdependence among person, behaviour, and environment is
emphasized.
 Systems concepts are used to analyze the complex interrelationship with the
ecological whole.
 Behaviour is recognized to be site specific
 Assessment and evaluation should be through the naturalistic, direct observation
of the intact, undisturbed ,natural organism environment system.
 The relationship of the parts within the ecosystem is considered to be orderly,
structured, lawful and deterministic.
Conclusion
Ecological perspective makes a significant depature from the
traditional methods of casework , group work and community practices. Current
thinking on the ecological perspective provide practitioners with an integrating
approach to practice that allows for new ways of assessing and treating problems.

Right Based Approach

 Human Rights

Concept of Human Rights

In general, right may be defined as a justified claim or entitlement. It
is giving one something that he/ she deserves or is entitled to have. The Oxford
dictionary defines right as “a justification for a fair claim.” It further states “right is
also something that one may legally or morally claim; the state of being entitled to a
privilege or immunity or authority to act.”
Human rights are commonly understood as "inalienable fundamental
rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human
being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and
egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal
rights, in both national and international law. The doctrine of human rights at various
levels- in international practice, within international law, global and regional
institutions, in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental
organizations, has been a cornerstone of public policy around the world. The idea of
human rights states, "If the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to
have a common moral language, it is that of human rights." Despite this, the strong
claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable
skepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to
this day.
Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) states, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood”.
Man as a member of the society has rights to survive and make a
better life. These are also concerned with the dignity and self- esteem of individuals.
These rights encompass different forms of rights such as, like moral rights the
elements of their enforcement lies in the faculty of man’s conscience. As legal rights,
they are protected by the law of the state. They also cover the fundamental rights
incorporated in the basic law of the land and thereby are given special treatment in
respect to their judicial enforcement. It is implied that Human Rights are legally
enforceable and process of claiming the rights closely linked with the social justice
something which is capable being decided by legal principles or by court of justice.
Human Rights are inalienable means cannot be taken away from the
people at any situation and belong to all human beings. Such rights are essential for
growth and maintenance of reasonable quality of life. Human Rights basically
include:
 Right to life
 Right to freedom from slavery
 Right against torture and exploitation
 Right to be punished in accordance with the law in case of conviction
 Right to basic needs of life such as food, shelter, cloth, good health, education,
security etc.
 Right to dignity and self-esteem and so on.
These are the rights which every person inherits because of his/her
human status. No one is permitted to take away these rights from any one as they are
the part of a person. In India most of the fundamental rights in the constitution come
under the category of human rights which also include economic, social and cultural
rights. The fundamental rights enshrined in the constitution and are coming
under the human rights can be stated in the following lines:

1) Right to equality, including equality before law, prohibition of discrimination on

grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, and equality of opportunity in
matters of employment, abolition of untouchability and abolition of titles.
2) Right to freedom which includes speech and expression, assembly, association or
union or cooperatives, movement, residence, and right to practice any profession or
occupation (some of these rights are subject to security of the State, friendly relations
with foreign countries, public order, decency or morality), right to life and liberty,
right to education, protection in respect to conviction in offences and protection
against arrest and detention in certain cases.

3) Right against exploitation, prohibiting all forms of forced labour, child labour
and traffic in human beings;

4) Right to freedom of religion, including freedom of conscience and free

profession, practice, and propagation of religion, freedom to manage religious affairs,
freedom from certain taxes and freedom from religious instructions in certain
educational institutes.

5) Cultural and Educational rights preserving Right of any section of citizens to

conserve their culture, language or script, and right of minorities to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.

6) Right to constitutional remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights.

7) Right to education which ensures that children up to the age of 14 get

education. It can also be free of cost.

Nature of Human Rights:

Human Rights are of universal character and do not have any
geographical or political boundary. It endorses the use of persuasion as well as force
by the international community on any country violating human rights. However,
these impositions may be restricted in the interest of public peace, social decency and
political security of a particular country. Also it has to be kept in mind that individual
countries have cultural uniqueness with own set of traditions which restrict people
from enjoying certain rights that are recognized as against human rights.
 For instance in Sudan Bull-man fighting is tradition where bull
may tear the man into pieces which is enjoyed by the public. But these are termed as
violation of human rights there, as they are socially accepted as tradition. This point
acts as a huge barrier in the Universalisation of human rights.
However, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 states
that “All human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated. So it
is the duty of the states regardless of their political, economic, and cultural systems to
promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedom.”

Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on
10th December 1948 was the first occasion on which the organized community of
nations made a Declaration of human rights and fundamental freedom for humanity.
In the Proclamation of Teheran, adopted by the International
Conference on Human Rights in 1968, the Conference agreed that the Universal
Declaration states a common understanding of the peoples of the world concerning
the inalienable and inviolable rights of all members of the human family and
constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community. The
Declaration consists of 30 articles setting forth the civil and political, and economic,
social and cultural rights to which all persons are entitled, without discrimination.
Economic, social and cultural rights are set out in Articles 22-27, and are rights to
which everyone is entitled as a member of society. Article 22 characterizes these
rights as indispensable for human dignity and the free development of personality,
and indicates that they are to be realized through national effort and international
cooperation. At the same time, it points out the limitations of realization, the extent of
which depends on the resources of each State. The article-wise universal declaration
of human rights by the United Nation can be stated as follows:

Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal.

Article 2: Everyone is entitled to the same rights without discrimination of any kind.
Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security.
Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude.
Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel or degrading treatment or
punishment.
Article 6: Everyone has the right to be recognized everywhere as a person before the
law.
Article 7: Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection of the
law.
Article 8: Everyone has the right to justice.
Article 9: No one shall be arrested, detained, or exiled arbitrarily.
Article 10: Everyone has the right to a fair trial.
Article 11: Everyone has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty.
Article 12: Everyone has the right to privacy.
Article 13: Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and to leave and return to
one's country.
Article 14: Everyone has the right to seek asylum from persecution.
Article 15: Everyone has the right to a nationality.
Article 16: All adults have the right to marry and found a family. Women and men
have equal rights to marry, within marriage, and at its dissolution.
Article 17: Everyone has the right to own property.
Article 18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
Article 19: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression.
Article 20: Everyone has the right to peaceful assembly and association.
Article 21: Everyone has the right to take part in government of one's country.
Article 22: Everyone has the right to social security and to the realization of the
economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for dignity.
Article 23: Everyone has the right to work, to just conditions of work, to protection
against unemployment, to equal pay for equal work, to sufficient pay to ensure a
dignified existence for one's self and one's family, and the right to join a trade union.
Article 24: Everyone has the right to rest and leisure.
Article 25: Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for health and
wellbeing, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social
services.
Article 26: Everyone has the right to education.
Article 27: Everyone has the right to participate freely in the cultural life of the
community.
Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which these
rights can be realized fully.
Article 29: Everyone has duties to the community.
Article 30: No person, group or government has the right to destroy any of these
rights.
Human rights are Universal, Indivisible, interconnected and
interrelated with equality and without discrimination for all women and men, youth
and children. Democracy must be a delivery system of human rights All must know,
own, organize, plan and act guided by human rights as a way of life

Three generations of Human Rights:

As per the categorization, offered by Karel Vasak, there are three
generations of human rights such as:

The first-generation: civil and political rights (right to freedom of expression and
opinion, assembly and life),

The second-generation: economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence)

and

The third-generation: solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean and healthy
environment, cultural integrity, self-governance and right to development).

Out of these generations, the third

generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition. This
categorization is at odds with the indivisibility of rights, as it implicitly states that
some rights can exist without others. Prioritization of rights for pragmatic reasons is
however a widely accepted necessity.
Olivia Ball and Paul Gready argue that in case of both civil and
political rights and economic, social and cultural rights, it is easy to find examples
which do not fit into the above categorization. Among several others, they highlight
the fact that maintaining a judicial system, a fundamental requirement of the civil
right to due process before the law and other rights relating to judicial process, is
positive, resource-intensive, progressive and vague, while the social right to housing
is precise, justifiable and can be a real 'legal' right.

 What is Rights Based Approach?

• A conceptual framework for the process of human development

• Based on international human rights standards
• Operationally directed to promote and protect human rights.
• Identifies Rights Holders and their entitlements
• Identifies Duty Bearers and their obligations
• Give rise to legal obligation on the parts of others
• State is primary responsible while other states and non-State actors are responsible
to contribute
• Works towards strengthening the capacities of rights holders to make their claims
and of duty bearers to meet their obligations
• Focus on the realization of the rights of excluded and marginalized
• It considers family, community, civil society and national authorities in holistic view
• International Instrument
• Participation of poor in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of
programs
• Transparency and Accountability
• Ownership and Sustainability
• Gender Mainstreaming
• Analyze inequalities which lie at the heart of development problems
• Redress discriminatory practices
• Potential to empower people- especially the most marginalized - to participate in
policy formulation and hold accountable those who have a duty to act
• Adds legitimacy to demand for poverty reduction.
 Core Principals
• Participation
• Accountability
• Transparency
• State responsibility

( Detailed Notes)
According to the High Commissioner for Human Rights of the
United Nations (2006), a human rights-based approach is a conceptual framework for
the process of human development that is normatively based on international human
rights standards and operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights.
These principles include a linkage to rights, accountability, empowerment,
participation and attention to vulnerable groups. By using these international
principles as a basis for developing policies, societies can establish local systems
tailored to their own needs.

Elements of a Rights-based Approach

The main purpose of implementing a rights-based approach is to
protect human rights. When formulating plans or policies with this approach, five
rights-based approach principles should be integrated into programs (Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2006). The five principles,
or elements, are often times overlapping and interrelated; however they are essentially
guidelines which can provide a basic way to measure the operations of social service
agencies.
The first element, “express linkage to rights”, calls for human
development on all levels to use international human-rights standards as benchmarks
(Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2006).
International human-rights standards are those found in the ICESCR and other treaties
from the UN. This includes everything from policy-making in legislation to
program-planning within a social work agency. The purpose is to protect against
activities that violate basic human rights, including social rights.
 The second element is “accountability”, which requires that
duty-bearers and rights-holders are clearly identified. The duty-bearers are those who
are obligated to provide services and protect against violations of human rights
(Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2006). Having
signed the ICESCR, the government becomes legally bound to protect against human
rights violations and to fulfill basic services for its citizens. Other parties that provide
direct services to citizens, such as nongovernmental organizations and social service
agencies, are morally responsible to promote and protect human rights. The
government must take needed action to ensure service providers have adequate
resources to fulfill their own obligations. According to the OHCHR, duty-bearers
should also analyze the specific needs and capacities that rights-holders currently
have; this is to ensure the most disadvantaged persons can claim their rights
effectively (2006).

The third element of a rights-based approach is “empowerment”,

which is giving people in society the power to influence their own lives through their
own capabilities (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,
2006). The purpose is to provide citizens with the opportunity to claim their rights.

The fourth element, “participation”, should be used at all levels of

policy-making (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,
2006). This means the opinions of the citizens should be taken into account for
programming and policy development. It also means offering free and meaningful
involvement to those who need it most, and involving appropriate participants so that
short and long term benefits can be attained. Participation requires providing a means
for those to contribute to the community when they otherwise would not have a
chance to.
The fifth element included in a rights-based approach is
“non-discrimination and attention to vulnerable groups”. The purpose of this
principle,implemented through the development of programs, is to guard against
pre-existing power imbalances and violations of marginalized groups’ rights (Office
of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2006). This means
promoting social cohesion and equality and many times giving priority to those who
are discriminated against in a given society. Because these five elements can be used
as a framework to measure the fulfillment of a rights-based approach, we have
defined them in regards to social work. The elements are effective to gauge whether
social workers have implemented any component of a rights-based approach into their
practice. The next section will illustrate an example of how the principles of a
rights-based approach has been used in India

Example of Rights-based Approach Strategy in India

An example of implementing a rights-based

approach has been the “Right to Food Campaign” in India, beginning in 2001. The
Indian State did not meet its obligation to ensure its people were receiving their right
to an adequate amount of food (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights Regional Office for Asia-Pacific, 2002). Indian citizens have suffered
because of droughts in certain sections of the country, and many have died from
starvation. The State was neglecting to provide adequate relief services to ensure food
security. An informal association of individuals, NGOs, and legal organizations has
been running The Right to Food Campaign since 2001 in attempts to enable the
“Right to Food” for poor and marginalized groups in India. This has been a
progressive campaign, beginning with a petition for the Indian Government to use its
massive food supplies to alleviate the hunger of Indians in drought-affected areas.
The petition demanded the Government provides open-ended
employment for those affected in the drought area so they could afford adequate food.
Demands for the right to food from this petition induced further demands for the right
to employment and social security as well. The Campaign submitted many public
interest litigations to the Supreme Court, and over time it passed orders for the
Government to provide mid-day meals in all primary schools and provide 35 kgs of
grain per month at very low costs for 15 million impoverished households. Because of
the persistent efforts from the Campaign, Parliament passed the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act. The Act ensured that destitute rural households received
wage employment for adult members to volunteer and perform unskilled manual labor.
The Right to Food Campaign implemented principles from the rights-based approach
because its fundamental goal was to provide all Indians with the ability to feed
themselves and to have adequate food, which is a social right written in the ICESCR.
The Campaign has been planning strategies to engage Indian citizens on how to claim
their own rights, such as workshops educating and empowering them to take legal and
social action (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
Regional Office for Asia-Pacific, 2002). The Campaign identified the specific rights
the citizens are entitled to, which is adequate food, and has taken action to guarantee
citizens can claim that right. The progression of the Campaign allowed Indians in
rural areas to volunteer while also earning wages to pay for food. Initially the
Campaign was designed to aid those affected by droughts, but many vulnerable
groups in India were helped by the progress the Campaign has made.

Strength Based Perspective

Much has been said about strengths-based approaches,

asset-based approaches and strengths-based practice and how it applies to working
with individuals, families and communities. Some of the information can be
confusing and this guide aims to help identify and provide examples of what is
considered positive strengths based approach and what a strengths based approach is
not.
Strengths-based practice is holistic and multidisciplinary. Over
time, we have seen how care management approaches have predominantly focused on
a deficit model, for example with questioning such as what are the problems and
Issues the individual is experiencing? What are they unable to do and how can we
solve this? We know this has shaped professional social work and social care practice
in a certain way and a strengths based approach challenges this deficit model.
A strengths-based approach explores, in a collaborative way the
entire individual's abilities and their circumstances rather than making the deficit the
focus of the intervention. We should gather a holistic picture of the individual’s life;
therefore it is important to engage and work with others (i.e. health professionals,
providers, the individual's own network, etc. with appropriate consent).
Strengths-based practice is applicable to any client group, to any
intervention and can be applied by any profession. When using a strengths-based
approach, risk is looked at as an enabler, not as a barrier. Risks should be explored
with the individual and from their point of view. The role of the professional is not
solely to ‘reduce risks’ but to support the individual in managing risks. This can
be done by:
• identifying all the potential benefits and potential risks of a particular activity or
decision for the individual and others,
• exploring and fully understanding the consequences of both the potential benefits
and the potential risks for them and others
• collaboratively, identifying the best way to manage the identified risks, maximising
the benefits and if appropriate reducing the potential negative consequences
The aim should not be about risks or benefits for the
organisation that the practitioner works in or for the practitioner them-self, but about
benefits and risks for the individual and others.
There are many models, tools and techniques to apply a
strengths-based approach to social work and social care interventions, but the key
thing is to ensure that whichever one we use it is appropriate and proportionate for the
intervention and the circumstances of the individual.
One fundamental point of a strengths-based approach is that it is
an ‘approach’, not an outcome or a process. It is less about ‘what the end result is’, or
‘what we do’, and more about ‘how we do things' It is about being aware of the
skills we use when we approach individuals, their families and the community to
address a particular situation. The aim is to enable better outcomes and/or lives for
people, and we should be mindful that not everything that provides better outcomes
for individuals is a strengths-based approach.
Therefore, it is important to clarify that ‘reduction of packages
of support’, is generally a collateral benefit of a strengths-based approach. A
reduction in provision of services, should not be the outcome we are seeking, and this
is not what the application of a strengths-based approach is.
Working from a strengths-based position, is not about 'giving
people less support and services', but working with people to identify together, the
best next- step for them utilising all the strengths and resources they currently have or
may have access to.
 Moreover, working in this way is not about ‘not providing help’,
but, rather it is about ensuring that as practitioners we are providing the right help,
advice, and support at the right time. There are occasions when carers have felt
coerced into providing more help than they can provide, what in some situations have
meant a detriment to their own wellbeing. When having strengths-based conversations
the social worker or social care professional should discuss with the individual and
their carers what the next best step is for all concerned, and sometimes this is not
necessarily promoting independence or being more sociable, but always should be
promoting their -individual and carer- wellbeing.
The individual should be clearly at the heart of any intervention.
Their views should be central; it is not helpful to carry out interventions where the
individual is a passive element in the dynamic. A strengths-based approach is person
centred and therefore ensures that the intervention is about the individual and their life
and circumstances.

Definitions of a strengths-based approach

There are many definitions of what strengths-based approach is. We
are not attempting to give a comprehensive reference to all, and have selected a
handful that captures all the key core elements of strengths-based approach.

A strengths-based approach to care, support and inclusion says

let’s look first at what people can do with their skills and their resources – and
what can the people around them do in their relationships and their communities.
People need to be seen as more than just their care needs – they need to be
experts and in charge of their own lives.’
(Alex Fox, CEO Shared Lives)

Working in a collaborative way promotes the opportunity for

individuals to be co-producers of services and support rather than solely
consumers of those services.
Morgan and Ziglio, 2007)
 Strength-based practice is a social work practice theory that
emphasises people's self-determination and strengths. It is a philosophy and a
way of viewing clients as resourceful and resilient in the face of adversity.
• It is client-led, with a focus on future outcomes and strengths that people bring
to a problem or crisis.
• When applied beyond the field of social work, strength-based practice is also
referred to as the "strengths-based approach".
(McCashen Wayne (2005)

‘Strengths-based practice is a collaborative process between

the person supported by services and those supporting them, allowing them to
work together to determine an outcome that draws on the person’s strengths and
assets. As such, it concerns itself principally with the quality of the relationship
that develops between those providing and being supported, as well as the
elements that the person seeking support brings to the process’.
(Duncan and Hubble, 2000)

Moral & Religious values in Social work philosophy-Christian,

Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist traditions
Serving the needy and helping one’s fellowmen have been
virtues greatly valued in the Indian religious culture and in the society. If we unravel
the religious scriptures in India, we can find that all the Indian religions have
emphasized charity and human service. Devotion and service towards one’s
fellowmen, love for charity and brotherhood existed even in the feudal periods and far
beyond. The responsibility of assisting the individuals in need was shared by the
community and the rulers. The form of assistance which was provided to the needy
individuals on the ground of religious duty is known as ‘charity’ all over the world
including India. The different traditional forms of charity existed in the ancient India
were Artha (money), Vidya (education), Abhay (courage) and/or Surakshya (security),
all of which have a strong reference to important components of modern form of
social work practice.
 Man is the super concern in all the religions of the world. It
is region that fortified men against temptation and gave the courage to live, work and
die for good reasons. One can see this in the social and economic history of all the
peoples of the world. All the civilizations are rooted in religion.
Social work as a practice mainly relied upon religion. The
source of inspiration of social work perpetuating it till today and has given it the
present professional status is mainly religion along with the humanitarian attitude and
devotion to mankind.
The main inspiration for social work in India originally came
from religious teaching. In all religions the emphasis for service is found. It is the well
known fact that charity was the foundation stone of social work in India and abroad as
well. In the task of understanding the deep rooted relationship of social work with
religions in India, let’s discuss how social work associated to all the major religions
professed/practiced in India.

 HINDUISM AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Hinduism, in the western sense, is more than a religion as our

Ancient History Guide sees it. Today, it is also known to its practitioners as ‘Sanatana
Dharma’ which means everlasting or eternal religion. Hinduism can best be defined as
a way of life based on the teaching of ancient Indian sages and scripture like Vedas
and Upanishads.

 Basic tenets of Hinduism

Hinduism is not an organized religion and has no single, systematic
approach to teaching its value system. Nor do Hindus have a simple set of rules to
follow like the Ten Commandments of Christianity. Local, regional, caste, and
community-driven practices influence the interpretation and practice of beliefs
throughout the Hindu world. Yet a common thread among all these variations is belief
in a Supreme Being and adherence to certain concepts such as Truth, dharma, and
karma. And belief in the authority of the Vedas (sacred scriptures) serves, to a large
extent, as the very definition of a Hindu, even though how the Vedas are interpreted
may vary greatly.
 Here are some of the basic tenets or core beliefs shared among Hindus:

 Truth is eternal.
Hindus pursue knowledge and understanding of the Truth: the very
essence of the universe and the only Reality. According to the Vedas, Truth is one,
but the wise express it in a variety of ways.

 Brahman (God) is Truth and Reality.

Hindus believe in Brahman as the one true God who is formless,
limitless, all-inclusive, and eternal. According to Hinduism, Brahman is not an
abstract concept; it is a real entity that encompasses everything (seen and unseen) in
the universe.

 The Vedas are the ultimate authority.

The Vedas are Hindu scriptures that contain revelations received
by ancient saints and sages. Hindus believe that the Vedas are without beginning and
without end; when everything else in the universe is destroyed (at the end of a cycle
of time), the Vedas remain. This religious value fuels the existence of the whole
concept of humanity and social service.

 Everyone should strive to achieve dharma.

Understanding the concept of dharma helps you understand the
Hindu faith. Unfortunately, no single English word adequately covers its meaning.
Dharma can be described as right conduct, righteousness, moral law, and duty.
Anyone who makes dharma central to one’s life strives to do the right thing,
according to one’s duty and abilities, at all times.

 Individual souls are immortal.

A Hindu believes that the individual soul (atman) is neither created
nor destroyed; it has been, it is, and it will be. Actions of the soul while residing in a
body require that it reap the consequences of those actions in the next life — the same
soul in a different body. The process of movement of the atman from one body to
another is known as transmigration. The kind of body the soul inhabits next is
determined by karma (actions accumulated in previous lives). If one has done good
deeds in the previous life, his/her soul will be rewarded to dwell in happy and
gracious body in the next life. On the other, if a person has committed sins in the
previous life, his/her soul will be punished to dwell in a cursed body to suffer all
through life.

 The goal of the individual soul is Moksha.

Moksha is liberation-the soul’s release from the cycle of death and
rebirth. It occurs when the soul unites with Brahman by realizing its true nature.
Several paths can lead to this realization and unity- the path of duty, the path of
knowledge, and the path of devotion (unconditional surrenderence to God).

 Important Hindu virtues (as prescribed by Manu Smriti)

From the ancient days these virtues are given the highest regard in
the Hindu philosophy and Hindu way of life. The following points are accepted as the
guiding principles for an appreciable Hindu life.

1. Contentment: (to be happy with what one has)

2. Abstinence from injury to others, active benevolence and returning good for evil
3. Resistance from sensual appetite
4. Abstinence from stealing and illicit gain
5. Purity, chastity and cleanliness
6. Coercion of passion
7. Acquisition of knowledge
8. Acquisition of Devine Wisdom
9. Veracity, honesty and fidelity and
10. Freedom from wrath and hatred

 Hinduism and Social concerns

Hinduism speaks of Bhakti (Devotion), Dharma (what is right) and

Yoga (discipline) for the service of mankind. The oldest Hindu religious scripture Rig
Veda (chapter-I, XIII, 2) encourages charity by saying, “May the one who gives
shines most”. The Upanishads like Brihadaranyaka, Chhandagya and Taitiriya,
prescribed that every householder must practice charity. In Mahabharat it is found that
in an interaction Bhisma talked to Yudhistir describing the essence of eternal religion,
non-violence, truth, the conquest of anger and practice of charity.
Bhagawat Geeta (Chap-3 to 13) says, “When any profit accrued as
a result of total dedicated efforts of many, if misappropriated by a man, then he is a
thief. No single member has the right to have a larger share. The community is sure to
succeed in progress and welfare when it has learned to live and strive as one entity.
The privileged class has a moral duty to serve the poor, such persons who served the
society with all their ability are freed from all sins”. This statement from Bhagawat
Geeta, a Hindu scripture has deep identification with equality, social justice and social
responsibility which are the essence of social work practice.
The law of Karma in Hinduism is essentially a moral law which
calls for social responsibility towards one’s fellowmen. By karma whatever one does
has consequences not only for others, but also for oneself. As misunderstood by many,
karma doesn’t mean fate, but it is the outcome of what one does in his lifetime. If you
fail to do good to others who are in pain and suffering then you are loosing a chance
of shaping your karma. Dharma is the value one receives from good deeds (Karma).
Practice of dharma does not mean observance of religious rituals but living a life of
truth, non-violence, compassion and equal regards for others and their welfare,
reflected in selfless service to the society. In the Gita non-violence is considered to be
the highest dharma in Hinduism (Ahimsa Param dharma ). In a wider sense, it is not
just non-killing, not even mere tolerance, but is compassion, forgiveness, benevolence,
selflessness, help for others, peace and harmony. Compassion and help to others in
need has been highly cherished value right from the very Vedic age till today. ‘Daan’
(charity) was recognized as the most potent way of earning ‘Punya’ which is believed
to be the qualifying mark for entry into the heaven. Padmapuranam declares, “Those
who always feed the crippled, the blind, the children, the old, the ill and those who
help the helpless will enjoy bliss in heaven after death”.
According to Chhandogya Upanishad, another Hindu scripture,
“Life is a succession of ‘Yajna’ (which means regular services for others). Charity is
not merely a social duty, but it is like a prayer. One does it for his own sake; one feels
it is privilege, because one is serving the Lord (God) through it” The habit of
alms-giving was common and no householder turned away a beggar empty handed as
to do so was considered as a sin. On the careful analysis of all the above quotations
from different Hindu scriptures, one may find that presence of social work is deeply
felt in each practice of Hindu religion. Practically, the development of social work in
India found its driving force from the basic tenets of this religion as it is the religion
of largest number of people in India.

 Contribution of Hinduism to Social Work Practice in India

If we look at the history of social work in India, we can find that

Hinduism and Hindu way of life has acted as a driving force to social practice in India.
It has been seen as a source of inspiration for the providers of social service and social
welfare and the practitioners of professional social work in the country.

Vedic Period

Life during the early Vedic period was of complete mutuality and
reciprocal assistance. People made collective effort to meet the needs whether basic or
special, arising out of vulnerable situations such as disease, calamities or any external
dangers. One of the most common selfless practices was ‘Yajna’ which was a
platform where the tribes used to share among others what ever they had with them
like food, wealth, knowledge or labour. The term ‘daan’ has been used in Vedic
literature to describe the act of distributing wealth among the weaker members of the
society.
The term ‘Charity’ was another popular word was mainly used in the
Vedic period. The concept of charity sprang from the idea that whenever one serves
the needy people in the society, he/she serves God and earns ‘Punya’ or blessing from
God. This idea motivated people to undertake charitable activities for the needy and
helpless people in the society. This concept continues to exist till today. Even today,
charity is known to social workers as the parental form of social work practice not
only India but also other parts of the world.
Post-Vedic period
The ‘Manusmriti’ of Manu, the ancient law giver of India and
‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilya played a vital role in the socio-economic life of the people
in the post-Vedic period. Both the shastras emphasized promoting the welfae of the
people with the sense of fairness and justice. Under the guidance of Manusmriti
destitute women were given special attention for justice and empowerment and were
helped to carry out many vocational activities like hadicrafts. Sense of morality and
social responsibility was given optimum attention in the ancient book of law
‘Manusmriti.
Arhtashastra emphasized on good governance and effective
administration for economic wellbeing of the common people. Kautilya was the
counselor of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of strong administration in India. He
laid down guiding principles for kings and their responsibilities towards the subjects.
It can be quoted here as, “In the happiness of the people lies the king’s own happiness,
in their welfare his welfare; he should follow what promotes people’s welfare, and not
just what pleases him; provide public services and infrastructure; and ensure the rights
of women, consumers, borrowers, wage earners, patients and even prisoners.
Castes panchayats in the caste system which is a corner stone of
Hinduism, addressed to the welfare needs of the caste members during the post-Vedic
period. Yojna was much used term in the social concern of post-Vedic period in India.
Kshyatriya and Vaishya families conducted ‘yojnas’ for the welfare and prosperity of
their own and of the society as whole. It was then reflected with the sense of
responsibility towards others, social justice and equality among the people.

British period
British period during the nineteenth century was enlightening
period for Indian elites some of whom came forward to work for bringing about
enormous social transformation in the Indian society. They contributed to a great
extent towards change in the religious, social, economic, political and cultural spheres.
Reform movements like Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Theosophical
Society, Ram Krishna Mission along with the reformers brought about tremendous
change in the Hindu ideas and Hindu way of life. It is said that during the British
period poor Hindus were exploited by the British government. Consequently, many
sanyasis led people’s movements came up to overthrow the exploitative system of the
British. Several Hindu religious leaders took up the cause of poor and depressed and
mobilized them to end exploitation within the frame work of Hindu philosophy. The
work of Shri Narayan Guru in Kerala for Ezhavas can be stated as a classical example
for this.

Present scenario

It is a well known fact that several Hindu organizations like Arya

Samaj, Ram Krishna Mission, Theosophical society of India, Viswa Hindu Parishad
are actively involved in spiritual guidance along with social welfare of the people.
They still continue make significant contribution in the fields of education, economic
upliftment and healthcare.
One of the famous Hindu organizations working for the welfare of
the people without any discrimination on the basis of faith is Sri Satya Saibaba
Charitable Trust. It does outstanding work in the fields of health and education. Ram
Krishna Mission has set up many Vivekananda Mathas in different parts of the
country which are involved in promoting education, health through yoga, personality
development, rural development, natural resource development in the guidelines of
the ‘Sanatana Dharma’.
Among the other institutions, Brahmakumaris, Swami Hrudananda
Trusts, ISKCON, Swaminarayan Mission are doing commendable job for the welfare
of not only Hindus but also for others who are in need.
To conclude, Hindus in the contemporary Indian society continue to
be inspired by the religious teaching and continue to practice charity in the name God
and help the poor, indigent, and orphans; feed the destitute and offer voluntary
services for the social causes. Some of the Hindu organizations have started
employing professional social workers for solving social problems through a holistic
approach. The practitioners of social work also refer to the Hindu philosophy and
spiritual guidelines. Thus, the spiritual guideline of Hinduism has provided strong
platform social work practice in India.
 BUDHISM AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE IN INDIA

Budhism is often called ‘the religion without a God’. It is known

not so much as a religion, but as a philosophy. It is regarded as a mind culture and a
path towards enlightenment and of discovering truth and reality of human existence.
Buddhism is a religion indigenous to the Indian subcontinent that
encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings
attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning
"the awakened one". The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian
subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. He is recognized by
Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help
sentient beings end their suffering (dukkha) through the elimination of ignorance
(avidya) by way of understanding and the seeing of dependent origination
(pratyasamutpada) and the elimination of desire (tanha), and thus the attainment of the
cessation of all suffering, known as the sublime state of nirvāņa.
Siddhartha Gotama was born into a royal family in Lumbini, now
located in Nepal, in 563 BC. At 29, he realized that wealth and luxury did not
guarantee happiness, so he explored the different teachings religions and philosophies
of the day, to find the key to human happiness. After six years of study and meditation
he finally found 'the middle path' and was enlightened. After enlightenment, the
Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching the principles of Buddhism called the
Dhamma, or Truth until his death at the age of 80.

 Basic Tenets of Buddhism

 Four Noble Truths

I. Suffering:
In this world people suffer. What is suffering? Wanting wealth when one is poor,
that's suffering. Having a child become sick and die when one wanted that child be
healthy and grow, that's suffering. From the trivial to the profound, suffering is
merely the gap between what one wants the world to be and the way it really is. The
greater the gap, the greater the suffering.
II. Causation:
People want things to be different. People are not satisfied with the way things are.
People try to fix things so they are perfect. Improve things so they are better or hold
on to old ways because things were better back then. That human trait is the source of
suffering.

III. Cessation:
Each individual creates their own wants and desires. Thus it is possible for people
eliminate suffering by eliminating their self created desires. The ability to eliminate
suffering is inherent in all, whether one's intelligent and well read or slow and
illiterate.

IV. Eight fold path:

The eight fold path is the method which the Buddha taught his follower's the way to
eliminate their desires and wants. He did not teach about the existence or
non-existence of gods, goddesses, or of a supreme being. He only taught about
suffering, how people create it, and how it can be eliminated.
The eight fold path is a way to live one's life. One does not have to master each item
before going on to the next, though one can do so if one wishes. One can even work
on all of them at once.

i). Right Understanding:

Just being able to comprehend that there is a difference between what is and what one
desires to be is sufficient. But note, there is an infinite regression on the why and how
things came to be the way they are. That is called karma. The important thing is to see
how one creates suffering. Then one will see how others create suffering, that process
deepens understanding and develops compassion.

ii). Right Thought:

Wants and desires are thoughts. One can learn to select those thoughts which alleviate
suffering. Thoughts that cause desire and suffering in life are given up for thoughts
which bring peace and tranquility.
iii). Right Speech:
Talking can spread ideas and thoughts of wants and desires from one to another. It
also re-enforces wants and desires which come to mind. One gives up frivolous talk
and gossip. One also gives up hurmful and angry language for they stem from wants
and desires. Talk reduces to what's necessary to teach or meet basic needs.

iv). Right Action:

One's actions are also modified. One refrains from harming others and from trivial
activities. One acts only to meet his basic needs or, out of compassion, to help other's
meet their needs.

v). Right Livelihood:

How one chooses to live and bring sustenance to their home becomes important. One
gives up lying and taking from other's even if it is considered "legal" by society in
favor of giving to self and others. Careers, jobs, or hobbies which promote peace and
prosperity for all are taken up over those which bring fame or fortune to oneself.

vi). Right Effort:

The Buddha didn't say this would be easy. One should expect lapses, mistakes, and
failures to crop up. But over time the ability to follow each element of the eight fold
path will get stronger.

vii). Right Concentration:

Concentration is the ability to quickly discard distracting thoughts and views which
come into the mind that keep one from being focused on the immediate task at hand.

viii). Right Mindfulness.

Mindfulness is the ability to bring oneself back to the task at hand when one's
concentration has lapsed. It is also the ability to change focus when new needs or
priorities come to one's attention. The various schools of Buddhism use meditation,
ceremonies and chanting to develop this skill as well.
 Social Concern of Budhism
Relevance found in Budha’s entrusting a mission on his disciples
and the noble mission of social work, as found in Vinaya Pitaka-1:21 “Go! Mark, and
travel for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of compassion for the welfare
and happiness of the people, out of compassion for the world…”.
The ‘Kulavaka Jataka tells that the ‘Bodhisattva’ or the future Budha
who was born in a noble family in Magadha (South Bihar) was one of the earliest
committed social workers of India. While he was a young man he gathered thirty
young men of the village and induced them to work for the welfare of the people. As
saying goes, they used to undertake different activities such as construction of shelters
for the homeless, building and repairing roads, digging wells for drinking water and
so on.
The social evolution of during the Magadhan Empire brought about
a significant change in the character of Indian society, guided by the philosophy of
Budhism. The society was changed from a tribal settlement to a class-based agrarian
economy. Budhism laid great emphasis on Punya (righteousness) and Dana (charity).
In Budhism charity was seen not only as a means of alleviating the sufferings of
materially poor, but also as the giving of gifts (Dana), especially to the Sanghas.
Sanghas were the centre of shelter and learning and were responsible for the spread of
literacy. Thus, the religious values and practices of Budhism had a close association
with the social work practice in India.

 Contribution of Budhism to social work Practice in India

During the past few decades Budhists have been re-examining and
revitalizing the teaching of their religion and are engaged in making their social
standing through various developmental and welfare activities which has a close
connection with the philosophy of social work and that can be discussed in the
following lines.

 Social Action
In Budhism ‘social action refers to the many kinds of intended to
benefit mankind. These action ranges from simple individual acts of charity, donation,
teaching, training, organized kinds of service, right livelihood in and outside the
helping professions, community development as well as political activity for a better
society. Besides, Budhists spearhead the movement for confronting war, racism and
exploitation of the weaker members of the society, commercialism, degradation of the
social and physical environment. Social work in Budhist tradition is psycho-ethical
concept, initiated for bringing about complete harmony in the society with blending
and balancing of spiritual and material achievements.

 Social Welfare
We all are aware that all civilized societies continue to work for the
welfare of mankind. In both social work and Budhism social welfare is considered as
an important instrument to work for the benefits of the people in the society. The
activities of social welfare include serving the needy, charity, teaching, training and
various organized activities which are also the components of social work
intervention.

 Social services
Budhist Monks and Nuns from the monasteries provide social service
for the common people who are need. Budhism under the guidance of the
humanitarian philosophy of social work help the people to enable them to function
effectively and ultimately lead a life of decency, dignity and liberty. These services
have been rendered to all the members of the society, irrespective of their religion,
caste, race, language, culture etc.

 Women Empowerment
Budhism like that of social work has a very positive and
revolutionary attitude towards women. It believes in equal benefits of men and
women. Both in Budhism and social work women are able to indulge in activities
outside home, including teaching, development of organizational skills, above all in
an atmosphere where they could experience a sense of improvement and
accomplishment. Everywhere in Budhism, women are given equal opportunity with
men to develop and prosper. This is a fundamental value of social work.
 Social Work with Weaker Section
Upliftment of the oppressed in the society has been taken into
high consideration by Budhism. Guided by social work philosophy, Budhism is
against any kind of social inequality including caste based inequality. Budhist social
work aims at rejecting the heinous practice of untouchability and supported the cause
of participation of the oppressed caste towards undertaking more and more social and
political activities for their liberation from the vicious cycle of caste based
exploitation.
Thus, the practice of social work can be felt in wide range of
activities undertaken under the spiritual guidance of Budhism.

 ISLAM AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE IN INDIA

Though Islam was born out side India, it had a remarkable influence
in the minds of people of Indian society. The spiritual guidelines and philosophy of
Islam has been marked with a significant contribution to the socio-cultural and
economic development of the country. Therefore, it is of great importance to analyze
the relation between practice of Islam and social work practice in India.

 Islam
Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world. Indeed, one out
of every five persons on this earth is a Muslim.. Yet, unfortunately, Islam is also the
most misunderstood religion. Muslims live in different parts of the world ranging
from China to Argentina, Russia to South Africa. The country with the largest Muslim
population is Indonesia.
Islam means the active submission to the one God. It is strictly a
monotheistic religion since it restricts worship to the one supreme Lord who is the
Originator and Creator of the universe. Peace (the root from which the word Islam is
derived) is attained through complete obedience to the commandments of God, for
God is the source of all peace. Muslims are those who believe in one God and in
Muhammad as the final Prophet of God. They devote their lives to the service of God,
the Creator and Sustainer of the universe.
 Islam teaches that God (called Allah in Arabic) is the source of all
creation and that human beings are the best of His creation. He communicates by
inspiring them towards goodness and by sending Prophets who deliver God’s message.
Muslims believe that the first Prophet was Adam followed by a long chain of Prophets
to guide humanity. The Qur’an, according to Muslim belief, is the word of God
revealed to Prophet Muhammad. It mentions many other Prophets like Noah,
Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, Moses, Jacob, Joseph and Jesus. All the Prophets brought
the same message, i.e., belief in one God, upright human conduct and belief in the
accountability of human acts at the end of time.

 The basic tenets of Islam

1. Belief in God, the one and only one God with no partner, no son, no associate,
and no companion
2. Belief in prophet Muhammad as God prophet and Messenger
3. Belief in the five pillars of Islam (testimony of God oneness and Muhammad’s
prophet-hood, Praying, alms giving, fasting Ramadan, and performing pilgrimage
to Mecca)
4. Belief in six articles of faith (faith in God, His angels, His holy books, His
prophets, Final Judgement day, and destiny)
5. Belief in Quran and following Quran teachings
6. Following Islam morals
7. Performing good deeds

 Islam and Social Concern in India

The religious book of Islam ‘Koran’ gives much importance
to social service, social justice and equality. It can be said that ‘Zakat’ is to Islam
what services is to social work. Zakat is a form of ‘poor tax’ levied on the privileged
Muslims and the fund created out of it is spent for the welfare of the poor Muslims.

 There are five principles that should be followed when giving the zakāt:
1. The giver must declare to God his intention to give the zakāt.
2. The zakāt must be paid on the day that it is due.
3. After the offering, the payer must not exaggerate on spending his money more than
usual means.
4. Payment must be in kind. This means if one is wealthy then he or she needs to pay
2.5% of their income. If a person does not have much money, then they should
compensate for it in different ways, such as good deeds and good behavior toward
others.
5. The zakāt must be distributed in the community from which it was taken.

 Contribution of Islam to Social Work Practice in India

The thirteenth century AD was marked with the beginning of
Muslim invasion and spread of Muslim influence in the Indian society. For nearly
seven centuries, different parts of the country had been ruled by Muslim emperors,
kings, Nawabs or rajahs. In between, there had been scores of saints, sufis and auliyas
who worked among and with the people to improve their living condition. This led to
a prolonged and intense cultural interchange between Muslims and other population
groups in India. Besides, over the years, the Muslim community made a significant
contribution. It may be divided into two broad groups.

 Social Services:
Indeed, services like road, hospital and schools are critically
important. These provide people with a progressive basis to change and develop and
to improve their quality of life. Socio-political history of India speaks volumes about
the contribution of Islam to socio-economic and cultural development of the society.
Quite a few Muslim rulers have devoted attention and resources to infrastructural
development in the land.
Emperor Firoz Tughlak (1309-1388) organised Diwane-e-Khairat
which also supported facilities for the treatment of the sick and the afflicted.
In this connection, one name that readily comes to mind is that of
Sher Shah Suri (14721545) who ruled a large part of north India. He was a visionary
ruler and introduced many military, civil and social reforms. He coined and
introduced terms like rupayya (rupee coin), pargana (district or subdivision) and
munsif or magistrate. These terms are in currency even now. In his empire, he built a
network of roads, with sarais (inns) at regular intervals where wayfarers and their
steed could rest and recoup. Some of these facilities survive even to this day.
Several rulers also paid attention to health-care. Sher Shah Suri is reported to have
posted hakims (practitioners of unani medicine) at many sarais to provide health-care
for wayfarers as well as for general public. Allauddin Khilji, early in the 14th century
exercised social control over essential commodities, regulating supply and prices – a
measure which greatly helped lower and lower-middle class people. However, a more
substantial contribution to health-care and treatment of diseases came from hakims
engaged in private practice. While they were patronized and recompensed by kings,
Nawabs and Rajas, they would treat ailing public free of cost. Emperor Akbar and
several other rulers are reported to have given land-grants to hakims.

 Welfare Services:
Rendering help to the less fortunate and to the under-privileged
has been an essential feature of Islam. This is evident from the elaborate system of
khairat, fitrah and zakat which all believers are required to take out and pass on to the
needy and indigent. At times, the needy would comprise not only beggars and
mendicants but also middle class persons facing financial stringency.
Diwane-e-Khairat set up by Emperor Firoz Tughlak granted financial assistance to
deserving persons for getting their daughter married out. Such persons were (and are)
also eligible to receive fitrah so that they and their family could, for example,
celebrate and enjoy the festival of Id.
Emperor Akbar had set up a fund, Madad-i-Maash. Among other
things, the fund provided famine relief and ‘food for work’. In Lucknow, Bara
Imambara, a large imposing complex, completed around 1783, is supposed to have
been built through ‘food for work’ programme during a prolonged and devastating
famine in the region. Some accounts show that even middle class persons facing
stringency due to famine participated in the ‘lowly’ construction-work and availed
benefits from the ‘food for work’ programme.
Although, in medieval India, begging hardly existed as a
significant social problem, there would be persons, perhaps victims of calamities or
circumstance, needing succour or relief. Firoz Tughlak is reported to have allotted 1,
00,000 maunds (about 40,000 quintals) of wheat and rice for this purpose. Similarly,
at one point of time, Sher Shah Suri organised ‘free kitchens’ at various
drought-stricken places in his empire, and spent 500 Asharfis (gold coin usually
weighing about 10 grams each) on them daily. Islamic institutions and social work
practice Over the years, several Islamic institutions have come up and contributed to
the social work practice which may be briefly described.

 Health Services
As mentioned earlier, Unani system of medicine has been vastly
popular among Muslims. They also have had, among them, several famous hakims
who, from time to time, set up matabs or clinics. Usually located in cities and towns,
these matabs would cater to the health needs of the people in the area. Further, these
would render services to the low-income persons free of charge. A few among these
matabs also paid attention to institutionalize their system and managed to create a
niche for themselves. The example that could be readily cited is of the Hamdard
(Wakf) Laboratories, Delhi, which is regarded as the largest producer of unani
medicine in the world. Apart from this, there are tibia (unani medical) colleges which
offer educational programmes leading to a graduate degree in unani medicine and
surgery (e.g. Tibbia College, a constituent college of Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh). These colleges provide consultation as hospital services at no or nominal
charges.

 Education
In the field of education, the role of Maktabs and Madrasas has already been
underlined. Apart from this, quite a few Islamic institutions have come up in response
to changing social and political conditions which need to be mentioned. In 1875,
Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College was set up at Aligarh with a view to promoting
learning and education among Muslims with an English or Western approach.
Converted into Aligarh Muslim University, in 1920, this institution has, over the years,
made a notable contribution to the educational and cultural development in the
country. Yet another institution is Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, which was set up,
in 1920, as a nationalist institution, in the wake of freedom struggle, and in response
to the call for indigenizing education in the country. Subsequently, in 1988, it was
made a ‘central university’ through an act of Parliament.
As at present, it caters to the educational needs and aspirations of young and talented
people regardless of their colour, caste or creed. The contribution of this institution in
promoting generic as well as professional education in the country is highly regarded.

 Wakf Board
India has yet another unique Islamic institution, namely, wakfs.
For long, well-meaning citizens have bequeathed immovable properties (land,
residential house, commercial shops, etc.) to ‘trusts’ – Sunni Wakf Board or Shia
Wakf Board – in town and cities almost all over the country. Between them, these
Wakf Boards control properties worth thousands of crores of rupees. These provide
financial support for the maintenance of mosques and madrasas. A few also have
organised vocational training centres for imparting technical skills and generating
self-employment among young people.

 Central Wakf Council

In 1964, Government of India has set up Central Wakf Council
under the banner of Muslim community to facilitate the development of wakf
properties in cities and towns into revenue-generating assets, and to extend loan to
minor development projects conceived by non-governmental organisations. Doubtless,
these Wakf Boards have an immense potential for doing welfare and development
work for the Muslim community as well as the country.

 Free Banking
As is well-known, Islam prohibits usuly. It implies that the lender
must not levy any charge on cash or kind borrowed by persons for their personal or
family use. In view of this injunction, several Muslim countries have evolved
interest-free banking. In India, too, several regional non-banking financial institutions
have come up which pay to their depositors dividend instead of fixed interest, and
accept share in profit from their borrower. In southern and western India, quite few
self-help groups have come up which extend interest-free micro-credit facilities to the
members. Indeed, these self-help groups need to be further popularized.
 Yatimkhanas(Orphanage)
Yatimkhanas or orphanages are mostly located in areas having a
concentration of Muslim population. Having been on the social scene for centuries,
these provide shelter, food and clothing for parentless children, who are mostly
victims of nature-made or manmade calamities. Some of these institutions also impart
instructions to resident-children in religious learning. Usually, these yatimkhanas are
managed through donations, sadqua (alms in the name of loved ones), and zakat
specified share in the savings of a Muslim). Some of them also have the wakf support
to themselves. It might be added that the yatimkhanas provide a useful social service,
although the services they render could be further improved and standardized.
As we know, social work recognizes that, in making a person into a
socialized individual, group process and community living has a critical role.
Likewise, there are specific pronouncements in Islam stressing on collective living.
This is evident from modes of worship and rituals. It emphasizes on happy and cordial
neighbourly relations. Equity, fraternity and justice are a prerequisite for and a driving
force behind group process and community living. Indeed, these happen to be the
recurring themes in Islamic philosophy.
Contemporary social work practice pays attention to welfare needs
as well as to developmental needs of individuals and groups. On the other hand, Islam
urges upon individuals and groups to make effort, but it recognizes that there would
be several among them who cannot do this unaided. It has also devised a ‘public
assistance’ programme. Similarly, it has identified certain issues which are key
concerns in the present day social work practice.

 CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE IN INDIA

Christianity also is a foreign religion which came to India

through Missionaries and had a great impact on the socio-economic development of
the poor and needy of this country. Historically it is found that Christian missionaries
played a significant role in changing the living pattern of large number of backward
people in India and contributed a lot to the adding of new values and tradition to the
practice of social work in India.
 The Gospel of “service to man is service to God” of
Christianity is an enduring foundation stone of social work profession not only in
India but also all over the world. It greatly inspired and continues to do so to all the
peoples in the world to help the needy in time of sufferings.

 Christianity
Christianity is a religion based upon the teachings and
miracles of Jesus. Jesus is the Christ. The word "Christ" means anointed one.
Christ is not Jesus' last name. Jesus is the anointed one from God the Father and
who came to this world, fulfilled the Old Testament laws and prophecies, died on the
cross, and rose from the dead physically. He performed many miracles which were
recorded in the Gospels by the eyewitnesses. He is divine in nature as well as
human. Thus, He has two natures and is worthy of worship and prayer. Christianity
teaches that there is only one God in all existence, that God made the universe, the
Earth, and created Adam and Eve. God created man in His image. This does not
mean that God has a body of flesh and bones. Image means the likeness of God's
character, rationality, etc. Because all human beings are made in the image of God,
every person is worthy of respect and honor. Furthermore, this means that we did
not evolve through random processes from a single-celled organism into rational,
emotional beings.

 The Basic Tenets of Christianity

The Christian life is centered on all the essential humanitarian
aspects of life. It is impossible to discuss all the aspects here. So some of the most
important beliefs of the Christian religion can be stated hereunder:

 God, the father

God the Father is a title given to God in modern monotheist religion
Christianity, because he is viewed as having an active interest in human affairs, in the
way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him. In
Christianity, God is described as father as he is said to be the creator, life-giver,
law-giver, and protector. However, in Judaism the use of the Father title is generally a
metaphor and is one of many titles by which Jews speak of and to God.
 The Word of God
The Bible itself claims to be “the inspired Word of God”. It unfolds
as a divine love story between the Creator God and the object of his love-man. In the
pages of the Bible One learns of God's interaction with mankind, his purposes and
plans, from the beginning of time and throughout history. The central theme of the
Bible is God's plan of salvation-his way of providing deliverance from sin and
spiritual death through repentance and faith. In the Old Testament, the concept of
salvation is rooted in Israel's deliverance from Egypt.
The New Testament reveals the source of salvation: Jesus Christ.
By faith in Jesus, believers are saved from God's judgment of sin and its consequence,
which is eternal death. In the Bible God reveals himself to Humanbeings. Christians
discover his nature and character, his love, his justice, his forgiveness, and his truth.
Many have called the Bible a guidebook for living the Christian faith. Psalm 119:105
says, "Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light for my path."

 Fellowship with God

Christianity is basically built around the value of relationship with
God and with others. Jesus Christ, in his teachings, emphasized on loving God and the
neighbours. It is believed that everything else is the means to that end. One of the
most important and most popular term used in Christianity is Fellowship. This term
binds their life together in communion as Christians. They give optimum importance
to the community living and universal brotherhood. Christianity is all about the sacred
relationship with God: The Father, The son, and the Holy Spirit, with own family and
friends, with all human beings even enemies. This concept of the Christians talks
about sharing with each other and supporting each other in time of need.

 Universal Prayer
Prayer and meditation is believed to be the strength of Christian life.
It enriches the spiritual and sacred life of Christians. Jesus when asked taught his
disciples this universal prayer, ‘” Our father in heaven, Holy be your name, Your
Kingdome come, Your will be done on earth as it is in Heaven. Give us this day our
daily bread and forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us. Lead us not
into temptation, but protect us from evil.”
 This prayer essentially contains the values, ethics, principles and
guidelines of Christianity. It is continuously recited by the Christians to link
themselves to God, the Almighty to bolster their spiritual and social life. It is also
appreciated by all the peoples from various religions, societies and cultures of the
world.

 The Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments are a set of biblical principles relating
to ethics and worship which play a fundamental role in Christianity. Jesus Christ
strongly advocated the Ten Commandments which were handed down to the Prophet
Moses on the Mount of Sennai. The Ten Commandments include:
1) You will worship the only one God, the Father.
2) You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain.
3) Remember to keep holy the Lord’s Day(Sunday).
4) Honour your father and your mother.
5) You shall no kill
6) You shall not commit adultery
7) You shall not steal
8) You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour
9) You shall not covet your neighbour’s wife
10) You shall not covet your neighbour’s wealth
The essence of the above Ten Commandments is ‘love of God and love for
one’s neighbours’.

 Repentance
The term ‘repentance’ means to ‘turn around’ or feeling sorry for
one’s own misdeeds and taking vow not to do so again. Essentially when one fails to
follow the Ten Commandments and commits sin he/she can turn around through
repentance and become the son or daughter of God. Repentance is done through
private reflection and prayer with real grief for the past misdeeds. It calls for change
in attitude and behaviour and realization of own blunders to obtain forgiveness from
God’s punishment for unwanted behaviour. Thus repentance acts as the doorway to
spiritual and social emancipation from the bondage unlawful activities. Significantly,
this gesture of Christianity provides a deviant person with a chance to come back and
live a normal life in the society.

 Discipline
Discipline is the best clad of Christian life. Living a true Christian life
requires a proper planning and a consistent approach. For an orderly living, certain
precautions are taken by the Christians and are referred to as “discipline”. The true
Christians generally set aside some time everyday and spend in prayer and studying
The Bible. The Catholic Christians go for regular confession of their sins before the
ordained priest who is trained in spiritual counseling and who provide guidance for
dealing with any personal and spiritual problems and for bringing necessary changes
of life. True Christians are generally committed for serving the needy. The level of
spirituality of Christians is measured by their daily activities. Some important duties
of spirituality in Christianity are honesty in job, respect for others, forgivefulness,
kindness towards others etc.

 Brief History of Christianity in India

The history of the Christianity can be traced back to two thousand
years started with the birth of Jesus Christ, in a village called Nazareth. Christianity
marked its beginning in India with the arrival of St.Thomas, one of the Apostles of
Jesus, in 52 A.D. The works of St.Thomas gained its fruit and the number of
Christians in India at present is around 3% of the total population. Few states of
country like Kerala, Goa, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Manipur has notable
presence of Christians while Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajastan &
Gujarath has less than one percent of the total population of these respective states.

 Christianity and social work practice in India

Prior independence of India, Christian missionaries did a
commendable job in the field of social service which provided a platform to carry on
their activities even after independence. The age of Independence also marked the fast
growth of the country economically, socially and culturally. The improvement in
transportation and communication facilities facilitated the Christian missionaries to
reach the unreachable areas of mission and development. Since the independence the
numbers of services rendered by Christians have multiplied in various forms like
schools, rehabilitations centers, leprosy homes, orphanages, hospitals, dispensaries,
colleges, vocational training centers, printing and visual media, social uplift
programmes, social development initiatives etc. The Christianity in India, at present,
rooted from south Kanyakumari to north Jammu and Kashmir. It has 143 catholic
dioceses and 107 non-Catholic dioceses. Within the jurisdiction of these dioceses
thousands of educational and non educational institutions are functioning as an
expression of its social commitment. Various developmental activities are taking
place under the registered social service societies of each diocese.
The high level of literacy, the low level of infant mortality,
improved status of women, the increased desire for ongoing education, health care,
efforts to expose oneself to change etc. are signs of integral growth experienced by
north east people when they came in contact with Christianity. “Perhaps nowhere else
in India has the encounter between society and Christianity so profoundly affected
and transformed as in the tribal society of north East India.”

 Social Reformation
The modern social awakening of the oppressed groups in
India had its beginning with the conversion of some untouchables, out castes and
lower castes of people into Christianity. It strived against existing inequalities. The
marginalized were mainstreamed and gained opportunities for education, new
occupation for life with personal dignity and social acceptance. It exploded caste
structure, helped to humanize cultural ethos and structures of the society. It protested
against division, exclusion and exploitation. Swadeshi banks were started and
cooperative societies were on boom. The modern elementary school system was
almost entirely supported by Christian mission. In the educations sphere, the opening
of schools, colleges and hospitals for India women was undoubtedly the effort of the
Christian mission. The coming of missionaries from America in 1857 and their
financial resources facilitated the development of medical and social work in India.
Christians raised voice against evil practice of widowhood of child widows before
attainment of 18 without her consent to be widow. Kali Charan Banerjee, Bengali
Christian proposed government administrative reforms through educational system.
 In the case of Civil disobedience, Bombay Christian movement
in its first resolution stated that Members of Indian Christian community were one
with other communities in their desire to win complete Swaraj. Thus Christian
contribution in the country marked with: Democratization of the government, women
empowerment and pro-democracy movement, pioneering force in nationalization-
Young Christian council of Action established in 1930- and to the Reform movement
especially to Bengal Reform movement through education, awareness creation and
mission of charity. The Serampore Mission helped for cultural renaissance in Bengal
under the leader ship of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. It not only manifested a spirit of
emancipation from social and religious bondages, but also infused a sense of
creativity into modern intellectual history. Keshab Chandra Sen (1838- 1884)
Advocated that political, social and moral regeneration is possible through the
practice of Christianity. He states “we breathe, think, feel and move in a Christian
atmosphere.” The contributions of the Christianity in the field of social work are
mainly in four aspects. They are: education, occupation, religion and social and ethnic
identity.

 Education.
Educational service of the Christianity has been admitted as
highly valued service to the nation. In spite of oppositions they function well and
almost 90% of the beneficiaries of such institutions are non-Christians. In India there
are thousands of schools and hundreds of colleges offer accommodation for poor
children as well as provision for free education. Thus the Christian mission in the
education sphere helped in elevation of the status of women by giving the lead in
female education. Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddi comments about the Christian contribution
to the women emancipation,“ I honestly believe that the missionaries have done more
for women’s education in this country than the, government itself.” The mission
sponsored education among the weaker sections of the society facilitated alternative
more remunerative and higher status employment. Educational contributions have
helped form a literate culture among the Christians and the nearby community to
follow. Christian education has also fostered the formation of students’ movements
which had impact in the universities. For eg. World Students Christian Federation, All
India Catholic University Federation etc. social services and social service camps
have also been a regular feature of many Christian colleges. The employment
generating training institutions, financial institutions like credit societies and mutual
help societies helped the improvement in the life standards of the Christians and
neighboring people. The educational quality promoted occupational mobility and
societal mobility in the caste ridden society. Christians were pioneers in the field of
education in Kerala.

 Socio-economic emancipation of tribes and Dalits.

Most of the tribes were under the clutches of money lenders
causing to lose their land, lose control over their own community based
socio-economic structure and indigenous culture. The scene is changed by the arrival
of the missionaries. A strategy of purposive actions such as formal education,
alternative employment, financial support through institutional means and so on for
socio-economic uplift and liberation from fear of spirits was initiated by the
missionaries. A significant and far reaching step towards making the tribes
self-sufficient was the introduction of certain socio-economic measurers such as
establishing Catholic co-operative credit society, cooperative societies, mutual help
societies etc.(established in Chotanagpur in 1909, 1913). Though substantial
socioeconomic changes had initiated among them, they have retained their indigenous
values of gender equality, dignity of women, consensual procedure in community,
actions apparel, language, cuisine, traditional customs, indigenous festivals etc.
Though we are able to eliminate bonded labour, we are unable to stop the racial and
structural discrimination faced by the weaker and marginalized sections of the society.
Pondering this we find that the role played by the Christians in India in this respect is
pivotal, especially in North East. Christianity has been he primary agent of change
among the hill tribes of North East. “It is in fact,” Mukhim writes, “that without
missionary activity, the North East would have been a very backward region even
today”.

 Social service to the destitute

There are hostels and orphanages for boys and girls attached to
educational institutions to help the children of poor parents. Great care is given to
deaf and dump, mentally retarded, aged, destitute, lepers, aids patients etc. there are
thousands of such centers and committed personals doing voluntary services in the
field. Amidst oppositions it runs rehabilitations centers for HIV/AIDS infected
persons, mentally ill, prisoners etc as an expression to the commitment to humanity.

 Conscientization of the Community

Along with Beneficence, Development, Conscientization is one of
the significant instruments of social concern expressed by the Christians to execute
justice, develop the socially backward, downtrodden and marginalized. For this
purpose technical schools and nursing centers are run by Christians. Today, Christian
centers have become centers of conscientization which is a process of awakening the
total person to a fresh discover of his or her dignity and potentialities. These centers
brought about awareness, an insight, a cultural transformation and offered
opportunities for a better standard of living and scope for creativity. Conscientization
is one of the new ventures of Christians in India. This is clear from the famous
‘breast-cloth’ agitation in Travancore in the early nineteenth century, which met with
a measure of success. As early as 1812, Colonel Munro, the British Resident of
Travancore, issued an order, that permitted ‘women converted to Christianity to cover
their bosoms as found among Christians in other countries.

 Health Services
The contribution of the church in the field of health services
has been well appreciated by all sections of the people as well as by government in
India. Quite a many church personnel are fully involved in public health services,
nutritional programmes and hygiene and sanitation programmes. There are mobile
clinic and awareness programmes run in the rural areas. In the field of medical care
the contribution of the Christianity is meritorious. Health centers run by Christians
originally meant to serve the poor. Many of well equipped and well established
hospitals render service in rural areas and slums where others do not reach.

 Livelihood Promotion
Liberating people from bonded chains of all forms of
suffering has always been main goal of the church initiatives. The church’s
development schemes consist not only of providing food, clothing and shelter to the
needy, but also helping people toward the achievement of self-reliance and dignity.
The missionaries introduced new methods or techniques of their social work in the
hills and remote areas. The introduction of cultivation of apples (in Kullu and
Kotagrh), potatoes in Lahul starting training centers for knitting and house building
etc were noteworthy. It may be noted that the dominant majority of the beneficiaries
of the Christian’s educational institutions, health care centers, and development
schemes are non-Christians. In recent times several nonChristian subaltern
communities and marginalized sections of the society also seem to have benefited
through certain purposive action for empowerment such as, mass literacy programmes,
adult education programmes, conscientization, legal aid, self help groups, and credit
societies and so on. The Basal Commission of 1846 to remove social difficulties and
Basal mission to produce sugar out of toddy, imported technology of flyshuttle as a
part of employment generation and industrialization, production of machine roofing
tiles in 1864 are few of the social endeavours of Christianity to uplift the poor and
marginalized. The establishments of institutions and workshops to train blacksmiths,
fitters, welders, printers etc are some of the contributions in southern region of the
country.

 National integration;
Reflecting on the impact of Christianity and national
integration, Patricia Mukhim, teacher and member of State planning Board of
Meghalaya, affirms that, “the history of the Christian movement in the North East can
only be understood as an integral part of a larger process of political, social, cultural,
economic and religious change. Government policies are directed only at physical
integration of the population with the rest of the country. But Christian message
fosters a feeling of solidarity among the tribes.” The pioneering endeavour of
Christian inspiration, initiated both by the missionaries and others, in the educational,
literary, medical, social, moral and religious spheres was highly productive.
Christianity has, in fact, played a crucial role in the emergence of modern Karnataka -
helping the region to open to world and world to the region.
The effects produced by the work of the Christian
missionaries were of far-reaching consequences in establishing a classless society and
binding people with a single code bond with love and cooperation.
 SIKHISM AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Sikhism, the youngest of the world religions, is barely five

hundred years old. Its founder, Guru Nanak, was born in 1469. Guru Nanak's Hindu
and Muslim followers began to be called Sikhs (learners). He taught them to bow only
before God, and to link themselves to the Guru, the Light of Truth, who lives always
in direct consciousness of God, experiencing no separation. Through words and
example, the Guru demonstrates to followers how to experience God within
themselves, bringing them from darkness into light. Guru Nanak was a humble bearer
of this Light of Truth. Guru Nanak spread a simple message of "Ek Ong Kar": we are
all one, created by the One Creator of all Creation.
Guru Nanak was the first Guru of Sikhism and was
followed by nine more Gurus. The teachings of the nine of them are included in Guru
Granth Sahib. The last of all Gurus was Guru Gobind Singh, who declared this Holy
book to be the Guru of the Sikhs. It is written in Gurumukhi script.

 Basic Tenets of Sikhism

Simran and Sewa are the foundation of Sikhism. It is the duty of

every Sikh to practice Naam Simran daily and engage in Seva (selfless service)
whenever there is a possibility- in Gurdwara; in community centre; old people's
homes; care centres; major world disasters, etc.

 Guru Nanak formalised these three aspects of Sikhism:

 Naam Jaapna- to engage in a daily practice of meditation by reciting and chanting

of God’s Name.
 Kirat Karni- to live honestly and earn by ones physical and mental effort while
accepting God's gifts and blessings. A Sikh has to live as a householder carrying
out his or her duties and responsibilities to the full.
 Vand Chakna- to share their wealth within the community and outside by giving
Dasvand and practising charity (Daan), to share and consume together.
 The Sikh Gurus tell us that our mind and spirit are constantly being attacked by
the Five Evils (or Five Thieves); Kam (lust), Krodh (anger), Lobh (greed), Moh
(attachment) and Ahankar (ego). A Sikh needs to constantly attack and overcome
these five vices.
 The Sikh Gurus taught the Sikhs to develop and harness the Five Virtues which
lead the soul closer to God and away from evil. These are: Sat (truth), Santosh
(contentment), Daya (compassion), Nimrata (humility), and Pyaar (love)

 Four jewels of Sikhism

1) One Source
One God: Sikhi is a monotheistic and a revealed religion. In Sikh, God termed
Vāhigurū is shapeless, timeless, and sightless (i.e., unable to be seen with the physical
eye): nirankar, akaal, and alakh. The beginning of the first composition of Sikh
scripture is the figure "1" signifying the universality of God.

2) Equality
All human beings are equal People of all religions and races are welcome in Sikh
Gurdwaras Women have equal status with men in religious services and ceremonies

3) Human Life Precious above Other Lives

The human life is supreme and it is through this life that we can achieve oneness with
God's will. Finding God in this life and living by his commands helps us to attain
God's mercy.

4) Defending Against Injustice

Sikhs are a peace loving people and stand for Truth and Justice Guru Gobind Singh Ji
said, ‘It is right to use force as a last resort when all other peaceful means fail’.

 5 ‘K’s of Sikhism

 Kesh - uncut hair and beard, as given by God, to sustain him or her in higher
consciousness; and a turban, the crown of spirituality.
 Kangha - a wooden comb to properly groom the hair as a symbol of cleanliness.

 Katchera - specially made cotton underwear as a reminder of the commitment to

purity.

 Kara - a steel circle, worn on the wrist, signifying bondage to Truth and freedom
from every other entanglement. Kirpan - the sword, with which the Khalsa is
committed to righteously defend the fine line of the Truth.

 Contribution of Sikhism to social work

Guru Nanak opposed superstition, rituals, social inequality and
injustice, renunciation and hypocrisy and inspired seekers by singing divine songs
which touched the hearts of the most callous listeners. These songs were recorded,
and formed the beginnings of the Sikhs' sacred writings, later to become the "Siri
Guru Granth Sahib. This was at a time when India was being torn apart by castes,
sectarianism, religious factions, and fanaticism. He aligned with no religion, and
respected all religions. He expressed the reality that there is one God and many paths,
and the Name of God is Truth, "Sat Nam. The religion believed in one God with no
form like Islam and Karma and reincarnation like Hinduism. The Hindu caste system
and the heartless custom of 'Sati', burning the widow on husband's funeral pyre were
abolished in this religion. Everyone was accorded equal rights and pilgrimage, fasting
and superstitions got no favor in this religion. It has no clergy class as they were
considered to be the intruders and gateways to corruption.
The holy worship places for Sikhs are known as Gurdwaras. The
holiest of all Gurudwaras in India is the Hari Mandir or the 'Golden Temple' in
Amritsar in Punjab. The religion emphasizes community services and helping the
needy and the most common and distinct feature of the religion is the common
kitchen called 'Langar', where all the followers of the religion are supposed to
contribute in preparing the meals in the free kitchen, which are then served to all. The
spirit of social benevolence, social service and fighting for justice are some of the
splendid feature of Sikhs.
 JAINISM AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Jainism, traditionally known as ‘Jain Dharma’ is a religion and

philosophy which marked its humble beginning in aound the sixth century in India. In
the present 21st century Jainism has been able to stand as one of the major religions of
India and provides a platform for around 4.2 million people of the country. It is a
minority religion in India with growing communities not only in India but also
elsewhere in the world. Jainism has significantly influenced the other religions along
with the ethical, political, and economic spheres in India for more than two millennia.
As a religion it emphasizes on spiritual independence and equality of life with
particular emphasis on the principle of nonviolence which is one of the popular
strategies being promoted by social work profession in several countries. .
Jainism.
The religion derives its name from the jina ("conqueror"), a title
given to twenty-four great teachers (tirthankaras or ford-makers), through whom their
faith was revealed. Mahavira, the last of the tirthankara, is considered the founder of
Jainism. The ultimate goal of Jainism is the liberation of the self (jiva) from rebirth,
which is attained through the elimination of accumulated karma (the consequences of
previous actions). This occurs through both the disciplined cultivation of knowledge
and control of bodily passions. When the passions have been utterly conquered and all
karma has been removed, one becomes a Jina (conqueror), and is no longer subject to
rebirth. Jainism conceives of a multi-layered universe containing both heavens and
hells. Movement through these levels of the universe requires adherence to the
Jainism doctrines emphasizing a peaceful and disciplined life. These principles
include non-violence in all parts of life (verbal, physical, and mental), speaking truth,
sexual monogamy, and the detachment from material things. As part of the disciplined
and non-violent lifestyle, Jains typically are strict vegetarians and often adhere to a
quite arduous practice of nonviolence, which restricts the sorts of occupations the may
follow (no farming, for instance, since insects are inadvertently harmed in plowing).
Jainism's ethical system is based on the idea that right faith, knowledge, and conduct
must be cultivated simultaneously.
 Basic Tenets of Jainism
The Jains believe in reincarnation. To free themselves of the
cycle of birth and death, they practice asceticism that is stringent in nature. Their
professions are chosen carefully and revolve around the protection of lives or doing
good deeds for others. The ethical code followed by the Jains is very strict in nature
and followed with much dedication and sincerity. The Jains believe in the following
principles and ethics. Ahimsa, the principle of non-injury (often called non-violence),
non injury extends to thought, word and action. The Jains adopt Ahimsa as a way of
life. Non violence does not mean only being calm and letting others live peacefully. It
means that one should be peaceful in thought as well as action. All monks are strict
vegetarians and regard even the tiniest insect as a sacred form of life.
Mahavira taught that all beings desire life. Therefore no one has the
right to take away the life of another being. According to Jainism, even the killing of
animals is a great sin. Jainism goes further and says that there is life in trees, and
plants and there is life in air, water, mud, etc., and that all things have the right to
exist.(live)

Sathya - Truth .To speak the truth requires moral courage. Only those who have
conquered greed, fear, anger, jealousy, ego, vulgarity, frivolity, etc., can speak the
truth when required. Jainism insists that one should not only refrain from falsehood,
but should always speak the truth which should be wholesome and pleasant.

Asteya -non-stealing. The vow of non-stealing insists that one should be honest and
should not rob others of their wealth, belongings, etc. Further, one should not take
anything that does not belong to him. It does not entitle one to take away a thing
which may be lying unattended or unclaimed.

Brahmacharya (celibacy): Total abstinence from sex-indulgence is called

brahmacharya or celibacy. Sex is an infatuating force which obscures the path of
liberation and sets aside all virtues and reason at the time of indulgence. The vow of
controlling sex passion is very difficult to observe, for in its subtle form, sex may
occupy the mind. One may physically restrain from sex but think about it. Whenever
one thinks about sex, one has engaged in sexual activity.
Aparigraha (non acquisition) Jainism believes that the more a man possesses
worldly wealth, the more he may be unhappy and more likely he is to be attached to
his possessions and his station in life. Worldly wealth creates attachments, which
result in fear, greed, jealousy, ego, hatred and violence. Attachment to worldly objects
results in bondage to the cycle of birth-death-rebirth.

Anekantavada (relativity): This is the theory of relativity, not being absolute in

one's points of view, and seeking relativism in all things. It means seeing the truth
from many points of view. This has been a most valuable contribution of Jainism to
world thought. Just as a coin has two sides, or a prism has many sides, similarly every
substance or situation has many aspects which could be seen from more than one
point of view. Such a teaching ultimately leads to respect for all, and to non-injury
and non-violence in thought, word and action.

 Contribution of Jainism to Social Work in India

From the social history of India it is evident that Tirthankara
Mahavira, in order to solve the pressing problems of the time, made several important
salient contributions from a social point of view. It has been recorded that Tirthankara
Mahavira, after the attainment of omniscience at the age of forty two, toured different
parts of India for a continuous period of thirty years, met people from various urban,
rural and tribal societies, and preached the principles and rules of conduct as laid
down by Jainism. The personality and preachings of Tirthankara Mahavira created a
tremendous impact on the minds of all sections of people and especially on the
down-trodden sections of the population. He not only revealed to them the path of
liberation, i.e., the path to attain the eternal happiness, which was the main object of
the people, but also showed the actual means through which all people, irrespective of
any distinction of class or status, can achieve this objective. His sincerity of purpose,
way of approach, method of explanation, divine speech and distinctive philosophical
and ethical doctrines appealed to the people to such an extent that with a firm
conviction of mind and great determination people began to adopt Jaina religion as
lay followers or as ascetics.
 The significance of Tirthankara Mahavira lies in successfully
effecting a social change and in making institutional and other arrangements for the
perpetuation of his social order. Obviously, the Jaina Acharyas, thinkers and
preceptors continued to advocate this new social policy. Thus the Jainas made
remarkable contributions in the social field, and the significance of Jainism from a
social point of view, lies in these contributions which are briefly outlined here.

 Equality and Social Justice

The most significant contribution of Jainism in the social field was the
establishment of social equality among the four varnas. i.e. classes, prevalent in the
society. Tirthankara Mahavira succeeded in organizing his large number of followers
into a compact social order quite distinct from that of the Brahmanic social order of
his time.
The Vedic society was composed of four classes, viz., Brahman, Rajanya
(i.e. Ksatriya), Vaisya and Sudra. Not only the four classes were distinct and separate,
but they were also later on affected by the spirit of rivalry among themselves. Even in
the early Rgvedic times the Brahmanism had begun to set up claims of superiority or
grandness for itself and accordingly we find that different rules were prescribed for
different classes. Thus, the society at that time was completely class-ridden and
unusual importance was given to the Brahmin class to the detriment of other classes
and that nobody was allowed to change his class which he had got at his birth in that
class.
Against these glaring practices based on the acceptance of social
inequality and on the wide observance of social discrimination, Tirthankara Mahavira
and later on Jaina Acharyas forged their opposition. Mahavira recognized the division
of society into four classes but based them on the basis of occupation of the people
and not on the basis of their birth. He gave full freedom to all, including women and
the Sudras, to observe common religious practices. In this way, Mahavira threw open
the doors of Jainism to all and gave an equal opportunity to everybody, irrespective,
of his, class or birth, to practice religion according to his capacity. Those who
followed religion as householders (male and female) were known as sravakas and
sravikas and those who observed the religion fully by leaving their houses and
becoming ascetics (male and female) were called as sadhus and sadhvis.
 Thus the temple and the monks/nuns form the basic components of Jain
social work for Jains primarily. One will therefore find special institutions, side by
side with major temples, like upasharayas for monks and nuns, dharmashalas for
travelers, poor and destitute, orphanages, women’s homes, libraries, schools and at
times dispensaries, specialized small hospitals like bird’s hospital at Lal Mandir,
Delhi.
Pilgrim places play an important role in enhancing social and religious
duties of Jains. Special mention is to be made of pilgrim towns like Shri Mahavirji
(Rajasthan) and Sravanbelgola (Karnataka) where besides the holy temples and
dharmashalas, facilities for education, health services, homes for destitute and
unemployed are being provided for local people in particular.

 Education
Statistics reveal that there are over 4400 schools all over India
established by and / or managed by Jains catering to the needs of 10-15 million
students of all age groups. The schools range from top of the line (Pathways, Modern,
Heritage in Delhi, DPS Aligarh, Mahavira in Jaipur) to name a few, and very good
(Mahavira, HLJain, Mrgavati in Delhi) schools catering primarily to non-Jain
students.
Similarly there are 100s of colleges in professions like engineering,
medicine, management etc. established and run by Jains. S. P. Jain School of
management in Mumbai is considered to be one of the finest management schools of
India. Lately, there is a rush to establish Jain universities (Mangalayatan Prakrit at
Sravanbelgola; JVBU in Rajasthan since 1991) as well as a premier management
institute like Indian school of Business (Hyderabad) in Mumbai also. Hundreds of
Jain social organizations also offer scholarships to meritorious students for studying
in schools and professional colleges (Sahu Jain trust, Mangalayatan, KundKund
Kahan Trust at Sonagir and many more) along with prizes to meritorious students.
Perhaps, one of the biggest contributors to the education field is Federation of Jain
Educational Institutes in Pune, undertaking extensive projects to enhance the quality
of education in schools. They have improved the quality in the entire islands of
Andaman and are now being solicited by states and overseas education systems.
 Health and Food
Health service is another thrust area of social works
undertaken by Jains. There are over 100 medium sized hospitals run by Jains, notable
being Mahavira Cancer Hospital Jaipur, Durlabhji’s hospital Jaipur and Sunder Lal
Jains charitable hospital in North Delhi etc. Jain hospitals are characterized as small
ones, being run primarily by individuals or a private trust. Almost every Jain social
organization holds annual special health check up and treatment camps (eyes
particularly) in remote areas for weaker sections of the society. Jain doctors
themselves around the world (especially from North America) hold many charitable
medical camps all over India.Almost all big temples and Jain pilgrimage places have
outpatient-consulting services with greater emphasis on alternative medicine systems
(homeopathy, ayaurveda, naturopathy, etc.). Mahavira Vikanka Jaipur popularly
known as Jaipur Foot is doing a tremendous job of providing almost free artificial legs
to amputees. They have crossed a million recipient marks already and are now
extending their services in many countries overseas also. Prekhsa Meditation, a type
of yoga cum meditation system promoted by Acarya Mahaprajna is becoming very
popular as an alternate system of treating cardio-vascular diseases, diabetes, stress, etc
to enhance the concentration of people in their profession & their life.
Jains being practitioners of non-violence are primarily
vegetarians and hence preach benefits of vegetarian diet through lectures, seminars
and media. A number of animal shelters and hospitals (Panjrapura) like at Lal Mandir
Delhi, Pavagiri (Distt Sirohi) in Rajasthan are shining examples of such Jain
initiatives.

 Weaker Section of Society

There are a number of institutes all over India, run primarily by
individuals or religious bodies, to provide training for women in crafts to become
economically independents, for orphanages to provide monthly rations for sustenance
of poor families and old age homes. There are organizations like Phoolwati Trust in
Delhi who run a school for women in Delhi and distribute food rations for poor
people.
 Ecology, Disaster Management
Bhartiya Jain Sangathana of Pune undertakes extensive disaster
rehabilitation program on a professional cum charitable basis. Other Jain
organizations like Veeryatan have executed extensive projects in Gujarat to
completely rehabilitate a large section of people after the earthquake in the Kutch area
in 2001. Almost all Jains and Jain organizations singly come forward whenever there
is a need for assistance on such occasions. Concerning ecology, Jains preach their
doctrine of Ahimsa as given by Mahavira wherein he talks of air, water, earth, fire and
plants and need to be protected to be fully ahimsaka.

 Social engineering
Jains have become aware of the necessity to be united and to
initiate steps to maintain their identity and to further enhance their own well being and
the society’s they live in. JAINA (Federation of Jain associations in North America)
and JITO (Jain Trade and Industries Organizations in India) are such initiatives of
Jains to achieve these and other social obligations; as well as Young Jains of America
and Young Jains of India, Federation of Jain Social Groups in India, Jain Milan,
professional forums like Federation of Jain doctors, Jain Professionals etc. They are
coming up to support fellow Jains by sharing knowledge and experience and further
to contribute to the local community’s social development.

 Social work in specialized areas like HIV/ Aids

Social work concerning HIV/AIDS I feel can be categorized as follows:
Preventive
Curative Preventive works are sub-classified as abstinence and observing
precautions while indulging. But Jainas try to prevent such risks in a different way
(abstinence). The following are considered as sin in Jainism:
Indulgence in arranging marriage of others (other than own children or
dependent brothers and sisters), To have sex by organs not meant for sexual activities
(e.g. masturbation, homosexuality or oral sex etc), to make bodily or vocal gestures
which provoke sex, To be mentally engaged profusely in sex and To deal or socialize
with prostitutes or women with loose character.
 To observe celibacy Tattvarthasutra advices us to abstain from listening to
stories arousing sex (or watching movies these days), to look or observe the sex
arousing body parts of women, to reminiscence past activities, to give up eating
aphrodisiac foods and to abstain from decorating own body. For curing such diseases,
Jains do set up hospitals and dispensaries but not specifically for such diseases. To
provide social acceptance to patients, Jains have the six essential duties which include
Pratikramana (recalling mistakes and seek punishment and promise not to repeat them
in future) and its sarvodaya doctrine.

 Emancipation of Women
Mahavira’s acceptance of food from a slave and destitute woman
and making her the head of his nun community and creating a separate community of
nuns to practice religious activities was a revolutionary background for women
empowerment. Further in giving women the right to study, which was till then denied
to them, greatly enhanced the prestige of women in the society and diverted oppressed
widows from the ills like self burning (sati prathā) on husband’s pyre or leading an
oppressed life.
Similarly, by declaring that all living beings are equal Mahavira
rejected the prevailing practice of caste system. He said, “One becomes great by acts
and not by birth.” Further he opened his creed not only to all human beings, but to all
living beings. Samantabhadra rightly described his doctrine as Sarvodaya,i.e.
enlightenment of all.

Ideologies: Gandhian ideology- Sarvodaya, Andyodaya, Charka

Core of Gandhi’s Philosophy

 Truth
 Non-Violence
 Ideal Society

The City: Not an Ideal Community for Human Dwelling

The Rural Society: An Ideal Society
Gram Swaraj: Self Rule by the Village- elected panchayaths

 11 Vows of Gandhi

1. Ahimsa Non-violence
2. Satya Truth
3. Asteya Non-stealing
4. Brahmacharya Self-discipline
5. Aparigraha Non-possession
6. Sharirshrama Bread-labour
7. Aswada Control of the Palate
8. Sarvatra Fearlessness
Bhayavarjana
9. Sarva Dharma Samantva Equality of All Religions
10. Swadeshi Use Locally Made Goods
11. Sparshbhavana Remove Untouchability

 Peace Shanti
 Equality Samanta
 Democracy Prajatantra

What is Gandhian ideology?

 Gandhian ideology is the set of religious and social ideas adopted and developed
by Mahatma Gandhi, first during his period in South Africa from 1893 to 1914,
and later in India.
 Gandhian philosophy is not only simultaneously political, moral and religious, it
is also traditional and modern, simple and complex. It embodies numerous
Western influences to which Gandhiji was exposed, but is rooted in ancient
Indian culture harnessing universal moral & religious principles.
 The philosophy exists on several planes - the spiritual or religious, moral,
political, economic, social, individual and collective.

1. The spiritual or religious element, and God, are at its core.

2. Human nature is regarded as fundamentally virtuous.
3. All individuals are believed to be capable of high moral development, and of
reform.

 Gandhian ideology emphasises not on idealism, but on practical idealism.

 Gandhian philosophy is a double-edged weapon. Its objective is to transform the
individual and society simultaneously, in accordance with the principles of truth
and non-violence.
 Gandhiji developed these ideologies from various inspirational sources vis
Bhagvad Geeta, Jainism, Buddhism, Bible, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Tolstoy,
John Ruskin among others.
 Tolstoy's book 'The Kingdom of God is within you' had a deep influence on
Mahatma Gandhi.
 Gandhiji paraphrased Ruskin's book 'Unto this Last' as 'Sarvodaya'.

 These ideas have been further developed by later "Gandhians", most notably, in
India by, Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan and outside of India by Martin
Luther King Jr. and others.

Major Gandhian Ideologies

 Truth and nonviolence: They are the twin cardinal principles of Gandhian
thoughts.
 For Gandhi ji, truth is the relative truth of truthfulness in word and deed, and the
absolute truth - the ultimate reality. This ultimate truth is God (as God is also
Truth) and morality - the moral laws and code - its basis.
 Nonviolence, far from meaning mere peacefulness or the absence of overt
violence, is understood by Mahatma Gandhi to denote active love - the pole
opposite of violence, in every sense. Nonviolence or love is regarded as the
highest law of humankind.
 Satyagraha: Gandhi ji called his overall method of nonviolent action Satyagraha.
It means the exercise of the purest soul-force against all injustice, oppression and
exploitation.
 It is a method of securing rights by personal suffering and not inflicting injury on
others.
 The origin of Satyagraha can be found in the Upanishads, and in the teachings of
Buddha, Mahavira and a number of other other greats including Tolstoy and
Ruskin.
 Sarvodaya- Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All'.
The term was first coined by Gandhi ji as the title of his translation of John
Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last".
 Swaraj- Although the word swaraj means self-rule, Gandhi ji gave it the content
of an integral revolution that encompasses all spheres of life. For Gandhi ji,
swaraj of people meant the sum total of the swaraj (self-rule) of individuals and
so he clarified that for him swaraj meant freedom for the meanest of his
countrymen. And in its fullest sense, swaraj is much more than freedom from all
restraints, it is self-rule, self-restraint and could be equated with moksha or
salvation.
 Trusteeship- Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was propounded
by Gandhi ji. It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the
trustees of trusts that looked after the welfare of the people in general. This
principle reflects Gandhi ji’s spiritual development, which he owed partly to his
deep involvement with and the study of theosophical literature and the Bhagavad
Gita.
 Swadeshi: The word swadeshi derives from Sanskrit and is a conjunction of two
Sanskrit words. ‘Swa’ means self or own and ‘desh’ means country. So swadesh
means one's own country. Swadeshi, the adjectival form, means of one’s own
country, but can be loosely translated in most contexts as self-sufficiency.
 Swadeshi is the focus on acting within and from one's own community, both
politically and economically. It is the interdependence of community and
self-sufficiency. Gandhi ji believed this would lead to independence (swaraj), as
British control of India was rooted in control of her indigenous industries.
 Swadeshi was the key to the independence of India, and was represented by the
charkha or the spinning wheel, the “center of the solar system” of Mahatma
Gandhi’s constructive program.
Relevance in Today’s Context
 The ideals of truth and nonviolence, which underpin the whole philosophy, are
relevant to all humankind, and are considered as universal by the Gandhians.
 More than ever before, Mahatma Gandhi's teachings are valid today, when people
are trying to find solutions to the rampant greed, widespread violence, and
runaway consumptive style of living.
 The Gandhian technique of mobilising people has been successfully employed by
many oppressed societies around the world under the leadership of people like
Martin Luther King in the United States, Nelson Mandela in South Africa, and
Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar, which is an eloquent testimony to the continuing
relevance of Mahatma Gandhi.
 Dalai Lama said, "We have a big war going on today between world peace and
world war, between the force of mind and force of materialism, between
democracy and totalitarianism." It is precisely to fight these big wars that the
Gandhian philosophy needed in contemporary times.

In my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration, because he

embodies the kind of transformational change that can be made when ordinary people
come together to do extraordinary things." -Barack Obama

Conclusion
Gandhian ideologies shaped the creation of institutions and practices
where the voice and perspective of everyone can be articulated, tested and
transformed. According to him, democracy provided the weak with the same
chance as the strong.
Functioning on the basis of voluntary cooperation and dignified &
peaceful coexistence was replicated in several other modern democracies. Also, his
emphasis on political tolerance and religious pluralism holds relevance in
contemporary Indian politics.
 Truth, nonviolence, Sarvodaya and Satyagraha and their significance
constitute Gandhian philosophy and are the four pillars of Gandhian thought.

 Sarvodaya

‘Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All’

Unto the last (John Ruskin)
 That the good of the individual is contained in the good of all.
 That a lawyer's work has the same value as the barber's in as much as all have
the same right of earning their livelihood from their work.
 That is a life of labour, i.e., the life of the tiller of the soil and the
handicraftsman is the life worth living.
 The Sarvodaya Movement has as its target the establishment of a whole network
of such self-supporting village communities.

Principles of Sarvodaya
 There is no centralized authority, and there is political and economic atmosphere
in the villages.
 Politics will not be the instrument of power but an agency of service
and Rajnity will yield place to Loknity.
 All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, fraternity, truth, non-violence
and self-sacrifices. Society will function on the basis on the non-violence.
 There will be no party system and majority rule and society will be free from the
evil of the tyranny of the majority.
 The sarvodaya society is socialist in the true sense of the term. All calling will be
the same moral, social and economical values. The individual personality has the
fullest scope for development.
 The sarvodaya society is based on equality and liberty. There is no room in it for
unwholesome some competition, exploitation and class-hatred.
Sarvodaya stands for the progress of the all. All individual should do
individual labour and follow the ideal of non possession. Then it will be possible to
realize the goal of: from each according to his work and to each according to his
needs.
 There will be no private property, the instrument of exploitation and
the source of social distinctions and hatred. Similarly, the profit motive will disappear,
rent and interest to will go.

The Sarvodaya Movement is based on Truth, Non-violence and Self-denial.

The Sarvodaya Movement makes a sincere and bold attempt to create
the necessary atmosphere to bring together such individuals with an unwavering faith
in the Welfare of All. The gain to the individual would be small. The development of
each quality depends upon every other. If all the qualities are improved a little, then
the individual would gain more.

GANDHI’S CONCEPT OF SARVODAYA

The concept of Sarvodaya is a significant contribution of Mahatma
Gandhi to the socio-political philosophy. Sarvodaya is a Sanskrit term, which is
comprised of two words : sarva (all) and udaya (uplift) – meaning ‘the uplift of
all’, ‘the welfare of all’, ‘universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. Gandhi’s vision of
Sarvodaya is an allcomprehensive vision assuring the total good of every individual:
religious, moral, social, political, and economic. He used the word Sarvodaya to
describe the principles that he felt should guide us in our efforts to build ourselves,
our families, our communities and nations. He had arrived at these principles of a
Sarvodaya society on the basis of his studies, his observations and his experiments
with truth and non-violence. In the world threatened by poverty, unemployment,
racial discrimination, exploitation, ecological destruction, war, and dehumanization, it
was Gandhi’s ardent desire to establish a new just society free from all social evils
and which would ensure the good of all. He proposes Sarvodaya to achieve the
integral development of every individual. It is an ideal to be translated into action in
order to build up a new world society.
Gandhiji borrowed this concept from John Ruskin’s ‘Unto This Last’.
Ruskin had borrowed it from the Bible. The proper rendering of Unto This Last would
be Antyodaya (uplift of the last) rather than Sarvodaya. Sarvodaya seeks the
happiness of each and all. Hence it is superior to the utilitarian concept of ‘greatest
happiness of the greatest number’. Dada Dharmadhikari highlighted the distinction
between Sarvodaya and western concept which speaks of three stages in the
evolution of humanist thought; first came Darwin with his advocation of the principle
of the survival of the fittest; next came Huxley with the doctrine ‘live and let live’ and
today, ‘Sarvodaya’ going one step further asserts ‘Live in order to help others live’.
Gandhi summed up the teachings of Ruskin’s Unto This Last,
which he called Sarvodaya, in the following three fundamental principles:
(a) That the good of the individual is contained in the good of all.
(b) That a lawyer’s work has the same value as the barber’s inasmuch
as all have the same right of earning their livelihood from their work.
(c) That a life of labour, i.e., the life of the tiller of the soil and the
handicraftsman is life worth living.
Through Sarvodaya, Gandhi strives for the establishment of a new,
moral, just, non-violent, non-exploitative, non-materialist, non-imperialist, non-racist,
non-consumerist, egalitarian, liberated, humane and de-centralised socio-politics
economic order which aims at the integrate welfare of the whole person everywhere.
To achieve the welfare of all, the benefits of the nations’ progress and prosperity must
reach down unto the least and the lowest of the society. The natural and available
resources of the world are to be for the total well-being of all human beings for their
proper fulfilment as human persons. Sarvodaya aims at the realisation of global
welfare and, consequently, a universal brotherhood and friendship in the place of a
corrupt and unjust world where only a few enjoy the fruits of the world. The goal of
Sarvodaya also includes ultimately the selfrealization of every individual. Total
self-realization, according to Gandhi, is the god-realization. It is to be achieved
through the inner conversion of the individual.
The main features of Sarvodaya are trusteeship, economic equality and
networking. The theory of trusteeship, aims at the elimination of exploitation in
every shape or form and the establishment of a classless society which offers no
privileges by the birth or wealth or talent; promotes mutual cooperation and above
all endeavours to secure the welfare of all without any distinction of race, religion,
sex, political affiliation.
According to Gandhi economic equality is the master key to
non-violent transformationary independence. Working for economic equality means
abolishing the eternal conflict between capital and labour.
 As far as, Sarvodaya Network is concerned, during his lifetime,
Gandhi never allowed Sarvodaya organisations to be formally instituted. His thinking
was that once you served people, as ‘sevakas,’ within the Sarvodaya philosophy there
was no need for institutionalization.
The main tenets of the Sarvodaya philosophy as propounded by
Gandhiji and subsequently explained by the pioneers of this movement are as
follows:
 There is no centralized authority, and there is political and economic atmosphere
in the villages.
 Politics will not be the instrument of power but an agency of service and Rajnity
will yield place to Loknity.
 All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, fraternity, truth, nonviolence
and self-sacrifices. Society will function on the basis on the nonviolence.
 There will be no party system and majority rule and society will be free from the
evil of the tyranny of the majority.
 The sarvodaya society is socialist in the true sense of the term. All calling will be
the same moral, social and economical values. The individual personality has the
fullest scope for development.
 The sarvodaya society is based on equality and liberty. There is no room in it for
unwholesome some competition, exploitation and class-hatred.
 Sarvodaya stands for the progress of the all. All individual should do individual
labour and follow the ideal of non possession. Then it will be possible to realize
the goal of: from each according to his work and to each according to his needs.
 There will be no private property, the instrument of exploitation and the source of
social distinctions and hatred. Similarly, the profit motive will disappear, rent and
interest to will go.
 The Sarvodaya Movement is based on Truth, Non-violence and Self-denial.
 The Sarvodaya Movement makes a sincere and bold attempt to create the
necessary atmosphere to bring together such individuals with an unwavering faith
in the Welfare of All
 The gain to the individual would be small. The development of each quality
depends upon every other. If all the qualities are improved a little, then the
individual would gain more.
 Sarvodaya movement entails economic, political, philosophical and
ethical implications. Gandhiji’s concept of Sarvodaya aims at welfare of all. It is
founded on the philosophy of limited wants. According to him, “Civilization in the
real sense of the term consists not in the multiplication but in the deliberate and
voluntary reduction of wants. This alone promotes real happiness and contentment
and increases capacity for service.” Our economy should be based on ‘simple living,
high thinking’.
Philosophically and ethically, Sarvodaya aims at the spiritualisation of
politics. It seeks to replace party strifes, jealousies and competition by the sacred law
of cooperative mutuality and dominant altruism. According to the concept of
Sarvodaya, man is essentially good. Human character can improve either by Tapasya
(self effort) or by appeals made to him by others through such nonviolent techniques
as Satyagraha, non-cooperation and fasting.
In political arena, Sarvodaya attaches importance to ‘lokniti’. The
concept of lokniti signifies selfless service to the people, discipline, faith in God and
performance of duties with benign motive. Sarvodaya condemns the majority rule,
elections, political parties and centralisation of power. Gandhiji wanted a ‘Stateless
democracy’ in which even weakest have the same opportunity as the strongest. The
ideal democracy will be a federation of Satyagrahi village communities based on
non-violence.
21st century globalized world is beset with many problems including
those caused by coronavirus pandemic. All problems cannot be solved alone by
scientific discoveries and technological innovations.
After the death of Gandhiji, Acharya Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash
Narayan have highlighted the essentials of Sarvodaya in their own light. Vinoba
Bhave developed Gandhiji’s concept of Sarvodaya keeping in view changing
socioeconomic circumstances. The movement of Bhoodan and Gramdan and his
unique method of spreading his message of compassion through padayatra have
attracted worldwide attention. J. P. Narayan holds the view that Sarvodaya stands for
the sublime goals of freedom, equality, brotherhood and peace. Realization of a rich,
total and integrated life is the basic objective of Sarvodaya philosophy.
 Anima Bose has referred to the movement’s philosophy as “a fuller
and richer concept of people’s democracy than any we have yet known.” Sarvodaya
workers associated with Vinoba, J. P. Narayan, undertook various projects aimed at
encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s, including
Bhoodan and Gramdan movements. Many groups descended from these networks
continue to function locally in India today.
Serious criticisms have been levelled against the concept of
Sarvodaya. They include-
 Sarvodaya philosophy has been branded as ‘Utopia’.
 Sarvodaya movement views the state as an instrument of coercion. But this is
only half-truth. The state especially a democratic state can also serve as an
instrument to promote material well-being of the people.
 Gandhian concept of ‘simple living and high thinking’ has been contested on the
ground that sometimes people with simplest of food and practice of austerities
nurture all types of sinister desires and activities. In some quarters, in fact, wealth
is believed to be an indispensable prerequisite of culture and higher values.
 Critics hold the view that large-scale production and industrialization can raise
the standard of living of the people and release human energy for more creative
pursuits. Cottage industries may generate employment. At the same time it may
be a failure due to high cost of production and low quality of products.
 Proposals regarding the trusteeship system and complete decentralisation of all
economic and political set up are nothing more than academic exercises.
 J. C. Johari rightly observes that the Marxists would scoff at the whole school of
Sarvodaya as one belonging to the world of Owenites and Saint Simonians; the
collectivists would not endorse the suggestion of a very limited government in
view of man’s life of minimum wants and liberals would have every reason to
doubt the feasibility of an ideal society as conceived by the advocates of the
sarvodaya philosophy.
So, lastly we can conclude that Sarvodaya ideals are not practicable. It
will be almost impossible to establish a society strictly on the basis of great principles
of Mahatma Gandhi and others. Sarvodaya doctrines are soaring and it is doubtful
whether they can rest on the earth. The poor record of Panchayat Raj in India bears
testimony to the backward condition in which people are. In the highly competitive
world, one country can not succeed in having Gramraj. Unless all states in the world
accept the Sarvodaya idea, chances of having it in a particular country like India are
bleak. As well as, it is difficult to bring a change of the heart in the youth, who is
given to selfishness. People donated useless land in response to the Bhoodan. So, need
of the present era for youth is 'Think Globally and Act Locally'.

 Antyodaya

1. Upliftment of the last

2. Rural empowerment
3. Micro Finance
4. SHGs at rural level
5. Sarvodaya through Anthyodaya

Sarvodaya means 'development of all'. Gandhiji's concept of

development is Sarvodaya through Antyodaya, implying the welfare of all through the
weakest of the society. Principles of cooperation and collective endeavor are central
to society. Women remain the most deprived and long-neglected segment of the
society, despite the Constitutional guarantees for equal rights and privileges for men
and women.
Development is a process of Empowerment. Microfinance
through women Self-Help Groups (SHGs) is a significant medium of poverty
alleviation and empowerment of women. SHGs formed by women in different places
have proved that they could indeed bring about a change in the mindset of the very
conservative and tradition-bound illiterate women in rural areas. The concept of group
formation is the best strategy to enlighten women and provide necessary mental
courage for self-employment.
This paper makes a strong case for SHGs as a new
development paradigm for bringing about gender equity among rural women in India
by creating self-employment opportunities through microcredit. The study is based on
the premise that poor women can internalise production possibilities in groups only.
They are better-equipped to overcome the negative social pressure and gender biases
operating against them through group identity and activity.
 However, the relationship of credit access to self-employment
is not automatic but depends on various factors.In reality the Microfinance experiment
faces many hurdles which have to be overcome if poverty has to be referred back to
the museum. This article promotes Gandhian Studies Centres as catalysts in addition
to Government, Banks and Non Governmental Organisations to promote
entrepreneurship through adult literacy, training facilities and marketing facilities to
SHGs.
This Paper is divided into three sections.
 Section 1 is an introduction explaining Gandhian principles and the concept of
empowerment.
 The significance of Microfinance and Self-Help Groups is described in Section 2.
 Section 3 explains the role of catalysts like the Government, Banks, Non
Government Organisations and above all Gandhian Studies Centres in
overcoming the various hurdles faced by SHGs in order to make them
sustainable.

Introduction
Sarvodaya means 'development of all'. Tribal villages have a
system of madait or sangat which literally mean 'cooperation'. Gandhiji's concept of
development is Sarvodaya through Antyodaya, implying the welfare of all through
the weakest of the society. Principles of cooperation and collective endeavor are
central to society. "Trusteeship" implies that property belongs to all, and the holder
manages it and takes care of it only as a socially responsible trustee. The Gandhian
model emphasizes decentralization of socio-economic and political systems starting
from the village to the highest level. Village life should arouse a sense of cooperation
and fellowship.
Voicing the silence of millions on International Women's Day,
India's former First Lady Usha Narayanan rued that uneven development had left the
majority of women in rural areas untouched, unsung and neglected. Declaring that
women were not in need of crutches or hand-outs, she stated that instead they need to
be empowered to take their rightful place in society (Prabhakar, 2004). Women
remain the most deprived and long-neglected segment of the society, despite the
Constitutional guarantees for equal rights and privileges for men and women.
Anti-poverty policies need to reach poor women both to maximise social returns on
development investments and minimise the poverty of this and the next generation
(Lalitha,1999 and Narasaiah, 2004).

Concept of Empowerment
Empowering means enabling people especially women to acquire
and possess power resources in order for them to make decisions on their own or
resist decisions that are made by others which affect them. Participation and control
over resources are considered as the critical indicators in the process of empowerment.
Disadvantaged women especially in rural areas possess least proportions of resources
and as a result they are powerless and dependent on the powerful. Historically, credit
access and terms have discriminated against women (Manimekalai,1999) due to
various reasons such as inability to provide collateral, small-sized loans, high
transaction costs for banks formalities.
Microfinance through women Self-Help Groups is a significant
medium of poverty alleviation and empowerment of women. SHGs formed by women
in different places have proved that they could indeed bring about a change in the
mindset of the very conservative and tradition-bound illiterate women in rural areas.
The concept of group formation is the best strategy to enlighten women and provide
necessary mental courage for self-employment. Grouping of women has increased
their awareness and reduced the chances of exploitation by middlemen.
Empowerment of women is necessary for sustainable development.
Empowerment is increasing the capacity of women to develop self-reliance in order to
identify their problems. It emphasises solidarity and collective action. Groups or
communities act together in order to gain access to policies and decision-making
arenas where their quality of life is determined. Development is a process of
Empowerment.

Microfinance and Self-Help Groups

A Self-Help Group (SHG) is a group that consists of about 10 to
20 persons of a homogenous class who come together with a view to address common
problems. They collect voluntary savings on a regular basis and use the pooled
resources to make small interest bearing-loans to their members. Collective wisdom
of the group and peer pressure are valuable collateral substitutes.A rural women's
SHG enables members to become self-dependent and self-reliant and provides a
forum for members to exchange ideas. It fosters a spirit of self-help and co-operation
among members in members and gives them strength and confidence to solve their
socio-economic problems problems. Women's participation in income-generating
activities is believed to increase their status and decision-making power. The Group
meeting also serves as a venue for other interventions such as adult literacy
programmes. Micro-credit schemes are thought to be potent agents of social change in
impoverished settings where women are disadvantaged by their lack of access to
resources.
Entrepreneurship is challenging and requires capacity to take
proper decisions and responsibilities. Entering into entrepreneurship independently
could bring the desired change in attitude among the rural women, make them
conscious of the oppression and induce them to take initiative and seize opportunities.
Co-operative entrepreneurship through Self-Help Groups can foster socio-economic
development and promote employment.

Advantages of a Group Approach

The concept of group formation is the best strategy to provide
credit and the necessary mental courage for self-employment. Poor women can
internalise production possibilities in groups only. They are better-equipped to
overcome the negative social pressure and gender biases operating against them
through group identity and activity. An individual without any experience of running
a business is normally nervous and wary of starting her own new venture but if a
group comes together with their different but supporting skills to run a business, they
provide mutual support, boost each other's confidence, point out each other's mistakes
and guide each other. A group feels more confident in approaching a bank or a
Government department for a loan or for benefit under a scheme. Grouping of women
has increased their awareness and reduced the chances of exploitation by middlemen.

Problems of SHGs and the Role of Catalysts

Today the SHG concept has assumed a very significant role in
the development of our country, particularly in poverty reduction. Hence it becomes
all the more important to identify the challenges faced by the SHGs and try to
mitigate the same. Exploitative markets, lack of entrepreneurial skills, resources and
opportunities are some of the problems encountered by SHGs.
Poverty is a result of many factors, therefore, mere provision of
credit cannot assure development. From being a minimalist or an 'only credit'
approach, microfinance has become a 'credit plus' approach acknowledging that along
with credit, other inputs like skill development, literacy, health care, social awareness,
support services, etc. were also essential for the holistic development of
disadvantaged women. The Government, Banks, Non-Government Organisations and
above all Gandhian Studies Centres can function as catalysts and play a pro-active
role in mobilising, organising and sustaining SHGs. Through volunteers of the
Centres necessary training in managerial, technical and marketing skills can be
imparted to groups to enhance their livelihood opportunities and make their
enterprises viable.

Conclusion
Rural women have sparks which can be fanned into flames with
necessary guidance and training. There are innumerable possibilities for promoting
profitable small enterprises by rural women and all efforts should be made to develop
this nursery for entrepreneurship. Self-Help Groups of assetless women will have to
be made sustainable through backward linkages to credit and technology and forward
linkages with organized markets.
The efficacy of SHGs would be considerably enhanced if a
symbiosis could be worked out between SHGs and Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)
because by nature and mandate both these institutions have the same objective viz. of
ushering people-centred development and through it to empower the disempowered.

 Charkha

1. Physical embodiment and symbol of Gandhi’s constructive program.

2. It represents Swadeshi, self-sufficiency, and at the same time interdependence,
because the wheel is at the center of a network of cotton growers, carders,
weavers, distributors, and users.
 The charkha, or spinning wheel, was the physical embodiment
and symbol of Gandhi’s constructive program. It represents Swadeshi,
self-sufficiency, and at the same time interdependence, because the wheel is at the
center of a network of cotton growers, carders, weavers, distributors, and users. . It
also embodied the dignity of labor, equality, unity, as all volunteers were to spin each
day, and finally independence, as British control of India was rooted in control of
indigenous industries such as textiles. For this reason, Nehru called khadi the
homespun cloth “the livery of our freedom.”
Spinning formed the “sun” in the “solar system” that was
Gandhi’s Constructive Programme. Almost every person, regardless of age, social
class or gender, was involved in spinning and sometimes elsewhere in the chain of
cloth production, from sowing the seeds of cotton to wearing khadi. Spinning was
both symbolic and quite real, as it gave employment to millions and produced a basic
need of Gandhian economics.

Liberalism, Humanism, Socialism, democracy

IDEOLOGIES
• A system of ideas and ideals , especially one which forms the basis of economic or
political theory and policy.
• Example : the ideology of democracy .
• The set of beliefs characteristic of a social group or individual.
• The science of ideas ;the study of their origin and nature.

LIBERALISM
• What is liberalism ?
• Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the
governed and equality before the law.
• Words such as liberal , liberty , libertarian and libertine all trace their history to be
Latin liber which means ‘ free’
• The theme of this ideology is commitment to the individual , desire to construct a
society where people can satisfy their interests and achieve fulfilment.
• They generally support free markets , free trade , limited government , individual
rights [including civil rights and human rights ], capitalism, democracy, secularism,
gender equality, racial equality, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom
of religion.

HOW DID LIBERALISM COME ABOUT ?

• It’s origin can be traced back to early agricultural societies when people started
living in settled communities and were forced to find ways of trading and living with
strangers ( Seabright,2004).
• As a developed ideology ; it can be traced back to the breakdown of feudalism in
Europe and they rise of an aspiring middle class.
• Liberalism became a distinct movement in the Age of enlightment , when it became
popular among western philosophers and economists.
• Liberalism sought to replace the norms of hereditary privilege, state religion,
absolute monarchy, the divine right of kings and traditional conservatism with
representative democracy and the rule of law.
• The middle class gave rise to a capitalist society and a market economy .
• This led to radical demand for change from the people to abolish traditional
structures of power that conflict with their interests .
• John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct tradition , based
on the social contrast , arguing that each man has a natural right to life , liberty ,
property and government must not violate these rights
• Leaders in the British Glorious Revolution of 1688, The American Revolution of
1776 and The French Revolution of 1789 used liberal philosophy to justify armed
overthrow of royal tyranny .
• Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution .
• The 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe and
South America , where it was well established along side republicanism in the united
states .
• Before 1920 the main ideological opponent of liberalism were communism ,
conservatism and socialism.
• John Locke is regarded as the father of modern Liberalism .

What are its central values ?

• INDIVIDUALISM
This is the belief in the supreme importance of individual, society should be
constructed so as to benefit the individual giving moral priority in individual
rights ,needs and interests.
• FREEDOM
For liberals freedom is the supreme belief in the individuals . For liberals,
freedom is the only state where individuals can fully develop their skills and
potentials . Freedom also means to prevent harm to others
• REASON
The idea to release human kind from its bondage to superstition and ignorance .
It gives importance of discussion , debate and argument .
• JUSTICE
Denotes a particular kind of moral judgement about the distribution of
rewards and punishments . They oppose the privileges through “irrational” standards
like gender, race, colour, creed, religion, or social background. They strongly believe
in equal opportunity for every individuals.
• TOLERATION
The liberal social ethic is characterised by a willingness to accept and in
some cases celebrate moral,cultural and political diversity. Toleration is necessary to
strike a balance among conflicting interests and to create harmony .
• CONSTITUTIONALISM
Although liberals agree about the need of a government, they are also aware
of the dangers it poses against freedom . For liberals power naturally corrupts and if it
isn’t regulated or checked ,it can be abused . They believe in a ‘limited’ government
which ensure - The rights of the governed - The Rule of Law - Checks and Balances
VARIENTS OF LIBERALISM

 CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
• Earliest liberal tradition which developed in the transition from feudalism to
capitalism and reached its height in the industrial era .
• It is characterised by : • First, a belief in egoistical individualism ; that human beings
are rationally self interested and capable of reliance
• Second, a belief in negative freedom or absence of external restraints
• Third, that the state is a “necessary evil” (Thomas Paine).They believe that there
must be minimal state intervention
• Fourth, it is characterized by a broadly positive view of civil society.

 ECONOMIC LIBERALISM
• It applied the classical liberal belief of limited state to the handling of the economy .
For economic liberals, the economy will flourish if let free from state intervention .

 NEOLIBERALISM
• A revival of classical liberalism that occurred in the 1970’s.
• A notch higher than the economic liberalism for its espouses market fundamentalism
which sees the market as morally and particularly superior to the government in terms
of political control.
• This was due to the increasing popularity of economic ideologies that expand the
role of the government in the market .

 MODERN LIBERALISM
• Dubbed as the 20th century liberalism. • It is a response to the growing problems
brought about by unrestrained economic individualism which led to the disadvantage
of the working class, spread of poverty, disease and ignorance . • Modern liberals
believe that there must be a balance between the state and the market .However they
stay true to the liberal belief in the primacy of the individual over the society .
 HUMANISM

DEFINITION
• An approach in study, philosophy , or practise that focuses on human values and
concerns .
• A system of thought that rejects religious beliefs and centres on humans and their
values, capacities, and worth.
• It views humanity as responsible for the promotion and development of individuals ,
espouses the equal and inherent dignity of all human beings and emphasizes a concern
for humans in relation to the world.
• The term Humanism was coined by Friedrich Niethammer in 19th Century .
• The word ‘humanism’ is ultimately derived from the Latin concept ‘humanitas’
• In 1808 Bavarian educational commissioner used the term to describe the new
classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools, and by 1836
the word ‘humanism’ has been established into English language.
• It is a philosophy that stress the importance of human factors rather than the
religious, divine , or spiritual matters.
• The main goal of humanism is to guide people to a more enlighted way of life and
create a better world for future generations
• Human experience and rational thinking provide the only source of both knowledge
and a moral code to live by is what they think .
• There are different types of humanisms such as literary, renaissance, cultural,
philosophical, secular, religious.

TYPES OF HUMANISM

 LITERARY HUMANISM
• In the 20th century the label “Literary Humanism” was used in a more narrow sense
to describe a movement in the humanities which focused almost exclusively on
“literary culture” – that is to say the ways in which literature can help people through
introspection and personal development
• It is purely the use of humanism in an older culture sense.
 RENAISSANCE HUMANISM
• Renaissance Humanism was a movement in thought, literature, and art , typified by
a revival in interest in the classical world and studies which focused not on religion
but on what is to be human.

 CULTURAL HUMANISM
• The label of cultural humanism is used to refer to cultural traditions which,
originating in ancient Greece and Rome, evolved through European history and have
come to be a fundamental basis of western culture.
• This include law, literature, philosophy, politics, science .

 PHILOSOPHICAL HUMANISM • The type which evolved through the

philosophical theories

 SECULAR HUMANISM
• It is a philosophy or life stance that embraces human reason, secular ethics, and
philosophical naturalism while specifically rejecting religious dogma, supernaturalism,
and superstition as the basis of morality and decision making

 RELIGIOUS HUMANISM
• It is an integration of humanist ethical philosophy with congregational rites and
community activity which centre on human needs , interests and abilities.

IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEOLOGIES IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL WORK

• Humanistic practice seeks to re-establish the focus of social work as empowering
and liberating rather than problem-solving and to focus on exploring , understanding
and coming to terms with human experience rather than resisting adverse social forces
as with critical, social change views of social work.
• Liberal practice seeks to the set free expansion of rights of human.

CONCLUSION
• Liberalism strongly refers to ultimate freedom to the people
• This isn’t in the basis of any restrictions but strictly in the belief that man have his
own freedom
• The central stand point of humanism is faith in the dignity of man . It supports the
idea of world citizenship.
• It only aims at being a man .

 SOCIALISM

Socialism as a politico-economic doctrine is the product of western

thought. Although socialist sentiments like the urge for social amelioration, concern
for the downtrodden, the craving for social justice and cooperative living are
expressed in the scriptures of the East as well as the west, the doctrine of socialism in
the present form is not older than the 19th century. In company with other ideological
concepts, socialism has a double reference. On the one hand, it refers to ideals, values,
properties of what is often called the socialist ‘vision’. On the other hand, it refers to
empirical features of social and political institutions, which are supposed to embody
the vision. On the level of values socialism stands for the values of freedom, equality,
community, brotherhood, social justice, the classless society, cooperation progress,
peace, prosperity, abundance, and happiness - to mention just the most important ones.
On the level of institutions socialism is opposed to capitalist private enterprise system
which it seeks to replace by a system of control over wealth and property and the
social supervision or organization of economic activity, this is often summarized in
the formula, the ‘common’ or ‘public’ ownership of the means of production A
socialist is not satisfied with merely economic reforms, but advocates a
comprehensive educational, ethical policy.
Socialism is not only a vision of life in a rational society in which
there will be no exploitation. One cannot deny that the compassion for the
downtrodden and the concern for social injustice have inspired social reformers and
socialists, but it is equally true that these alone do not constitute socialism. Socialism
in its wide meaning attaches importance to the economic aspect of human well being.
The definition of socialism in terms of production, rather than distribution is
consonant with Marx. For socialists economic equality is regarded as the central tenet
of socialism. Socialists insist that “planned social purpose” should guide, control and
mitigate evils of the system of production and consumption. Socialists consider that it
is essential that profit based competitive economy should be replaced by a cooperative
management for the welfare of all. Socialism believes in the removal of disparities
and aims at providing equal opportunities to all. Socialism is opposed to religious
creed dogmatism and believes in secularism. Socialism in developing countries aims
at total welfare for all citizens. It stands for social justice, rapid economic growth and
planning. It aims at the ending of monopolies and social injustices in society. In
essence socialism implies a fellowship, which denies distinctions of class, believes in
equality, common ownership, socialization of the means of production and equal
opportunities for the development of personality to all.
Socialism “undoubtedly presents a bewildering variety of forms and
doctrines”. It is also very difficult to give a precise and neat definition of socialism
“which will embrace all socialists and exclude all non-socialists”. No doubt the
several schools of socialists differ considerably in their programme of actions. But as
Coker remarks, “they agree in certain of their general aims; all seek to secure, through
some substantial limitations on theprivate ownership of property, a fairer and
practically more satisfactory apportionment of wealth and economic opportunity.”
The Encyclopaedia of the Labour Movement defines socialism as “a working class
doctrine and movement aiming, through class struggle, at the collective control of
society by the workers and the establishment of self-government in industry.”
Proudhan is quoted as having defined socialism as consisting of “every aspiration
towards the amelioration of society.” Lenin has defined socialism as “proletariat plus
philosophy.” According to Bertrand Russell, “Socialism, like everything else that is
vital, is rather a tendency than a strictly definable body of doctrines”. He adds: “But I
think we shall come nearest to the essence of socialism by defining it as the advocacy
of communal ownership of land and capital. Communal ownership may mean
ownership by a democratic state, but cannot be held to include ownership by any state,
which is not democratic.
Ludwig Moses has defined Socialism from an economic angle in his
book ‘Socialism, “Socialism is a programme for transforming the economy and
constitution of society according to a defined ideal. Socialism is essentially concerned
with the idea of equality. It aims at the highest rationalization of material life, a
rationalization which capitalism could never attain. The essence of socialism is that
all the means of production are in the exclusive control of the organized community.
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIALISM
Some of the principles of socialism include: -
 Public Ownership: This is the core tenet of socialism. In a socialist economy,
the means of production and distribution are owned, controlled and regulated by
the public, either through the state or through cooperatives. The basic motive is
not to use the means of production for profit, but rather for the interest of social
welfare.
 Economic Planning: Unlike in a capitalist economy, a socialist economy is not
driven by the laws of supply and demand. Instead, all economic activities-
production, distribution, exchange and consumption are planned and
coordinated by a central planning authority, which is usually the government. A
socialist economy relies on the central planning authority for distribution of
wealth, instead of relying on market forces.
 Egalitarian Society: Socialism rose as an opposition to the economic inequality
brought about by early capitalism. As such, it aims for an egalitarian society
where there are no classes. Ideally, all the people within a socialist economy
should have economic equality.
 Provision of Basic Needs: In a socialist economy, the basic needs – food, shelter,
clothing, education, health and employment are provided by the government
without any discrimination. This is one of the greatest advantages of socialism.
Provision of basic needs by the government can, however, result in the masses
thinking that they cannot survive without the government, creating a perfect
environment for the rise of authoritarian governments.
 No Competition: Typically, when you want to buy a car, you are spoilt for
choice. There are different brands and different models with varying features and
prices. It’s up to you to choose one the best one for you. The same applies for
many other products. In a socialist economy, there is no competition in the
market since the state is the sole entrepreneur. The state only focuses on
provision of necessities, which results in limited consumer choice.
 Social Welfare: Another major reason behind the rise of socialism was to protect
the working class from exploitation. Under socialist systems, there is no
exploitation. The state takes care of the working class through employment
protection, minimum wages and trade union recognition rights.
 Democracy

The Concept of Democracy

The term ‘Democracy’ is very popular one. The concept of
Democracy is, however, very complex one. It has no universal definition as such. Its
meaning has been undergoing constant change ever since the ancient Greek city-states
in the fifth century BCE, where the origin of the concept and practice of ‘Democracy’
can be traced. The term ‘Democracy’ itself is derived from the Greek word ‘demos’
and ‘kratos’ meaning ‘the people’ and ‘power or rule’ respectively. Thus the original
meaning of the term‘Democracy’ is‘the power or rule of the people’. It is a form of a
Government in which the people rule themselves either directly or indirectly or
through their elected representatives. In Democracy sovereignty vests with the people
in general.
According to, Lord Bryce, Democracy is, “A Government in which
the will of the majority of qualified citizens rules”. This definition clearly points out
that Democracy is a rule of common man. According to J.R. Lewis, “Democracy is
basically as a form of Government, but a form which exists to supply and maintain a
better society, and to provide the maximum amount of liberty for the individual
consistent with the attainment of order and security within the State.” Definition of
Democracy put forth by J.R.Lewis is nearer to the concept of State Socialism,where
for the betterment of State maximum amount of liberty is prescribed for individual.
According to Dewey, “The foundations of Democracy is faith in
the capacities of human nature; faith in human intelligence and in the power of pooled
and co-operative experience.” Dewey rightly points outs the human nature of
Democracy. “Democracy” according to J.A. Schumpeter “Democracy means only that
the people have the opportunity of accepting or refusing the men who are to rule
them…by free competition among would-be leaders for the vote of the electorate.”
According to this definition it is pointed out that in a Democracy the real power of
State is in the hands of common man who holds the right to choose his representative
by the power of vote.
 According to Walter Bagehot, Democracy is a “Government by
discussion”. According to Prof. Seeley Democracy is a form of “Government in
which everyone has a share”. After analyzing this two definitions on understands
that in a democratic form of a Government every one has a share to put-forth their
demands. The definition of ‘Democracy’ by Abraham Lincoln is a popular one. He
defines ‘Democracy’ as government—of the people, by the people and for the people.
Thus, according to him ‘Democracy’ is a form of government. In this form the
ultimate power rests with the people that means government of the people, that
government is run by the people through representatives, hence it is the government
by the people and lastly it is run for promoting the welfare of the people, hence it is a
government for the people.
However, the term ‘Democracy’ has stood for many ideas and
principles, and has many facets since its origin. Thus, the term ‘Democracy’ means
different things to different people.It has so many different connotations. In such
situation, what should be understood by the word ‘Democracy’ is a very pertinent
question. However, fortunately, there are some standard definitions which are widely
accepted. And, there is no disagreement as to the basic meaning‘Democracy’.
However, there are some thinkers and philosophers who go beyond this merely
mechanical concept of a form of a Government and who seek to extend its scope to
social and economic spheres of human life. They define Democracy in terms of a way
of life emphasizing the dignity of man.
Democracy in fact, is not merely a form of Government it is a
complex of social, economic and political factors, affecting the relationship of the
State to the individual, guaranteeing essential freedoms, personal liberty, freedom of
expression, or organization and of governing activities. From above definitions it is
evident that broadly speaking there are two broad perspectives on ‘Democracy’. The
one is purely political which defines ‘Democracy’ in terms of a form of government
and the other is socio-economic which extends the scope of ‘Democracy’ to social,
economic and even a philosophical aspects of human life. Though there is multiplicity
of definitions, it is noticed that the foundation and centre of concern is the people only.
And for the people to use power wisely for their own welfare. There must have real
access to the power. As it is un-conceivable that without a social and economic order
which is conducive to this object the very Democracy is sure to fail.
Essential conditions for the success of Democracy
Dr. Ambedkar has clearly stated the conditions which are necessary
for the successful working of Democracy. They can be illustrated in brief as under.

1. Equality:
For the success of Democracy the first and foremost essential element
is equality Dr. Ambedkar states that there must be know glaring inequalities in the
society. There should not be an “oppressed class” and there should not be a
“Suppressed Class”. He refers to Abraham Lincoln, who once said that“a house
divided against itself cannot stand”, and endorses the latter’s statement. The divided
society has within itself the “germs” of a bloody revolution. His ideal society is, based
on liberty, equality and fraternity, which he derived from his preceptor the Buddha.
However, he gives primary importance to equality in that trinity. He said in
unequivocal terms that,“Fraternity and liberty are really derivative notions.
The basic and fundamental conceptions are equality and respect for
human personality. Fraternity and liberty take their roots in these two fundamental
conceptions. Digging further down it may be said that equality is the original notion
and respect for human personality is a reflexion of it. So that where equality is
denied,everything else may betaken to be denied”. Dr. Ambedkar was of the opinion
that equality should prevail in human society, there should not be any discrimination
under the pretext of religion, culture, norms in the society. In India his concept of
equality refered to social equality in the society. Due to Chaturvarnya system in India,
the Indian society was divided into many fractions of castes. The social norms and the
legal norms of the Indian society were based on inequality. Dr. Ambedkar opposed
this inequality in order to establish Democracy in India. Therefore he gave equality as
the one of the necessary condition for the success of Democracy in India.

2. Two party system:

The second important condition for the successful working of
Democracy is the existence of strong opposition to the ruling majority. He thinks that
there must be an effective veto power against the authority of those who are ruling the
country. There can not be veto against the king, but in Democracy it must be
exercised against the party in power.
 Unless there are two parties, one is to rule and other is to oppose,
there can not be Democracy. At every five years those who are in power must to the
people and seek a fresh mandate from the people. If the people do not trust them, they
should make a room for others. In Democracy nobody has any perpetual authority to
rule and perpetual subjection to other. He said categorically that, “as a king has no
Divine Right to rule, so also a majority has no Divine Right to rule. Majority rule is
tolerated only because it is for a limited period and subject to the right to have it
changed, and secondly because it is a rule of a political majority, i.e. majority which
has submitted itself to the suffrage of a minority and not a communal majority.”He
thinks that there should be a political majority and a political minority rather than a
communal majority and a communal minority. He had rightly observed that in
India,“the majority is not a political majority.
In India the majority is born. It is not made.
Thatisthedifferencebetweenacommunalmajorityandapolitical majority. A political
majority is not a fixed or a permanent majority. It is a majority which is always made,
unmade and remade. A communal majority is a permanent majority fixed in its
attitude. One can destroy it, but one cannot transform it”. In his words, “two parties
are necessary to keep Government from being a despotism”

3. Equality in law and administration:

There was no equality in law and administration in India due to the
Vedic culture in India. In Hindu system law and administration treated the person
according to their castes.There was no uniform civil code in law in Vedic culture. The
Hindu judicial system was based on injustice. There must be not only equality before
law,but there must be equality of treatment in administration.
The personnel in administration need to be most sincere and
efficient. There should not be discrimination in administration. Whenever necessary
action is taken by the administration against any culprit the higher officer should not
interfere in the matter of justice. Them embers of the ruling party should not interfere
if any action is taken against any offender. In other words, the personnel in
administration should be permanent, un-corrupt and efficient so that everybody would
be able to get justice. There ought to be distinction between what is called ‘Political
offices’ and ‘Civil offices’.
 The British government maintained distinction between the
political offices and civil offices. In U.S.A. the ‘spoils system’ is no more in existence.
He thinks that in India also the administration should be above politics and should not
allow at any rate any interference in the administration. The administration must be
well responsive, responsible and impartial; and it must be well determined. It should
command obedience to authority.
“We must have a Government”, he said, “in which the men in
power will give their undivided allegiance to the best interest of the country. We must
have a Government in which men in power, knowing where obedience will end and
resistance will begin, will not be afraid to amend the social and economic code of life
which the dictates of justice and expediency sour gently call for”.
Dr. Ambedkar however observed that “the administration in India
is completely in the hands of the Hindus.It is their monopoly.From top to bottom it is
controlled by them …. Their one aim is to discriminate against the Untouchables and
to deny and deprive them not only of the benefits of law, but also of the protection of
the law against tyranny and oppression. The result is that the Untouchables are placed
between the Hindu population and Hindu ridden administration, the one committing
wrongs against them and the other protecting the wrong-doer, instead of helping the
victims”.
It is because of this reason that he demanded reservation for the
Depressed Classes in the services in order to change the composition of the
administration and to fill in with their own brethren to held them and to boost up their
morale.
Constitutional Morality:
Dr. Baba saheb Ambedkar had rightly observed that, “a Constitution
which contains legal provisions, is only a skeleton.The flesh of the skeleton is to be
found in what we call Constitutional morality”.61 However, in England it is called the
usages and conventions of the Constitution. Political actors in England are in variably
bound to those conventions. Constitution needs to be observed in its letter and spirit.
Each and every rule of public life can not be provided in the
Constitution. The Constitution, however provide a mere skeleton or some basic
principles and not every details. The details in the legal skeleton could be filled in by
healthy principles or conventions which are always based on justice and which evolve
in the course of history. Though one can not challenge in the court of law against
those who are in breach of them but one can do so in the court of public conscience.
He refers to with admiration the conservation laid down by President Washington
who of his own declined to contest for President-ship of U.S.A. for the third
consecutive tenure on the ground of Constitutional morality. He refers to the
convention laid down by King Windsor Edward III who had to abnegate the throne as
he married an ordinary woman against the wishes of the Parliament. Thus the
Parliament claimed and successfully secured the right to restrain even the personal life
of the King.
No Tyranny of Majority:
In Democracy there are always two rival parties striving to
complete against each other for getting political power. The party proving its majority
forms the government and the party in minority forms the opposition. However, it is
not expected from in majority to impose its tyranny over the minority.
“The minority”, he states, “must always feel safe that although
the majority is carrying on the government, the minority is not being hurt”. He thinks
that there should be free and fair discussion in the parliament on any problem. Every
member of a minority party should be treated with due respect and dignity and he
should be heard; irrespective of his view. Every motion of adjournment should be
allowed and discussed. The opposition party is also expected to co-operate with the
ruling party by constructive criticism and fruitful suggestions in the matter of
governance of the state. They should be so wise and liberal to agree or at least agree
to disagree with each other. It however necessary to have political majority or
minority and not communal majority or minority. The majority party should try to see
such an atmosphere on the floor of parliament and even outside of parliament, in
which a revolutionary spirit or an un-constitutional spirit would not develop.

4. Moral order:
According to Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar Democracy requires the
existence of a moral order in the society. He contemplates that politics can not be
devoid of ethics.The Government may pass the laws and implement them but unless
there is morality in the society law can not achieve any success. “A politician”, he
said, “does not merely trade in politics, but he also represents a particular faith
covering both the method as well as the metaphysics of politics” He further said that,
“Politics has become a kind of sewage system intolerably unsavory and in sanitary.To
become a politician is like going to work in the drain”. Therefore he has no faith in
value-free politics.Once he reportedly said that,“politics has become a game of
scoundrel but for me it is a mission”. He however puts before the people an ideal as to
how politics could be mission.

5. Public conscience:
The last but not the least is the condition of public conscience which is
essential for the successful working of the democratic Constitution. According to him
public conscience means “conscience which becomes agitated at every wrong, no
matter who is the sufferer, and it means that everybody whether he suffers that
particular wrong or not, is prepared to join him in order to get him relieved.” He cites
an important example of Reverend Scott a white man, who tried his best to liberate
the Blacks from White racial supremacy and racial discrimination in South Africa.
Though he was a white man, he served the cause of the blacks, irrespective of the
feelings of his white community people. He thinks that it is an example to be
emulated by others especially the Indian high castes. He states very categorically that
is South Africa every where in India. However, he feels strange as
towhytherecouldnotbeanynon-scheduledcastewhocouldtake up the cause of the
oppressed people in India. He rightly observes that it was because of lack of “public
conscience”.
He thinks that the non-Dalits should come forward to liberate the
Dalits. If they failed to do so, the oppressed people would develop revolutionary
mentality which could prove to be grievously dangerous to Democracy. His thoughts
on the conditions precedent for the successful working of Democracy in India are
really worth. India has adopted a new Constitution in 1950 through which we have
pledged to constitute India into a sovereign socialistic secular democratic republic and
to secure to all its citizens’ justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. Whether it would
be possible to bring into reality the high ideals provided in the Constitution is a
question which could be sincerely answered by every Indian. However, it is difficult
to say that the Indian society is able bring into reality those high ideals unless, it is
prepared to remove all the inherent evils in the body politic. Therefore it could be
safely concluded that the thoughts of Baba saheb Ambedkar for the success of
Democracy are most significant and relevant to the Indian society in the present
scenario.
 Future of Parliamentary Democracy
Dr. Ambedkar delivered a lecture at D.A.V. College, Jullundur
City (Punjab) on 28th October 1951. In his speech he submitted his observations on
future of parliamentary Democracy. Dr. Ambedkar stated that there was variety of
opinion about to which systems of Democracy to be applied in India. After long
discussion parliamentary form of Democracy was accepted in India to which he was
greatly attached. Dr. Ambedkar explained, parliamentary Democracy is not unknown
to India. He refers to the parliamentary system of Government prevailing from
Buddha’s time as follows:

Parliamentary Democracy is unknown to us at present. But India, at one time, had

parliamentary institutions. India was far more advanced in ancient times. If you go
through the ‘Suktas’ of Mahaparinibbana, you will find ample evidence in support of
my point.In these‘Suktas’it is stated that while Bhagwan Buddha was dying at
Kusinara (Kushinagar) a message to that effect was sent to the Mallas who were
sitting in session at that time.

They were devoted to Parliamentary institutions. When they

received the message about Buddha, they decided that they shall not close the session
but would carry on with their work and will go to Kusinara after finishing of the
business of the Parliament. There are innumerable references in our literature to prove
that Parliamentary system of Government was not unknown to us.
Regarding the rules of Parliamentary procedure Dr. Ambedkar
refers to Buddhist Sanghas where secret ballot system was also prevailing. Along with
intellectual freedom to all as follows:
There are many rules about Parliamentary procedure. May’s
Parliamentary practice is generally followed. One rule that is invariably followed
everywhere is that there can be no discussion without a motion. That is why there is
no discussion on a question. This rule was also practiced in our land in ancient times.
The system of secret ballot now in vogue is also not new to us. It was followed in
Buddhist Sanghas. They had the ballot papers which they called ‘Salapatraka
Grahakas’.
Unfortunately, we have lost this entire past heritage that was good.
Historians of India must tackle this question as to why these Parliamentary institutions
disappeared from our land. But I find that they cannot or do not want to find out the
reasons for it. Ancient India was the master of the world. There was such intellectual
freedom in ancient India as was nowhere else to be found.
Dr. Ambedkar further said that due to the decline of Buddhism in India,
the Parliamentary system of Government was not observed. And in the modern times
Indian people might fell that this system of Parliamentary Democracy is knew to them.
For the success of Parliamentary Democracy and Parliamentary system of
Government Dr. Ambedkar advised to educate the Indian masses about the meaning,
benefits and purpose of Parliamentary Democracy as follows:
Then why this ancient civilization went to dogs? Why was India
subjected to autocratic monarchies? We were familiar with parliamentary
institutions.
We know about votes, voting, committees and other things related to
parliamentary institutions. Today parliamentary system of government is alien to us.
If we go to a village, we will find that the villagers do not understand what is vote,
what is party? They find it something strange, something alien. It is, therefore, a great
problem as to how to preserve this institution. We will have to educate the public; we
will have to tell them the benefits of Parliamentary Democracy and of Parliamentary
System of Government. Dr. Ambedkar further elaborated the three main things
inherent in the Parliamentary system of Government as follows:
Firstly, Parliamentary Government means negation of hereditary rule.
No person can claim to be a hereditary ruler. Whoever wants to rule must be elected
by the people from time to time. He must obtain the approval of the people.
Hereditary rule has no sanction in the Parliamentary System of Government.
Secondly, any law, any measure applicable to the public life of the people
must be based on the advice of the people chosen by the people. No single individual
can presume the authority that he knows everything, that he can make the laws and
carry the government.The laws are to be made by the representatives of the people in
the Parliament. They are the people who can advise the men in whose name the law is
proclaimed. That is the differences between the monarchical system of Government
and the democratic system of Government. In monarchy, the affairs of the people are
carried on in the name of a monarch and under the authority of a monarch.
In Democracy the affairs of the public are carried on in the name
of the head of the state; but the laws and the executive measures are the authority on
which the Government is carried on.The head of the state is the titular Head; he is
merely a symbol. He is a concentrated ‘Murti’. He can be worshipped but he is not
allowed to carry out the Government of the country. The Government of the country
is carried out, though in his name,by the elected representatives of the people.
Thirdly and lastly, Parliamentary system of the Government means
that at a stated period those who want to advise the head of the state must have the
confidence of the people in themselves renewed. In Britain, formerly, the elections to
the Parliament were held every seven years. The Chartists agitated against this. They
wanted annual elections. The motive behind this agitation was very praiseworthy,
indeed. It would have been best in the interests ofthepeopleif annualelectionswereheld,
had it been possible,of course.But Parliamentary elections are very costly affairs. So
some sort of compromise was arrived at and five years period was supposed to be a
responsible period at which the Legislators and the Ministers were to go back to the
people and obtain the fresh renewal of their confidence.
After analyzing the three main things inherent in the Parliamentary
system of Government given by Dr. Ambedkar one understands the important role of
the people in the Parliamentary system of Democratic Government.
Dr. Ambedkar clearly points outs that in the Parliamentary
Government people have the right to elect their representatives. There is no place for
hereditary rule in the Parliamentary system of Government. He further clarified the
difference between the monarchical system of Government and the Democratic
system of Government. He makes it very clear that in Democratic system of
Government the head of the Government is elected by the representatives of the
people, and cannot act as dictator. Lastly Dr. Ambedkar points out that in the
Parliamentary system of Government the Government is elected by the people for a
time period. And the people have the power to change the Government.
 Dr. Ambedkar further explained important features of Parliamentary
system of Government as follows: This is also not enough. Parliamentary system of
Government is much more than Government by discussion. There are two pillars on
which the Parliamentary system of Government rests. These are the fulcrums on
which the mechanism works.
.
These two pillars are
(1) an opposition and
(2) free and fair elections.
Regarding the importance of opposition in the Parliamentary system of
Democratic Government, Dr. Ambedkar said that opposition is important for the fair
working of Parliamentary Democracy. He explained it as follows: One important
thing in the Parliamentary Democracy is that people should know the other side, if
there are two sides to a question. Hence a functional opposition is required.
Opposition is the key to a free political life. No Democracy can do without it. Dr.
Ambedkar said that the free and fair elections are one of the pillars of Parliamentary
Democracy. He explained it as follows: Free and fair elections are the other pillar on
which Parliamentary Democracy rests. Free and fair elections are necessary for the
transfer of power from one section of the community to the other in peaceful manner
and without any bloodshed. In olden times, if a king died, there was atleast one
murder in the palace.
Revolution used to take place in palace resulting in murders
before the new king used to take the reigns of his country into his authority. This has
been the history of India. Election must be completely free and fair. People must be
left to themselves to choose those whom they want to send to the Legislature. Dr.
Ambedkar was not in favour of single party system according to him in Democracy
the opposition plays the very important role. He criticized Congress Party in this
concern, as follows: Now the question arises as to whether there is any desire on the
part of the party in power to permit any opposition to be created. Congress does not
want any‘opposition’.Congress is attempting to gather people of sundry views under
one canopy. I ask you whether this is a desirable trend in the political life of this
country.
 Dr. Ambedkar advised the people to preserve Parliamentary
Democracy in India, because its failure may result to anarchy in India.
He further advised the people to preserve independence of
individual for realisation of Parliamentary system of Government in India as follows:
If Parliamentary Democracy fails in this country and it is bound to fail for the reasons
mentioned by me the only result will be rebellion, anarchy and communism. If the
people in power do not realize that people will not tolerate hereditary authority, then
this country is doomed. Either communism will come, Russia having the sovereignty
over our country, destroying individual liberty and our independence or the section of
the people who are disgruntled for the failure of the party in power will start rebellion
and anarchy will prevail. Gentlemen, I want you to take note of these eventual
certainties and if you wish that Parliamentary system of Government and
Parliamentary Democracy prevail in this country, if you are satisfied that we will be
assured of our liberty of thought, speech and action, if we should preserve our
independence, if we cherish the inherent right of individual liberty, then it is your duty
as students, as intelligent community of our country, to strive your utmost to cherish
this Parliamentary system of Government in its true spirit and work for it.

 Dr.Ambedkar’s views for building Democratic India

Dr. Ambedkar propagated the Social Democracy in India to
remove the disabilities of Depressed and Suppressed Classes of India, in order to
create a new social order based on humanity. Dr. Ambedkar’s concept of Social
Democracy is based on the principle of humanism. The Hindu Chaturvarnya system is
based on inhuman principles. Dr. Ambedkar strongly opposed Chaturvarnya system in
order to establish society based on humanism. For him Democracy is a way to
establish human conditions for Depressed and Suppressed Classes. He was against
hero-worship and dictatorship, he explained it as follows: “No country can remain
democratic and no people can preserve a Constitutional government, if the generality
of the people are imbued with an immoderate of hero-worship… For, in India, Bhakti
or what may be called the path of devotion or hero-worship, plays a part in its politics
unequalled in magnitude by the part it plays in the politics of any other country in the
world. Bhakti in religion may be a road to the salvation of the soul.
 But in politics, Bhakti or hero-worship is a sure road to degradation
and eventual dictatorship.”78 Dr. Ambedkar in Constituent Assembly, about Social
Democracy said as follows: “The third thing we must do is not to be content with
mere Political Democracy. We must make our Political Democracy a Social
Democracy as well. Political Democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it
Social Democracy. What does Social Democracy mean? It means a way of life which
recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as the principles of life. These principles of
liberty, equality and fraternity are not to be treated as separate items in a trinity. They
form a union of trinity in the sense that to divorce one from the other is to defeat the
very purpose of Democracy. Liberty cannot be divorced from equality, equality
cannot be divorced from liberty. Nor can liberty and equality be divorced from
fraternity. Without equality, liberty would produce the supremacy of the few over the
many. Equality without liberty would kill individual initiative.
Without fraternity, liberty and equality could not become a natural
course of things. It would require a constable to enforce them. We must begin by
acknowledging the fact that there is complete absence of two things of Indian Society.
One of these is equality. On the social plane, we have in India a society based on the
principle of graded inequality which means elevation for some and degradation for
others. On the economic plane, we have a society in which there are some who have
immense wealth as against many who live in abject poverty.”79 After analyzing Dr.
Ambedkar’s above statement on Democracy it can be safely concluded that Dr.
Ambedkar propagated Social Democracy along with Economic Democracy for the
true realization of Political Democracy. Traditional Hindu society was based on
political, economical and social inequality. Dr. Ambedkar vehemently opposed
political, economical and social inequality in India, in the interest of realisation of
Political Democracy. Dr. Ambedkar’s contribution to the Democracy in India is of
immense importance.
Since it gave a new dimension of Social and Economic Democracy
to the Political Democracy. Dr. Ambedkar propagated Constitutional methods for the
realisation of social and economic objectives of the Democracy as follows: If we wish
to maintain Democracy not merely in the form, but also in fact, what must do? The
first thing in my judgment we must do is to hold fast to Constitutional methods of
achieving our socials and economic objectives. It means we must abandon the bloody
methods of revolution. When there was no way left for Constitutional methods for
achieving economic and social objectives, there was a great deal of justification for
unconstitutional methods. But where Constitutional methods are open, there can be no
justification for these unconstitutional methods.These methods are nothing but the
Grammar of Anarchy and the sooner they are abandoned, the better for us.
“A democratic system can endure only when citizens as a whole
hold fast to Constitutional methods for achieving their social and economic objectives.
Now that Constitutional methods are open and available, they must abandon the
bloody or coercive methods of revolution, of civil disobedience, of non-cooperation.
For achieving social and economic objectives, these methods have no place in the
country. Democracy cannot long survive among any people with whom the loudest
voice counts as the voice of wisdom, or when coercive pressures take the place of
reason and persuasion.

 Dr.Ambedkar’s economic dimensions to Democracy

Dr. Ambedkar gave economic dimensions to the Parliamentary
Democracy he delivered a speech at the concluding session of the all India Trade
Union Workers Study Camp held in Delhi from8th to 17th September, 1943, under
the auspices of the Indian Federation of Labour. After analyzing hi speech his
economic dimensions to Democracy becomes very clear.
Some of the important paragraph of his speech related to Labour
and Parliamentary Democracy is as follows: “The Government of human society has
undergone some very significant changes. There was a time when the government of
human society had taken the form of autocracy by Despotic Sovereigns. This was
replaced after along and bloody struggle by a system of government known as
Parliamentary Democracy. It was felt that this was the last word in the framework of
government.It was believed to bring about the millennium in which every human
being will have the right to liberty, property and pursuit of happiness. And there were
good grounds for such high hopes.
In Parliamentary Democracy there is the Legislature to express
the voice of the people; there is the Executive which is subordinate to the Legislature
and bound to obey the Legislature. Over and above the Legislature and the Executive
there is the Judiciary to control both and keep them both within prescribed bounds.
 Parliamentary Democracy has all the marks of a popular
Government, a government of the people, by the people and for the people.
From the above paragraph Dr. Ambedkar has put forth that Parliamentary Democracy
has all the marks of popular Government and it is Government of the people, by the
people and for the people. It can be safely concluded that this form of Government
has human principles.

Identification of Social Work as a Profession

A profession is generally seen as an occupation which requires a

higher educational qualification that may be a degree, a diploma or a certificate course
for its practice. It is characterized by a specialized body of knowledge and skills, a
specified area of operation, a defined code of ethics and certain degree of organization
among the members of the profession.
Thus, it can be further defined that a profession is an occupation
for which specialized knowledge, methods, skills and training are required and the
members of the profession work not only for their self-satisfaction but also for the
larger interest of the society. It bears some ethical responsibility of the professionals.
All the professions are occupations, in the sense that they provide some means of
livelihood to the practitioners. On the other hand not all the occupations are
professions for they lack some characteristics of professions and they also need to
pass through certain stages of development before achieving the status of a
profession.

Characteristics of a Profession

Many eminent writers after the careful analysis of the meaning and
implication of a profession have tried to summarize the characteristics of a profession
in the following ways:

According to Miriam Van Waters the following characteristics in a profession

are being emphasized:
1. Acquisition of special skills based on training,
2. A function to perform that is recognized by public opinion
3. A feeling of kinship due to common training
4. A sense of loyalty or humour expressing itself in a code of ethics in the field of
mutual relationship between clients, the worker and the public.

Millerson, after his careful study found the following most frequently concerned
traits of a profession:

1. Skills based on the theoretical knowledge

2. Provision of training and occupation
3. Tests of the competence of the members
4. Organization among the members of the profession
5. Adherence to the professional code of ethics
6. Altruistic service

Youngdhal enumerates the following characteristics of a profession:

1. It includes use of intellectual operations with a high degree of individual
responsibility
2. It is learnt through a formal training
3. It possesses techniques capable of transformation through a specialized educational
discipline
4. It tends towards self-organization for the promotion of standards and advancement
of interests.
5. It is not merely theoretical but practical in aims goals.
6. It is responsible to public interest and public welfare.
By analyzing the above characteristics of a profession given by different
authors; we may enumerate some general characteristics of a profession in the
following lines:

1. A profession has a systematic and scientific body of knowledge

2. It has an organized system of imparting education(University training)
3. It has some specialized activities of its professionals
4. It has its own professional organizations
5. It has a professional code of ethics for the professionals
6. It has social recognition

Professional Characteristics of Social work in India

In the light of the characteristics of a profession we can now examine

the validity of the claim of social work as a profession as under:

1. A systematic and scientific body of knowledge:

The first question to be discussed here is, “Do we have a body of
knowledge and a theory entitling us to the status of a profession? Perhaps, the real
answer to the question would be yes. Social work is based on scientific body of
knowledge which enables the professionals to view understand a person, his problem
and his social environment in a distinct way. The area of knowledge basically
incorporated in the body of social work knowledge can be grouped as follows:

i) The knowledge about Human behaviour and social environment:

It includes the knowledge on personality factors, theories, social aspects, psychiatric
aspects, human relations, groups, social institutions, socializations, social control etc.
which enrich and enable the professionals to effectively deal with undesirable
situations in the society.

ii) Knowledge about methods and tools and techniques of social work:
It includes knowledge about the tested and scientific methods such as case work,
group work, community organization, social welfare administration, social action and
social research.

iii) Fields of Social Work:

It includes the knowledge on medical care, psychiatric services, child guidance,
correctional services, family welfare, Youth welfare, labour welfare, rural
development etc.
iv) Social Problem:
It includes the knowledge about crimes, delinquencies, alcoholism, drug addiction,
gambling, beggary, prostitution, unemployment, casteism, communalism, corruption,
discrimination, poverty etc and their factors and possible solutions.

v) Knowledge about values and principles:

Social work has developed well defined principles which guide its practice. The social
worker accepts the client as he is and doesn’t impose anything. It believes in
individuals worth, dignity and integrity. Its goal is to promote full growth of human
potential by helping the people to help themselves.

There is continuous increase of knowledge in the above mentioned

fields of social work in India. Researcher is in progress for specialized social work
knowledge and practice suited to the Indian conditions. In India the full fledged
development of professional knowledge in social work still remains much to achieve.

2. Organized system of Education (University Training)

Social work as a profession has a distinct identity in the field of
education. In our country there are provisions for graduate and post-graduate level of
education in the universities and other teaching institutions. The first school of social
work was established in 1936 in the name of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of
Social Work, Bombay. Initially this school provided Diploma in Social Service
Administration, but later on it included BSW, MSW and other fields of social work.
Till 1947 it was the only institution in India providing training for social work. After
independence many institutes of social work education like Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi
(1947); Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad (1947); Delhi School of Social Work (1948)
which was the first school of social work as a part of a University; Boroda School of
Social Work(1949);
Department of Social Work, Lucknow university(1949) etc were
established in India to her credit. At present there are more than 200 professional
training institutes of social work spread all over India providing different courses in
social work discipline. Yet, social work remains to be widely recognized discipline at
par with the other professions in India.
3. Specialized activities of the professionals
It is difficult to draw a strict line of demarcation between the
practices of social work, social welfare and social service in India because of the
nature of the problems in the country. At times all the three practices are used
interchangeably for the well being of our population. Still then social work
professionals are engaged in specialized activities like counseling, therapeutic action,
social action, community organization, resource mobilization, environmental
modification, service facilitation, development planning and so on with special
reference to the values and principles of social work profession. This makes the
professionals distinct in their approach to various problems in the society.

4. Professional Organizations
Professional organizations are important for a profession in the sense
that they represent the profession in times of need. They guide the profession from the
front to give a new height in its standard of education and practice. In India several
professional organizations of social work have come up in the due course of time and
rendered commendable service towards the development of the profession.
The Indian Association of Alumni of Schools of Social Work
(IAASSW) was formed in 1951 to provide necessary inputs for the development of
social work education in this country. Its name was changed in 1964 and now it is
known as Indian Association of Trained Social Workers (IATSW). It has its branches
at Mumbai, Chandigarh, Coinbatore, Delhi, Dharwar, Hyderabad, Indore, Jamshedpur,
Chennai, Nagpur, Trivandrum, Udaipur, Varansai, Waltair, and Lucknow. The
Association of School of Social Work in India (ASSWI) was established in 1960 to
act as non-official organization for the promotion of social work education in India.
The Association of Medical and Psychiatric Social Work (AMPSW) also give inputs
to the profession. There are several professional organizations at the levels of schools
of social work putting their efforts to develop social work into a full-fledged
profession.

5. Professional Code of Ethics

Some recognized professional ethics of social work can be enumerated in
the following points:
i) Respect for human dignity an personality
ii) Dignity of each human being, be it a pauper or a prince.
iii) Matching the available resources with the felt needs.
iv) Stimulating change to enhance democratic values.
v) Accomplishing change through co-operation on both intellectual and emotional
levels
vi) Serving as change agent from behind the scene, so that the individual, group or
community may emotionally feel that the change was not imposed from outside but
was autonomously sought by the individual, group, or community.
vii) Respect for the profession
Social work profession operates in wide area cross-cutting various
fields while solving socio-economic and psycho-social problems of individuals in the
society. Therefore it is quite difficult to state a clear cut definition of role of social
work in some fields and social workers are confused in justifying their presence in
those fields. There is also confusion in the minds of the people while understanding
and explaining as to what is social work. A code of ethics has been developed by
professional organizations in the field of social work to guide the activities of the
professionals. In India, Association of Schools of Social Work has developed a
professional code of ethics. In spite of the best efforts by the association, a
standardized code of ethics for the social workers has not been developed in India so
far. The process of developing a standardized code of ethics is still on.

6. Social Recognition
Social work as a profession has been accepted by the governments of
many countries round the globe. Many governmental and non-governmental
organizations employ trained social workers for various posts. In India the recognition
and acceptance of social work among employers and the people is very low in
comparison to that of social workers in the western countries. There is hardly any job
exclusively for social workers in India and the social workers hardly enjoy any
distinct status in relation to their profession. In spite of all the hardships, social work
is spreading in the fields of health care, child welfare, women welfare, rural
development, correctional service and so on. It is gradually achieving social
recognition in the respective fields of practice.
 Values & Principles of Social

Professional values of Social Work

Every profession has its own set of values based on which the
professionals accept or reject a particular behaviour or while striving towards the
professional goals. The understanding of professional values of a profession is
important in the sense that these values work as driving forces in the professionals to
make appropriate decisions and help them to behave in a particular way in their
professional practice. Therefore the professional values of social work are important
to know for its professionals.. Before discussing about the values of social work, it is
important to have a clear understanding about the meaning of values.

Concept of values
In general sense, values can be defined as a conception-social,
cultural or personal, by which things are compared and approved or disapproved in
relation to one another, held to be relatively desirable or undesirable, more
meritorious or less meritorious . Values are socially approved desires and goals that
are internalized through the process of conditioning, leaning and socialization and that
become subjective preference, aims and aspirations. It is seen as an intellectual,
emotional judgment of an individual, group or a community regarding the worth of a
thing, a concept, a principle, an action or a practice. It forms the basis upon which an
individual choose something and reject another by judging it as better or worse, right
or wrong. Values play a very significant role in ones life because they provide a
suitable platform to accept or reject what is socially approved or disapproved one.
Social work values as such have to play a significant role in social
work practice as they maintain social equilibrium, unity in behaviour, psychological
foundation of life, determination of role and evaluation of social events and problems.
Some of the famous social work scientists have enumerated some
important values involved in the professional practice of social work; those can be
stated under the following points:
Friedlander, a renowned social work scientist has enumerated four primary
values of social work such as:

1. Conviction of the inherent worth, the integrity and the dignity of an individual
2. The right to determine himself, what his needs are and how they should be met
3. Firm belief in equal opportunity for all, limited only by the individual’s capacities.
4. Social responsibility towards himself, his family and his community.

G. Konopka has enumerated two primary values of social work namely:

1. Respect for every person and the right of each person to the fullest development
of his/her potential.
2. Mutual dependence of individuals and responsibility towards each other
according to their abilities.

Kohs has divided the values of social work into primary and secondary values.
He described the following 10 values as primary values of social work:

1. Worth and dignity of man

2. The capacity of a man to achieve full human potential
3. Tolerance of individual difference
4. Satisfaction of basic human needs
5. Liberty
6. Self direction
7. Non-judgmental attitude
8. Construction of social cooperation
9. Importance of work and constructive use of leisure
10. Protection of one’s existence from the dangers caused by man and nature

After the careful analysis of social work knowledge and practice some
important values most apparent in the profession were expressed in the following
broad areas:
1. Values relating the individual
2. Value relating to the problem
3. Values relating to relationship
4. Values relating to social welfare agency
5. values relating to social work practice

1. Values relating to individual

The concept of individualization was one of the most dominating
one during the early development of social work profession in the world.
Individualization has always been given a central place in the fundamental principles
of social work practice. Individualization was thought of as essential as it was
believed that “Men are saved not in masses but one by one and that every one saved
must be saved by an individual whose own heart is filled with love, and who is able to
communicate to another the grace which he himself has received.” For the proper
growth and development of the society the individual and his individuality should be
taken into account as the first goal of all development programs. Even in the group
activities creativity of the individual should be given optimum importance.

The American Association of Social workers identified the

following values in connection with individuals:

i) Firm faith in the dignity, worth and creative power of the individual.
ii) Complete belief in his right to hold and express his own opinions and to act upon
them, so long as by so doing he does not infringe upon the rights of others.
iii) Unswerving conviction of the inherent inalienable right of each individual to
choose and achieve his own destiny in the frame work of a progressive, yet stable
society. On the basis of different thoughts about social work, the following main
values can be enumerated:
1. Every individual has his worth
2. He has every right to get respect
3. Individual reacts in totality
4. Internal and external condition of each individual are different, therefore their
behaviours differ.
5. Individual has the right to develop his personality according to his choice.
6. Individualization is essential for his concrete help
7. Personal values i.e. thoughts, feelings, beliefs are important to be studied.
8. Individual has the right of self-determination towards solving his own problems
9. Individual development depends on total environment.

2. Values relating to problems

Social as profession is concerned with the scientific solution of
psycho-social problems. Problems are the unmet needs of an individual, a group or a
community in our society. A social imbalance is inevitable with disruption of a
person’s relationship with the world around him. It is social malfunctioning borne
from defective interaction of persons that creates problems in the society.
Problems arise not necessarily due to a single factor but due to
many factors together. Psychological factors have a strong bearing on the problem
areas but one cannot consider merely those factors contributing to person’s problems,
there are many other factors as well. Psycho-social problems arise very broadly from
the very impact of socially sick people on their environment or the impact of a sick
environment on the people. For instance, deviant children may cause many problems
like murder, rape, terrorism, family disorganization, hatred etc. in the society. On the
other hand, the environment where there is family disorganization, hatred, terrorism
etc can go a long way to make the children deviant. The problem of an individual is
not the product of mere past but it is the combination of the past and the present
situations.

Social work carries the following values in connection to problems:

1. A problem arises when the individual fails to meet his desired needs through his
learned habits and methods. Therefore social work attempts to change his habits and
methods of approaching his desired needs.

2. Problem often either affects social functioning or is affected by social functioning.

Therefore social worker believes in improving the social functioning of the client.
3. A problem has many side effects and creates many other problems.

4. A problem has multifarious effect on human life

5. Internal and external factors of the problem not only happen together but also
may be a cause for one another.

6. Everyone feels the problem but the person who solves the problem doesn’t
become a client in the same case. He believes in increasing the problem solving
capacity in the individual.

3. Values relating to Social relationship

Relationship is considered as the flesh and blood of social work
practice. In the society, the interplay of different personalities through a dynamic
guided relationship can play a greater role in solving different problems. Relationship
is the social worker’s responsible and disciplined use of himself and others in working
with an individual, group or a community to solve problems. In this relationship he
applies his professional knowledge and skills guided by the ethics and principles to
help individuals, groups or communities. With in the democratic frame of reference,
the professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared responsibilities.
Recognition of other’s rights, acceptance of differences, integrated goals, socialized
attitudes and above all, the growth producing relationship greatly contribute towards
removing the existing problems.

The practice of social work is based on basically two kinds of relationship, such
as:
1. Informal social relationship: Every individual as a human being has to maintain
this kind of relationship during any kind of social interaction. This relationship bears
the element like love, concern, cooperation, sympathy and companionship which meet
the social needs of the individual. Before moving towards a professional relationship,
the social worker establishes this kind of relationship with the individual, group or
community. It provides the necessary preconditions for moving towards professional
relationship.
2. Professional relationship: Professional relationship is guided by the ethics and
principles of the profession and has some specified objectives in itself. The social
worker deliberately builds such relationship with the clientele to chanelize the
necessary resources knowledge, skills and material goods to enable the clients to cope
up with the problematic situation.
Relationship is the continuous process within which problem
solving takes place. It is the catalytic agent in which the under-levels of the
personality of unconscious individual changes in the sense of self-worth, security and
the sense of linkage with other human beings.

Social work believes in the following values in connection with the relationship:

1. The person who is brought to the agency for help is accepted by the worker as an
individual, but not as a case.
2. Client is accepted as he is. Social worker does not have subjective feelings about
him.
3. The relationship is established in such a way that the feelings of clients are not
hurt.
4. The professional relationship is established on the basis of equality and there is no
feeling of subordination in the client.
5. The basis of relationship is love, cooperation, sympathy and help.
6. Through the relationship the client is stimulated and his/her insight is developed.
7. Relationship is considered positive or therapeutic when communication begins on
the emotional and intellectual level between client and the worker.
8. Social worker uses relationship as a tool for the solution of the psycho-social
problems of the client.

4. Values relating to Social Agency

Social agencies are the instruments for solving psycho-social
problems in the society. They represent the organized efforts of a group of people to
meet specific human needs which arise out of certain social conditions. They strive to
meet specific, recognized, visible needs that are agreed upon as important for
substantial number of people. A social welfare agency makes use of professional
social work skills in implementing programmes designed to meet these needs. It is
primarily to the agency that the client turns or brought for obtaining help. The social
worker is considered as an important part of a range of resources offered by the
agency. The welfare agency determines the objectives of the programmes, makes
action plan in view of the problems and available resources, formulates appropriate
policies etc and hence, it is essential that the social worker understands his position in
the agency. On the basis of the nature of the agencies they may be said as public or
voluntary.
Public agencies are run by the government and are usually
available for all those who come under certain category. But the voluntary agencies
are the ones which are run by group of people who volunteer to provide restricted
services to certain number of people falling under certain categories. Further, the
setting of a social welfare agency may be primary or secondary. A primary setting of
social work is the one with primary objective of carrying out social work activities
and social workers have the primary professional place. On the other hand, in
secondary setting of social work agency social work practice and social work has a
secondary place.
It has been found that a social welfare agency must have a
democratic basis of organization and administration, so that the individuals and
groups have an opportunity to share in the important affairs of the agency in so far as
they are capable.

On the basis of the above discussion we can state the following important values
in relation to social agency:
1. The nature of social agency is always welfare and humanitarian
2. The proper use of agency resources may solve human problems.
3. Social agency is competent in dealing with maladjustment problems.
4. The objectives of the agencies are fulfilled through planned programmes
5. Effectiveness of the agency is based on the worker’s knowledge of human
behaviour and power to influence the clients.
6. Social agencies generally help those individuals who voluntarily wish to solve
their problems and have desire to become self-dependent.
7. The agencies which have faith in democratic values may use social work services.
5. Values relating to social work Practices
Social work as profession believes in scientific knowledge and
practices. Since the beginning of the human society, social work existed as
rudimentary practice with some degree of concern for men in problems. Charity was
the earliest and enduring form of social work practice and depended on moral and
religious considerations of the privileged people since ancient times. With passage of
time, social problems became more complex and charity form of social work practice
could not stand against those emerging problems. As a result, people with concern for
the good cause thought of some better ways for social work practice for helping the
people. The continuous efforts by such people finally brought about some scientific
ways for helping the people in psychosocial problems in the later half of the 19th
century. Thus social work got its scientific basis. The Charity Organization
Movement was introduced in the late 1870s as a means for making alms giving
scientific, efficient and preventive. To make Charity scientific, Mary Richmond began
her almost regular effort and frequent contributions to that body. She is credited with
laying the foundation of scientific approach to social work and with achievement
marked by the publication of her book ‘Social Diagnosis’.

Social work believes in the following values in relation to social work Practice:
1. Social work practice is based on humanitarian philosophy and offers social
treatment and psychological education in response to human needs.
2. Social work practice believes in democratic values. It is in the background of
philosophy of social justice, equality and fraternity that the methods of social work of
social work have been developed by its practitioners.
3. Social work believes in distributive justice. It believes in dividing the fruits of
social development among all according to their capacities and aspirations. It also
emphasizes to help the unprivileged to face the challenges of their life.
4. Social work believes not only in the solution of the problems of individuals but
also in social development.
5. Social work believes in modernization and coping with the changing situations.
6. Social work believes that socio-economic objectives can be achieved through
planning.
 Principles of Social Work

These are the Seven principles of social worker:

1. Principles of Acceptance.
2. Principle of Individualization.
3. Principle of Communications.
4. Principle of Confidentiality.
5. Principle of Self Determination.
6. Principle of Non-judgmental Attitude.
7. Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement.
Principles are guiding beliefs and statement of do's and don't s.
Social work principles are guiding assertions of statement that have come from
experiences and research. The most commonly discussed principles of social work are
as follows:

 Principles of Acceptance:
Social work accepts the individual as he or she is with all his/her
limitations. Social work believes that acceptance is the crux of all help. Social worker
does not condemn or feel hostile towards a client because his behavior differs from
the approved one. The principle of acceptance implies that social worker must
perceive, acknowledge, receive and establish a relationship with the individual client
as he actually is, not as social worker wishes him to be or think he should be.

 Principle of Individualization:-
The principle of individualization is fundamental to effective social
work practice. Social work believes in the uniqueness of individual. Each individual is
different from that of every other individual nature. As we know that individual is
unique as his thumb print. The social worker views the problem of each client as
specific and helps the client move forward finding the most satisfactory means for
client to deal with particular problem situation.
 Principle of Communications:-
Communication is a two way process most of the problem that give
pain are precisely the problem of communication. When the communication is
inadequate or insufficient the problems occurs either automatically or because of
misunderstanding. The social worker should have enough skills to grasp the
communication. The proper communication is crucial in social work relationship
because the background of the client and worker may be different, the mental status of
the client and the worker may vary. Therefore the social worker should make all the
efforts to see that communication between him and client is proper. The client should
be made feel comfortable and at ease to express his thoughts feelings and facts.

 Principle of Confidentiality:-
Social work believes that during the professional help between the
client and social worker, client have the right of personal information about
themselves in relationship with a social agency. The principle believes that
confidential things of the client must be kept confidential and other agencies and
individual & should be consulted only with the clients consent.

 Principle of Self Determination:-

The principle emphasizes client’s right to self determination. Every
individual client has the right to decide what is appropriate for him and decides the
ways and means to realize it. In other words, social worker should not force decisions
or solutions on the clients because the client has come to him for help. Therefore,
social worker should support and guide the client to develop insight into his social
situations in correct perspective and encourage and involve him to like decisions that
are good and acceptable to him.

 Principle of Non-judgmental Attitude:-

Principle of non-judgmental attitude presumes that the social worker
should begin the professional relationship without any bias. He should not form
opinion about the client, good or bad, worthy or unworthy. He has to treat the client as
somebody who has come to him for help and he should be willing to help the client
without being influenced by the opinions of other about the client or his situation.
This enables the worker and the client feel free to develop understanding of each
other.

 Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement:-

This principle guides social work professional not to indulge too
much personally in the client's difficult situation or being too objective. Therefore the
social worker should maintain a reasonable emotional distance even while
sympathizing with the client social worker should indicate the understanding of the
difficult situations of the client without showing pity or appearing to be indifference.

Functions of social work

Function of social work refers to the natural activity of social work or the
statements of how social work operates.
According to Proff. P.D. Mishra social work operates to assist
individuals in adjusting to the institutional frame work of the society and attempts to
modify the institutional frame work itself in appropriate areas. He classified the
functions of social work into the following 4 major categories:

1. Curative Function
The services provided under curative functions are–medical and health
services, services relating to psychiatry, child guidance, child welfare services,
services for the handicapped or disable in the form of protection and rehabilitation.
These kinds of services aim to cure the physical, social, material, psychological
sickness of individuals in the society.

2. Correctional Function
The correctional function of social work has three broad areas, such as:
a) Individual reform service which includes prison reform, probation, parole and
other related services.
b) Services for improving social relationship which includes family welfare services,
school social work, industrial social work etc.
c) Services for social reform that includes employment services, prevention of
commercial sex work, beggary prohibition services and removal of untouchability etc.

3. Preventive Function:
It includes life insurance services, public assistance, social
legislation, adult education and prevention of diseases etc. This type of function
basically deals with the services relating to the prevention of problems like insecurity,
unlawfulness, ignorance, sickness etc. It is directed towards the elimination of those
factors in the social environment or those deficiencies in the development of
personality that prevents the individual from achieving a minimum desirable standard
of socio-economic life.

4. Developmental Function
Developmental function includes the tasks of socio-economic
development activities such as: education, recreational services, urban and rural
development programmes and programmes of integration etc which are primarily
concerned with the development of individuals, families, groups and communities.

The basic functions of social work can be divided in 3 broad interdependent and
interrelated categories, viz;

1. Restoration of social functioning

2. Provision of resources and
3. Prevention of social dysfunction.

1. The restoration of impaired social functioning is the oldest and most

commonly known function of social work profession. This function is subdivided
into curative and rehabilitative aspects. The curative aspects are to eliminate
environmental factors that have caused break down of social functioning of
individuals, groups or communities and the role of the rehabilitative aspects is to
recognize and rebuild interaction patterns in the society. As mentioned earlier, social
work tries to intervene at the point where the individual interacts with his
environment. The environmental factors hindering the functioning of a person may be
social, economic, political or cultural. This function emphasizes at problem solving
through modification in the psycho-social environment of individual and groups and
through bringing about changes in the attitude of recipients of the services. Therefore,
if a person becomes dysfunctional due to any of the above mentioned environmental
factors, the first task at hand will be to restore the person’s normal functioning. The
second task will be to assess the damage caused by the dysfunction and strategies are
devised to rehabilitate the person socially and bring him back to the normal
mainstream.

2. Provision of Resources is further subdivided into developmental and

educational. The developmental aspects are designed to extend effectiveness of
existing social, human and material resources or to bring about full utilization
personal capacity for more social interaction. The educational functions are designed
to make the public aware about specific conditions and needs for new and changing
resources and approaches.

3. The prevention of social dysfunction involves early detection, control and

elimination of conditions and situations that could obstruct effective social
functioning. The main two divisions are preventions of problems in the area of
human interaction (individuals and groups) and secondly, prevention of social ills.
Although it is a very important function of social work, it is neglected in most
situations. Social work has generally concentrated on the curative and rehabilitative
function and has worked on the problem solving model. However, keeping in the
mind the rapidly changing social scenario, it has become imperative to adopt the
preventive approach to social work. The profession should ensure that problems are
neither created nor eliminated at the very beginning. For this function the social
workers play a crucial role of conscientization, capacity building and organizing
people so that they themselves can prevent social dysfunctions.
In the present day context, social work has to emphasize on the
aspects of change. It is increasingly being realized that the main cause of dysfunction
lies not with the people but with the systems within which they operate. Either the
people do not get and environment or resources required for proper social functioning
or they do no have access to the resources to fulfill their needs. Therefore, there is a
need to challenge and change the system so that people get a favourable environment
to function. In a nutshell, it can be said that the function of social work should shift
from a status quo service oriented approach to change oriented development
approach.

Knowledge of Social Work

Social work is known for its multi-disciplinary approach in solving
psycho-social and material need of individuals in the society. The body of social work
knowledge is built by pulling the knowledge and information from several other
disciplines which was felt to be fitting to the need of the profession. As a helping
profession, social work involves vast range of knowledge for its professionals but
basically there are 4 fundamental areas of information with which a social worker
needs to be equipped with:

i) Knowledge of the availability of services

ii) Knowledge of people, their motivations, dynamics and strength
iii) Knowledge of the society-values, traditions, customs, taboos, problems, priorities
etc
iv) Knowledge resources-fiscal, material and human etc.

Methods of Social Work

Generally method implies to systematic way of doing something.

In social work, method is understood as the systematic and planned way of helping
the people. The main concern of social work is to solve psycho-social problems of
individuals, groups and communities through the conscious application of knowledge
in methods, tools, techniques and skills of social work. In this task, the social worker
has to be equipped with all the necessary methods of social work that ease his work to
help the people in solving their own problems. Social work as a professional practice
mainly uses the following methods while accomplishing its objectives:
1) Social case work
2) Social group work
3) Community Organization
4) Social work research
5) Social welfare administration
6) Social action

 Social Case Work

Social work in its theoretical aspects is based on the knowledge of
human relations with regard to the solution of psycho social problems. In its applied
aspect, social work is a professional service based on scientific methods and skills. In
the field of social sciences, social work occupies a very important role. Every social
problem is the outcome of many external and internal factors. Therefore, when to
deals with the individual problems, it is essential to deal with his experiences and
reactions towards the problems. Besides, proper recognition of individual is also
essential with regard to the solution of a problem. Therefore in the field of social work,
the main task of social worker is to develop the self direction and self dependence of
an individual. In social case work an individual, group, situation or phenomena is
recognized as unit of study and various aspects of the units are studied properly.

Social case work in general

The social case worker is oriented towards the principle of social
justice. Social justice provides everyone equal right to prowess. Therefore, social case
work does not believe on the survival of the fittest. In other words, social case work is
based on the assumption of human welfare. It provides help to every needy and
disabled person. Its ultimate aim is to establish harmonious relationship between the
client and the society to which he belongs.
Thus in the social case work individual client is treated as a total unit.
Internal and external forces are motivated in such a manner so that he may solve his
problems. Social case work covers the individual aspect of assistance as such; the
method adopted in it is purely psychological. But side by, social worker has also to
understand the various aspects of human behavior. He must establish workable
combination between the available social services and the psychological
understanding. Therefore, as a method, social case work gives much emphasis on
environmental reorganization and thereby attempt to bring about a change on clients
attitude and behavior. Social case work does not make a person entirely free from his
disabilities through social assistance. Besides, in certain favorable circumstances
social case work makes prevention and treatment of pathological problems.

Definitions of Social Case work

 Social case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for and
with different people by cooperating with them to achieve at one and the
same time their own and society’s betterment.
Richmond (1915)

 Social case work is the art of bringing about the better adjustments in the
social relationship of individual men or women or children.
Richmond (1917)

 Social case work means those processes which develop personality through
adjustment consciously affected, individual by individual, between men and their
social environment.
Richmond (1922)

 Social case work is the method of affecting the understanding of the needs,
resources and reactions of individuals.
Porter R. Lee

 Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help individuals find
a solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a
satisfactory way by their own effort.
Sanford

 Social case work is the art of adjusting personal relationship.

Queen
 Social case work is the art of changing human attitudes.
Lee

 Social case work means Social treatment of a maladjusted individual involving an

attempt to understand his personality, behavior and social relationships and to
assist him in working out a better social and personal adjustment.
Taft (1920)

 Social case work is a process concerned with the understanding of individuals as

whole personalities and with the adjustment of these individuals to socially
healthy lives.
Taylor (1926)

 Social case work is process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.
Perlman (1957)

The above definitions reveal the fact that social case work is related
to the psycho social treatment of the client who is in problem and seeks the help of
case worker or problem solving agencies. Social case work establishes adjustments
between individual capacities and resources. It consists of the study of mental,
emotional and social factors. In social case work an individual, group situation or
phenomena is recognized as unit of study and various units are studied properly.

Objectives of social case work

The basic purpose of social work is to enable the client to enjoy
with some degree of permanency, more satisfying, effective and acceptable
experiences in the social situations in which he find himself. To achieve this goal
efforts are made to bring effective changes in the client’s environment or social living
situations. According to Witmer, the chief aim of social case work is that of helping
people to mobilize their capacities for the solution of the problems that brought them
to the attention of social agencies. Most of the writers of social work like Moffet and
Hollis have emphasized that one of the main objective of social case work is to bring
about an adjustment between the individual client and his situation or environment.
Bowers mentioned two objectives: better adjustment in the social relationships of the
individual and the development of individual personality.
According to Perlman, within the boundaries of what the client
wants, his capacities and the resources of skills and materials means of the agency and
community, the specific goal is to help him achieve his previous level of functioning
of which he is capable of this time.
The purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to
solve his psycho social problems in such a way so that he find himself capable of
dealings with these problems at present and also may solve in future if such problems
arise. Thus social case work has the following objectives as mentioned by
P.D.Mishra;
 To understand and solve the internal problems of the individuals
 To strengthen his ego power
 Remediation of problems in social functioning
 Prevention of problems in social functioning
 Development of resources to enhance social functioning.

Components of Social Case work

The nucleus of the case work event is this- a person with a problem
comes to a place where a professional representative helps him by a given process.
The person is a man, woman, or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be in
need of help in some respect of his socialemotional living, whether the need be for
tangible provisions or counsel. As begins to receive such help, he is called a “client”.
The problem arises from some heed or obstacle or accumulation of frustrations or
maladjustments, and sometimes all of these together which threatens or has already
attacked the adequacy of the person’s living situation or the effectiveness of his
efforts to deal with it.
The place is a social service agency or a social service department of another kind of
human welfare agency. Its peculiarity lies on the fact it is set-up to deal not with
social problems at large but with human beings who are experiencing such problems
in the management of their own personal lives. Its purpose is to help individuals with
the particular social handicaps which hamper good personal or family living and with
the problems created by faulty person-to person, person-to-group, or
person-to-situation relationships.
The process named, “social work” to denote its center of attention and its individual
aspect; is a progressive transaction between the professional helper (case worker) and
the client. It consists of a series of problem-solving operations carried on within a
meaningful relationship.

Principles of Social case work

 Principle of Acceptance
 Principle of Confidentiality
 Principle of relationship
 Principle of Resource utilization
 Principle of individualization
 Principle of communication
 Principle of self determination

 Social group work

Social group work is a method of social work which develops
the ability of establishing constructive relationship in individuals through group
activities. Group experiences are the essential needs of human being. The reciprocal
and dynamic interactions and transactions between persons and environment are
inherent in social group work practice. Sometimes due to his/her own fault or
weakness and sometimes due to unfavourable environment, one fails to perform his/
her activities of the group life. Here group work helps the individual in removing
weakness and strengthening internal power to perform his/her job satisfactorily. The
social group worker must have the theoretical knowledge of social group work, its
principles, its skills, its models, its assumption so that he/she may be able to perform
his/her jobs most satisfactorily. All these concepts have been discussed in this chapter.
Group work is one of the methods used predominantly in the
context of the face-to-face group and which uses the group also as a medium of action.
It is a unique, exciting, dynamic way to help people make changes in their lives that
they themselves desire. Groups are used effectively by social workers today to help
people of all ages and all walks of life, enhance their social functioning and to cope
more effectively with their problems. Group workers are involved in all fields of
social work practice and are to be found in mental health, family counselling, child
welfare, substance abuse, disability, correctional and many other settings. They are
critically important to members of clinical teams attempting to respond to serious
mental and emotional social problems.
They also work in nonclinical settings in which they seek to foster
social growth and enhance social integration. They work among children, youth and
in community settings and are integral to community based programmes that seek to
facilitate community cohesion and more effective community based response to social
needs. Today small groups are considered as a useful instrument for community
change and development especially for the welfare and development of weaker
sections, marginalized population. For instance, self help groups, micro credit and
savings have become an integral programme in the field of women’s empowerment
and organisation of poor and marginalized people for socio-economic development.

Definitions of Group work

 Group Work maybe defined as an educational process emphasising the
development and social adjustment of an individual through voluntary
association and the use of this association as a means of furthering socially
desirable ends. (Newsletter -1935)

 Social Group Work aims at the development of persons through the

interplay of personalities in group situations, and at the creation of such
group situations to provide for integrated, co operative group action for
common (Coyle 1937).

 In Indian context) Social Group Work will refer to working with a small group
(membersranging from 7-10) to a medium size group (members ranging from
10-20) for a variety of purposes beginning from recreation to behaviour
modification on the one hand and accomplishing tasks including social change
and development on the other, with a variety of clients ranging from children to
elderly. The worker makes use of the expertise in human relationships to help
these groups to achieve the group goals in a participatory manner while paying
adequate attention to individual needs and social norms.
(H. Y.Siddiqui -2008)

 Social Group Work is a method of social work which helps individuals to

enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences and
to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems
( Konapka -1963)

 Social Group work is a psychosocial process which is concerned no less than

with developing leadership ability and co operation than with building on
the interests of the group for asocial purpose
(Hamilton -1949)

 Group Work as a social process and a method through which group life is
affected by a worker who consciously direct the interacting process toward the
accomplishment of goals which are conceived in a democratic frame of reference
( Wilson & Ryland -1949)

 Group work is method by which the group worker enables various types of
groups to function in such a way that both group interaction and programme
activities contribute to the growth of the individual and the achievement of
desirable social goals.
(Association for the Advancement of Group Work-1948)

Objectives of group work

 To teach the individual to live & work together and participate in the group
activities for their intellectual emotion& physical growth
 To live a good life within the group and family. The individual is also taught to
work together with other people & participate in different activities.
 To develop individual personality& behaviour by using different group work
process
 To prepare the individual to learn how to safe responsibility in a democracy style
of working.
 To give opportunity to them who have potentiality, worth and dignity of
leadership
 To make best use of leisure time
 To learn division of labour & specialization of role just to indicate to play
individual role in the group
 To provide suitable task to the individual according to her/his skill, knowledge
and interest
 To widen ones horizon
 To prepare people for social change
 To apply group therapy in need of physical, mental and emotional adjustment

Characteristics of Group work

 Group work is practiced by group itself
 With the help of group workers, development of the individual changes and
personality growth are happen.
 The group practiced and take steps by his own worth and dignity by the help of
its workers.

Based on humanitarian philosophy:

Group work is based on humanitarian philosophy. A group gets its
inspiration from the happiness, joy and prosperity of the member of that particular
group within a community. A group must have a belongingness and group
philosophy.
It gives aspiration to help each other:
Because of living together, sharing problem and emotion of each other
they get an aspiration to help each other. The group helps the individual when she/he
is in problem.
It provides more skill and information:
After formation of a group by a worker the group member get more
information and skill. Because of belongingness and helping mind the member can
share their knowledge among themselves. They get more information about science,
resources and techniques.
It develops human personality:
After making a group their networking with other groups, workers
and agency develop their personality.

Scope of Social Group Work

The scope of group work can best be considered in two dimensions.
Firstly, in its role in traditional programmes with their original purposes and secondly,
in social development. Both of these would be more illuminating in a historical
perspective. In the last half decade one sees substantial progress made in group work
practice in most of the traditional settings. The potentialities of groups are recognized
and several new and expanded services are being offered which make use of the small
group. Institutional and non-institutional services can be re-aligned providing more
experiences in group living. With the breakdown of the caste system and the joint
family and the resulting insecurity in a fast changing society, group approaches are
most invaluable' in providing the sense of belonging and the accelerated learning that
occurs within the group. Problems of poverty and lack of resources, combined with
interpersonal and intrapersonal tensions can be so overwhelming that sharing these
with others and seeking solutions jointly in groups is a method of problem-solving.
In recent year’s new psychological concepts and, in particular
psychoanalysis and psychotherapeutic techniques of transference, ego-strengthening
and direct or derivative insights have begun to dominate the scene of group work, thus
tending to make it more refined. Furthermore, the basic principles and methodology
of group work have been used in new movements such as transactional analysis,
sensitivity training, self-awareness and laboratory sessions with youth and adults
elsewhere and in India. However, insight into the resources and influence of the
environment and ability to bring indirect influence to bear upon the client through the
environment, which are essential elements of a sociological approach in group work
and absolute prerequisites for developmental work, have so far been overlooked.
These need re-thinking and strengthening.
Group work method can be most advantageously used to achieve
India's developmental objectives through programmes of health, family welfare,
education, community development and housing to mention a few. This will demand
a re-conceptualisation of both group work theory and programmes. Hence, an
orientation in group work should be given to students in schools of social work and to
personnel in voluntary and government agencies. This orientation should include a
background of social, political and economic development, strategies of planned
development in a developing economy, the need for and types of fundamental
changes required in the social structure, and the steps being taken to bring about these
changes. It should also cover an assessment of existing programmes in the country
implemented by voluntary and governmental agencies and further possibilities of
new programmes. Only then can practitioners meaningfully grasp the contribution of
group work to the programmes like integrated rural development, integrated child
development, family planning and the national adult education programmes. In
addition, it is necessary to incorporate into the curriculum of schools of social work,
the theories of Paulo Freire and structural analysis side by side with the Indian
approaches of Sarvodaya, Bhoodan, etc.
In India where poverty, disease, illiteracy and low level of living are
widespread, group workers must strive for social action and social change even in
remedial and clinical settings. To illustrate, school social work with a group of slow
learners is the usual idea of group work in the educational field. A wider way of
looking at it would be to focus on functional literacy and social education
programmes, establishment of parent-teachers' associations wherever possible in the
neighbourhoods and vocational guidance and counselling services on a community
extension basis. Special programmes for culturally deprived children, prevention of
school drop-outs, family life education and organising local pressure groups to
demand changes in the educational system and better educational facilities from local
educational authorities are some of the other ideas that can be initiated. One can also
be involved in the preparation of memoranda and collaboration with other groups
working in the same field.
The scope of education should also be extended to cover education for
health, better standards of living, housing with all its legislation, and land reforms. If
group work is objectively studied in a developing country, it will be seen that the
majority of the programmes will be focused on the bulk of the population that is
normal and which will have to be organised into local self-help and self-governing
groups. This is not to under-rate the highly therapeutic services that will be needed to
continue for those with a breakdown. While in India the efforts will be directed at
striving for social justice and removal of inequalities, social group work will have to
form a partnership with social education and deal with critical aspects of the clients'
life. It will also focus on 'legal' and 'political' literacy, that is making people aware of
their individual rights, voting procedures, representation in political parties, etc.,
which will be important components of such an educational programme.

Functions of group work

Group works mainly sees the situation & the needs of all the individuals
& try to solve the problems of the individuals. For every individual the group is the
main source of strength & renders everybody helping hand.

 A group fulfill the social desires and need of each individual in the group
 Group work is carried on with voluntary group in the setting of social agency
 Group workers tale care of social agencies in many fields as education, religious
&recreational field.
 It is a helping process with dual purpose of individual & group growth.
 The function of the group work is always for the betterment of the individual as
well as for the growth of the entire group.
Group worker plays role of enabler & helping person, by earning
an effective group. The group worker is a main person who by her/his better
knowledge try to make the group better.

Principles of Group work

The group worker benefit the conscious understanding between the two.
The concepts are ideas regarding between the two. The concepts are ideas regarding
between the two. The concepts are ideas regarding individuals, groups and
communities emerged from social and biological sciences as well as from the
humanities disciplines. Such concepts are for example social distance, problem, role,
ego, etc. They are basic to all social work methods.
A principle is a verbalized statement, general rules or laws, fundamental
truths by which we proceed from one situation to another. A principle must be
understood to mean a hypothesis so adequately tested by observation and experiment
that it may be put forward as a guide to action. Social group work principles are
guiding assertions of statements that have come from experience and research. Basic
principles of working with people in groups to help them grow and change have
emerged from the practice of social group work.
The objectives of social group work can be fulfilled only within the
frame work of principles. Therefore, it seems necessary to deal with basic principles,
which are guiding force for group work be practice. Douglas has described fourteen
principles of social group work.
1) Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the unique difference of each
individual.
2) Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the wide variety of groups as
groups.
3) Genuine acceptance of each individual with his unique strengths and weaknesses.
4) Establishment of a purposeful relationship between group worker and group
members.
5) Encouragement and enabling of help and cooperative relationship between
members.
6) Appropriate modification of the group process.
7) Encouragement of each member to participate according to the stage of his
capacity and enabling him to become more capable.
8) Enabling members to involve themselves in the process of problem solving.
9) Enabling group members to experience increasingly satisfactory forms of working
through conflicts.
10) Provision of opportunities for new and differing experience in relationships and
accomplishments.
11) Judicious use of limitations related to the diagnostic assessment of each individual
and total situation.
12) Purposeful and differential use of programme according to diagnostic evaluation
of individual
members group purpose and appropriate social goals.
13) Ongoing evaluation of individual and group progress.
14) Humane and disciplined use of self on the part of the group worker.
Konopka has described certain principles to work with the groups. Summary of
these principles has been narrated here.
1) The social worker’s goal is to enable clients or group members as a whole to move
toward greater
independence and capacity for help.
2) The social worker must use the scientific method to prepare for action fact-finding
analysis and diagnosis in relation to the individual, group and the social environment.
3) The social worker must form purposeful relationship. It means a conscious
focusing on the needs of the group members and attempts to fulfill them.
4) The social worker must use himself consciously. This includes self-knowledge and
discipline in relationship but without the loss of warmth and spontaneity.
5) The social worker must accept members as they are, without condemning their
behaviour. This involves deep understanding of group members as well as knowledge
and identification of values regulating human beings.
6) The social worker must understand the origins of his own value system and be able
to handle it in relation to the value system of others.
7) He must allow members to develop their own behaviour without much interference
and to choose their own point of departure without imposing outside demands. But the
worker has responsibility for stimulating change.

Cohen has also discussed certain principles which may be significant in working
with the groups. According to him:
1) The group members must be encouraged to help themselves by the social worker
playing as indirect or enabling role rather than a manipulative one. It means the group
members be given the right of self-direction and self-determination.
2) The work with the group should be started at the level of group members. It means
that proper knowledge of educational, economic, social and other characteristics are
essential while working with the group. If the work or programmes are above the
mental level of members, they will loose their interest.
3) Social worker must focus not merely on the immediate problem as seen by the
group but on relation to the total situation.
4) Social worker must keep in mind that individual differences exist while dealing
with the group members.
5) It should be kept in mind that the welfare of individual is inextricably interwoven
with the welfare of the group. Therefore social worker must be concerned with the
development of material, human and social resources to meet all the needs of all the
members of the group.

Friedlander has mentioned the following basic principles of social group work.
1) The function of the social group worker is a helping or enabling one. This means
that his goal is to help the members of the group and the group as a whole to move
toward greater independence and capacity for self-help.
2) In determining his/her way of life, the group worker uses the scientific method---
factfinding, analysis and diagnosis in relation to the individual, the group of the social
environment.
3) The group work method requires the worker to form purposeful relationship to
group members and the group.
4) One of the main tools in achieving such relationship is the conscious use of self.
5) A basic respect and love for people without considering his weakness.
6) The work should be started from where the group is.
7) There should be constructive use of limitations. The group worker will mainly use
himself, programme
materials, interaction of the group and awaking of insight in the group members.
8) Every member of the group should be understood separately. It means
individualization is essential.
9) Interaction is a process through which group members develop their strengths and
power. Therefore, social group worker should properly monitor this process.
10) It is also necessary that non-verbal activities and programmes should be
understood and used alongwith the verbal material.

Trecker has explained the following principles of social group work.

1) The principle of planned group formation.
2) The principle of specific objectives.
3) The principle of purposeful worker-group relationship.
4) The principle of continuous individualization.
5) The principle of guided group interaction.
6) The principle of democratic group self- determination.
7) The principle of flexible functional organisation.
8) The principle of progressive programme experience.
9) The principle of resource utilization.
10) The principle of evaluation.

On the basis of different principles discussed by different social

work authors, we may summarize as follows.

1) Principle of planned organisation of the group.

2) Principle of understanding each individual as a member of a group and as an
individual.
3) Principle of equality.
4) Principle of understanding relationship as tool for solving group problems as well
as individual problems and also for development of the group.
5) Principle of encouragement of each member of the group.
6) Principle of recognition of variety of groups with different objectives.
7) Principle of self-development, i.e. full opportunity to the group to organise it
programmes according to its needs.
8) Principle of self problem solving. Members should be involved in understating and
solving problems themselves.
9) Principle of use of programme according to diagnosis of the group. Different types
of programmes are needed according to the problems of the group.
10) Principle of experience development. Each member of the group should get
opportunity to act and express his feelings in the group.
11) Principle of understanding the importance of group life in shaping and moulding
one’s character and personality. The group worker should believe the importance of
group experience.
12) Principle of understanding the group process and its different elements, for
example, group structure, role and status, division of responsibility, etc.
13) Principle of understanding familiarity with the process of cooperation, conflict,
accommodation, resistance and ambivalence in the group. This knowledge is essential
to handle the different group situation.
14) Principle of modification in-group process. The group worker always keeps in
mind the result of group activities. If it is not as it is required he suggests the group
members to modify their activities and programmes.
15) Principle of providing new opportunities. It is the job of group worker to make
aware the group about the opportunities of work in different fields and also the ways
and means to avail these opportunities.
16) Principle of use of constructive limitations. Nobody is perfect. This is also
applicable to the group members. Whatever the capacity and ability they have should
be used properly by the group and whatever the limitations, they should fully
understand and attempts should be made to work within these limitations.
17) Principle of conscious use of himself/herself. The role of group worker is to guide
the interaction process of the group. He/She should interfere in the group activities
only when group members should demand for his/her help. Members of the group
should not feel that the worker is unnecessary interferes in their affairs.
18) Principle of use of scientific action plan. It means that the social group worker
first find out the problem of the group or collect data and on the basis of collected
facts, the diagnosis is done. After that action plan should be prepared for the solution
of the problem and for the development of the group.
19) Principle of acceptance. It means that the group worker should accept the
members as they are without condemning any weakness. At group level, it must
accept the services of the group worker.
20) Principle of understanding values. Values are the guiding force for behaviour
expression, they must be kept in mind while dealing with the group problems.
21) Principle of determination of specific objectives. Objectives should be clear for
the group as well as sto the group worker.
22) Principle of resource utilization. The group may have different kind of needs and
these needs cannot be fulfilled by one agency and therefore the worker should tap the
resources of the community.
23) Principle of evaluation, continuous examination and evaluation of group
activities.
Types of Social Work Groups
The social work groups can be classified on the basis of the purpose for
which the group is conceptualised. The purposes may be to meet the socio-emotional
needs of individual members or to accomplish a specific or a set of tasks of an
individual member or group as a whole for its growth and development. Konapka
(1983) classified social work groups as development groups and social action groups.
Another classification is treatment and task groups as discussed by Toseland and
Rivas (1984). They further divided treatment groups as remedial, educational, growth,
and socialisation groups; and task groups into committees, teams, delegate councils,
treatment conference and social action groups. This classification of groups into
different types is not water tight, they tend to overlap. Therefore for our discussion,
the various types of groups that can be formed by social group workers are classified
as,

a) Remedial groups
b) Growth groups
c) Task groups

 Remedial groups are mostly to enable the members to sustain their changed
behaviour and to cope up with new situations in life. The focus is more on the
socio- emotional needs. This type of group is formed with those people who have
undergone some treatment for a pathological condition. For example, a group of
people who have been discharged from a drug de-addiction centre have to be
helped to continue their changed behaviour and the treatment.
 Growth groups are to create awareness about the opportunities to grow and
develop in their career and other life positions. These groups focus both on the
social and emotional needs of the members as well as achievement of a tangible
target. Some examples are: a group of youth is brought together to enhance their
entrepreneurial abilities so as to improve income generating capacities and make
them feel they are worthy members of the society, teaching children to acquire
social skills and social etiquettes, so that they perform their social responsibilities
properly and grow as useful adults.
 Task groups focus on certain work or activity the group is to achieve for its own
development. The task could be development oriented, solving a problem or a
crisis situation or a social disadvantage. Some examples are: a committee formed
by an organisation to deliberate on certain strategies to improve the service
delivery, an administrative group of heads of different units of an agency to work
out ways and means to improve the performance of the staff and bring about
coordination among the different units, group formed to tackle water shortage,
poor civic amenities and reservation of jobs for women.
These groups are formed in residential settings, day- care service
centres, community settings and even an open or general public platform as well as in
formal organisations.

Models of Social group work

On the basis of varied assumptions about the role of the worker, the
group members and the content of the group, social workers proposed four distinct
group work models. These are:
1) Remedial
2) Mediating
3) Developmental and
4) Social goal model

Remedial Model
Remedial model focuses on the individuals dysfunction and utilizes the
group as a context and means for altering deviant behaviour. This approach to group
work practice emphasizes its utility in removing the adverse conditions of individuals
whose behaviour is disapproved by the society. Clients of such social group work
practice are physically and mentally handicapped, legal offenders, emotionally
disturbed, isolated and alienated spersons.
The Michigan School contributed to this model. Credit goes to Vinter
and his colleagues for developing remedial model. In this model attempts are being
made by social worker to bring change in the individual. He/she is the target point.
According to the Remedial Model, the group can be used to treat problems of
adjustments in personal and social relations. According to Vinter “attention to such
problems reaffirms the profession’s historic mission of service to those most in need”.
The remedial model is considered more as a clinical model that seeks to help the
socially maladapted to improve social functioning through guided group experience.
The social worker plays a key role as he/she gives expertise knowledge through the
following activities.
1) The social worker is the central person. The worker is the object of identification
and drives.
2) He/she is a symbol and a spokesman. He/she tries to maintain norms and values of
the society.
3) He/she is a motivator and stimulator. He/she helps the individual and group to
understand their goal as a group member.
4) He/she is an executive. He/she facilitates the activities of the group in order to gain
the said objectives.
In this model whatever the changes are brought, they are explicitly
limited to organisational and institutional elements that are responsible for
individual’s dysfunction. Though this model focuses mainly on the individual client
who is experiencing difficulty, the model is helpful for those likely to be affected. It
means this model focuses on preventive aspects also.

Reciprocal Model or Mediating Model

Schwartz has introduced this model in 1961. This model is based on
open systems theory, humanistic psychology and an existential perspective. The
following are the chief characteristics of this model .
1) People and society are interdependent because they have mutual needs. When there
is interference with these mutual strivings, it results into conflict.
2) The resolution of this conflict is possible only when interested parties try to
understand their dilemmas with all of these inner resources and they utilize that at that
moment.
3) In this model attention is directed towards the relationship of members in the group
with each other, with the worker and the group as a whole.
4) It is the relationship among the members that shows the characteristics of the
group.
5) In this model emphasis is placed on the continuing and reciprocal transactions of
sets of members with each other, the worker and the group.
6) It gives importance to the emergent goal and actions, which are based on feelings
of the group. It believes that intensive involvement by the parties in the current
realities will generate their on purposes and goals.
7) Client and worker together as well as separately challenge the current problems
with their total capacity.
8) Basic educative processes are utilized which incorporate particularizing,
synthesizing and generalizing the feeling and action components of the problem.
9) In this model distinctions are not made with respect to types and various of group
since it is presumed that this model is widely applicable.
In this model the individual and the group are significant components. The workers
role appears to be facilitative, relying on the power and potency of mutual aid system
to take care of itself.

Developmental Model
This model has been developed by the faculty membersof Boston University
under the leadership of Berustein in 1965. Lowy is the main architect of the
developmental model. In this approach, groups are seen as having “a degree of
independence and autonomy, but the to and fro flow between them and their members,
between them and their social settings, is crucial to their existence, viability and
achievements. The chief characteristics of this model are:
1) It is primarily based on the dynamics of intimacy and closeness between the
members over a span of time.
2) The degree of intimacy is taken into account for appropriate worker interventions.
3) Conceptualization of study, diagnosis and treatment is made at all three levels of
individuals, group and the setting.
4) This model derives knowledge from Erikson’s ego psychology, group dynamics
and conflict theory.
5) The group worker is engaged in study, diagnosis and treatment.
6) The worker is connected with community, agency, group and individual member.
7) The group is envisioned as a microcosm of s
8) Thoughts, feelings, sentiments and behaviour are continuously assessed and
attempts are made to improve them.
9) The social group worker tries to improve the situations among individual member,
group agency and the social environment.
10) In short, it can be said that the developmental model is a compromise between the
reciprocal, remedial and traditional approaches.

The Social Goals Model

The basic concepts of this model are social consciousness, social
responsibility, and social change. It is suggested that by participation with others in a
group situation, individuals can affect social change. Social action is the desired
outcome, and the group worker is regarded as an influence person and enabler, who
personify the values of social responsibility and acts as stimulator and role model
without purveying any political viewpoint. Implicit in this model is the emerging
leader within the group. The model is concerned with democracy and the
enhancement of personal functioning within the social context, heightened self-esteem
and an increase in social power for the members of the group collectively and as
individuals. The skill of the leader lies mainly in ‘programming’ (Weince 1964)
(Konopka 1958).
There are other three interventions, which are considered as suitable models for
effective practice in social group work.
1) Gestalt Therapy
2) Transactional Analysis
3) The Behavioural Model

Gestalt Therapy
In gestalt therapy the worker aids the clients in learning how they prevent themselves
from maturing. It is the aim of worker to help the client to become aware of and
accept responsibility for how they make themselves feel better.

Transactional Analysis
It is a process of analyzing and explaining intra-personal and interpersonal processes.
This therapeutic model was developed by Berne. He proposes that personal change
can be maximized through group psychotherapy where the social processes are much
more varied than just one to one relationships. According to Berne, individuals are
products of social processes and they use social processes. Within the group settings
individuals can be made aware about their self-defeating behaviour. Once they are
aware of their behaviour they can do something for changing it. The group provides a
safe environment for practicing new behaviours. According to Berne, there are four
major features of Transactional Analysis.

1) Structural Analysis: It is a method of analyzing thoughts and feelings and

behaviour based on the phenomena of ego states.
2) Transactional Analysis: It involves the interactional processes that occur between
the ego states of one person and the ego states of another.
3) Game Analysis: This involves examining repetitive patterns of interpersonal
behaviour of individuals that are problematic.
4) Script Analysis: It is related to the early decisions and the positions taken by a
person in childhood.
The role of the group worker is of a teacher, and a leader who explains the
key concepts and helps the members to discover the disadvantageous conditions under
which they made their earlier decisions, adopted life plans and developed strategies
for relating to people.

Behavioural Model
According to this model, specific group programmes are implemented
to alter dysfunctional patterns and learn new styles. The expertise of Behavioural
group therapist is essential in assessing and devising a treatment plan for each
individual member within the context of the group. The group worker calculates the
specific elements of the disturbing behaviour to be decreased or desired behaviour to
be developed. Other group members provide assistance and feedback concerning
progress throughout the stages of the reatment process.

Skills of social group work

Trecker has listed the following basic skills of social group work.

1. Skill in Establishing Purposeful Relationship

2.Skill in Analysing the Group Situation
3.Skill in Participation with the Group
4. Skill in Dealing with Group Feeling
6. Skill in Using Agency and Community Resources
7.Skill in Evaluation
Two of the most useful theories of group stage development are
those discussed by Tuckman (1965), and Rogers paper on encounter groups (1967).
These models, like others (for example Heap, 1977) propose that as groups develop
and change they pass through stages which may be conceptualised. Tuckman’s model
has been used extensively within youth work theory and practice and is an excellent
model for attempting to analyse individual and group behaviour. A brief synopsis of
each stage is outlined below, with examples from personal practice.

Stage 1: Forming
The first stage of this group process is joining, referred to as
engagement by Rogers. This phase involves significant testing, and trial and error.
Initial concerns about openness and support within the group are manifested by a lack
of cohesion and a difficulty in sharing thoughts, feelings and experiences with each
other. An internal appraisal of group value and how each individual belongs to the
group are key features of this stage. Anxiety, isolation, inadequacy and frustration are
common emotions felt by group members at this early stage in the life of a group, as
well as being emotionally threatened by members of the group who are perceived to
be stronger or better. Thus the group seeks to create a comfort zone in which
individuals are not keen to upset the status quo for fear of alienation.
Oppressive behaviour is least likely within the formation stage of a
group as individuals generally look to create a comfort zone and do not wish to rock
the boat. Often frustrations will be built upon between individuals who disagree
strongly, but this will generally not surface until storming begins.
A knowledge and understanding of the feelings and emotions felt by
group members in this stage is helpful, if not essential, to the effective structuring of a
programme to work towards the desired outcome for the group. For example both the
YAM and PTV groups I had experience with were set up to encourage social
interaction and personal development.
 Having an awareness of group stage theory enabled my colleagues
and myself to structure the early encounters for the groups to be;
a) fun and enjoyable – to encourage continued attendance;
b) relaxed - offering the promotion of effective communication and allowing
members to get to know each other a little whilst gaining in confidence and trust.
To this end ice breakers, introduction and communication
exercisers such as those provided by Brandes and Phillips (1979), Bond (1986), Leech
and Wooster (1986) and Dearling and Armstrong (1994) were used. As Dynes
describes `[games] stimulate the imagination, make people resourceful and help
develop social ability and co-operation` (Dynes, 1990).

Stage 2: Storming
This stage sees group members begin to confront each other as they
begin to vie for roles within the group that will help them to belong and to feel valued.
Thus as members begin to assert their individual personalities, the comfort of the
forming stage begins to come under siege. Members experience personal, intra and
inter group conflicts.
Aggression and resentment may manifest in this stage and thus if
strong personalities emerge and leadership is unresponsive to group and individual
needs, the situation may become destructive to the group’ s development. Indeed there
is a high potential for individuals to abandon the group during this stage, as for some
the pressures created by the group may become too much of a strain.
The potential for oppressive behaviour is strong within the storming
phase as group members vie for preferred roles and release frustrations built within
the forming period. This personal oppression should be discouraged whilst it is
understood that a degree of conflict is necessary if the group is to further develop.
It is important to be aware that conflict will take place within all
groups, and if handled well this conflict can produce benefits for the group in terms of
development, objective and task setting, and ultimate outcome. Thus conflict is not
inherently something to be feared or avoided.
Stage 3: Norming
During this stage the group begin to work more constructively
together towards formal identified or informal tasks. Roles begin to develop and be
allocated within the group and although these may be accepted, some members may
not be comfortable with the role or roles which the have been allocated. During this
stage sub-groups are likely to form in order that a supportive environment is once
more created. Acceptable and unacceptable behaviours within the group are created
and reinforced and thus the `norms` for this group become fabricated.
The storming and norming phases of group development are
inextricably linked, as it is often through the storming and challenging that acceptable
group norms become set.
It is important that a youth worker works hard during this stage to
ensure oppression against individuals within the group do not become the acceptable
norm, as then all group members will oppress these individuals. Thus, individual
oppressions must be challenged and emphasis placed on challenging attitudes and
opinions but not group members.

Stage 4: Performing
This stage sees the group performing effectively with defined
roles, in fact at this stage it could be said that the group has transformed into a team. It
is now that decisions may be positively challenged or reinforced by the group as a
whole. The discomfort of the storming and norming phases has been overcome and
the group has a general feeling of unity. This is the best stage for a group to complete
tasks, assuming that task, rather than process and individuals, are the focus of the
group.
An excellent example of performing within the PTV group came
during a residential week. One of the group (A.) admitted to a fear of heights and thus
did not want to take part in an abseiling exercise. The whole group supported this

decision but offered encouragement and support in order to promote participation.

One individual (M.) spent time and energy showing leadership and helped A. to
overcome his fears. A. took part in the abseil, being assisted by M. and encouraged by
the whole group.
 Potential exists within this stage for oppression to begin if one or more
group members does not appear to fit in with the group’s view of its task, or is not
performing as effectively as expected. Again it is important to challenge this if it
occurs and to show how each member can benefit the group, through achievement of
task, leadership, reviewing, moving on, or by monitoring the groups process.

Stage 5: Mourning
The final stage in the life of a group ultimately is its termination.
Though often overlooked, this stage in group development is equally important to
positive outcomes. The ending of a group can be a very unhappy and distressing time
for some members, as they may feel some extent of dependency on the group.

 Community Organization
Community Organisation is one of the primary methods of
social work. It deals with intervention in the communities to solve the community
problems. As a method of social work community organization can solve the
problems of many people in the community through their collective involvement.
Community organisation and community development are interrelated as two sides of
same coin. The community organisation includes other methods of social work, that is,
group work, and casework. The power structure plays a role in community
organisation. The social workers need to know the community power structure to
practice community organisation method, which is used for empowering people for
their development. The details are provided for social work students to understand
and practice community organisation effectively.

Definitions of Community Organisation

To study and to be able to engage in community organisation practice
it is necessary to have a clear definition. There are several definitions available in
literature, which have been put forth at different times and in differing context.

The common element in most of them is matching resources to needs.

We will discuss here two most widely accepted definitions of community
organisation.
Murray G. Ross (1967) defines community organization as a “process by which a
community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them, develops
confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and external) to
deal with them, and in doing so, extends and develops cooperative and
collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”.

In this definition by “process” he meant a movement from

identification of a problem or objective to solution of the problem or attainment of the
objective in the community. There are other processes for dealing with community
problems, but here he called the community organisation process as one by which the
capacity of the community to function as an integrated unit grows as it deals with one
or more community problems. The task of the professional worker in community
organisation is to help, initiate, nourish, and develop this process. His task is also to
make this process conscious, deliberative, and understood.
“Community,” in the sense in which it is used here, refers to two
major groupings of people. Firstly it may be all the people in a specific geographic
area, i.e., a village, a town, a city, a neighbourhood, or a district in a city. In the same
manner it could refer also to all the people in a province or a state, a nation, or in the
world. Secondly, it is used to include groups of people who share some common
interest or function, such as welfare, agriculture, education, or religion. In this context
community organisation may be involved in bringing these persons together to
develop some awareness of, and feeling for their “community” and to work at
common problems arising out of the interest or function they have in common.

The second definition we will discuss here is by Kramer and Specht (1975),
which is in more technical terms. They defined that ,
“Community organization refers to various methods of intervention whereby a
professional change agent helps a community action system composed of
individuals, groups or organizations to engage in planned collective action in
order to deal with special problems within the democratic system of values.”
 According to their explanations, it involves two major
interrelated concerns:
(a) the interaction process of working with an action system which includes
identifying, recruiting and working with the members and developing organisational
and interpersonal relationships among them
which facilitates their efforts; and
(b) the technical tasks involved in identifying problem areas, analyzing causes,
formulating plans, developing strategies and mobilizing the resources necessary to
have effective action. The analysis of both these definitions reveals that they cover the
“Need-Resources Adjustment” approach, “the Social Relationships” approach and a
combination of the two ideas of meeting needs and development of co-operative
attitudes. The distinguishing features of community organization practice are derived
largely from the three dimensions. (1) The nature of its setting and focus– the
community and its problems, 2) from the nature of its goals – enhanced functional
capacity of the community and its ability to influence the social welfare policy, and 3)
from the techniques it employs towards effecting the inter-personal and inter-group
relationships of the members of the community. The statements defining community
organisation method, stress individually or in combination the above three factors and
also refer to clientele and the total process and the way in which the method is
applied.

Eduard C. Lindeman in 19211 defined community organisation as “Community

organisation is that phase of social organisation which constitutes a conscious effort
on the part of a community to control its affairs democratically and to secure the
highest services from its specialists, organisations, agencies and institutions by means
of recognised inter relations.”

Walter W. Pettit in 19252 defined it as “Community organisation is perhaps best

defined as assisting a group of people to recognise their common needs and helping
them to meet these needs.”
Russell H. Kurrtz in 1940 defined it as “Community organisation is a process dealing
primarily with program relationships and thus to be distinguished in its social work
setting from those other basic processes, casework and group work, which deal with
people. Those relationships of agency to agency, of agency to community and of
community to agency reach in all directions from any focal point in the social work
picture. Community organisation may be thought of as the process by which these
relationships are initiated, altered or terminated to meet changing conditions, and it is
thus basic to all social work...”.

Wayne Mcmillen in 19473 defined it as “Community organisation in its generic sense

in deliberately directed effort to assist groups in attaining unity of purpose and action.
It is practiced, though often without recognition of its character, wherever the
objective is to achieve or maintain a pooling of the talents and resources of two or
more groups in behalf of either general or specific objectives.”

C.F. Mcneil in 19544 defined it as “Community organisation for social welfare is the
process by which the people of community, as individual citizens or as representatives
of groups, join together to determine social welfare needs, paln ways
“Community” in the sense in which it is used here, refers to two major groupings of
people. Firstly it may be all the people in a specific geographic area, i.e., a village, a
town, a city, a neighbourhood, or a district in a city. In the same manner it could refer
also to all the people in a province or a state, a nation, or in the world. Secondly, it is
used to include groups of people who share some common interest or function, such
as welfare, agriculture, education, and religion. In this context community
organisation may be involved in bringing these persons together to develop some
awareness of, and feeling for their “community” and to work at common problems
arising out of the interest or function they have in common.

Aims and Objectives of Community Organisation

The general aim of community organization is to bring about and maintain a
progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare resources and social
welfare needs. It is concerned with :
(a) The discovery and definition of needs.
(b) The elimination and prevention of social needs and disabilities,
(c) The articulation of resources and needs, and the constant readjustment of
resources in order better to meet changing needs.

The other objectives are:

1. To secure and maintain an adequate factual basis for sound planning and action.
2. To initiate, develop, and modify welfare programmes and services, in the interest
of attaining a better adjustment between resources and needs.
3. To improve standards of social work to increase the increase the effectiveness of
individual agencies.
4. To improve and facilitate interrelationships, and to promote coordination, between
organization, groups and individuals concerned with social welfare prpgrammes and
services.
5. To develop a better public understanding of welfare problems and needs, and
social work objectives.
6. To develop public support of, and public participation in, social welfare activities.
Financial support includes income from tax funds, voluntary contributions and other
resources.

Relevance of Community Organisation for Community Development

Community organisation and community development are

interrelated. To achieve the goals of community development the community
organisation method is used. According to United Nations, community development
deals with total development of a developing country, that is their economic, physical,
and social aspects. For achieving total development community organisation is used.
In community development the following aspects are considered as important. The
same aspects are also considered important by community organisation. They are,

a) Democratic procedures b) Voluntary cooperation c) Self-help d) Development

of leadership e) Educational aspects.
All the above aspects are related with community organisation.

(a) Democratic procedures deal with allowing all the community members to
participate in decision-making. It is possible to achieve this by community
organisation. The selected or elected members or representatives are helped to take
decisions. Democratic procedures help people to take part in achieving community
development goals. Community organisation method permits democratic procedures
for people’s participation.

(b) Voluntary cooperation means that the people volunteer for their participation. For
this they are convinced. They should feel that they should involve themselves in the
process of development without hesitation. This attitude is supported by community
organisation method. People’s emotional involvement is necessary to make success of
the community organisation method. If discontentment about their conditions is
created, then people will volunteer for participation. Community organisation
emphasizes the discontentment aspect only to make them initiate people’s
participation.

(c) Self-help is the basis for community development. Self-help deals with the
capacity of mobilizing internal resources. Self-help is the basis for self-sufficiency
and sustainable development. In community organisation self-help is emphasized.
Community organisation is relevant to community development because both
emphasizes the self-help concepts.

(f) Development of leadership is an important aspect in community development.

Leadership deals with influencing and enabling people to achieve the goals.
Community organisation also emphasizes leadership. With the help of leaders the
people are motivated to participate in action. Community organisation is a relevant
method to develop and use leadership. This is applicable for community development
also.

(g) Educational aspects in community development means helping people to know,

learn, and accept concepts of democracy, cooperation, unity, skill development,
effective functioning etc. In community organisation also the above mentioned
aspects are considered very important. The process of community organisation
emphasizes education of the community. Thus both are emphasizing the educational
aspects for the progress of the community. Thus community organisation and
community development are interrelated and mutually supportive. There are no
opposing aspects in between community organization and community development as
both emphasize democractic method and self-help principles. Thus they are relevant.
So in all community development programmes community organisation method is
used as implementing method.

Principles of Community Organization

Principles of community organisation, in the sense in which the
term is used here are generalized guiding rules for the sound practice. Principles are
expressions of value judgments. The principles of community organisation, which are
being discussed here, are within the frame of and in harmony with the spirit and
purpose of social work in a democratic society. We are concerned with the dignity
and worth, the freedom, the security, the participation, and the wholesome and
abundant life o every individual. This implies following the principles of democracy,
involvement of the marginalized, transparency, honesty, sustainability, selfreliance,
partnerships, cooperation, etc.
In the literature of community organisation we find various sets of principles.
Dunham (1958) has presented a statement of 28 suggested principles of
community organisation. He grouped those under seven headings.
(i) Democracy and social welfare,
(ii) Community roots for community programs,
(iii) Citizen understanding, support, and participation and professional service,
(iv) Co-operation
(v) Social Welfare Programs,
(vi) Adequacy, distribution, and organisation of social welfare services, and
(vii) Prevention.
Ross (1967) outlined specific principles – the elementary or fundamental ideas
regarding initiation and continuation of community organisation processes. These
principles have been discussed in terms of the nature of the organisation or
association and the role of the professional worker. The twelve principles identified
by Ross are:
1. Discontent with existing conditions in the community must initiate and/or nourish
development of the association.
2. Discontent must be focused and channelled into organisation, planning, and action
in respect to specific problems.
3. Discontent which initiates or sustains community organisation must be widely
shared in the community.
4. The association must involve leaders (both formal and informal) identified with,
and accepted by major sub-groups in the community.
5. The association must have goals and methods and procedures of high acceptability.
6. The programme of the association should include some activities with an
emotional content.
7. The association should seek to utilize the manifest and latent goodwill which exists
in the community.
8. The association must develop active and effective lines of communication both
within the association and between the association and the community.
9. The association should seek to support and strengthen groups which it brings
together in cooperative work.
10. The association should develop a pace of work relative to existing conditions in
the community.
11. The association should seek to develop effective leaders.
12. The association must develop strength, stability and prestige in the community.

Keeping in mind the actual practice situations in India H. Y. Siddiqui (1997)

have worked out a set of 8 principles.
1. The Principle of Specific Objectives
2. The Principle of Planning
3. The Principle of Peoples Participation
4. The Principle of inter-group approach
5. The Principle of democratic functioning
6. The Principle of flexible organisation
7. The Principle of Optimum Utilisation of Indigenous Resources
8. The Principle of Cultural orientation

Community organisation in Indian context.

1. Community organisation is means and not an end: As discussed earlier the

community organisation is a process by which the capacity of the community to
function as an integrated unit is being enhanced. In this sense it is a method or a
means to enable people to live a happy and fully developed life. It refers to a method
of intervention whereby a community consisting of individuals, groups or
organisations are helped to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with
their needs and problems.

2. Community Organisation is to promote community solidarity and the practice of

democracy: It should seek to overcome disruptive influences, which threaten the well
being of the community and the vitality of democratic institutions. In community
organisation discrimination and segregation or exclusion should be avoided and
integration and mutual acceptance should be promoted.

3. The clear identification of the Community: Since the community is the client of the
community organisation worker, it must be clearly identified. It is likely that there are
several communities with which he/she deals at the same time. Further it is important
that once the community is identified the entire community must be the concern of the
practitioner. No programme can be isolated from the social welfare needs and
resources of the community as a whole. The welfare of the whole community is
always more important than the interest or the well-being of any one agency/group in
the community.

4. Fact-finding and needs assessment: Community organisation programmes should

have its roots in the community. Proper fact-finding and assessment of the community
needs is the pre requisite for starting any programme in the community. It is generally
desirable for local community services to be indigenous, grass-roots developments
rather than to be imposed form without. Whenever possible, then, a community
organisation should have its origin in a need felt by the community or by some
substantial number of persons in the community and there should be vital community
participation, and usually essential community control, in its development.

5. Identification, Mobilization and Utilization of the available resources: The fullest

possible use should be made of existing social welfare resources, before creating new
resources or services. In the absence of resources/services the worker has to mobilize
the resources from various sources such as community, government, non-government
agencies, etc. While utilizing the indigenous resources it must be recognised that these
resources may sometimes need extensive overhauling before they will meet certain
needs. Apart from mobilizing physical resources, indigenous human resources should
be put to optimum use.

6. Participatory Planning: The community organisation worker must accept the need
for participatory planning throughout the process of community organisation. It is
important that the practitioner prepares a blue print in the beginning of what he/she
intends to do with the community. This is done with the community taking into
consideration the needs of the community, available resources, agency objectives, etc.
Planning in community organisation is a continuous process as it follows the cycle of
implementation and evaluation. The planning should be on the basis of ascertained
facts, rather than an expression of guesswork, “hunches,” or mere trial and error.

7. Active and vital participation: The concept of self-help is a core of community

organisation. The community members’ participation throughout the process of
community organisation should be encouraged from the standpoint both of democratic
principle and of feasibility- that is, the direct involvement in the progrmme of those
who have the primary stake in it’s results. “Self-help” by citizen or clientele groups
should be encouraged and fostered.
8. Communities’ right of self-determination should be respected: The Role of the
Community organisation worker is to provide professional skill, assistance, and
creative leadership in enabling peoples’ groups and organizations to achieve social
welfare objectives. The community members should make basic decisions regarding
programme and policy. While the community organisation worker plays a variety of
roles in different situations, he is basically concerned with enabling peoples’
expression and leadership to achieve community organisation goals, and not with
control, domination, or manipulation.

9. Voluntary cooperation: Community organisation must be based upon mutual

understanding, voluntary acceptance, and mutual agreement. Community organisation,
if it is to be in harmony with democratic principles, cannot be regimentation; it should
not be imposed from outside, but must be derived from the inner freedom and will to
unite of those who practice it.

10. The spirit of cooperation rather than competition, and the practice of coordination
of effort: Community organisation practice should be based on the spirit of
cooperation rather than competition. The community organisation practice has proved
that the most effective advances are made through cooperative effort. It is by the
coordinated and sustained programs attacking major problems rather than through
sporadic efforts by various groups.

11. Recognition and involvement of indigenous leadership: Community organisation

as it has been described requires the participation of the people of a community.
However everyone in the community cannot be involved in face-to-face contact with
all others in the community; therefore it is important to identify and recognize the
leaders (both the formal and informal) accepted by various groups and subgroups in
the community. Inclusion of the respected and accepted leaders with whom the major
subgroups identify provides a major step in integrating the community and makes
possible initiation of a process of communication which, if it becomes effective, will
nourish and sustain the process of community organisation.
12. Limited use of authority or compulsion: Invoking the application of authority or
compulsion may sometimes be necessary in community organisation; but it should be
used as little as possible, for as short a time as possible and only as a last resort. When
compulsion must be applied, it should be followed as soon as possible by resumption
of the cooperative process.

13. The dynamic and flexible nature of Programmes and Services: This principle is
basic to sound community organisation. Social welfare agencies and programmes
must be responsive to the changing conditions, problems, and needs of community
life. Community is a dynamic phenomenon, which constantly changes and thus the
needs and problems also keeps changing. Therefore it is necessary that the
programmes and services are flexible enough.

14. Continual Participatory evaluation: As programmes are developed to meet

community needs, sometime must be set aside for evaluation of the process. Regular
feedback from the community is important. Criteria must be set up for evaluation of
the programmes, to see how effective the action has been and what has been
accomplished.

Skills and techniques of Community Organization

1. Skills in Rapport Establishment 2. Skills in Identification of Needs 3. Skills in
Resources Mobilization 4. Skills in Programme Planning 5. Skills in Programme
Management 6. Skills in Evaluation 7. Skills in Recording 8. Skills in Encouraging
Community Participation 9. Skills in Working with the group 10. Skills in working
with the individuals 11. Skills in Mobilizing Community Action

 Social Welfare Administration and Social Action

Concept of Social Welfare Administration

By social welfare administration we mean that process which is
used in the organization and administration of public and private services. It includes
those activities which are undertaken with regard to an individual, group and
community. In other words, social welfare administration is a process of organization
direction of a social institution. Under this process those aims are determined which
an agency or institution has to achieve.
Our country is aiming at sustainable social development and social
welfare. You will be interested to know why the need for the practice of social
welfare administration as a method of social work is gaining importance. It is because
we have a large number of social welfare and social development settings. They
include government departments, Welfare Boards, Corporations, Social Welfare
Agencies, Non Governmental Organisation (NGOs), Inter Governmental
Organisations (IGOs), Community Based Organisations (CBOs) etc. We also have a
large number of National, state and local level welfare and development programmes.
In addition, Panchayat Raj institutions oriented to development work have also been
emerging as important institutional contexts for the practice of Social Welfare
Administration. As our country faces the challenges of poverty, unemployment,
disability, destitution, ill health, illiteracy, crime, suicide, violence, accidents etc our
social welfare administration should also become an effective social work method.

Definitions of Social welfare administration

 “Social welfare administration is the process of transferring the social policy

into social services and the use of experience in evaluating and modifying
policy”
( John C. Kidneigh )
 By social welfare administration we mean those supporting and facilitating
activities necessary and incidental to the giving of direct service by a social
agency.”
( Arther Dunhan )
 Administration is the process of transforming community resources into a
programme of community service, in accordance with goals, policies and
standards which have been agreed by those involved in enterprise. It is creative in
that it structures roles and relationships in such a way as to alter and enhance the
total product. It involves the problem-solving process of study, diagnosis and
treatment solutions or action and evaluation of results.
( American Council of Social Work Education )
 The administrative process seeks to mobilize the total resources of the
agency to the end that its purpose are translated into efficient and effective
service.
( Arther Kurse )

Scope of Social Welfare Administration

It is evident from the definitions of the discipline of social
welfare administration attempted above that its scope is very wide and the areas
constituting the subject matter of its study are increasing every day due to the
emergence of new social problems in the dynamic society such as population
explosion, relief rehabilitation of migrants on account of militants’ activities, gas leak
accidents, dowry deaths and drug addiction, etc.and voluntary agencies in finding
solutions for them. The contents of social welfare administration and of
variegated nature and its tasks are numerous. It is primarily concerned with:

(i) Social Problems

The diagnosis of their causes and their treatment through social reform and social
legislation; section of the reason for the ineffectiveness of laws enacted for combating
social evils and vices and suggesting measures to make them effective mainly through
the creation of public consciousness and opinion in regard to the social problems.
(ii) Social Services
Social Services aiming at the well-being of the general public through the provision
of health education, housing, etc. and the upliftment of the disadvantaged and
underprivileged and vulnerable sections of society such as women and children, the
old and the firm, the disabled and the handicapped.
(iii) Social Security
Social security to compensate for the loss of income due to unemployment, disability,
or death caused by accident and old-age through social insurance and assistance.
(iv) Social Work
Social work aims at helping people to solve their personal, family and community
problems through enhancing social functioning by methods of case work, group work
and community organization and enabling processes of research and administration.
(v) Social Policy
Social policy delineating the aims and objectives and the goals to be achieved for the
welfare of the clientele concerned through social action.

Tasks of Social Welfare Administration

In addition to the elementary principles of social welfare
administration as mentioned above, the functional aspects of tasks of administration
as contained in the concept of ‘POSDCORB’ are also considered to be the basic
postulates of the discipline of social welfare administration. These are discussed as
follows:
(i) PLANNING
Planning is the formulation of intended future action. It involves
the appraisal of current conditions, identification of the problems and needs of the
society, determination of objectives and goals to be achieved on short-term or
long-term basis, and the delineation of programmes to be implemented to reach the
desired ends.
Ever since the establishment of Planning Commission in India and
the introduction of Planning process in 1951 social welfare policies, programmes
and the administration machinery to implement them though had not been given
initially the consideration they merited but they have been given the place they
deserved subsequently in the various five year plan documents. During the last few
decades of planned development, social welfare as a plan component has acquired
significance as is reflected in the plans.
The First Plan, for example, called upon the state to play an
increasing role in providing services for the welfare of the people. The Second Plan
drew attention to the factors responsible for the slow delivery of social welfare
services to the vulnerable groups of society. The Third Plan stressed on women and
child welfare, social defence, welfare of the handicapped and grants-in-aid to
voluntary organizations. The Fourth Plan laid emphasis on the needs of destitute
children. The Fifth Plan aimed at a proper integration of welfare and development
services. The Sixth Plan accorded high priority to the children welfare within the
overall frame of social welfare. The Seventh Plan designed the social welfare
programmes essentially to supplement the efforts directed towards human resource
development. The Eighth and Ninth Plan include the extension of the existing welfare
programmes and inclusion of new programmes.

(ii) ORGANIZATION
Organization is essentially the conscious integration of human effort
for a definite purpose. It is the systematic bringing together of interdependent
parts to form a unified whole through which authority, coordination and control may
be administered without elaborate organizational structures. Whatever action was to
be initiated could be managed through simple, informal mechanism operating at the
level of the community or the clientele. Another factor which contributed to the
non-formal, unorganized nature of social welfare was its reliance on
non-governmental and voluntary action.
Unlike governmental operations which assumed massive bureaucratic
proportions demanding equally elaborate organizational structure, non-
governmental action remained the main stay of social welfare and which by its very
nature tended to be less reliant on highly formal organized mechanism. But with the
expansion of social welfare programmes, the
number of persons affected and the amount of money spent, the best organization has
become indispensable.
Organization can be formal and informal. A formal organization
implies a planned system of cooperative effort in which each participants has a
recognized role to play and duties and tasks to perform. But informal relationship
among the persons engaged in social welfare is equally important to develop feelings
of goodwill and mutual trust among themselves to ensure the best possible
implementation of social welfare programme.
An organization insists upon certain principles for its effective
functioning. It divides work among its members; it establishes standard practices by
working out detailed procedures.
It provides a communication system. It has a hierarchical or process
with lines of authority and responsibility running up and downwards through several
levels with a broad base at the bottom and a single head at the top. It provides for
unity of command which means that no individual employee should be subject to the
orders of more than one immediate superior to avoid confusion and blurring of
responsibility and it should recognize the distinction between line and staff as a
working principle.

(iii) STAFFING
Assuming that good organization exists, the quality and efficiency of
administration are conditioned by the suitability of personnel correctly placed in the
organization. Even poorly devised machinery may be made to work if it is manned
with well trained, intelligent, imaginative and devoted staffs. On the other hand, the
best planned organization may be produce unsatisfactorily results if it is operated by
mediocre or disgraduated people. Staff thus constitutes an integral part of the social
welfare organization, both governmental and nongovernmental.
Their problems of recruitment, selection and certification for
appointment, classification, training, determination of pay scales and other conditions
of service, motivation and moral, promotion, conduct and discipline, superannuation,
their right to form associations and trade unions need to be taken proper care so that
they devout themselves with their heart and soul in their respective assignments and
build the image of the organization they serve.

(iv) DIRECTION
Direction implies the issuing of necessary guidance and
instructions for the implementation of the programmes of an organization, and the
removal of any difficulties which may arise in the execution. The directions relating
to the execution of a programme also prescribes the rules of procedures to ensure
efficient and smooth working of the organization for the achievement of its appointed
purpose. Rules of the procedure also determine steps to be taken in the processing of a
request or an enquiry in regard to particular activity of an agency.
In social welfare administration, directions are indispensable as these
provides guidelines to the officials in the delivery of welfare services to the
beneficiaries and also enlighten the law about the procedure to be followed for
applying for a specific kind of benefit they are eligible for. But a rigid adherence to
the procedure and ’redtapism’ flowing there from causes unnecessary harassment and
results in prolonged delays in granting the deserved benefits to the needy people. The
tendency
on the part of social welfare administration personnel to avoid taking decision on their
responsibility and passing on the buck is malady of welfare administration hampering
effective service to individuals and communities and needs to be guarded against.

(v) CO-ORDINATION
Every organization characterizes divisions of work and
specialization. Its employees are assigned respective duties and they are not supposed
to interfere in their colleagues. Thus in every organization an effort is made to avoid
overlapping and duplication of functions and to achieve maximum team-work among
the various personnel of the organizational order to achieve its objectives. This
arrangement of ensconce co-operation and team work among the employee is termed
as the co-ordination. Its purpose is to achieve harmony, unity of action, avoidance of
conflict, etc.
Co-ordination among various ministries and departments and
voluntary organizations concerned with social welfare can be achieved through
inter-departmental and intra-departmental conferences to which non-officials
representing various interests may also be involved for consultation. Co-ordination
may also be involved for consultation. Co-ordination may also be secured through
institutional or organizational devices such as inter-departmental committees and
co-ordination of offices, standardization of procedures and methods, decentralization
of activities, etc. The Central Welfare Social Board established in 1953 consisting of
official and non-official social workers designed to provide a mechanism of proper
co-ordination between the voluntary organizations and the government organizations
engaged in social welfare programmes.
The State Social Welfare Advisory Boards were also assigned,
inter alia, the function of coordinating welfare and development activities of the State
Government and the Central Social Welfare Board to avoid duplication. But despite
these institutional arrangements to achieve co-ordination, the welfare progarmmes
continue to suffer from overlapping and s duplication both in the government and
voluntary organizations’ jurisdiction.
(vi) REPORTING
Reporting means keeping both the superiors and subordinates informed
of what is going on and arranging for the collection of such information through
inspection, research and records. Every social welfare programme has certain targets
and objectives to achieve. In a hierarchical system of organization, the Chief
Executive informs the persons at the lower levels about the policy, financial outlays
and the time-frame for achieving the fixed objectives. The subordinates report to the
higher authorities periodically monthly, quarterly or yearly, the progress achieved
vis-a-vis the targets, the amount spent and the problems confronted if any and seek
their guidance in combating the problems.
Reports are also made in regard to the discussions and conferences
held within the agency and on inter-agency basis from time to sort out various issues.
The higher authorities inspects periodically the subordinate offices to apprise
themselves of their functioning and to detect irregularities committed if any and to
suggest steps to avoid their re-occurrences. All social welfare agencies, without any
exception, submit their annual reports to the Ministry/ Department concerned and the
latter to the Head of the State for information of the legislature. The public gets
informed about the activities of the welfare agencies through all these different types
of reports. Reporting thus constitutes an important ingredient of any social welfare
organization.

(vii) BUDGETING
Budgeting denoted the process by which the financial policy of public
agency formulated, enacted and carried out. In the days of laissez-faire, budget was
simple statement of estimated income and expenditure. But in the modern welfare
state, the activities of the government are fast extending and they tend to cover almost
all the aspects of social life. Government is now an agency for promoting general
welfare of the citizens by positive acts. Budgeting is, therefore, now conceived as one
of the major process by which the use of public resources is planned and controlled.
Budget-making is a prominent component of financial management and is followed
by the formal act of appropriations, executive supervisions of expenditure, the control
of the accounting and reporting system, treasury management and audit.
 Financial management also includes the mechanism and methods to
ensure that the funds provided for the welfare programmes are used faithfully,
economically and intelligently proper accounts are maintained and audit is conducted
to ensure that there have been no misappropriation, misuse of embezzlement of funds.
It has been observed that a major portion of appropriation is pocketed by middle men
and very little of them reaches to beneficiaries for whom these are primarily intended.
Misappropriations and corruptions were also reported in the case of
voluntary organizations. Fiscal administration, therefore, needs to be streamlined to
ensure that the funds earmarked for various programmes are properly and honestly
utilized.

Basic Understanding needed in Administration

According to H.B.Trecker, following understanding are necessary for an
administrator:
 Understanding of self and meaning of being an executive, feelings about
authority and responsibility.
 Understanding of the agency and its basic purpose in the community.
 Understanding of the individuals who make up the agency, their needs, ability
and motivations.
 Understanding of groups, that is board, staff, and constituency, how they define
their functions and approach to their work.
 Understanding of how the individual is related to his groups, his background,
what he brings to the work with the group.
 Understanding of kind of help the group need in doing its work, how group asks
for and accept help, how its evaluate its own progress
 Understanding of how the individual receives basic satisfaction from his work,
how to provide recognition for genuine accomplishment.
 Understanding of how the group relates to and works with other groups in the
agency and the community.
Concept of Social Action.
Social problems and conflicts have remained an integral part
of the society from the time immemorial. For providing relief and solution to these
problems, social work and social welfare have also remained a part of human society.
Professional social work utilizes certain methods of working with people, in view of
empowering the people to solve their problems. Among the methods of social work,
social action is a new introduction in the professional social work practice. Though its
relevance is often felt in the field situations, social workers do not practice this
method quite frequently. The inherent theme behind social action is re-adjustment of
the social institutions and redistribution of power and resources for social justice and
empowerment of the community. As a method of social work, social action mobilizes
the general population to bring about structural changes in the social system.
Also the relation of social action with other methods of social work
is very important to understand. Social action process heavily rests on other social
work methods like group work and community organisation. In fact social action
comes into the picture when people’s needs and problems remain unmet and unsettled
through other methods of social work. Social action seems to be a step forward to
community organisation. Social work research helps in perceiving the social
problem objectively. Group work and casework are the foundation to social action
where people are mobilized to confront authorities. Social welfare administration
gives the ground to social workers to prepare the community for social action. Social
workers make use of the skills and experiences gained through other methods of
social work in the process of social action.
Social action is a way of meeting mass social problems. It could be
briefly defined as mass attack on mass social problems. In this type of social work the
entire community or as large a number of members as possible – are made aware of
any mass or social pathological problem eating at the vitals of the society. After this
awareness is created, the social worker enlists the support of maintain to change the
situation through social reform and collective action on suitable legislative measure.
“A stitch in time saves nine” are adages which still inspire the
social worker in the social action process. Thus, might form the social worker’s
beginning when the social worker sends a problem and takes upon himself
communication of his awareness to the mass, rouse them to collective or legislative
activity, continuing in its enforcement; the social worker helps the community to meet
its problems which have assumed grave and massive proportions.
It coordinates effort of a group to effect concrete changes toward a
greater measure of justice in society. Modern papal society thought emphasizes that
social reconstruction requires both the reform of social institutions; within this context
social action refers logically to the second requirement. In reality, however the two
mandates are not conceived as separable but as simultaneously necessary and
mutually interdependent.
Institutionalised injustice commonly produces large scale misery
and human degradation, and in the resulting environments the practice of virtue may
become practically impossible. On the other hand, the prevalence of avarice moral
indolence and the passion for power can thwart the institutional changes needed to
protect and advance human dignity and freedom.
As Bishop Andrew Grutka of Gary, England declared at Vatican
Councuil II “ Beauty cannot grow in a dump nor virtue in a slum.” The complex
problems of modern societies can be ameliorated only by group effort at many levels,
both voluntary and governmental. Attempts to control blight and transform slum
existence for example may take such forms as calling attention to building. Code
violations in dilapidated tenements, lobbying for state subsidy of low rent housing,
publicising the connection between slum conditions and juvenile delinquency and
poor educations, staying rent strikes a providing special tutoring and study centres for
slum children. Each of these activities exemplifies social action.

Social Action as a Method

Social action is a comparatively new addition to the list of
methods of professional social work. Although social action has been used in other
fields as well, such as the field of social reform and of political movements, transfer
of power, this chapter limits its observations by and large, to the specific area covered
by profession. In doing so, its concerns are with two important social ideas and
institutions of our times, namely, welfare and development which constitute two
specific denominations of social work practice. A word before that about the meaning
of the two concepts. By welfare we refer to the entire package of services social and
economic, that deal with income support, welfare provisions and social security on the
one hand and with the whole range of social services on the other.
All the helping activities approaches, social services and
institutional innovations that are found in the developing nations today have been
introduced through the method of development, Whereas, development has thus been
the main level of changes in the new nations. Welfare, a built in mechanism of the
developed world is also concerned with social change, through it expresses such
concern merely by reviewing and reorganising the structure of the welfare institution.
Social action is the method that helps to bring in these changes. Both development
and welfare, some observers believe thus depend solely on social action for the
realization of their aims. They of course use other methods as well, but turn to social
action more liberally than any other. Development and welfare, therefore, provide
today two key concepts of professional social work. The principle method that they
use namely the method of social action aims at making the programmes of
development and welfare more functional for their respective clientele than any other
methods could do.

DEFINITIONS
Some of the definitions of social action re being given below:

 RICHMOND MARY (1922)

Social action is mass betterment through propaganda and social legislation.

 LEE, PORTER (1937)

Social action seems to suggest efforts directed towards changes in law or social
action structure or toward the initiation of new movements for the modification
of current social practices.

 COYLE, GARCEL (1937)

Social action is the attempt to change the social environment in ways which... will
make life more satisfactory. It aims to affect not individuals but social
institutions, laws, customs, communities.
 FITCH , JHON (1940)
Social action is legally permissible action by a group (or by an individual trying
to promote group action) for the purpose of furthering objectives that are legal
and socially desirable.

 HILL, JHON L..(1951)

Social action might be described as organized group effort to solve mass social
problems or to further socially desirable objectives by attempting to influence basic
social and economic conditions or practices.

 WICKENDON, E (1956)
Social action is a term applied to that aspect of organized social welfare activity
directed towards shaping, modifying or maintaining the social institution and policies
that collectively constitute the social environment.
Social action in the field of social work is a process of individual,
group or intergroup endeavour, within the context of social work philosophy,
knowledge, and skill. Its objective is to enhance the welfare of the society through
modifying social policy and the functioning of social structure working to obtain new
progress and services.

 FRIEDLANDER, W.A. (1963)

Social action is an individual group or community effort, within the framework
of social work philosophy and practice that aims to achieve social progress, to
modify social policies and to improve social legislation and health and welfare
services.

 NANAVATI, M.C (1965)

Social action is a process of bringing about the desired changes to deliberate group
and community effort. Social action does not end with the enactment and singing of
social legislation, but that the execution of policies was the real test of the success or
failure of social action.
 Social action should be seen as an endeavour to bring about or
prevent change in the social system through a process of making people aware of the
socio-political and economic realities conditioning their lives and by mobilizing them
to organize themselves for bringing about the desired change, or to prevent the change
that adversely affects them, through the use of whatever strategies they may find
workable, with the exception of violence. Social action is conflictual process of
verifying, intensity, initiated and conducted by the masses the action against the
structures or institutions or policies or programmes or procedures of the government
and/or relevant agencies and/or power groups to view to bring betterment to any
section of the underprivileged at a level larger than that of a sociologically defined
community.

Objectives of Social Action

The objective of social action is the proper shaping and development of socio-cultural
environment in which a richer and fuller life may be possible for all the citizens. The
following goals have been identified, prevention of needs, solution of mass problem,
improvement in mass conditions, influencing institution, programmes, redistribution
of power, resources (human, material and moral), decision making, effort on thought
and action structure, and improvement in health education and welfare.

Principles of Social Action

Britto has described the following principles of social action
which emerged out of the analysis of the methodology used by Gandhiji to mobilize
the masses during the freedom movement.
 PRINCIPLE OF CREDIBILITY BUILDING
 PRINCIPLE OF LEGITMIZATION
 PRINCIPLE OF DRAMATIZATION
 PRINCIPLE OF MULTIPLE STRATEGIES
 PRINCIPLE OF DUAL APPROACH
 PRINCIPLE OF MANIFOLD PROGRAMMES
Strategy of Social Action
It is generally considered that social action comes into play
when a social problem is recognised. It is used to bring change. It implies that such a
social change brings about the progress of the group or the community where social
action is engineered.
Social action can be the agent for preventing change as well, if
such a change is against the interests of the community, if a state government
proposed to reduce old-age pensions or per capita grants to child welfare institutions
and if after due study of facts a movement was organised to prevent such a change in
the rates, it would be social action. It seems that in both the instances, whether social
action is for change or against change, it involves an element of group force or
pressure.
But is has to be non-violent, if it is to be genuine social action.
This force is generated by educating the people into a wiling co-operation for the need
of action for or against change. In the case of the bigger problem, a city community
tackles its social problem. The social action programme includes establishing of an
institution and introducing legislation.

PROCESS OF SOCIAL ACTION

Lees has suggested nine tactics which are used by social actionists.
1. Research 2. Education 3. Cooperation 4. Organisation 5. Arbitration 6. Negotiation
7. Mild coercion 8. Violation of legal norms 9. Joint action

The first step in the social action process is to make people aware
about the social problems and situations and situations responsible for these problems.
The next step is to develop an agency who will deal with the situations. It will prepare
the strategies to solve the problem and then endeavour people’s participation to
achieve the goal.

There are few general steps of social action as follows,

(i) An existing problem has first to be recognised. It may be recognised by an
individual, a group of individual or a community.
(ii) Facts about the problem must be collected by using scientific methods of
research and survey, so that the knowledge so gathered is certain, relates cause and
effect, and is capable of reasonable generalisation. It should not be too isolated facts
which can not apply to more than few. Both in collecting facts and interpreting them,
care should be taken that objective method should be used, so that the varying effect
of a subjective judgement or interpretation based on emotion is avoided.
(iii) Educate the people affected by the problem or concerned with it. This has to be
done not by the method of throwing facts at the people but by consultation and group
discussion, so that they are participants in the process from the start. An individual
responds to social action only when he understands the problem and comprehends the
facts. The knowledge must become his own, resulting in an inner urge to change the
situation and not merely a response to external stimulus. The problem must be his
own.
(iv) The people must be convinced that the situation is remediable and that the
solution is within their capacity. One of the obstacles of social action is a fatal
acceptance of what is, as is. They will only agree to rebel against the condition or
situation, when the educational process is within their comprehension and the change
is shown to be to their advantage.
(v) The problem must be of immediate concern. People cannot be enthused over
remote causes. They must be directly affected by them. they must see and experience
the problem, its effects and causes.
(vi) Knowledge or awareness of the need for change or to solve a problem is not the
same thing as the capacity to change or solve.
(vii) Before a plan of social action is drawn up it is necessary to confer with all the
people of the area or the people concerned with the problem. This eliminates or
minimises opposition. A plan of action can’t be given to them readymade. It has to
evolve through discussions with the people.
(viii) In working out a plan of action we have to consult not only the people
immediately concerned but others, such as technicians local authorities, the
government, that maximum support is worked up for social action.
(ix) After the plan is worked out, organization of the campaign requires efficient
administration measures. Work has to be shared and distributed among the people.
Individuals and groups must have specific jobs. They must have a time schedule and
they must report progress to a central cleaning office or organizing committee.
(x) The campaign must then mobilize all resources of men, money and materials.

Lees had categorized three types of strategies for Social Action;

1. Collaboration: The social worker or the agency worker work together with the
local leaders or the agency to focus on the existing social policy and find out ways to
improve it. The basic assumptions of this approach are homogeneity of values and
interests, through which substantive agreement on proposals is obtainable. No one
stand to lose a great deal of power, authority or money since change occurs within a
consensus that includes both values and interests.

2. Competition: In this strategy contending parties utilize commonly accepted

campaign tactics to persuade, to negotiate and to bargain, with a willingness to arrive
at a working agreement.

3. Disruption : This strategy signifies more militant approach and it may include
strikes, boycotts, fasts, tax-refusal, sit-ins etc. Richard Brynt postulates two sets of
strategies – bargaining and confrontation. Bargaining means lobbying, submitting
petitions, information and publicity campaigns, etc, whereas confrontations includes
strikes, demonstrations and sit-ins.
Hornstein, has mentioned the following strategies for
social intervention: individual change, techno-structural data-based, organizational
development and cultural change, violence and coercion, and non-violent action-
accommodation, exposures, living examples, public support, presentation of proposals,
competition, lobbying, agitation and subversion, etc.

Sharp has identified as many as 198 methods of non-violent action. Hornstein

has classified them as under:
1. Direct action tactics : picketing, marches, fraternization, haunting, leafleting, and
renouncing honours.
2. Non-cooperation : Strike, boycott, tax refusal 3. Intervention: Sit-in, fast, reverses
strike, obstruction.
Models of Social Action
Britto has identified two types of social action:
1. Action initiated and conducted by the clients for the benefit of the masses.
2. Popular social action.
He identifies three sub-models of each type of social action. In the first model he has
mentioned the following types:
(a) Legislative action model: In this model clients try to modify the social policy
creating public against the problems. (b) Sanction model: The clients by gaining
control over some economic, social, political or religious weapon try to obtain
benefits for the society. (c) Direct physical model: Elites take action and punish
those responsible for the cause of injustice.

The second type of social has the following three sub-models:

(a) Conscientization model based on Paulo Friere’s concept of creating
awareness among masses through education. (b) Dialectical model promoting
conflict to exploit the contradictions in a system with the belief that a better
system will emerge as result. (c) Direct mobilization whereby specific issues are
taken up by the actionists and the masses are mobilized to resort to protests and
strikes to achieve the objectives.

Singh has mentioned the following models of social action:

1. INSTITUTIONAL MODEL (STATE)

The state generally takes an indirect action and is directed for the benefit of the people
with or without their participation. The approach is parliamentary, representational,
bureaucratic and elitist. The action is organized or sponsored within the framework of
law, or may be legalized subsequently i.e, regularization of unauthorized settlements.
State action may include residual/institutional (mixed) models.

2. INSTITUTIONAL SOCIAL MODEL

It visualizes social action by non-governmental institutions aided or unaided which
initiate action directly or otherwise and in the course of time secure people’s active
support. In the beginning the action is initiated for the people but subsequently it
progresses with and through them. The thrust of such action may be welfare or
normative and may take place within the framework of law.

3. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONAL MODEL

Here the social action may be organized by the citizens, self help groups, elites, the
deprived, and others for their benefit but in its progression and development may seek
support from
formal groups and institutions which may like to espouse its cause. Depending upon
its success it may institutionalize itself formally.

4. POPULIST /MOVEMENTAL MODEL

It relies on popular social base and power, rejects dependency and stresses
self-reliance through collective effort, active participation and continuing education.
This is an ideal form of social action, in that participants experience thinking,
deciding and working together in helping themselves and in the process also
strengthen their social base and power.

5. GANDHIAN MODEL
This model emphasizes on spirituality, purity of means and ends, non-violence as a
creed, austerity (limitation of want), and moral rearmament of people.

 Social Work Research

Concept of Social work Research

Research is a systematic investigation which adds to
available knowledge and find outs new facts. Social research deals with the social
phenomena. It studies the behaviour of human beings as members of society, and their
feelings, responses, attitudes under different circumstances. Social research means a
careful, critical and systematic inquiry into or investigation or a problem, an effort to
find fresh information by experimentation and study, and a process by which try to
find answers to problems of social work. The solution to individual group and
community problem is found out by research. In fact, social work research is an
organized effort to acquire new knowledge about various aspects of society and social
phenomenon. In the field of social work, social work research is an auxiliary method.
Its scope is based on the nature of social work. From the practical point of view the
scope of social work research consists of various methods of treatment, discovery of
social needs and social resources. In its theoretical aspects, social work research
covers the entire range of social philosophy. Man has always been interested in the
facts and events that have been taking place around him. He has been exploring
different sources of evidence concerning the facts and events to acquire reliable
knowledge about the various aspects of human experience. However, it was observed
that personal bias influenced the selection of sources of evidences and that care was
not exercised to examine the authenticity of the evidence provided by these sources.
The result was inconsistency in the explanation of the
same facts and events time and again. Hence, to acquire reliable knowledge, scientists,
thinkers and philosophers have used various methods (Lal Das, 2000).

Definitions of Social Research

1. We may define Social research as the systematic method of discovering new facts
or discovering old facts, their sequences, inter relationships, causal explanations
and the natural laws which govern them.
(P.V. Young )
2. Social research may be regarded as a method of studying, of analysing and
conceptualizing social life to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art.
( SLEISINGER and STEVENSON )

3. Systematised investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena

and problems, we call Social research.
( MOSER )

4. Social Research is the investigation of the underlying process, operative in

the lives of person who are in association.
( BOGARDUS )
 On the basis of these definitions the social research may be
characterised as a method which is related to acquire knowledge in connection with
the social life and social phenomena. New facts are discovered about the social life in
the society and also old facts are verified. New laws are created in order to control
social life. Social research investigates the inter relationship between different social
phenomena.
Objectives of Social work research
 To study social issues and problems on a continuous basis
 To devise methods and means of enhancing public and private welfare services
 To contribute to development of a welfare society
 To influence social policy and social work practice through innovative research
 To create awareness about social issues and problems in the society
 To enhance social commitment and responsiveness to varying social needs
through outcomes of research
 To study and establish strong linkages among education, research, action,
implementation and dissemination.
 To study the adequacy of education in social work to meet the emerging need for
trained human power.

Importance of Social work research

The methods of social science research are invaluable tools
for social work practitioners at any level of practice. The nature of our social world is
the starting point for our profession, because much of what we do is in response to
social, political, and economic conditions. Social policies and programs and
interventions provided by human service agencies are based on assumptions about the
cause of a social condition (Martin & Kettner, 1996). Is homelessness due to
individual behavior? Individual pathology? Local housing-market conditions?
Insufficient wages? The responses to these questions shape social policy about
homelessness and the types of programs offered by human service providers.
Our profession works with people from diverse backgrounds
and promotes the social and economic participation of groups who lack access to full
participation. Through research we can challenge perceptions and popular sentiment
of those who are in need. Burt reflects common stereotypes about the homeless,
namely that they are male and that they are substance abusers. Yet we now know,
thanks to the work of many researchers, that increasing numbers of homeless people
are women with children or people diagnosed with HIV; they have different
kinds of needs than Burt, and they require different types of services and interventions
in the kinds of housing options offered.
Social science research provides methods to address these
questions. Through systematic investigation, we begin to uncover the various
dimensions of the social condition, the accuracy of our assumptions about what
causes the social condition, the characteristics of people with a particular social status
or social problem, and the effectiveness of our policies and programs to ameliorate the
social problem.

Relavance of Social work in research

Social work is a practice profession. As such, the major objective of
social work research is to search for answers to questions raised regarding
interventions or practice effectiveness. In other words social work research attempts
to provide knowledge about what interventions or treatments really help or hinder the
attainment of social work goals. In addition, it also helps in searching for answers to
problems or difficulties faced by social work practitioners in the practice of their
profession. Ultimately it helps building knowledge base for social work theory and
practice. Social work research also deals with problems faced by professional social
workers, social work agencies and community in its concern with social work
functions. In other words in social work research the problems to be investigated are
always found in the course of doing social work or planning to do it (Dasgupta, 1968).
It is obvious that in social work research the study of a problem is
from the point of view of social work and that of professional social work. The
designing of research problems, data collection and its interpretation will have to be
attempted in a manner as would be useful to professional social work which would
add new knowledge to the social work theory and practice and improve the efficiency
of professional social workers.
 Social work research is regarded as the systematic use of research
concepts, methods, techniques and strategies to provide information related to the
objectives of social work programmes and practices. Thus the unit of analysis of
social work research could be individuals, groups, families or programme of the
agency. That is, social work research typically focuses on assessment of practitioner’s
work with individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal of agencies or
programmes that involve the continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As
such, the research design, data collection and analytic strategies in social work
research vary as a function of unit of analysis and programme of agencies of social
work practitioner.
Social work research is the use of the scientific method in the search
of knowledge, including knowledge of alternate practice and intervention techniques,
which would be of direct use to the social work profession and thus enhance the
practice of social work methods. Social work research focuses on or confines itself to
select aspects of behavior and alternate models of behaviour modifications. Social
work research helps to find ways and means to enhance social functioning at the
individual, group, community and societal levels.
Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. This is one
of the reasons that social work research is also understood as evaluative research.
Under social work research, varieties of evaluative researches are undertaken. Some
of the researches are on impacts or effects, efficacy and effectiveness. Evaluation of
agencies and its projects and programmes are some of the specialized areas of social
work research.

Steps of Social work research

The main steps of social work research are as follows:

(i) Selection of Subject On the basis of experience and the available facts of social
work, the social worker has to formulate the social problems. In the case of research,
he either deals with specific aspects or includes the total aspects of the problem. The
problem selected has to be relevant to the study that he makes and the branch of the
social work which he is going to study.
(ii) Formulation of Hypothesis For social work after selecting the problem, the social
worker has to form the social ideas about the problem. This process is known as
hypothesis. According to George Lundberg, “The hypothesis is a tentative
justification the validity of which remains to be tested.” In its most elementary stage
the hypothesis may be in high, imaginative ideas, which becomes the basis for action
or investigation.
(iii) Construction of the Research Design For social work research it is necessary to
prepare a promulgated research design. The research design enables the social worker
to carry on his worm systematically. These are certain drawbacks in the preparation of
the research design, but once the design has been prepared, it is easy to test the
hypothesis, analysis data and take other steps.
(iv) Survey of Literature Related to the Problem Mere selection of problem is not
sufficient. For proper understanding of the problem the social worker has to survey
the literature related to that problem.
(v) Investigation and Study of Material Related to the Problem No study is complete
in itself. There are various matters and topics related to the problem. For proper study
it is necessary to investigate and study the material related to the problem. This
investigation and study is helpful in taking the future steps.
(vi) Collection of Data After preparing the research design the process of data
collection is started. For this the first step is the collection of data or facts pertaining
to the problem.
(vii) Tabulation of Collected Data Mere collection of data is not sufficient for
research. By collection we get everything at one place, but for proper studying it is
necessary that data be systematically tabulated and classified. This step helps the
social worker to proceed in a correct direction.
(viii) Analysis and Interpretation of Data Once data has been tabulated and classified,
the social worker proceeds to analyse and interpret it. On the basis of tabulation, the
social worker is bale to know that which data belongs to which field and what are the
basic requirements of a particular data and what are its characteristics. These things
can be found out through analysis and interpretation.
(ix) Verification of the Problem and Hypothesis After analysis and interpretation the
social worker has to verify the problem and the hypothesis. Without verification, it is
not possible to arrive at any correct result.
(x) Generalisation One hypothesis has been proved to be correct as a result of
verification; certain general principle can be laid down. These general principles are
based on the results of the analysis and verification of the data scientifically tabulated
and classified.

Ethics in Social Work, Code of Ethics

Social Work Ethics

The main social work ethics that all social workers should be aware of are as
follows:
• Respect the self-esteem of the individual as this dignity would be the
basis for all commonrelationships.

• Be convinced that the client is competent enough to progress

towards his/her goals.

• Build relationswith individuals and respect them for their individual

qualities irrespective of the caste, community, creed, status or social
category they belong to.

• Keep in mind the fact that their biggest gift to another individual
maybe to lendthat person an opportunity to not just develop but exercise
his/her owncapacities.

• Not encroach into the private affairs of another individual without

his/ her approval, except in a situationwhere theyare required to
protect him/her from harm.

• Recognize and accept the other person’s individuality and accordingly try
to build a useful relationship.
• Understand the other person and the situationhe/she is in before
forming an opinion about him/her.

• Constantly try to understand the other person and learn to control

personal attitudes and prejudices that may affect client-social worker
relationship.

Code of Ethics
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW)

Preamble
The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance
human well- being and help meet basic human needs of all people, with particular
attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed,
and living in poverty. A historic and defining feature of social work is the
profession’s focus on individual well-being in a social context and the well- being of
society. Fundamental to social work is attention to the environmental forces that
create, contribute to, and address problems in living.
Social workers promote social justice and social change with and
on behalf of clients. “Clients” is used inclusively to refer to individuals, families,
groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers are sensitive to cultural
and ethnic diversity and strive to end discrimination, oppression, poverty, and other
forms of social injustice. These activities may be in the form of direct practice,
community organizing, supervision, consultation, administration, advocacy, social
and political action, policy development and implementation, education, and
research and evaluation. Social workers seek to enhance the capacity of people to
address their own needs. Social workers also seek to promote the responsiveness
of organizations, communities, and other social institutions to individual’s needs
and social problems. The mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of
core values. These core values, embraced by social workers throughout the
profession's history, are the foundation of social work's unique purpose and
perspective.
Core Values

 Service
 Social justice
 Dignity and worth of the person
 Importance of human relationships
 Integrity
 Competence

This constellation of core values reflects what is unique to the social work
profession. Core values, and the principles that flow from them, must be balanced
within the context and complexity of the human experience.

Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics

Professional ethics are at the core of social work. The profession has
an obligation to articulate its basic values, ethical principles, and ethical standards.
The NASW Code of Ethics sets forth these values, principles, and standards to
guide social workers’ conduct. The Code is relevant to all social workers and
social work students, regardless of their professional functions, the settings in which
they work, or the populations they serve.
The NASW Code of Ethics serves six purposes:
1. The Code identifies core values on which social work’s mission is based.
2. The Code summarizes broad ethical principles that reflect the profession’s core
values and establishes a set of specific ethical standards that should be used to guide
social work practice.
3. The Code is designed to help social workers identify relevant considerations when
professional obligations conflict or ethical uncertainties arise.
4. The Code provides ethical standards to which the general public can hold the
social work profession accountable.
5. The Code socializes practitioners new to the field to social work’s mission, values,
ethical principles, and ethical standards.
6. The Code articulates standards that the social work professional itself can use to
assess whether social workers have engaged in unethical conduct.
 NASW has formal procedures to adjudicate ethics complaints filed
against its members. In subscribing to this Code, social workers are required to
cooperate in its implementation, participate in NASW adjudication proceedings, and
abide by any NASW disciplinary rulings for sanctions based on it.

Ethical Principles
The following broad ethical principles are based on social work’s
core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of
human relationships, integrity, and competence. These principles set forth ideals to
which all social workers should aspire.

Value: Service Ethical Principle: Social workers’ primary goal is

to help people in need and to address social problems. Social workers elevate service
to others above selfinterest. Social workers draw on their knowledge, values, and
skills to help people in need and to address social problems. Social workers are
encouraged to volunteer some portion of their professional skills with no expectation
of significant financial return (pro bono service).

Value: Social Justice Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge

social injustice. Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf
of vulnerable and oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers’
social change efforts are focused primarily on issues of poverty, unemployment,
discrimination, and other forms of social injustice. These activities seek to promote
sensitivity to and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic diversity.
Social workers strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources;
equality of opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all
people.

Value: Dignity and Worth of the Person Ethical Principle:

Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person. Social workers
treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual differences
and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote clients’ socially
responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance clients’ capacity and
opportunity to change and to address their own needs. Social workers are cognizant
of their dual responsibility to clients’ interests and the broader society’s interests in a
socially responsible manner consistent with the values, ethical principles, and ethical
standards of the profession.

Value: Importance of Human Relationships Ethical Principle:

Social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships. Social
workers understand that relationships between and among people are an important
vehicle for change. Social workers engage people as partners in the helping process.
Social workers seek to strengthen relationships among people in a purposeful effort to
promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the well-being of individuals, families, social
groups, organizations, and communities.

Value: Integrity Ethical Principle: Social workers behave in a

trustworthy manner. Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission,
values, ethical principles, and ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent
with them. Social workers act honestly and responsibly and promote ethical
practices on the part of the organizations with which they are affiliated.

Value: Competence Ethical Principle: Social workers practice

within their areas of competence and develop and enhance their professional
expertise. .Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge
and skills and to apply them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute
to the knowledge base of the profession.

Ethical Standards
The following ethical standards are relevant to the professional activities
of all social workers. These standards concern
(1) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to clients,
(2) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to colleagues,
(3) social workers’ ethical responsibilities in practice settings,
(4) social workers’ ethical responsibilities as professionals,
(5) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the social work profession,
 (6) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the broader society.
Some of the standards that follow are enforceable guidelines for
professional conduct, and some are aspirational. The extent to which each standard
is enforceable is a matter of professional judgment to be exercised by those
responsible for reviewing alleged violations of ethical standards.

1. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO CLIENTS

1.01 Commitment to Clients Social workers’ primary responsibility is to

promote the well-being of clients. In general, clients’ interests are primary.
However, social workers’ responsibility to the larger society or specific legal
obligations may on limited occasions supersede the loyalty owed clients, and clients
should be so advised. (Examples include when a social worker is required by law to
report that a client has abused a child or has threatened to harm self or others.)

1.02 Self-Determination Social workers respect and promote the right of clients
to self-determination and assist clients in their efforts to identify and clarify their
goals. Social workers may limit clients’ right to selfdetermination when, in the
social workers’ professional judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a
serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others.

1.03 Informed Consent (a) Social workers should provide services to clients only in
the context of a professional relationship based, when appropriate, on valid
informed consent. Social workers should use clear and understandable language to
inform clients of the purpose of the services, risks related to the services, limits to
services because of the requirements of a third-party payer, relevant costs, reasonable
alternatives, clients’ right to refuse or withdraw consent, and the time frame covered
by the consent. Social workers should provide clients with an opportunity to ask
questions.

(b) In instances when clients are not literate or have difficulty understanding the
primary language used in the practice setting, social workers should take steps to
ensure clients’ comprehension. This may include providing clients with a detailed
verbal explanation or arranging for a qualified interpreter or translator whenever
possible.

(c) In instances when clients lack the capacity to provide informed consent, social
workers should protect clients’ interests by seeking permission from an appropriate
third party, informing clients consistent with the clients’ level of understanding. In
such instances social workers should seek to ensure that the third party acts in a
manner consistent with clients’ wishes and interests. Social workers should take
reasonable steps to enhance such clients’ ability to give informed consent.

(d) In instances when clients are receiving services involuntarily, social workers
should provide information about the nature and extent of services and about the
extent of clients’ right to refuse service.

(e) Social workers who provide services via electronic media (such as computer,
telephone, radio, television) should inform recipients of the limitations and risks
associated with such services.

(f) Social workers should obtain clients’ informed consent before audiotaping or
videotaping clients or permitting observation of services to clients by a third party.

1.04 Competence (a) Social workers should provide services and represent
themselves as competent only within the boundaries of their education, training,
license, certification, consultation received, supervised experience, or other relevant
professional experience.

(b) Social workers should provide services in substantive areas or use intervention
techniques or approaches that are new to them only after engaging in appropriate
study, training, consultation, and supervision from people who are competent in those
interventions or techniques.

(c) When generally recognized standards do not exist with respect to an emerging
area of practice, social workers should exercise careful judgment and take
responsible steps (including appropriate education, research, training, consultation,
and supervision) to ensure the competence of their work and to protect clients from
harm.
1.05 Cultural Competence and Social Diversity
(a) Social workers should understand culture and its function in human behavior and
society, recognizing the strengths that exist in all cultures.

(b) Social workers should have a knowledge base of their clients’ cultures and be
able to demonstrate competence in the provision of services that are sensitive to
clients’ cultures and to differences among people and cultural groups.

(c) Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature
of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color,
sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, and mental or
physical disability.

1.06 Conflicts of Interest (a) Social workers should be alert to and avoid conflicts
of interest that interfere with the exercise of professional discretion and impartial
judgment. Social workers should inform clients when real or potential conflict of
interest arises and take reasonable steps to resolve the issue in a manner that makes
the clients’ interests primary and protects clients’ interests to the greatest extent
possible. In some cases, protecting clients’ interests may require termination of the
professional relationship with proper referral of the client.

(b) Social workers should not take unfair advantage of any professional relationship
or exploit others to further their personal, religious, political, or business interests.

(c) Social workers should not engage in dual or multiple relationships with clients or
former clients in which there is a risk of exploitation or potential harm to the client.
In instances when dual or multiple relationships are unavoidable, social workers
should take steps to protect clients and are responsible for setting clear, appropriate,
and culturally sensitive boundaries. (Dual or multiple relationships occur when
social workers relate to clients in more than one relationship, whether professional,
social, or business. Dual or multiple relationships can occur simultaneously or
consecutively).

(d) When social workers provide services to two or more people who have a
relationship with each other (for example, couples, family members), social workers
should clarify with all parties which individuals will be considered clients and the
nature of social workers’ professional obligations to the various individuals who are
receiving services. Social workers who anticipate a conflict of interest among the
individuals receiving services or who anticipate having to perform in potentially
conflicting roles (for example, when a social worker is asked to testify in a child
custody dispute or divorce proceedings involving clients) should clarify their role
with the parties involved and take appropriate action to minimize any conflict of
interest.

1.07 Privacy and Confidentiality (a) Social workers should respect clients’ right to
privacy. Social workers should not solicit private information from clients unless it
is essential to providing services or conducting social work evaluation or research.
Once private information is shared, standards of confidentiality apply.

(b) Social workers may disclose confidential information when appropriate with valid
consent from a client or a person legally authorized to consent on behalf of a client.

(c) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of all information obtained in the
course of professional service, except for compelling professional reasons. The
general expectation that social workers will keep information confidential does not
apply when disclosure is necessary to prevent serious, foreseeable, and imminent
harm to a client or other identifiable person or when laws or regulations require
disclosure without a client’s consent. In all instances, social workers should disclose
the least amount of confidential information necessary to achieve the desired purpose;
only information that is directly relevant to the purpose for which the disclosure is
made should be revealed.

(d) Social workers should inform clients, to the extent possible, about the disclosure
of confidential information and the potential consequences, when feasible before the
disclosure is made. This applies whether social workers disclose confidential
information on the basis of a legal requirement or client consent.

(e) Social workers should discuss with clients and other interested parties the nature
of confidentiality and limitations of clients’ right to confidentiality. Social workers
should review with clients circumstances where confidential information may be
requested and where disclosure of confidential information may be legally required.
This discussion should occur as soon as possible in the social worker-client
relationship and as needed throughout the course of the relationship.

(f) When social workers provide counseling services to families, couples, or groups,
social workers should seek agreement among the parties involved concerning each
individual’s right to confidentiality and obligation to preserve the confidentiality of
information shared by others. Social workers should inform participants in family,
couples, or group counseling that social workers cannot guarantee that all participants
will honor such agreements.

(g) Social workers should inform clients involved in family, couples, marital, or group
counseling of the social worker’s, employer’s, and agency’s policy concerning the
social worker’s disclosure of confidential information among the parties involved in
the counseling.

(h) Social worker should not disclose confidential information to third-party payers
unless clients have authorized such disclosure.

(i) Social workers should not discuss confidential information in any setting unless
privacy can be ensured. Social workers should not discuss confidential information
in public or semipublic areas such as hallways, waiting rooms, elevators, and
restaurants.

(j) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of clients during legal
proceedings to the extent permitted by law. When a court of law or other legally
authorized body orders social workers to disclose confidential or privileged
information without a client’s consent and such disclosure could cause harm to the
client, social workers should request that the court withdraw the order or limit the
order as narrowly as possible or maintain the records under seal, unavailable for
public inspection.

(k) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of clients when responding to
requests from members of the media.

(l) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of clients’ written and electronic
records and other sensitive information. Social workers should take reasonable steps
to ensure that clients’ records are stored in a secure location and that clients’ records
are not available to others who are not authorized to have access.

(m) Social workers should take precautions to ensure and maintain the confidentiality
of information transmitted to other parties through the use of computers, electronic
mail, facsimile machines, telephones and telephone answering machines, and other
electronic or computer technology. Disclosure of identifying information should be
avoided whenever possible.

(n) Social workers should transfer or dispose of clients’ records in a manner that
protects clients’ confidentiality and is consistent with state statues governing records
and social work licensure.

(o) Social work should take reasonable precautions to protect client confidentiality in
the event of the social worker’s termination of practice, incapacitation, or death.

(p) Social workers should not disclose identifying information when discussing clients
for teaching or training purposes unless the client has consented to disclosure of
confidential information.

(q) Social workers should not disclose identifying information when discussing clients
with consultants unless the client has consented to disclosure of confidential talk of
information or there is a compelling need for such disclosure.

(r) Social workers should protect the confidentiality of deceased clients consistent
with the preceding standards.

1.08 Access to Records (a) Social workers should provide clients with reasonable
access to records concerning the clients. Social workers who are concerned that
clients’ access to their records could cause serious misunderstanding or harm to the
client should provide assistance in interpreting the records and consultation with the
client regarding the records. Social workers should limit clients’ access to their
records, or portions of their records, only in exceptional circumstances when there is
compelling evidence that such access would cause serious harm to the client. Both
clients’ requests and the rationale for withholding some or all of the record should be
documented in clients’ files.

(b) When providing clients with access to their records, social workers should take
steps to protect the confidentiality of other individuals identified or discussed in such
records.

1.09 Sexual Relationships (a) Social workers should under no circumstances engage
in sexual activities or sexual contact with current clients, whether such contact is
consensual or forced.

(b) Social workers should not engage in sexual activities or sexual contact with
clients’ relatives or other individuals with whom clients maintain a close personal
relationship when there is a risk of exploitation or potential harm to the client.
Sexual activity or sexual contact with clients’ relatives or other individuals with
whom clients maintain a personal relationship has the potential to be harmful to the
client and may make it difficult for the social worker and client to maintain
appropriate professional boundaries. Social workers—not their clients, their clients’
relatives, or other individuals with whom the client maintains a personal
relationship—assume the full burden for setting clear, appropriate, and culturally
sensitive boundaries.
(c) Social workers should not engage in sexual activities or sexual contact with former
clients because of the potential for harm to the client. If social workers engage in
conduct contrary to this prohibition or claim that an exception to this prohibition is
warranted because of extraordinary circumstances, it is social workers—not their
clients—who assume the full burden of demonstrating that the former client has not
been exploited, coerced, or manipulated, intentionally or unintentionally.

(d) Social workers should not provide clinical services to individuals with whom they
have had a prior sexual relationship. Providing clinical services to a former sexual
partner has the potential to be harmful to the individual and is likely to make it
difficult for the social worker and individual to maintain appropriate professional
boundaries.

1.10 Physical Contact Social workers should not engage in physical contact with
clients when there is a possibility of psychological harm to the client as a result of the
contact (such as cradling or caressing clients.) Social workers who engage in
appropriate physical contact with clients are responsible for setting clear, appropriate,
and culturally sensitive boundaries that govern such physical contact.

1.11 Sexual Harassment Social workers should not sexually harass clients. Sexual
harassment includes sexual advances, sexual solicitation, requests for sexual favors,
and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.

1.12 Derogatory Language Social workers should not use derogatory language in
their written or verbal communications to or about clients. Social workers should
use accurate and respectful language in all communications to and about clients.

1.13 Payment for Services (a) When setting fees, social workers should ensure that
the fees are fair, reasonable, and commensurate with the service performed.
Consideration should be given to clients’ ability to pay.

(b) Social workers should avoid accepting goods or services from clients as payment
for professional services. Bartering arrangements, particularly involving services,
create the potential for conflicts of interest, exploitation, and inappropriate boundaries
in social workers’ relationships with clients. Social workers should explore and may
participate in bartering only in very limited circumstances when it can be
demonstrated that such arrangements are an accepted practice among professionals in
the local community, considered to be essential for the provision of services,
negotiated without coercion, and entered into at the client’s initiative and with the
client’s informed consent. Social workers who accept goods or services from clients
as payment for professional services assume the full burden of demonstrating that this
arrangement will not be detrimental to the client or the professional relationship.

(c) Social workers should not solicit a private fee or other remuneration for providing
services to clients who are entitled to such available services through the social
workers’ employer or agency.

1.14 Clients Who Lack Decision-Making Capacity When social workers act on
behalf of clients who lack the capacity to make informed decisions, social workers
should take reasonable steps to safeguard the interests and rights of those clients.

1.15 Interruption of Services Social workers should make reasonable efforts to

ensure continuity of services in the event that services are interrupted by factors such
as unavailability, relocation, illness, disability, or death.

1.16 Termination of Services (a) Social workers should terminate services to clients
and professional relationships with them when such services and relationships are no
longer required or no longer serve the clients’ needs or interests.

(b) Social workers should take reasonable steps to avoid abandoning clients who are
still in need of services. Social workers should withdraw services precipitously only
under unusual circumstances, giving careful consideration to all factors in the
situation and taking care to minimize possible adverse effects. Social workers
should assist in making appropriate arrangements for continuation of services when
necessary.
(c) Social workers in fee-for-service settings may terminate services to clients who are
not paying an overdue balance if the financial contractual arrangements have been
made clear to the client, if the client does not pose an imminent danger to self or
others, and if the clinical and other consequences of the current nonpayment have
been addressed and discussed with the client.

(d) Social workers should not terminate services to pursue a social, financial, or
sexual relationship with a client.

(e) Social workers who anticipate the termination or interruption of services to clients
should notify clients promptly and seek the transfer, referral, or continuation of
services in relation to the clients’ needs and preferences.

(f) Social workers who are leaving an employment setting should inform clients of
appropriate options for the continuation of services and of the benefits and risks of the
options.

2. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBLITIES TO COLLEAGUES

2.01 Respect (a) Social workers should treat colleagues with respect and should
represent accurately and fairly the qualifications, views, and obligations of colleagues.

(b) Social workers should avoid unwarranted negative criticism of colleagues in

communications with clients or with other professionals. Unwarranted negative
criticism may include demeaning comments that refer to colleagues’ level of
competence or to individuals’ attributes such as race, ethnicity, national origin, color,
sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, and mental or
physical disability.

(c) Social workers should cooperate with social work colleagues and with colleagues
of other professions when such cooperation services the well-being of clients.
2.02 Confidentiality Social workers should respect confidential information shared
by colleagues in the course of their professional relationships and transactions.
Social workers should ensure that such colleagues understand social workers’
obligations to respect confidentiality and any exceptions related to it.

2.03 Interdisciplinary Collaboration (a) Social workers who are members of an

interdisciplinary team should participate in and contribute to decisions that affect the
well-being of clients by drawing on the perspectives, values, and experiences of the
social work profession. Professional and ethical obligations of the interdisciplinary
team as a whole and of its individual members should be clearly established.

(b) Social workers for whom a team decision raises ethical concerns should attempt to
resolve the disagreement through appropriate channels. If the disagreement cannot
be resolved, social workers should pursue other avenues to address their concerns
consistent with client well-being.

2.04 Disputes Involving Colleagues (a) Social workers should not take advantage of
a dispute between a colleague and an employer to obtain a position or otherwise
advance the social workers’ own interests.

(b) Social workers should not exploit clients in disputes with colleagues or engage
clients in any inappropriate discussion of conflicts between social workers and their
colleagues.

2.05 Consultation (a) Social workers should seek the advice and counsel of
colleagues whenever such consultation is in the best interests of clients.

(b) Social workers should keep themselves informed about colleagues’ areas of
expertise and competencies. Social workers should seek consultation only from
colleagues who have demonstrated knowledge, expertise, and competence related to
the subject of the consultation.
(c) When consulting with colleagues about clients, social workers should disclose the
least amount of information necessary to achieve the purposes of the consultation.

2.06 Referral for Services (a) Social workers should refer clients to other
professionals when the other professionals’ specialized knowledge or expertise is
needed to service clients fully or when social workers believe that they are not being
effective or making reasonable progress with clients and that additional service is
required.

(b) Social workers who refer clients to other professionals should take appropriate
steps to facilitate an orderly transfer of responsibility. Social workers who refer
clients to other professionals should disclose, with clients’ consent, all pertinent
information to the new service providers.

(c) Social workers are prohibited from giving or receiving payment for a referral
when no professional service is provided by the referring social worker.

2.07 Sexual Relationships (a) Social workers who function as supervisors or

educators should not engage in sexual activities or contact with supervisees, students,
trainees, or other colleagues over whom they exercise professional authority.

(b) Social workers should avoid engaging in sexual relationships with colleagues
when there is potential for a conflict of interest. Social workers who become
involved in, or anticipate becoming involved in, a sexual relationship with a colleague
have a duty to transfer professional responsibilities, when necessary, to avoid a
conflict of interest.

2.08 Sexual Harassment Social workers should not sexually harass supervisees,
students, trainees, or colleagues. Sexual harassment includes sexual advances,
sexual solicitation, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of
a sexual nature.
2.09 Impairment of Colleagues (a) Social workers who have direct knowledge of a
social work colleague’s impairment that is due to personal problems, psychosocial
distress, substance abuse, or mental health difficulties and that interferes with practice
effectiveness should consult with that colleague when feasible and assist the colleague
in taking remedial action.

(b) Social workers who believe that a social work colleague’s impairment interferes
with practice effectiveness and that the colleague has not taken adequate steps to
address the impairment should take action through appropriate channels established
by employers, agencies, NASW, licensing and regulatory bodies, and other
professional organizations.

2.10 Incompetence of Colleagues (a) Social workers who have direct knowledge of a
social work colleague’s incompetence should consult with that colleague when
feasible and assist the colleague in taking remedial action.

(b) Social workers who believe that a social work colleague is incompetent and has
not taken adequate steps to address the incompetence should take action though
appropriate channels established by employers, agencies, NASW, licensing and
regulatory bodies, and other professional organizations.

2.11 Unethical Conduct of Colleagues (a) Social workers should take adequate
measures to discourage, prevent, expose, and correct the unethical conduct of
colleagues.

(b) Social workers should be knowledgeable about established policies and

procedures for handling concerns about colleagues’ unethical behavior. Social
workers should be familiar with national, state, and local procedures for handling
ethics complaints. These include policies and procedures created by NASW,
licensing and regulatory bodies, employers, agencies, and other professional
organizations.
(c) Social workers who believe that a colleague has acted unethically should seek
resolution by discussing their concerns with the colleague when feasible and when
such discussion is likely to be productive.

(d) When necessary, social workers who believe that a colleague has acted unethically
should take action through appropriate formal channels (such as contacting a state
licensing board or regulatory body, an NASW committee on inquiry, or other
professional ethics committees).

(e) Social workers should defend and assist colleagues who are unjustly charged with
unethical conduct.

3. SOCIAL WORKER’S ETHICAL RESPONSIBLITIES IN PRACTICE

SETTINGS

3.01 Supervision and Consultation (a) Social workers who provide supervision or
consultation should have the necessary knowledge and skill to supervise or consult
appropriately and should do so only within their areas of knowledge and competence.

(b) Social workers who provide supervision or consultation are responsible for setting
clear, appropriate, and culturally sensitive boundaries.

(c) Social workers should not engage in any dual or multiple relationships with
supervisees in which there is a risk of exploitation of or potential harm to the
supervisee.

(d) Social workers who provide supervision should evaluate supervisees’ performance
in a manner that is fair and respectful.

3.02 Education and Training (a) Social workers who function as educators, field
instructors for students, or trainers should provide instruction only within their areas
of knowledge and competence and should provide instruction based on the most
current information and knowledge available in the profession.
(b) Social workers who function as educators or field instructors for students should
evaluate students’ performance in a manner that is fair and respectful.

(c) Social workers who function as educators or field instructors for students should
take reasonable steps to ensure clients are routinely informed when services are being
provided by students.

(d) Social workers who function as educators or field instructors for students should
not engage in any dual or multiple relationships with students in which there is a risk
of exploitation or potential harm to the student. Social work educators and field
instructors are responsible for setting clear, appropriate, and culturally sensitive
boundaries.

3.03 Performance Evaluation Social workers who have responsibility for evaluating
the performance of others should fulfill such responsibility in a fair and considerate
manner and on the basis of clearly stated criteria.

3.04 Client Records (a) Social workers should take reasonable steps to ensure that
documentation in records is accurate and reflects the services provided.

(b) Social workers should include sufficient and timely documentation in records to
facilitate the delivery of services and to ensure continuity of services provided to
clients in the future.

(c) Social workers’ documentation should protect clients’ privacy to the extent that is
possible and appropriate and should include only information that is directly relevant
to the delivery of services.

(d) Social workers should store records following the termination of services to ensure
reasonable future access. Records should be maintained for the number of years
required by state statues or relevant contracts.
3.05 Billing Social workers should establish and maintain billing practices that
accurately reflect the nature and extent of services provided and that identify who
provided the service in the practice setting.

3.06 Client Transfer (a) When an individual who is receiving services from another
agency or colleague contacts a social worker for services, the social worker should
carefully consider the client’s needs before agreeing to provide services. To
minimize possible confusion and conflict, social workers should discuss with
potential clients the nature of the clients’ current relationship with other service
providers and the implications, including possible benefits or risks, of entering into a
relationship with a new service provider.

(b) If a new client has been served by another agency or colleague, social workers
should discuss with the client whether consultation with the previous service provider
is in the client’s best interest.

3.07 Administration (a) Social work administrators should advocate within and
outside their agencies for adequate resources to meet clients’ needs.

(b) Social workers should advocate for resource allocation procedures that are open
and fair. When not all clients’ needs can be met, an allocation procedure should be
developed that is nondiscriminatory and based on appropriate and consistently applied
principles.

(c) Social workers who are administrators should take reasonable steps to ensure that
adequate agency or organizational resources are available to provide appropriate staff
supervision.

(d) Social work administrators should take reasonable steps to ensure that the working
environment for which they are responsible is consistent with and encourages
compliance with the NASW Code of Ethics. Social work administrators should take
reasonable steps to eliminate any conditions in their organizations that violate,
interfere with, or discourage compliance with the Code.
3.08 Continuing Education and Staff Development Social work administrators and
supervisors should take reasonable steps to provide or arrange for continuing
education and staff development for all staff for whom they are responsible.
Continuing education and staff development should address current knowledge and
emerging developments related to social work practice and ethics.

3.09 Commitments to Employers (a) Social workers generally should adhere to

commitments made to employers and employing organizations.

(b) Social workers should work to improve employing agencies’ policies and
procedures and the efficiency and effectiveness of their service.

(c) Social workers should take reasonable steps to ensure that employers are aware
of social workers’ ethical obligations as set forth in the NASW Code of Ethics and of
the implications of those obligations for social work practice.

(d) Social workers should not allow an employing organization’s policies, procedures,
regulations, or administrative orders to interfere with their ethical practice of social
work. Social workers should take reasonable steps to ensure that their employing
organizations’ practices are consistent with the NASW Code of Ethics.

(e) Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate discrimination in the
employing organization’s work assignments and in its employment policies and
practices.

(f) Social workers should accept employment or arrange student field placements only
in organizations that exercise fair personnel practices.

(g) Social workers should be diligent stewards of the resources of their employing
organizations, wisely conserving funds where appropriate and never misappropriating
funds or using them for unintended purposes.
3.10 Labor-Management Disputes (a) Social workers may engage in organized
action, including the formation of and participation in labor unions, to improve
services to clients and working conditions.

(b) The actions of social workers who are involved in labor management disputes, job
actions, or labor strikes should be guided by the profession’s values, ethical principles,
and ethical standards. Reasonable differences of opinion exist among social workers
concerning their primary obligation as professionals during an actual or threatened
labor strike or job action. Social workers should carefully examine relevant issues
and their possible impact on clients before deciding on a course of action.

4. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES AS

PROFESSIONALS

4.01 Competence (a) Social workers should accept responsibility or employment

only on the basis of existing competence or the intention to acquire the necessary
competence.

(b) Social workers should strive to become and remain proficient in professional
practice and the performance of professional functions. Social workers should
critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to social work.
Social workers should routinely review the professional literature and participate in
continuing education relevant to social work practice and social work ethics.

4.02 Discrimination Social workers should not practice, condone, facilitate, or

collaborate with any form of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, national
origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, or
mental or physical disability.

4.03 Private Conduct Social workers should not permit their private conduct to
interfere with their ability to fulfill their professional responsibilities.
4.04 Dishonesty, Fraud, and Deception Social workers should not participate in,
condone, or be associated with dishonesty, fraud, or deception.

4.05 Impairment (a) Social workers should not allow their own personal problems,
psychosocial distress, legal problems, substance abuse, or mental health difficulties to
interfere with their professional judgment and performance or to jeopardize the best
interests of people for whom they have a professional responsibility.

(b) Social workers whose personal problems, psychosocial distress, legal problems,
substance abuse, or mental health difficulties interfere with their professional
judgment and performance should immediately seek consultation and take appropriate
remedial action by seeking professional help, making adjustments in workload,
terminating practice, or taking any other steps necessary to protect clients and others.

4.06 Misrepresentation (a) Social workers should make clear distinctions between
statements made and actions engaged in as a private individual and as a representative
of the social work profession, a professional social work organization, or the social
workers’ employing agency.

(b) Social workers who speak on behalf of professional social work organizations
should accurately represent the official and authorized positions of the organizations.

(c) Social workers should ensure that their representations to clients, agencies, and the
public of professional qualifications, credentials, education, competence, affiliations,
services provided, or results to be achieved are accurate. Social workers should
claim only those relevant professional credentials they actually possess and take steps
to correct any inaccuracies or misrepresentations of their credentials by others.

4.07 Solicitations (a) Social workers should not engage in uninvited solicitation of
potential clients who, because of their circumstances, are vulnerable to undue
influence, manipulation, or coercion.
(b) Social workers should not engage in solicitation of testimonial endorsements
(including solicitation of consent to use a client’s prior statement as a testimonial
endorsement of their particular circumstances, are vulnerable to undue influence.

4.08 Acknowledging Credit (a) Social workers should take responsibility and credit,
including authorship credit, only for work they have actually performed and to which
they have contributed.

(b) Social workers should honestly acknowledge the work of and the contributions
made by others.

5. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBLITIES TO THE SOCIAL

WORK PROFESSION

5.01 Integrity of the Profession (a) Social workers should work toward the
maintenance and promotion of high standards of practice.

(b) Social workers should uphold and advance the values, ethics, knowledge, and
mission of the profession. Social workers should protect, enhance, and improve the
integrity of the profession through appropriate study and research, active discussion,
and responsible criticism of the profession.

(c) Social workers should contribute time and professional expertise to activities that
promote respect for the value, integrity, and competence of the social work profession.
These activities may include teaching, research, consultation, service, legislative
testimony, presentations in the community, and participation in their professional
organizations.

(d) Social workers should contribute to the knowledge base of social work and share
with colleagues their knowledge related to practice, research, and ethics. Social
workers should seek to contribute to the profession’s literature and to share their
knowledge at professional meetings and conferences.
(e) Social workers should act to prevent the unauthorized and unqualified practice of
social work.

5.02 Evaluation and Research (a) Social workers should monitor and evaluate
policies, the implementation of programs, and practice interventions.

(b) Social workers should promote and facilitate evaluation and research to contribute
to the development of knowledge.

(c) Social workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging
knowledge relevant to social work and fully use evaluation and research evidence in
their professional practice.

(d) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should carefully consider

possible consequences and should follow guidelines developed for the protection of
evaluation and research participants. Appropriate institutional review boards should
be consulted.

(e) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should obtain voluntary and
written informed consent from participants, when appropriate, without any implied or
actual deprivation or penalty for refusal to participate; without undue inducement to
participate; and with due regard for participants’ well-being, privacy, and dignity.
Informed consent should include information about the nature, extent, and duration of
the participation requested and disclosure of the risks and benefits of participation in
the research.

(f) When evaluation or research participants are incapable of giving informed consent,
social workers should provide an appropriate explanation to the participants, obtain
the participants’ assent to the extent they are able, and obtain written consent from an
appropriate proxy.

(g) Social workers should never design or conduct evaluation or research that does not
use consent procedures, such as certain forms of naturalistic observation and archival
research, unless rigorous and responsible review of the research has found it to be
justified because of its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and unless
equally effective alternative procedures that do not involve waiver of consent are not
feasible.

(h) Social workers should inform participants of their right to withdraw from
evaluation and research at any time without penalty.

(i) Social workers should take appropriate steps to ensure that participants in
evaluation and research have access to appropriate supportive services.

(j) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should protect participants from
unwarranted physical or mental distress, harm, danger, or deprivation.

(k) Social workers engaged in the evaluation of services should discuss collected
information only for professional purposes and only with people professionally
concerned with this information.

(l) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should ensure the anonymity of
confidentiality of participants and of the data obtained from them. Social workers
should inform participants of any limits of confidentiality, the measures that will be
taken to ensure confidentiality, and when any records containing research data will be
destroyed.

(m) Social workers who report evaluation and research results should protect
participants’ confidentiality by omitting identifying information unless proper consent
has been obtained authorizing disclosure.

(n) Social workers should report evaluation and research findings accurately. They
should not fabricate or falsify results and should take steps to correct any errors later
found in published data using standard publication methods.
(o) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should be alert to and avoid
conflicts of interest and dual relationships with participants, should inform
participants when a real or potential conflict of interest arises, and should take steps to
resolve the issue in a manner that makes participants’ interests primary.

(p) Social workers should educate themselves, their students, and their colleagues
about responsible research practices.

6. SOCIAL WORKERS’ ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO THE BROADER

SOCIETY

6.1 Social Welfare Social workers should promote the general welfare of society,
from local to global levels, and the development of people, their communities, and
their environments. Social workers should advocate for living conditions conducive
to the fulfillment of basic human needs and should promote social, economic, political,
and cultural values and institutions that are compatible with the realization of social
justice.

6.02 Public Participation Social workers should facilitate informed participation by

the public in shaping social policies and institutions.

6.03 Public Emergencies Social workers should provide appropriate professional

services in public emergencies to the greatest extent possible.

6.04 Social and Political Action (a) Social workers should engage in social and
political action that seeks to ensure that all people have equal access to the resources,
employment, services, and opportunities they require to meet their basic human needs
and to develop fully. Social workers should be aware of the impact of the political
arena on practice and should advocate for changes in policy and legislation to
improve social conditions in order to meet basic human needs and promote social
justice.
(b) Social workers should act to expand choice and opportunity for all people, with
special regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited people and
groups.

(c) Social workers should promote conditions that encourage respect for cultural and
social diversity within the United States and globally. Social workers should
promote policies and practices that demonstrate respect for difference, support the
expansion of cultural knowledge and resources, advocate for programs and
institutions that demonstrate cultural competence, and promote policies that safeguard
the rights of and confirm equity and social justice for all people.

(d) Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate domination of, exploitation of,
and discrimination against any person, group, or class on the basis of race, ethnicity,
national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief,
religion, or mental or physical disability.

The Roles of a Social Worker

Enabler: In the enabler role, a social worker helps a client become capable of
coping with situations or transitional stress. A social worker conveys hope, reducing
resistance and ambivalence, recognizing and managing feelings, identifying and
supporting personal strengths and social assets, breaking down problems into parts
that can be solved more readily, and maintaining a focus on goals and the means of
achieving them.

Mediator: The mediator role involves resolving arguments or conflicts micro,

mezzo, or macro systems. At the macro level, the mediator helps various subsystems
within a community, or a community and some other system, work out their
differences. At the micro and mezzo levels, mediation is helps in such areas as
resolving divorce and child custody cases. A mediator remains neutral and does not
side with either party in the dispute.
Integrator/Coordinator: Integration is the process of bringing together various
parts to form a unified whole. Coordination involves bringing components together in
some kind of organized manner. A generalist social worker can function as an
integrator/coordinator "in may ways, ranging from . . . advocacy and identification of
coordination opportunities, to provision of technical assistance, to direct involvement
in the development and implementations of service linkages".

Manager: Management in social work involves having some level of administrative

responsibility for a social agency or other unit "to determine organizational goals'. . .
acquire resources and allocate them to carry out programs; coordinate activities
toward the achievement of selected goals; and monitor, assess, and make necessary
changes in processes and structure to improve effectiveness and efficiency".

Educator: The educator role involves giving information and teaching skills to
clients and other systems. To be an effective educator, the worker must first be
knowledgeable. Additionally, the worker must be a good communicator so that
information is conveyed clearly and is understood by the client or macro system.

Analyst/Evaluator: Social workers with a broad knowledge base of how various

systems function can analyze or evaluate how well programs and systems work. They
can also evaluate the effectiveness of their own interventions.

Broker: A broker helps link clients (individuals, groups, organizations, or

communities) with community resources and services. A broker also helps put
"various segments of the community in touch with one another "to enhance their
mutual interests (Barker, 1995, p.43). In micro and mezzo systems, this requires that
the worker be familiar with community services, have general knowledge about
eligibility requirements, and be sensitive to client needs. A broker may help a client
obtain emergency food or housing, legal aid, or other needed resources.

Facilitator: A facilitator is "one who serves as a leader for some group experience"
(Barker, 1995, p. 129). The group may be a family therapy group, a task group, a
sensitivity group, an educational group, a self-help group, or a group with some other
focus. The facilitator role may also apply to macro practice. In this context, a
facilitator assumes "the responsibility to expedite the change effort by bringing
together people and lines of communication, channeling their activities and resources,
and providing them with access to expertise".

Negotiator: A negotiator represents an organization, a group, or an individual that

is trying to gain something from another group or system. Somewhat like mediation,
negotiation involves finding a middle ground that all sides can lived with and
achieving consensus whenever possible. However, unlike mediators, who play a
neutral role, negotiators clearly ally themselves with one of the sides involved .

Advocate: Advocacy involves “the act of directly representing a course of action on

behalf on one or more individuals, groups, or communities, with the goal of securing
or retaining social justice”. The advocate role involves stepping forward and speaking
on behalf of the client system. The advocate role is one of the most important roles a
generalist social worker can assume, despite its potential difficulties.

Skills of Social Work

Skill is the worker’s capacity to do something in a given situation.

It is also the ability to apply knowledge, methods and own understanding to attain the
determined objectives in a particular field. Skills are important for they help an
individual to perform better in any situation and contribute to achieve better results.
They also help to do right thing at right time and reduce chance of failure. Skills are
enhanced through relevant training activities.

Social work as a professional practice involves many skills which can be stated in the
following lines:

1. Skills in Problem identification Identification of a problem involves critical

thinking. So a social worker must be able to think critically and multidimensionally
while identifying a social problem. A least of mistake from the part of social worker
may create havoc in the problem solving process. In the identification level practical
aspects of the problem should be given optimum care. The social worker should be
able to foresee the possible threats linked with the problem and possible ways and
means to face them. The social worker must skillfully go about discovering the
possible factors of the problem, magnitude of the problem, its severity and most
appropriate solution for solving human problems.

2 . Skills in Problem solving Solving psyco-social problem is the prime goal of

social work. After identification the social worker makes his conscious effort to solve
it. Scientific solution of problems demands sharp presence of mind, because various
problems have different background and social factors. Hence the social worker
should be skillful in understanding those background and factors on a priority basis
which will help him/her to appropriate steps in response to solve the problem. While
solving problem a social worker attempts to use himself and the available resources
consciously to attack the risk factors. When the factors of the given problems are
arrested or their influences are weakened, the problem finds its way to solution.

3. Skills in analyzing social situation Social problem arise and develop in different
unwanted situations. Social situations at times are complex in nature. A professional
social worker is equipped with the appropriate skills to tackle those situations. The
magnitude of same kind of problem may vary in different situations. Therefore it
becomes imperative to understand social the situation in which the problem has
merged or/and continues troubling individual/individuals. While analyzing a group
situation one should try to understand the level of social bond among the group
members, their economic status, status of cooperation, conflict (if any), differences in
thought, personal potentialities, leadership, availability of resources etc which are
vital for solving problems.

4. Skills in building and using constructive relationship While working for and
with the people social relationship plays a vital role. Without constructive and
purposeful relationship it is very tough to solve social problem. Therefore, social
workers should possess the skills to build constructive relationship with and between
individuals, groups, institutions that are associated with a given problem. He/she must
be out spoken and authentic enough to convince the people to remain in the
professional relationship for a purpose and must be reliable and mature in gesture to
bind people in relationship.

5. Skills in appropriate planning Planning is preparing the blue print of any

conscious effort. It also requires critical thinking and foresight. A social worker needs
to possess such abilities to involve in serious thinking to make an appropriate
planning for solving a particular problem. Making a right decision is vital for an
appropriate planning. There may be numbers of alternatives in the hand of the social
worker but he/she has to choose the most appropriate one for a problem with
particular situation. While planning the social worker needs to have the ability to
foresee the potential threats, the resources possibilities and impossibilities and he/she
must be able to relate the plan of action with the needs of the clientele while planning.

6. Skills in resource mobilization For solving any kind of problem there is a need
of some kind of resources that may be human or material. Proper utilization of
resource is equally important in social work. No resource is unlimited. Therefore, it is
required that a right amount of resource is utilized at right time through a right person.
Social work believes in no wastage of resource. It attempts to make optimum use of
resource for the larger interest of the needy people. Social worker is skillful in maping
the internal resources of the concerned individual, group or community and taping the
external resources and tactfully mobilizing those resources for the benefit of the
people.

7. Skills in Programme activities Scientific intervention requires proper planning

of programme activities. A social worker possesses the skills to plan various
programmes looking at the needs of people. Through programme media, he/she
attempts to reach and solve the problems arised out of various needs. For specific
programmes the social worker needs to involve people in developing programmes. He
encourages the people to put forward their opinion for selecting a programme because
they know which programme better help them to meet the felt needs. Social worker
should be able understand the wide spread concept of democratic values in the society
which calls for wider scope of participation of the people in their development During
implementation of the programme activities the social worker with skills in human
relationship guides the people to undertake the activities with cooperation and
co-ordination among the people. He/ she also plays a liasoning role between the
people and the welfare agencies.

8. Skills in evaluation In the process of developmental programmes, evaluation is

one of the most parts to look at. It is through evaluation that we measure and judge the
success or failure of the programme. Social worker guides the stakeholders to
effectively examine their effort. He tries to find out the loopholes in the programme
and suggests improvements in the week area. Generally, a programme is evaluated
through the yardstick of objectives made during planning. The programme is said to
be successful, only if the defined objectives have been attained. Now-a-days, most of
the development organizations adopt social auditing in the process of evaluation
where evaluation is made with the visible statements of the people for whom the
programme is made and implemented.

In the process of scientific solution of problems, the social worker

is expected to possess the above mentioned skills. In this regard, frequent and
systematic efforts are made during the training of social work to equip the
professionals with all these skills. Besides, the social worker is also skilled in:

1. Interviewing
2. Counseling
3. Relating himself to individuals, groups and communities
4. providing effectiveness as a change agent
5. Self-scrutinizing
6. Making conscious use of self
7. Motivating
8. Negotiating
9. Advocating
 Family, School, Industry, Development NGOs,

Hospital and Health Setting,

Correctional settings, Unorganized sector

 FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK IN FAMILY

INTRODUCTION
• Family is the oldest institution which has helped humankind to survive all
these centuries.
• It is united by the ties of marriage, where the members interact and
communicate with each other.
• It provides an environment of love, belonging and security to its members,
which guarantees them marital peace, fulfillment and growth.
• In the current social scenario, marital relationships are under increasing strain
and becoming complex and demanding more.
• There are growing instances of divorce, marital discord, demand for dowry,
bride burning, and violation of women’s dignity and so on.

FAMILY: THE CHANGING SCENARIO

• Family, being an ancient institution, helped the sustenance of mankind in all
their hardships and sufferings.
• Family provides the nurturing environment of love, belongingness and
security which guarantees that the members will have a harmonious life, peace,
fulfillment and growth.
• However, it does not mean that there would be no differences or provocations
or quarrels about minor matters among the members of the family.
• Such quarrels have always existed between siblings, between parents and
children or between husband and wife.
• Family is a very precious unit of the society, is being threatened by many
extraneous factors.
 • Present-day women are more educated and more economically independent
and they contribute substantially to the workplace and the family.
• Due to various factors, particularly when violence is perpetrated by their own
family members where the safety and security of the so-called home is taken
away by those whom they trusted.
• Violence against women is a global epidemic that kills, brutalizes, and harms
women physically, psychologically, sexually and economically.
• It is one of the most persistent forms of human rights violation that denies
women equality, security, dignity, self-worth and freedom.

FAMILY SOCIAL WORK

• Family social work aims at working with the individuals of the family who are
in a strained and stressed situations.
• Social workers help families improve relationships and cope with difficult
situations such as divorce, illness or death.
• They guide families through the counseling process by helping them identify
problems, set goals and find suitable solutions to their troubles and
tribulations.

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS ENGAGED IN WORKING WITH FAMILIES

• The social worker engaged in working with families is often involved in
multi-tasking, taking up the appropriate role according to the need and issue at
hand.
• Listed below are a few roles that social workers take up while working with
families.

1. Facilitator: Social workers initiate their role by simply facilitating and encouraging
family members to communicate.
• Sometimes, families have barely spoken to each other for months by the time
they seek professional help.
• The social worker acts as a neutral third party, helping family members share
their fears, concerns or disappointments in a non-confrontational way.
 • For example, if a child is misbehaving, it may not be because he disrespects
his parents, but rather because he is troubled by the stress in his parents'
marriage.
• A social worker would help him articulate and vent these thoughts and
disturbed feelings, so the entire family could discuss and understand perfectly
that these are the disturbing factors hindering their peaceful living.

2. Advisor or Guide: Social workers suggest immediate solutions, even if short-term,

to help families work through problems or defuse potentially volatile situations.
• A social worker will often attempt to stabilize the family unit, including
addressing individual members' issues, for interventions to be more effective.
• For example, if one family member has a serious drug or alcohol problem, the
social worker may recommend undergoing or having a treatment facility
before continuing with therapy.

3. Mentor: Social workers take up the role of a mentor and enable venting of
mounted feelings that members face frequently or occasionally which disturb their
peace of mind and peaceful living.
• Social workers also provide guidance and support for the members of the
family for peace living.

4. Advocate: Social workers act as advocates and work on taking up the cause of their
clients.
• They represent the client in different forms and advocate the benefit and
well-being of the unit.

5. Catalyst: Social workers often act as catalysts in bringing about change in the
family unit.
• The arguments placed, clarifications sought, communications held and
therapies conducted all bring about a dynamic change process in the minds of
the members for a decent, dignified, respected and peaceful living.
6. Counselor: The social worker also takes up the role of a counselor, if need arises.
• The goal of family counseling is to help families create a home atmosphere
where family members can communicate with and support each other through
times of conflict, quarrel and disagreement with one another.
• A conflict can have many causes, including poor relationships, substance
abuse, behavioral problems, or financial or work concerns. Conflicts can arise
between parents and their children.
• The goal of a social worker is to be an objective guide for family members
and help them understand their relationships and roles in family.
• The family dynamics, or how family members relate to each other, will be
carefully reviewed by the social worker.
• There is also a focus on communication patterns and behavior patterns
among family members which would be clearly studied and identified by him.
• Therefore, the social worker will work with the family to establish healthy
patterns of communication, find appropriate ways to express frustration and
anger, and set boundaries.

INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
Intervention is a strategy adopted by social workers to involve with individuals,
families and groups to enable them to meet their needs and issues.
• The main purpose of interventions is to aid clients in alleviating their
problems and improving their well-being and healthy living, which in
turn promotes peace, tranquility and good understanding.
• In working with families the intervention strategies adopted by the social
worker often depend on the nature of problem and its dynamic impact on the
individuals of the family.

Listed below are few common disputes found among Indian families.
Reasons for Common Family Disputes:
• Wife battering, dowry, bride burning
• Violent behavior of either of the spouses
• Addictions and related behavior
• Abuse in all forms - sexual, verbal, physical, emotional or psychological.
 • Indiscriminate and insensitive attitude and behavior towards spouses.
• Doubting the integrity/character of the spouse….etc.

FAMILY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

The social workers involved in working with families engage in interventions such as
• Emotion-Focused Intervention
• Strategic Intervention
• Intensive Family Preservation Approach
• Solution-Focused Brief Intervention
• Psychotherapeutic Approaches
• Family Psycho-Education

1.Emotion-Focused Intervention: The social worker aims at skillfully handling the

emotions and revealing the true meaning hidden behind them.
2.Strategic Intervention: It involves meticulous study, analysis, diagnosis and
planning for the intervention to be by the social workers.
3.Intensive Family Preservation Approach: This intervention aims at ensuring the
preservation of relationships of the members of the family.
 The frictions and divisions that have erupted among the members of the family
are identified, barriers are highlighted, misunderstandings and
misinterpretations are clarified and relationships are strengthened.
4.Solution-Focused Brief Intervention: These interventions are used to bring about
solutions to the existing problems in the family.
 They are very brief and focused and aim at alleviating the situation and
providing the best possible remedies or solution to the issue at hand.
5. Psychotherapeutic: These interventions are used in situations where the members
of the family or individuals may need deep psychological help.
 It is a clinical therapeutic process of working with individuals to enable
healing from within.
7. Family psycho-education: This involves briefing and educating family members
on the situation or condition of a member of the family for supportive well-being of
the individual and the family.
SKILLS REQUIRED FOR PRACTICE
Basic skills sets employed by social workers engaged in any helping process can be
listed as follows:
Apart from the above basic skills, social workers working with families need the
following skills for effective practice:
 Listening
 Interviewing
 Communicating
 Motivating
 Problem Solving
 Decision Making
 Empathizing Collateral

1.Attending Skills:It is the act of truly focusing on the individuals who come for
help.
Conscious efforts need to be taken to be aware of what the client is saying or trying to
communicate.
2. Confronting Skills: An attempt to make a respectful invitation to the client to
consider discrepancies.
• This is to help the client become more integrated and consistent in his
behavior.
3. Information Sharing Skill: Providing the client with knowledge and information
that is pertinent to his problem.
• This is to make the client well-informed about the facts he needs to know in
order to cope effectively.
• The information should be factual, clear and comprehensive.
4. Skills in Interpreting Non-Verbal Clues: Getting the meaning of the client’s
non-verbal clues to his or her underlying feelings and motives.
• It helps the social worker to get additional information about the client’s
thoughts and feelings and project warmth and sensitivity towards the clients.
5. Empathetic Listening Skills: The basic listening skills include observation, the
use of open and closed questions, and the use of encouraging, paraphrasing,
 summarization and reflection of the client’s feelings.
• It includes the process of tuning in carefully to the client’s message and
responding accurately to the meaning behind the message.
• The social worker conveys understanding, concern and empathy, avoids
interpretation, and suspends judgment.

CONCLUSION
• Family is the basic institution in the community. Hence, it is important that we
are equipped with the skills and knowledge of working with families.
• Family exists as a system, and so, handling the problem of any individual
member in the family involves the cooperation of many other members of the
family system.
• The social workers involved in working with families engage themselves in
adopting interventions such as emotion-focused, strategic intervention,
intensive family, preservation approaches, solution-focused brief intervention,
and psychotherapeutic family psycho-education.

 Schools
Schools provide a formative experience for children. Schools can
be a haven or a horrible and dreaded place, depending on the child’s experiences. The
images of crayons, brightly painted halls, and bulletin boards can create joy or fear for
a child. Peer interactions with other students can be a source of pleasure or alienation.
Many children cannot respond effectively to the school environment because of the
stress in their home and family lives. The school environment has traditionally
required students to conform, and those who could not meet a school’s expectations
usually dropped out. However, federal and state laws now require school districts to
conform to the needs of students and provide a setting in which all children can be
educated. This focuses on the multifaceted role of the school social worker and the
ways to utilize their knowledge, skills, and values to improve the lives of students.
The attempts to help to understand how to incorporate social work skills into the
public school system on an individual, group, and community level. It focuses on the
basics of building relationships, assessment, working with multidisciplinary teams,
and helping children and adolescents address the difficulties that keep them from
performing well in school. The book addresses issues at each developmental level of a
child’s public school life from preschool through transitioning out of high school.
Many of the topics in the book are illustrated by case examples, although names and
identifying information have been changed to maintain confidentiality. The case
examples illustrate actual situations that school social workers address. Some of the
examples explain how the social worker was able to help the child.
Others reflect the social worker’s inability to intervene successfully.
School districts employ social workers to address the needs of atrisk and special needs
students. The precise social work role in connection with these students varies from
school to school and from school district to school district. Some school districts
employ school social workers to serve multiple schools or to work with a single broad
population. Other districts assign the social worker to a single school or a narrow
population. Many school districts expect social workers to function as members of
crisis teams. The school social worker spends most of his or her time helping children
with emotional and behavioral disorders. Accordingly, many school districts employ
social workers in the special education department, where they are limited to working
with special education students. This diversity in the social worker’s roles creates a
wide variety of functions and responsibilities for school social workers.

BASIC TASKS
In spite of the social worker’s many roles and responsibilities, four basic tasks have
been identified as common to all school social workers. These are:
• Consultation with others in the school system as a member of a team.
• Assessment applied to a variety of different roles in direct service, consultation, and
program development.
• Direct intervention with children and parents in individual, group, and family
modalities.
• Assistance with program development (Constable, Kuzmickaite, Harrison, &
Volkmann, 1999).
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) has identified
important guidelines for the delivery of social work services in schools, including
standards for practice, professional preparation and development, and administrative
structure and support. These guidelines are set forth in the NASW Standards for
School Social Work Services, which were adopted in 1978 and revised in 1992 and
again in 2002 (NASW, 2002). School social workers should be aware that they may
be held accountable under these standards whether they are members of NASW or not.
For example, legal actions may use these standards as a basic measure of competence.
School social workers should review and apply these standards, which are set forth in

INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAMS
Social workers often serve as members of interdisciplinary teams
to assist in placement, review, and dismissal of students with special needs. As set
forth in Standard 9 of the NASW Standards for School Social Work Services, “school
social workers shall work collaboratively to mobilize the resources of local education
agencies and communities to meet the needs of students and families” (NASW, 2002).
Team members may include teachers, counselors, school psychologists, and
diagnosticians. School social workers must understand how to work effectively as a
member of the interdisciplinary team and how to add to the work of the team. “The
unique contribution of the school social worker to the interdisciplinary team is to
bring home, school, and community perspectives to the interdisciplinary process”
(NASW, 2002, Standard 9).
Membership in interdisciplinary teams requires
(1) interdependence,
(2) the ability to perform newly created professional activities
and take on new tasks as necessary,
(3) flexibility,
(4) collective ownership of goals, and
(5) reflection on processes (Bronstein, 2003).
School districts employ an array of professionals who strive to welcome
and educate children. The professionals who spend time with children at school are
teachers, administrators, counselors, nurses, school social workers, psychologists,
diagnosticians, vocational counselors or transition specialists, teachers’ aides, speech
therapists, and physical therapists. Teachers have the primary responsibility for
educating children. Sometimes students will be placed in special education classes
with teachers who have training to assist with both behavioral and educational
modifications. Most special education teachers are assisted by a teacher’s aide.
Teachers must have at least a bachelor’s degree and certification from the state in
which they teach.
Administrators manage the day-to-day activities in schools and provide
leadership by setting goals, establishing policies and procedures, budgeting,
determining curriculum, training teachers and other staff, and interacting with the
public. They are responsible for the quality of the school district’s educational
systems. They are ultimately responsible for curriculum and discipline. They hire and
fire the teachers and other staff. Most school administrators are former teachers.
However, a teacher must obtain additional education and certification to become an
administrator. The administrator in an individual school is usually a principal. In some
schools, the principal is assisted by one or more assistant principals. School
counselors provide counseling and guidance for students. They assist students with
academic and personal problems to help them succeed in school. Many middle and
high school counselors also help students plan their schedule of classes. Counselors
for students in the higher grades help students plan for careers and higher education.
School nurses provide health care in the school to further children’s success in the
classroom.
The nurse serves as a bridge between health care in the community and
the school. Nurses are involved in developing individualized health plans (IHPs) and
individualized education plans (IEPs). The variety of nursing tasks in a school ranges
from dispensing prescription medications to teaching about the physical changes that
take place during puberty. School nurses check children who are ill and injured and
determine when a child needs to be sent home because of an illness or injury. Nurses
also help report child abuse and neglect. Most school nurses are registered nurses.
School psychologists and diagnosticians help screen children to determine if they
have learning or psychological problems. Their reports assure that children are
provided with the programs and adjustments that will ensure success at school. These
programs range from gifted and talented programs to special education programs.
School psychologists must have a master’s degree in psychology. School
diagnosticians are an emerging profession. Certification for this position usually
requires teaching experience and a master’s degree. Speech therapists diagnose and
treat speech, voice, and language disorders. Most states require a master’s degree in
speech–language pathology for licensing. Physical therapists help children with
severe physical problems remain comfortable at school. Vocational or transition
specialists help students plan for effective careers. They frequently provide follow-up
services for those students with special needs after they leave the public schools.
School social workers assist children so they can be successful in school.
The goal of school social work should be to give all children the
opportunity and resources to help them succeed academically and socially in a safe
and healthy school environment. Social work in a public school setting plays a vital
role in developing students and linking them to the resources and support necessary to
maximize their potential in the educational process (O’Donnell, 2000). Most states
require a master’s degree in social work in order to practice as a school social worker.
School social work is one of the most rewarding and interesting areas of social work
practice. School social workers can have a lifechanging impact on their young clients
in a way that those who work with adults rarely experience. The school social worker
and the other professionals described above form an interdisciplinary team that works
together on behalf of children and adolescents. This book addresses the experiences of
children as they meet with either success and encouragement or failure and
discouragement in school.

MULTIFACETED ROLES OF A SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER

The main goal of school social work is to enable students to
function and learn in the school environment. School social workers practice in a
secondary setting—the primary purpose of schools is to educate students, not to
provide social services. The school social work practitioner will often be the only
social worker in a school and sometimes in an entire school district. Therefore,
autonomous school social work practice requires skills for all levels of
practice—micro, mezzo, and macro.
School social workers work primarily with individual
students. However, they also develop and facilitate groups for students and parents.
Effective school social work practice consists of collaborating, consulting, developing
behavior plans, and training others to work with difficult children in the context of a
child’s daily school experience (Frey & George-Nichols, 2003). School social
workers are involved in training and resource-building activities such as staff
development, community education, and grant writing. School social workers assist
interdisciplinary teams by providing information from a thorough assessment of
students that usually includes information from collateral sources. A treatment team
that utilizes experts in testing, diagnosis, and referral is the most comprehensive way
to assist needy children and their families. School social workers also provide direct
treatment to students, so the social worker reports to team members about the progress
students make during counseling.
Some school districts employ social workers as part of
crisis intervention teams to assist with severe mental health issues. These school
social workers work across all age groups from prekindergarten through 12th grade.
Their training and experience in serving a whole system utilizing the ecological
systems perspective allows them to add a unique perspective to an intervention team.
School social workers are in a position to orchestrate and support a unified and
comprehensive intervention plan for children (Frey & George-Nichols, 2003).
Members of school crisis teams often include a psychologist, social worker, school
nurse, and, sometimes, a school police officer. The goal of these crisis intervention
teams is to intervene when there are serious problems such as suicide threats, violence,
abuse, severe behavior problems, deaths of students or teachers, and other school
crisis situations. Assistance from social workers is often required during a crisis and
afterward to provide grief counseling and debriefing or to assist affected families by
referral to an outside agency.

SKILLS NECESSARY TO PRACTICE AS A SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER

School social workers perform on many levels, including work with
individual students and their parents, groups of students, teachers, and community
agencies. The following provides a brief overview of the many types of skills a school
social worker must possess.

 Assessment
The ability properly to assess and treat a student is at the core of
providing adequate direct services. School social workers must “possess skills in
systematic assessment and investigation” (NASW, 2002, Standard 21) and “conduct
assessments of student needs that are individualized and provide information that is
directly useful for designing interventions that address behaviors of concern” (NASW,
2002, Standard 12). One of the school social worker’s most valuable roles is to
educate members of the school district and community about the value of early
assessment, intervention, and treatment by qualified mental health professionals
(Maynard-Moody, 1994). School social workers contribute an essential dimension to
the assessment of students through the use of the ecological perspective, which
necessitates consideration of the child’s family and neighborhood (Radin, 1992;
NASW, 2002, Standard 12).
Accordingly, they must “incorporate assessments in developing and
implementing intervention and evaluation plans that enhance students’ abilities to
benefit from educational experiences” (NASW, 2002, Standard 13). The other aspect
of assessment that is unique to the social work profession is the use of the strengths
perspective (NASW, 2002, Standard 5). As Saleebey (1997) has indicated, practicing
from the strengths perspective means that “Everything you do as a social worker will
be predicated, in some way, on helping to discover and embellish, explore and exploit
clients’ strengths and resources in the service of assisting them to achieve their goals,
realize their dreams, and shed the irons of their own inhibitions and misgivings”

Direct Practice
School social workers should have practice skills for working with
individuals, groups, and communities.
 Counseling Individuals
Mental health problems are present at all grade levels in the public
school system. School social workers can help students with emotional and behavioral
problems adjust to the school environment and learn to manage their own behaviors.
They also “promote collaboration among community health and mental health
services providers and facilitate student access to these services” (NASW, 2002,
Standard 26). In addition, school social workers assist parents and teachers in learning
to cope with and manage a child’s emotional and behavioral problems.

 Home Visits
School social workers visit the homes of students for various reasons.
Some home visits are made to asses the reasons for student misbehavior or absences.
When students have prolonged absences, it is the school social worker who visits the
home to assess the situation and give information back to the school district.
Sometimes the school social worker makes an initial home visit in order to discuss a
child’s school difficulties when school officials have been unable to contact parents
by phone. Social workers also visit student homes to involve the parents in activities
that can reinforce programs and behavior management plans that the school has put
into place. Some districts ask school social workers to provide outside intervention in
the home, such as teaching parents how to make accommodations for
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, and special needs. School
social workers help implement in-home training for special education students and
provide parents with information that will assist them in parenting children with
special needs. Program evaluation studies and theoretical and empirical research have
indicated that positive intervention outcomes are related to factors other than
child-centered activities. Family-centered services are intended to help the family
maintain the child in the home and prevent out-of-home placement (Sabatino, 2001).
In-home activities and parental involvement can help students succeed in school.

 Group Work
Many students receive counseling at school through their
membership in groups. Such groups meet the needs of diverse populations and are
effective tools in reaching many students at once. Group work in schools includes the
three major models of group work: remedial, reciprocal, and social-goals. The
remedial model provides group therapy geared toward changing dysfunctional
behavior. The reciprocal model focuses on achieving mutual aid or support through
group work such as that practiced by Alcoholics Anonymous [Alateen]. The
socialgoals model addresses social consciousness or responsibility through groups
such as social skills and anger management groups (Whitaker, 1980). Some of the
main types of groups with which social workers assist focus on social skills, support
for new students, anger management, and grief and/or support related to parental
separation. In addition, recreational groups provide field trips and teach new skills.
Social workers also train students in group work and counseling skills so they can
help their peers.
 School social workers assist parents through group work as well.
Teaching parenting skills and educating parents on how to accommodate students
with specific disabilities are common tasks for school social workers. They also work
with transition specialists to help students and their parents prepare to leave public
school when the students turn 18 or have completed an equivalency exam for special
education students leaving high school. Social workers teach parents about the various
community programs and resources and, when necessary, make referrals.

COMMUNITY CONNECTIONS
Community Mental Health Social workers can be the link between
community programs and the schools. They should promote student health and mental
health and facilitatestudentaccesstocommunityhealthandmentalhealthservices (NASW,
2002, Standard 26). “Wraparound programs” involve agencies outside the school
system in assisting with delivery of services to needy children and their families.
Research indicates that these services should be developed and approved by a
community-based interdisciplinary services team that will not deny services to any
youngster regardless of the severity of his or her disability. The school social worker
must be the link between the school and any outside source of support.

 Court Referrals
Most states have mandatory school attendance laws. Many school
districts require the school social worker to refer students who have excessive
absences to a truancy court. When a student has extended or excessive absences, the
school social worker should meet with the student and his or her parents to determine
the cause of the absences. Where the circumstances dictate, the social worker must
refer the matter to the appropriate court. Once the court referral is made, the social
worker usually has the responsibility of attending court hearings and providing the
student’s attendance and school records to the judge. After a student has been referred
to court, the school social worker monitors student attendance through daily teacher
sign-in sheets. These sign-in sheets are given to the court to verify that the student
attended each class period every day.
 Advocacy
An important role for the school social worker is that of advocate. As
Standard 8 of the NASW Standards for School Social Work Services recognizes,
“School social workers shall advocate for students and their families in a variety of
situations” (NASW, 2002, Standard 8). Social workers act as advocates for the
parents when they help them understand their rights. Often, social workers must seek
out parents who are unwilling to become involved with the school system and help
them understand that someone in the school supports them. There is a significant
group of parents for whom involvement necessitates outreach and recruitment. Many
parents are intimidated by the school system.
The school social worker can reach out to them and assure the
successful outcome of their interactions with the school (Banchy, 1977).

 Mediation
Mediation is a role in which school social workers can serve
both their school districts and clients. Standard 15 of the NASW Standards provides
that “School social workers shall be trained in and use mediation and
conflict-resolution strategies to promote students’ resolution of their nonproductive
encounters in the school and community and to promote productive relationships”
(NASW, 2002, Standard 15). Mediation involves structured attempts to resolve pupil,
parent, and school conflicts without using the formal appeal process, which is very
costly (Weiner, 1980). School social workers can be effective neutral mediators to
bring about needed change or to find mutually agreeable ways to settle conflicts
between parents and schools.

INTERVENTION WITH SPECIAL-NEEDS STUDENTS

School social workers often are required to assist in the
implementation and delivery of services to students with special needs. These services
may include assessment, early identification, or actual provision of direct services.
School social workers in rural communities struggle with the implementation of
special programs. Limited resources and cost are two of the major obstacles to the
provision of services. Rural school systems face a host of barriers to quality service
delivery that urban schools do not. Rural schools usually have less tolerance for
diversity, more homogeneous populations, more traditional moral values, and an
expectation that the community can take care of its own members (Caudill, 1993).
Where areas of need are not being addressed by the local community or education
agency, school social workers should work to create services that address these needs.
(NASW, 2002, Standard 14).

RESOURCE AND PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

School social workers refer students and families for outside
intervention and testing. When students are on probation, the school social worker is
the link between the school and the probation officer, and social workers provide
information to juvenile court in truancy cases, as noted earlier. Likewise, outside
agencies often contact the school social worker for information. For example, ad litem
attorneys may turn to the social worker for information about student progress. Social
workers in schools also work cooperatively with the school nurse and teachers to
assist in referrals for child abuse and neglect.

HELPING SCHOOL PERSONNEL UNDERSTAND THE ROLE OF SCHOOL

SOCIAL WORK
It is sometimes difficult for school social workers to gain visibility
and to convince district personnel of the validity of their role and skills. To avoid this
problem, the social worker should gain visibility and network with school personnel
and parents whenever possible. As stated in Standard 3 of the NASW Standards for
School Social Work Services, “School social workers shall provide consultation to
local education agency personnel, school board members, and community
representatives to promote understanding and effective utilization of school social
work services” (NASW, 2002, Standard 3). School social workers should join PTA
boards, attend school board meetings, offer classes for teachers, and provide macro
work within the system to become visible so that people will gain an understanding of
the variety of services offered by social workers.
A school social worker is fortunate if he or she is limited to one or
two campuses. The social worker then has the opportunity to become familiar with the
administration, counseling staff, and teachers. It is much easier to be successful on a
campus when there is a relationship of trust established with the staff. Each school
campus has a unique culture that is initially difficult to identify and understand. The
social worker must show school administrators and teachers the benefits of having a
school social worker on their campus.

TRAINING AND EDUCATION NECESSARY FOR SCHOOL SOCIAL

WORK
School social workers must know how to build trust and positive
relationships with children and how to practice independently.
The Essential Knowledge Base The school social worker utilizes a
generalist perspective. Generalist practice is the use of the problem-solving process to
intervene with systems of various sizes, including individuals, families, groups,
organizations, and communities. The problem-solving process is a step-by-step model
that includes engaging with the client, assessing problem areas and identifying
strengths, creating and carrying out an intervention plan, evaluating the success of that
intervention, and terminating the client–practitioner relationship. The generalist
operates within a system and person-in-environment framework and recognizes that
many problems require intervention with more than one system (Boyle, Hull, Mather,
Smith, & Farley, 2006).
Direct practice skills include:
1. Knowing how to develop and maintain professional/helping
relationships. 2. Collecting and assessing information about a problem or situation. 3.
Recognizing the client’s strengths and abilities. 4. Developing a plan to improve the
problem or situation. 5. The use of legitimately recognized and researched
interventions. 6. Working within the values and ethics of the profession (Boyle et al.,
2006).
Autonomous practice skills are required of school social workers
because they often work alone or as the only social worker on an interdisciplinary
team. School social workers often have to educate other employees in the education
system about their skills and capabilities. They also educate students and their parents
about the role and function of school social work in order to receive permission from
parents to work with their children. School social workers work independently from
other social workers and in non-social service settings where each social worker must
determine his or her own work routine and job description. In order to work alone, a
social worker should understand the generalist model to intervene on all levels and all
situations with individuals, groups, the community, parents, and school teams. He or
she must have a clear understanding of the values and ethics of the profession and
have the ability to make decisions for clients that are congruent with social work
values, without the opportunity to consult with other social workers. School social
workers must also understand limits of practice (O’Donnell, 2000).
Getting Ready to Practice School social workers do not practice
in the traditional agencies that employ social workers, such as social service and
child welfare agencies. Therefore, many of the employees in school districts are not
familiar with the social worker’s role and do not understand what a social worker does.
For example, school administrators frequently do not understand how to utilize social
workers—particularly when a social worker may serve an entire district and visit
several schools weekly.
Knowledge about Mental Illness and Learning Problems School
social workers benefit from having specific knowledge about learning disorders
and mental disorders, as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). Many of the high-risk students whom social
workers serve have a learning disability or behavior disorder. Some of the more
common disorders seen in the schools are childhood depression, autism, bipolar
disorder, conduct disorder, severe behavior problems, eating disorders, and substance
abuse. Many children have a dual diagnosis of depression or substance abuse along
with another disorder. These children come to school taking five or six different
medications. The school day is predictable for children who are on a great deal of
medication. They sleep, wake up feeling hostile, refuse to work, act exhausted, try to
complete some schoolwork, and usually return to sleep. Adolescents with learning
disabilities are at increased risk to do poorly in school and become potential dropouts.
Likewise, a learning disability puts students at risk because they have demonstrated
educational achievement below that of their peers. They have twice as great a risk of
suffering emotional distress than their peers, and, if female, they are twice as likely to
attempt suicide and be involved with peer violence (Constable, McDonald, & Flynn,
2002).
Relationship-Building Skills Skills in building positive
relationships are essential for school social workers, whose ethical principles
recognize the central importance of human relationships (NASW, 2002). Children
need to build a connection before they will let the social worker help them. Social
workers should build strong relationships with children through the use of empathy,
genuineness, and positive regard, skills identified by humanistic psychologists as
essential for a therapeutic relationship. Once the relationship of trust is developed, the
social worker can become the vehicle for change. Social workers need to help
children feel valued and accepted and need to be a positive motivator, encouraging
children to keep trying in spite of adverse situations.
Knowledge about Child Development and Childhood Risk and
Resilience Social workers should be knowledgeable about developmental and
biological factors that affect students’ ability to function effectively in school (NASW,
2002, Standard 18). School social workers also need to be aware of childhood
developmental risk and resilience factors (Davies, 2004). They should further be
aware of the warning signs of suicide and signs of abuse and neglect, grief, and
trauma. If these symptoms are not recognized by a knowledgeable practitioner, the
child may be misdiagnosed and not treated appropriately.
Knowledge about Specific Needs in Individual School Districts
School social workers assess the needs in the school district and provide inservice
training to teachers and school administrators that addresses the goals and
mission of the educational institution (NASW, 2002, Standard 10). This training
may include instruction on how to deal with mental health issues and students with
special needs.

THE LEGAL MANDATE FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION AND OTHER LAWS

AFFECTING SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKERS
Social Workers and the Laws Governing Services to Disabled
Students School social workers assist students who are receiving special education
services. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, Public Law No.
101-476) is a federal law that has had a strong impact on the role of the school social
worker and other educators as they provide special education services. IDEA ensures
the rights of students with disabilities to a free public education that meets their
unique needs. As with other current and proposed policies and laws, it is necessary for
school social workers to understand this law in order to do their jobs effectively
(NASW, 2002, Standard 22). The social worker must find ways to assist teachers and
administrators to meet their obligations toward students with and without disabilities.
The social worker must find ways to translate social work skills and values and social
work problem-solving approaches into educational terms (Haddad, 1980). With an
adequate knowledge of the requirements of the law, the school social worker has
unlimited possibilities to expand the social work role by assisting other educators,
students, and parents to understand their rights and responsibilities under the law.
Following are a list of suggestions that can help school social workers who are
assigned to work in special education expand and clarify their role.
1. Provide in-service training to educators (regular and special
education teachers and administrators) to help them understand social work ideas
about individual differences and the philosophy that each situation is unique. 2. Train
special educators about how to utilize school social workers. 3. Help regular
education teachers learn how to set goals that are matched with students’ real abilities.
This involves learning about different types of student problems and the goals that
would be most beneficial to student growth. 4. Teach small-group skills to teachers. 5.
Help teachers develop a peer consultation system. 6. Help acquire money and
information for new materials (grant writing). 7. Seek positions on curriculum
committees and stress the importance of a curriculum that allows for individual
differences. 8. Become a strong advocate for students and parents. Help inform
parents about their rights. 9. Teach parents about the IEP and its benefits. 10. Seek
leadership positions in schools and unions. 11. Teach educators how to manage the
stress that accompanies their jobs. 12. Help mediate differences between special and
regular education and serve as a liaison between the two. 13. Provide public relations
for the school by informing community agencies about the services that are being
provided to students with disabilities. 14. Reinforce the idea of parent–teacher
contacts in both regular and special education. 15. Train regular educators about the
IEP and how to incorporate school social work services into the plan for problem
students. 16. Work within the system to facilitate placement of students with
disabilities. Make sure adequate testing is done. 17. Make sure that regular educators
who have disabled students in their classrooms understand their conditions and how to
deal with them. 18. Work with state vocational rehabilitation programs to be sure
disabled students are adequately transitioned after completing public school.
 Social Work Roles in Special Education Social workers serve
many functions when they work in special education. They assist in placing students
in special education programs; serve as members of IEP teams; make classroom
behavior observations; and interview students, parents, and educators to complete
assessments and social histories in order to provide information that will be used in
placement of students. Once students are placed, the social worker may help
implement any therapeutic or social skills goals prescribed in IEPs. Meeting IEP goals
requires knowledge about special education law and how to work with students with a
specific diagnosis. Social workers must be familiar with methods of outcome
measurement and evidence based practice to illustrate how the social work
intervention assists students in meeting prescribed goals. “Evidence-based practice is
defined as the planned use of empirically supported assessment and intervention
methods combined with the judicious use of monitoring and evaluation strategies for
the purpose of improving the psycho-social wellbeing of clients” (O’Hare, 2005, p. 6).
School social workers must be able to verify that the intervention they choose and
implement meets the student’s needs and helps promote positive change. Federal
mandates such as the 1997 amendments to the IDEA have brought special attention to
the need to work with disabled students. Rural and poor school districts may not have
programs in place but are still required to meet the objectives of these federal laws.
The requirements of these laws are:
1. To provide assistance to states in developing early intervention
services for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families. This assures a free
appropriate public education to all children and youth with disabilities. 2. To assure
that the rights of children and youth with disabilities from birth to age 21, as well as
their families, are protected. 3. To help states and localities provide for early
intervention services and the education of all children with disabilities. 4. To assess
and assure the effectiveness of efforts to provide early intervention services and
educate children with disabilities (Atkins-Burnett, 2004).
The family-centered early-intervention practice ideas first introduced
in 1986 remain part of the new amendments of IDEA. These require early assessment
of both the strengths and needs of the children and their families and the specification
of goals for both.
 In addition to assessment and intervention with the child, a statement
about the family resources, priorities, concerns, and expected outcomes is part of each
individualized family service plan (IFSP) (Sabatino, 2001). School social workers
often assist in assessments, treatment plans, and linkages to resources (NASW, 2002,
Standards 12, 13, and 26). They may screen the child in the home, provide community
referrals, and help set up a community network to identify and serve these
special-needs children. They can also assist teachers and parents in early identification
through inservice training and parent education.

LEGISLATION THAT AFFECTS THE ROLE OF SCHOOL SOCIAL

WORKERS
The federal legislation commonly referred to as “No Child Left
Behind” authorizes federal funds to be used for prekindergarten programs and
additional paraprofessionals in the classroom. No Child Left Behind is based on (1)
emphasis on proven teaching methods, (2) stronger accountability focused on results,
(3) increased flexibility and local control, and (4) more options for parents. As a result
of this law, school districts are adding new prekindergarten programs. School social
workers should work with district administrators to be part of the assessment team
that identifies at-risk youth for these prekindergarten programs.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS
The school social worker, who must rely on NASW’s Code of Ethics
as a guide to ethical decision making (NASW, 2002, Standard 1), experiences ethical
dilemmas in maintaining social work values in a nonsocial work setting. Sometimes
the ethical dilemma may be caused by lack of funding—school social workers are told
not to recommend outside services to parents because school districts may have to pay
for them. It also is difficult for social workers in the school system to confine their
work to helping students achieve in school; often circumstances away from the school
environment create the problem, and yet the social worker is restricted to working
with the child in the school environment. Ethical dilemmas may also arise when a
social worker faces other non-social work professionals who do not understand
confidentiality. In such situations, social workers should inform students, families,
and other professionals of the confidentiality limitations and requirements when
services are initiated. Since supervision of school social work programs should be
provided by credentialed and experienced social workers with masters’ degrees in the
field (NASW, 2002, Standard 35), some ethical dilemmas arise from supervision by
non-social work professionals. School social workers often are supervised by
educators, who focus on education and protecting the school district, while social
workers focus on the client. The chapters that follow will deal with many of these
issues in more detail.

CONCLUSION
The role and function of the school social worker vary among school
districts. School social workers are generalist practitioners who must have skills to
work with individuals, groups, families, and communities. Each school campus has a
unique culture that makes it necessary for school social workers to understand
diversity and how to work with unique situations. School social workers must have
the ability to work with other professionals in the school district and to connect
children and families to community resources. Social workers utilize their
professional knowledge and skills to help children who are at risk, who are having
difficulties, or who are disabled succeed in school.

 Social Work in Industrial Sector

Introduction
We live in an industrial age. The machine-processed articles supply
most of our daily necessities and have contributed enormously to the material wealth
of the world. Today, the worker finds it possible to enjoy more leisure and comfort
than many of his counterparts a century ago. Today, if the industrial society has
placed at his disposal many comforts, it has also created a new threat to his economic,
social and emotional security. The ever changing economic and technological
conditions require workers to keep rethinking about their social situation, to go on
making new adaptations, and to create a network of new relationships. For many
people, job consumes most of their time. More than that, personal aspirations,
interests, fears, joys, family and community problems are tied up with the job. Since
workers give most of their working hours and productive ability to the jobs and are
left with little time and energy for other matters, it is not only an ethical responsibility
of the employers, but it is also very important from the production and efficiency
point of view that conditions be created wherein the operatives could develop
satisfying work relationships. The groups and individuals should be able to live and
work together in greater harmony and with greater satisfaction to all concerned.
In recent years, the social work profession has extended its
purview to include many new and exciting areas of practice. Though the service
delivery differs in different settings, a common ideal, namely ‘help’, uniformly binds
them all. One such field that is receiving increasing attention is social work practice in
business and industry. Today, the business community in its bid to improve the
overall functioning of its human resource is seriously examining and using some of
the services that professional social workers can offer by virtue of their specialized
training. The emerging field of social work in industry refers to the reciprocity of
objectives of business and social work. Concept Even though social work in industry
started nearly eighty years ago, it is still a relatively new concept. Though still in the
process of growth, progress has clearly been made towards the clarification of the
particular aspects arising from the integration of the industrial social work function
with the overall organisational structure of an enterprise. The inspiration for this
new activity came from the European seminar on Personnel Social work held in
Brussels in September 1960. The report of the seminar emphasized that the term
‘personnel social work’ was preferred to the term ‘Industrial Social Work’ because
the scope of the profession extends beyond the industry. Various definitions and
interpretations have been given to the term industrial social work. However, the
field is still in the process of defining itself. According to Saini (1975), industrial
social work has come to be defined as a systematic way of helping individuals and
groups towards a better adaptation to work situation. For any discussion on the
concept of industrial social work, one has to revert to the report of European
Seminar on Personnel Social Work that accepted the following definition. ‘Personnel
Social Work is a systematic way of helping individual and groups towards a better
adaptation to the working situation. Social problems in an enterprise arise whenever
an individual employee or a group and the work situation cannot adapt to each other.’
These days, the term occupational
social work is being increasingly used in the West for the reason that the scope of
social work can be extended to include all kinds and variety of occupations. The latest
interpretation goes as follows:
‘Occupational social work can be broadly defined as a specialized
field of social work practice, which addresses the human and social needs of the work
community through a variety of interventions, which aim to foster optimal adaptation
between individual and their environments. In this context, occupational social
worker may address a wide range of individual and family needs, relationships within
organisations and the broader issues of the relationship of the world of work to the
community at large (NASW 1987). From the definition, it is clear that no matter by
what name we call it, social work, when applied to business and industry, is a
utilization of social work knowledge, skills and values to bring about goodness of fit
between man and his work environment.
According to the Dortmund report, social work in industry
has a threefold aim, namely:

a) to help any individual or group to adapt to the work situation and to meet
the work requirements; it may here be pointed out that the problems arising for
these individuals or groups may :
1) be caused by, or occur in the work environment;
2) have unfavourable effects on the work situation, although not arising therefrom.

b) to stimulate management to adapt the work situation to the social needs of the
employees.
c) to assist the work “community’’ as a whole to function in a better way.

Social Responsibility of Industry

“None of our institutions exists by itself and is an end in
itself”. Every institution is an organ of society. Business is no exception. The business
role has traditionally focused on economic performance in the production of goods
and services, but this role is gradually evolving towards a more social orientation. In
the early 1950s, there was a sharp shift in public mood toward more social concern,
which was reflected in extensive social conscience, concern and social responsibility.
 The idea of social responsibility denotes that decision
makers in industry are obligated to take actions, which protect and improve the
welfare of the society as a whole, along with their own interests. The net effect is to
enhance the quality of life in the broadest possible way. Society expects business to
show much more concern for social effects, which arise directly from performance of
business’ economic functions and also expects business to help solve a number of
general social problems, that only indirectly relate to business activities. Social
responsibility is concerned with the public interest. The substance of social
responsibility arises from the concern for the consequence of one’s acts, as they might
affect the interest of others.
There are a number of ways in which business and industry
may respond to social demands being made on it. One approach is withdrawal by
which business recedes further into its own shell, reducing its interface with society
and trying to mind its own business, it passes its social costs on to society, and
generally leaves the problem for society to solve.
Business could also use the public relations approach. It
offers public, through the press and public speeches, a multitude of stories about its
accomplishments in social areas, all the while making no changes in existing
practices.
Another option is the legal approach. Business depends
upon law to protect it from changes because it knows that laws are amended very
slowly in a large social system. Meanwhile, business does only the minimum required
by law.
An additional approach is bargaining by which business
negotiates with pressure groups, which make claims upon it. In this manner, it
attempts to resolve disputes with negotiated settlements, which often produce change.
Problem solving is another approach in which business makes a genuine study of
society’s and business’s values and needs and then it attempts to reconcile them in
constructive ways. The problem solving role is an ideal one for business. Business is
known as an efficient problem solver, and people look to it for leadership in this area.
Problem solving will also help business retain its position as a major social institution.
If it can, by its own merits, contribute to social solutions, it will improve goodwill and
acceptance of its role. (Davis and Blomstrom, 1975)
 In order to discharge their social responsibilities, to
promote employee satisfaction, to achieve efficiency of operation and to ensure
orderly conduct of plant affairs, most companies work in three directions. Firstly, they
participate in and contribute to public programmes of social security and national
health service. Secondly, they cooperate with the state and local authorities and other
agencies whose services are made use of by the workers. Thirdly, they organise
personnel departments in their plants to perform the tasks, such as employment
service, industrial relations, wage administration, compliance of statutory obligations,
welfare management and social work.
All these services constitute the personnel services in
industry. It falls to the management to see that the multiple social responsibilities of
business are fulfilled.

Scope of Social Work in Industry

There is plenty of scope for social work practice in industry. This is
because the larger the organisation, the more complex are the problems faced by
human beings. In small organisations, employees have direct access to the managers
and so many of their problems get sorted out early. In larger organisations, there is no
such opportunity for the employees, as everything has to go through proper channels
and, thus, they have access only to the supervisors and junior managers, who are not
decision makers. Relationships between employees and management are more
formalized and availability of the management to the employees is reduced.
Paternalistic attitudes towards employees and authoritarian kind of approach seem
more prevalent in organisations. A social worker can help the employees to overcome
their problems and continue to function as productive workers. According to M.M.
Desai, the professionally trained social worker can develop his/ her
programmes at the following levels:
 Preventive and developmental
 Curative
 Preventive and Developmental
1) Informal educational programmes aimed at enlightening the workers on issues
pertaining to work life like industrial safety, functional literacy, saving habits, social
security, etc.
2) Promoting the use of health and medical programmes for workers and their
families (health check-ups, inoculation campaigns, family planning, informative
sessions on nutrition, low cost diets, childcare, etc.
3) Personal and environmental hygiene, etc.
4) Developing recreational programmes like library services, prime sports gatherings,
various skill competitions, exhibitions, film shows, etc. celebration of cultural
festivals, supplementary income programmes, hobby classes, vocational guidance
programmes, etc. Curative

 Curative programmes are aimed at handling problem situations faced by the

individual worker by helping him to make maximum use of his own potentials
and the resources offered by the industry and the community. Counselling to the
individual employees and their families can be given for problems, such as
alcoholism, indebtedness, and absenteeism, etc. The counselling services can be
coupled with concrete assistance by the way of:
1) Securing medical help within or outside industry.
2) Planning the family budgets.
3) Helping employee family members in obtaining funds.
4) Seeking employment for worker’s dependents.
5) Referring the worker/his dependents to welfare agencies in the community like
child guidance clinic, marriage counselling bureaus, alcoholic anonymous groups and
the like, wherever there is a need.
Thus, social work skill can be actively used for preventing
problems from happening, as also for enriching the life of the workers and their
families. Early detection and prompt treatments may prevent some workers from
becoming serious casualties. Social work intervention in industrial sector can be at
micro and macro level. At micro level, the social worker can provide treatment to the
worker and his family, employer and union members. Help may be given in relation
to problems related to work, self and others around them, such as job performance,
job satisfaction, absenteeism, conflict situations, etc. Further problems, such as
anxiety, depression, phobia, mental disturbance, substance abuse, marital and family
conflict, may also be attended to. At the macro level, it can be organisational
intervention where the social worker can provide individual and group consultation to
supervisors and managers at all levels regarding understanding of human behaviour.
The intervention may be in the form of proposing a new job design. Organising and
planning of the services at the preventive, developmental and curative levels requires
a basic study of the organisation. It is through an open and sensitive approach, rather
than a predetermined blue print that the intuitive social worker can positively
integrate the social work objectives with the management objectives. However, the
scope of social work in business and industry would, in real terms, depend upon:
1) the attitude of the management;
2) the quality of the goodness of bet between needs of business and the extent to
which these needs can be addressed by social work;
3) cost effectiveness of the services provided.

Place of Social Work in Industry

According to the study group organised by the Netherlands
Government, a qualified social worker is necessary in an enterprise for the
following reasons:
1) their specialised training in the understanding of human problems, ability to
consider the human personality as a whole;
2) their knowledge of the conditions of work;
3) their knowledge of the worker’s life;
4) their knowledge of the resources of the community;
5) their professional secrecy; and
6) their capacity for co-operation.
The role of Social Worker has traditionally been
assigned to the Personnel/ Welfare functionaries in India. In fact, the social work
profession, to a great extent, owes its popularity and growth to the acceptance of
social work training as a necessary preparation for personnel and welfare work in
India. A comparison with other countries reveals that the importance attached to
the social worker’s role in the personnel field is much higher in India than
elsewhere. There are a number of trained social workers in our country who have
been absorbed into industry, mainly in the personnel and labour welfare departments.
 In the West, Industrial Social Work has developed along
different lines, where full time Social Workers are appointed in Industries to carry
out the social work role and they are not burdened with other duties of Industrial
relations and personnel administration, as is the case in India.
India is the only country in the world where there is a
statutory requirement that certain specified types of industry must employ trained
social workers for labour welfare. The posts of welfare officers in industry were
created by the government under the Factories Act 1947. These functionaries are paid
by the individual managements, but their qualifications, method of recruitment, duties
are prescribed by the government through rules framed for the purpose. Nearly all
states require that the welfare officer should be a graduate of an approved
University recognized by State Government for their training. Most of these
institutions are schools of social work. The field of labour welfare and personnel
management has found its place on the curriculum of the schools of social
work as one of the specialization and a large number of students opt for it. For
their training, the students are sent to various factories where they are expected to
learn about the working and functions of the labour/ personnel department. They are
also expected to apply their social work knowledge and skills, while tackling the
labour problems.
Today many institutions have sprung up, which offer
degree diploma in labour welfare and personnel management, still, we find that
those having social work training are preferred over others, which indicates that
the benefits of social work training are recognised by the employers.
There is still not a clear-cut and well-defined role for the
social worker in the industrial sector. The present scenario throws up a confused
picture where the role of the social worker varies according to the size of the
industry and the perception of social worker’s contribution by the owners of the
enterprise. In most undertakings, social workers are seen as performing tasks assigned
to a personnel manager or officer, such as recruitment, selection, wage and salary
administration, etc. Here the social worker has become more of a personnel man. In
smaller undertakings, it is usually a one man show where he is partly a personnel man,
partly a social worker, partly a timekeeper and, at other times, a public relations
officer, trying to juggle with the wide ranging responsibilities.
 Hospital and Health Setting
Aimed at a better humanity the social worker works with the strong
desire to help in improving people’s lives. With the changing demands of health care
sector the role of a social worker turns vital. Social workers in health care settings
provide a range of services including health care education, crisis intervention,
supportive counseling and case management. Professional social workers turn
inevitable to the medical settings owing to their holistic approach covering physical,
emotional and environmental factors. The early concern of medical social workers
was making heath care services available for everyone including the poor and
eradicate diseases like tuberculosis but as the time passed on the areas of concern got
broadened. While working in a medical setting the social worker should always stick
on to the basic values of the individual’s right to self determination and attitude of
empathy towards the client.

Role and Responsibilities of a Social Worker in Health Care Settings

 Integrate theory and practice: The social worker uses knowledge about, and
psycho-social implications of, illness, injury, and health conditions to provide
social work services to clients and families to help them manage and cope with
the impact of such health matters. Social workers have expertise in
communication; navigating systems of care, resources, client and family coping
skills; and the comprehensive impact of health conditions on the client. His areas
of knowledge must include:
 The roles and functions of social work in health care the psycho-social needs of
clients and families
 The physiological elements of illness and their impact on psycho-social
functioning
 The psychological and spiritual needs of clients and families and how to
ensurethat they can be addressed
 Community resources to assist clients and families
 Laws, regulations, and policies affecting clients, families, and social work
practice
 Evidence-based practices and social work research in health care
 The needs of special populations.

 Assessment and Intervention : Assessment is a fundamental process of social

work practice. Treatment and intervention strategies/plans require that social
workers both assess and reassess client needs and modify plans accordingly.
Social work assessments in health care settings include considering relevant
factors and the needs of the individual client and the family. The health status of
populations and of individuals is assessed for many reasons. A comprehensive,
culturally competent assessment includes:
 past and current health status including genetic history of family health
 the impact of health conditions or treatments on
 cognitive, emotional, social, psychological, or physical functioning
 social history, including current living arrangement
 work, school, or vocational history
 stage in the life cycle and related and relevant developmental issues
 cultural values and beliefs, including views on illness, disability, and death
 family structure and the client’s role within the family
 social supports, including formal and informal support systems
 behavioural and mental health status and current level of functioning,
includinghistory, suicide risk,and coping styles
 financial resources.

 Intervention through Interdisciplinary Input : Intervention plans are

stepsidentified by the social worker in collaboration with the client and with other
members of the team to achieve objectives identified during assessment.
Intervention plans include:
 Information, referral and education
 Individual family or group counseling
 Vocational, educational and supportive counseling
 Psycho-educational support groups
 Discharge planning.
 Addressing Client’s Multiple Needs : Social workers has to maintain a
therapeuticrelationship with the client which includes linking the client with
resources that provide a rage of services and opportunities to enhance successful
quality outcomefor the client. The range includes:
 Physical assessment including diagnosis, intervention and treatment plans.
 Financial assessment, planning and intervention
 Case facilitation
 Client and family counseling
 Resource mobilization

 Role as a Health Educator: A health educator strives to bring about the best
possible state of well being. He/she helps families and individuals to promote
health by their own actions and efforts. The health educator acts on the faith of
inherenthuman potential to develop when suitable environment is created and
opportunitiesare given. Health education is two fold with disease prevention and
health promotion.

 Areas of Practice in Health Care Social Work

1. In General and Speciality Hospital: The purpose of a medical social worker in

ahospital setting is to help each individual sick person in matters of personal andsocial
adjustments including rehabilitation in the society through the use of
patient’scapability as well as community resources. The role of the social worker in a
hospitalinvolves the following:
 Medical social worker acts as the doctor’s mouthpiece and furnishes
informationto the client regarding the nature, cure, prevention and control of
his/her sicknessand ensures the patient’s cooperation to doctor.
 Collects information about the patient’s family, occupation, and cultural
background and prepares his medico-social history.
 For the patients requiring hospitalization, the medical social worker helps
intransition from home t hospital and vise versa.
 The medical social worker works with the client and family and provides
thememotional support and helps them with stress management. He explains to
them,the changes that have to be made in the home conditions to benefit the
client.
 He/she conducts group sessions for the inpatients and their attendants.
 He or she participates in all the field activities of the hospital. He obtains people’s
cooperation in multi-disciplinary camps.
 He/she arranges for financial assistance to the patients for
treatmenthospitalization,transportation etc. from welfare agencies.
 The medical social worker participates in teaching and training activities of
thedepartment of preventive and social medicine. He/she takes classes for
medical,dental, nursing and pharmacy students.
 He/she actively participates in the research activities of the hospital
 Provides recreational services for the inpatients by organizing leisure activities.

2. In Psychiatric Settings: Social workers in the area of psychiatric health

andsubstance abuse asses and assist in treating individuals with mental illness or
substance abuse problems. Such service includes group therapy, outreach,
crisisintervention, social rehabilitation and training in skills of everyday living. The
socialworker in the field of mental health and substance abuse are known as clinical
or psychiatric social worker. Their role is vital in patient’s well being which
includes:
 The psychiatric social worker makes thorough study of the environment of
theclient enabling him/her to prepare a systematic case history of the client
whichthrows light on the tension and difficulties in the client’s life and also help
him toassess the positive and negative aspects of the environment.
 The psychiatric social worker explains the client or relatives what the problem
isand what is involved in psychiatric treatment. The social worker has to help
therelatives of the mentally ill, to accept the diagnosis and the
psychiatricrecommendations. The social worker also tries to bring about a better
adjustment between the client and his family.
 To enlist the cooperation of other social agencies for better discharge of
functionsof one’s own agency and for stimulating interest in dealing with
common problems effectively.
 In prenatal and postnatal clinics and nursery schools the psychiatric socialworker
imparts mental health education to parents. Sometimes his/her servicesare
required to promote mental health education in the community.
 The psychiatric social worker attached to hospitals has to respond to the
problemof home sickness as well as the boredom of long treatment. S/he may
organize arecreation club with the help of the members of the staff and the
patients andencourage the latter to develop hobbies. Such activities contribute
much to the patient’s recovery.

 CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS

INTRODUCTION
Correctional settings is an integral part of the criminal justice
system. If the purpose of the system is to achieve prevention of crimes then the
system cannot afford to leave the correctional and rehabilitate aspect alone. The
correctional administrative system is one component of the larger criminal justice
system and is dedicated to improving public safety by helping offenders to become
law-abiding citizens, while exercising security and human control.
It has been asked by many whether principles of social work is
applicable in correctional settings. The answer is in the affirmative, so different
methods of social work, like case work and group work are applicable in correctional
institutions besides probation and parole.

MEANING OF CORRECTIONAL ADMINISTRATION

• Correctional administration, in the broader sense means reshaping, reeducating,
and reforming the individual’s behavior, attitudes and feelings of anti-social nature
which have culminated into his/hers incarceration to some penal institution for
custody or treatment.
• It includes all attempts by the correctional administration and workers to reorient
and resocialise the deviant behavior traits of an individual’s personality by providing
helpful and educative facilities and services which help in increasing a feeling of
repentance and a strong desire to correct oneself.

CRIME AND CRIMINOLOGY

• An action or mission that constitutes an offense that may be prosecuted by state and
its punishable.
• A crime is an act that breaks a law that relates to how to behave in society. The harm
caused by act is seen to be against society as a whole, not just a specific person.

CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is the scientific study of nature extent, management, control,
consequences and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social
levels.

Who Is A Criminal?
Criminal, felon, crook, out law, malefactor someone who has
committed a crime. Therefore committing one crime makes a man criminal.
 A person charged with and convicted of crime.
 A person who commits crime for living.
 Guilty of crime.
 Someone who helps another person to commit a crime.
 A person who illegally sets fire to property.
 Someone who makes or sell illegal. oSomeone who sought by law officers:
Someone trying to elude justice.
 A corrupt politician.
 A someone forces another to have sexual intercourse.
 ETC…..

USE OF SOCIAL WORK METHODS IN CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS

 Social Casework In Correctional Settings Social casework involves a close
face to face relationship mainly basis in working with people and their problems.
The practice of the casework is being governed by five basic assumption that are
helpful in serving the offender and they’re as follows.
 Every individual must be seen as a person of worth and dignity. § Behavior,
whether acceptable or unacceptable to the community, express a need of the
individual;
 An individual can and will change his/her behavior at the right time and in the
right amount.
 If the offer of help is given before the problem become serious aggravated, the
response is likely to be better ; and § The family is the most influence force in the
development of personality in the crucial early years.

 Social Group work In Correctional Settings Groupwork with delinquents and

adult offenders is often seen as a powerful technique for modifying behavior and
attitude. The purpose of groupwork in correctional settings is,
 To strengthen the emotional security of the offender within the framework of the
group so that he does not feel alone and helpless but also moves towards not
being wholly dependent on it.
 To strengthen the offender’s independence by helping him to actually participate
in the group discussion, and not to submit a gang leader or a powerful sub-group.
 The introduction of an adult(group worker) who represent the values of a society,
offenders often reject, but who, because of his accepting attitude represent adult
security and love.
 To provide an opportunity to gain inner resilience and status with the group
through accomplishment in activities by society.

 Community Organization In Correctional Settings

 Community organization has an important role in rehabilitation and reintegration
of released offenders into the society. At the same time community organization
is used widely for the prevention of crime and delinquency.
 he convicts after completing the sentence face problems in the adjustment with
the family, relatives, peer group, neighborhood and employment.
 Social workers consider family to be an imp. unit that can provide support to
released that offenders take care of his/her various needs. For this social worker
has to mobilize the resources for meeting the needs of individuals and
establishing support groups on whom one can rely upon, as and when needed.
 Social Action In Correctional Settings
 Social action has too important role to play in the field of corrections. Among
others, the process of public interest litigation(PIL) could be mentioned in this
regard.
 The under-trials are kept in the jail for years without their cases even being
processed, let alone decided.
 In such cases social workers have approached the court to get justice for such
under trials that have spent more years in judicial custody then required in the jail
waiting for their trail to began.

 Social Work Research And Social Welfare In Correctional Settings

 There is need to evaluate the current programs and service in the field of
corrections to bring about an improvement in this settings.
 Extensive research studies are required in order to select alternative to the
institutional care.
 At the same time, it is desirable to measure the relative efficiency of institutional
and non-institutional services in the field of corrections.
 Custodial staff is generally overburdened with the security duties.
 One after comes cross the question whether custodial staff such as warden, head
warden, assistant jailor, deputy jailors, jailors etc are meant only for custody and
not for correctional treatment.
 Social worker should conduct some trainings and some activities for changing the
attitude and behavior of offenders and then to adjust with the society.

CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Correctional institution is nothing but the penal of institution
maintained by the government.
 Institutional Treatment
It refers to the means of correcting an individual by placing
him in a jail/prison for his treatment until he is ready for his reintegration into the
community.
 Prisons
• Prisons deal with offenders who are ineligible or inappropriate for community based
programs. • Prisons are places where the goals of punishment, including rehabilitation,
could be accomplished. • Prisons are the place in which criminals could be securely
confined and this confinement function had continued to predominate in spite of the
gradual emergence of other alms of punishment, such as deterrence or rehabilitation.

 Observation Homes
• Observation homes established for the temporary holding of any juvenile in conflict
with law during the pendency of a case before the juvenile justice board. • Every
juvenile who is not placed under the charge of parent or guardian is sent to an
observation home. • S(he) initially kept in a reception unit of the observation home for
preliminary enquiries. • Case and classification of the juveniles is done according to
his or her age group, such as 7-12 years, 12-16 years and 16-18 years, giving due to
physical and mental status and degree of offense committed.

 Special Homes
• Under juvenile justice(care and protection) Act, 2000 State Govt. is empowered for
establishing and maintaining special homes for reformation and rehabilitation of
juveniles in conflict with law. • Such homes are maintained by the government or by
certified voluntary organization. • In these homes, various types of services are
provided which is necessary for the re-socialization of a juvenile.

 Children Homes
• Children homes are contemplated for the reception of children in need of care and
protection during the pendency enquiry even for their stay as case maybe. • Every
child’s home is provided with facilities of accommodation, maintenance, education,
vocational training, rehabilitation and development of character and abilities.

 After-Care Organizations
• These organizations are meant for the juvenile discharged from the children’s homes
and special homes. • The purpose of the after-care organization is to help in the
rehabilitation and resettlement of children through extended educational and
vocational training facilities including job placement. • The study in after-care
organization is restricted to a maximum of 3 years over seventeen years age till s(he)
attains the age of 20 years on the basis of a discharge report prepared by competent
authority.

 Protective Home For Women

• The protective home and corrective institutions are established under the immoral
traffic(prevention) Act by directorate of social welfare. • It admits girls and women,
who are rescued from brothels, are abducted and kidnapped (section 366IPC), raped
(section 376IPC) and are in moral danger. • The girls and women can get admission
only through the orders of the court and will continue to stay till the court gives the
order for her restoration or rehabilitation.

 Short Stay Homes

• It is institution established under the immoral traffic (prevention) Act(ITPA) by
Govt./Union Territory Administration. • The purpose is to provide a temporary shelter
to the needy women/girls in distress, pending their restoration or readjustment in their
families or admission in suitable institutes. • The short stay home provides admission
to girls and women in the age group of 18 to 45 years. • It provides specialization like
food, shelter, accommodation, medical care, non formal education and vocational
training.
 Beggar's Home
• The homes are established under the anti-beggary laws of the state Govt. • Reception
centers and beggar homes are established under the Act. • The beggar’s home
provides like food, shelter, accommodation, medical care, non-formal education and
vocational training to beggars so they are economically rehabilitated into society.

 Non-Institutional Treatment
These are community-based correctional programs that help in
the reintegration of offenders. Community-based correction is an effective method of
accomplishing the changes in the behaviour of the offender by helping him/her to
become a law-abiding citizen.
 Probation
• The term probation is used to denote the status of a person placed on probation, to
refer to the subsystem of the criminal justice system. • Probation is an alternative to
the prison/special home. • It is a sentence that does not involve confinement but may
involve conditions imposed by the supervision of a probation officer.

 Parole
• Parole is a treatment program in which the offender, after serving part of a term in
correctional institution, is conditionally, released under the supervision and treatment
of a parole officer. • Parole is not for every individual in prison. It is viewed as a
privilege granted to a prisoner for good behavior and process while in prison and is
considered useful in rehabilitation outside the prison.

 Hybrid Programs

 Community service • Community service, the offenders must give personal time
to perform tasks that are valued in the community. • This programme is especially
meant for juvenile and adolescents who are placed in community service
organization.
 Work release • In work release program the inmates are released from
incarceration to work. • They enable the offenders to engage in positive contacts
with the community, assuming of course, that work placement is satisfactory. •
They permits offenders to provide some support for themselves and their
families. • This can eliminate the self concept of failure that may be the result of
loss of the supportive role.

SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION IN CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS

• It is presumed that in all the correctional institutions, a trained social worker is
employed. • They are referred by different designation as caseworker, welfare officer,
social worker, probation officer, etc. • keeping this in mind view, one can presume
that some degree of social work intervention is expected in the institutional and non
institutional interventions in this settings.
CONCLUSION
Social work has a significant role to play in the field
of corrections. With its goal of restoring and enhancing the social functioning ,social
work professionals help the offenders in correcting and modifying their personality
and to reintegrate them back into the society.

 FIELD OF SOCIAL WORK IN NON GOVERNMENTAL

ORGANIZATIONS (NGO).

INTRODUCTION
Nongovernmental organization (NGO), voluntary group of
individuals or organizations, usually not affiliated with any government, that is
formed to provide services or to advocate a public policy. NGOs are increasingly
being used as vehicles for development. They are becoming a measure of a citizen’s
participation. They work on issues of poverty, literacy, health, population, women
empowerment… Many of them focus on some issues of different regions, but it has
been found, there is sharing &learning between these NGOs.

NGOs- MEANING

 NGO is formally or informally organized around shared purpose – non -

governmental and so not part of the state apparatus – self-governing rather than
externally controlled.
 NGO is a non-profit making, voluntary, service- oriented/ developmentoriented
organization for the benefit of people.
 NGO is an independent, democratic and non- sectarian people’s organisation
working for the empowerment of economic and/or socially marginalised groups.
 NGO is an organisation not affiliated to political parties, generally engaged in
working for aid, development and welfare of the community.
 NGO is an organisation that is flexible and democratic in its organisation and
attempt to serve the people without profit for itself.
 According to Lord Beveridge: ‘A voluntary organization is an organization
(whether its workers are paid or unpaid) which is initiated and governed by its
own members without external control’.
 It should depend in part at least upon funding support from voluntary resources.
 According to David L. Sills ‘Voluntary organization is a group of persons
organized on the basis of voluntary membership without state control for the
furtherance of some common interests of its members’.

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND SOCIAL WORK

• Voluntary provision of services for people in need has a long-history.
• India has glorious tradition of organizing voluntary work for social good.
• Article 19(1) (c) of the Constitution of the India confers on the Indian citizens the
right to form an association.
• In the UN terminology voluntary organizations are called Non Governmental
Organizations (NGOs).

CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS

 Registered under the Societies Registration Act, the Indian Trusts Act, the
Cooperative Societies Act.
 Definite aims and objectives .
 Has an administrative structure and a duly constituted management and executive
committee.

MAIN FUNCTIONS :

Ø The State does not have the needed financial resources and man-power to meet
the needs of its citizens. The Voluntary organizations by raising additional resources
locally can meet uncovered needs and enrich local life.
Ø The State is often slow in responding to new needs and not flexible in adapting to
meet challenging circumstances.
Ø Voluntary organizations also help State in the areas which are its exclusive
responsibility but for which it has limited sources and perform such functions in a
meaningful way. For example Education, Health.
Ø Voluntary organizations also venture into new needs, work in new areas and give
attention to unattended and unmet needs.
Ø The voluntary organizations provide service without being asked.
ØThe NGOs can deliver many social services at lower unit costs and they can manage
to reach the poorest and most vulnerable groups in society.
Ø The NGOs provide a specialized service to people which may be lacking in State
services.
Ø The NGOs have effective network at local, regional and international levels.

• The organization i.e. NGO’s help educates those section of society which was left
behind in the society since its inception and never enjoyed benefits that government
has facilitated them with. Such as women’s education, STs, and SCs.
• NGO’s have given and are still giving their best in eliminating the gender inequality
which has also been a practice since earlier times. Girls face many problems no right
to education, forcefully making them marry, not letting them work outside the houses.
Therefore, NGO’s try to eliminate this evil ideology of some societies.
• NGO’s Are the reason why women are able to move out of the four walls of the
houses and participate in politics, business, social activities. Now women have
witnessed a whole new world due to the efforts of NGO’s and academic institutions.
We have seen increasement in the number of women workers. There are many
foundations such as Agrani foundation, Eklavya, Sewa and Environmental Action
Group etc. Day by day women are seeing new opportunities for themselves due to the
help of NGO’s.
• The use of technology, level of production, a pattern of utilization is almost same all
over the world whereas the world is destroying natural resources to achieve their
goals and selfish reasons. That is why NGO’s take birth to keep eyes on such
activities. There have been many health issues due to the overutilization of natural
resources causing pollution which later cause health problems and calamities. In this
case, NGO’s deserve an appreciation as they have done a lot to work for such causes.
• It’s not just that because of developmental processes environment has been affected
but it also has moved people from their place of origin or birth not just that they are
no even compensated and given other place to live. They are left homeless. Hence
 NGO’s play a significant role to provide them shelter and look
after all the legal processes. Many projects are taking place such as the construction of
houses, roadways, dams etc and compensate these people.
NGO’s one of the most important task would be that they are
helping and restoring the dignity of those who always have been ignored and never
enjoyed those activities which other people did such as women facing gender
inequality, untouchables discrimination, racial, religious discrimination in society.

NGOs & Social Work

 NGOs offer an excellent opportunity for people to realize their desire to use their
skills to serve the society.
 There is a great deal of legislation that gives social workers both the
responsibility and power to act in cases where people are at risk.
 Women and child welfare institution, family counselling centers, Deaddiction
centers , tribal empowerment agencies, Rural development programmes, HIV +
prevention and treatment centers, Health care centers, Urban development centers,
Welfare of disabled, Half-way-homes, mental health centers, Adoption and
foster-care centers.

ROLE OF NGO’s
• RESOLVE SOCIAL ISSUES: Non-governmental organizations play an
indispensable role in the welfare of society. Different social issues are being solved by
the NGO’s. The team of NGOs different campaigns to spread knowledge and
awareness among people on issues like poverty, child labour, illiteracy, casteism and
many more.
• MOTIVATES CITIZENS: Ngos run campaigns on social issues like education,
hunger, child labour and many more which helps people to aware what is right and
wrong.
• IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS AND TAKE CORRECTIVE
MEASURES: NGO’s find out the issue and problems and prepare plan accordingly
and take required actions to sorting out the issues in an effective manner.
PROGRAMMES OF NGOS

Ø Family welfare: Marriage counselling, Maternal Care and Family Planning, Family
Life Education, Family Counselling, care of the aged.
Ø Child welfare: Maternal and child health care, protective services, care of unwed
mothers and their children, day-care, foster-care, adoption services, care of children in
difficult circumstances.
Ø Youth welfare.
Ø Services of the disabled
Ø Disaster relief.
Ø Community Development: Rural, Tribal and Urban.
Ø Medical and Psychiatric Services.
Ø School Social Services.
Ø Correctional Services: Control of delinquency.
Ø Welfare of weaker sections.
Ø Environmental protection activities
Ø Freedom fighters’ welfare.
Ø Women empowerment programmes .

CONCLUSION
Non Governmental Organization (NGO) is a group, organization, non
profit establishment or non profit entrepreneurship of individuals, activists, voluntary
and social persons. NGO or NPO is a community, persons, volunteers, civilians and
citizens who are working or associated for social welfare and social development.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are mainly for the
betterment of the people and society, it’s their duty also. If entirely the NGOs actually
realize its responsibilities & play their role perfectly then it is sure that the conditions
of the individual as well as the society will modify & it also benefits in
nation-building.
 Unorganized Sector

The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector’s

reports(2008) on Definitions and Statistical Issues relating to the Informal Economy
defines unorganized sector and worker as:

 Informal Sector: “The unorganized sector consists of all unincorporated

private enterprises owned by individuals or households engaged in the sale
and production of goods and services operated on a proprietary or
partnership basis and with less than ten total workers”.

Informal worker/employment: “Unorganized workers consist of those working in

the unorganized sector or households, excluding regular workers with social security
benefits provided by the employers and the workers in the formal sector without any
employment and social security benefits provided by the employers”.

Features of Unorganized Sector :

(a) casual nature of employment,
(b) ignorance and illiteracy,
(c) small size of establishments with low capital investment per person employed,
(d) scattered nature of establishments and,
(e) superior strength of the employer operating singly or in combination.’

Categories of Unorganized Labour

(i) contract labour including construction workers;
(ii)casual labour;
(iii) labour employed in small scale industry;
(iv) handloom/power-loom workers;
(v) beedi and cigar workers
(vi) employees in shops and commercial establishments;
(vii) sweepers and scavengers;
(viii) workers in tanneries
(ix) tribal labour; and
(x) ‘other unprotected labour’

Role of Social Workers in Unorganized Sector

 Providing Legal Aid : In Unorganized sector the people involved are often
illiterate or have less knowledge about the legal matters. A social worker has the
responsibility to make necessary arrangements to equip them with rightful legal
aid

 Advocacy for Working Rights: The unorganized worker has every right to do
his job devoid of any external pressures. Any activities that seemingly curtail the
same must not be promoted. Social worker has to ensure that the working rights
of the labourers are in tact. Any sort of workplace stress and harassment must be
taken up seriously.

 Awareness Generation about Various Legislations: A social worker has to

bewell informed about the legislations regarding the informal workers he d eal
with.For instance if he works among the handloom workers he has to know the
provisions and law regarding them and make them aware about such laws and
provisions.

 Intervention to Improve the Living Conditions : It is the duty of the social

worker to create awareness about the necessity of improving living standards. He
has to create awareness about the importance of hygiene, sanitation etc. He has to
ensure that people do take care of their health and cleanliness.

 Awareness Generation about Substance Abuse : Informal labourers are one of

the groups vulnerable to substance abuse. Social worker must create awareness
about the hazards of substance abuse among them and earnestly strive to
eradicate such tendencies.
 COMMUNITY : RURAL AND URBAN, ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

 COMMUNITY
A community is a social unit( a group of living things) with
commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs or identity. The word
community was coined by C.J. GALPIN ’. The word comes from Latin ‘communis’
meaning ‘common, public, shared by all or many’. They usually have shared interests ,
thus a community is a group of living things sharing the same environment.
Community is the basis for community organization and social
action methods. Most people need to be part of a community for life’s necessities.
And being part of a community gives us a sense of belonging.

 DEFINITIONS

 Community is a social group with some degree of we feeling and living in a

given area. {BOGARDUS}

 Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of
social life. {KINGSLEY DAVIS}

 Community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence.

{R.M. MACLVER} Community is a group of collection that inhabits a group
of locality. {OGBURN AND NIMKOFF}

 CHARACTERISTICS
 A community should be free from any criminality.
 A community should have enough security and safety for all the people.
 A community should have enough facilities such as hospitals and clinics.
 People in the community should love and unify with each other.
 People in the community should be free from any vices.
 People in the community should fear god and religiously working for the lord and
fellowmen.
 A community should have access on affordable healthy foods, clean air, clean
water and quality education.
 A community should have an educational facility for all the children and youth.
 A community should have basic emergency services.
 A community should have enough jobs and transportation for all the people.

TYPES OF COMMUNITY
There are different types of community. Among them the three
main types of communities based on area are:
 Rural
 Suburban
 Urban

 URBAN COMMUNITY
Urban communities include cities. They have more apartment
buildings than houses, many office buildings ,skyscrapers , stores, and lots of people.
They also have cars, subways, buses, and other forms of public transportation. Urban
communities are very busy places. An urban community is a heavily populated
community with many different kinds of people. An urban community has many
types of businesses that offer goods and services like restaurants , apparel shops and
drug stores. Urban community is an area which is developed and civilized, based on
geographical conditions.

ADVANTAGES
 Hospitals and clinics are close by for easy access to health care or aid in
emergency.
 There are greater number of jobs available in urban areas.
 There are often roads of better quality and well built houses in urban areas.
Transportation facilities are highly developed and is faster.
 Most amenities and entertainment are easy to reach. New attractions will open in
a city before anywhere else.
 Cities tend to have a greater mix of cultures which can help when making new
friends and meeting people.
DISADVANTAGES
 Urban areas have got weak interactions and ties on the basis of their complex.
In urban areas there is high rate of pollution because of factories and automobiles.
 In urban areas people are not much gracious to their guests because of their busy
life.
 Urban areas tend to be more expensive to live in. Property prices are higher and
so are goods and services.
 There are often fewer green spaces in a town. You may not always be able to
enjoy natural spaces.
 Busy towns can feel crowded and may mean you feel more stress.

 RURAL COMMUNITY
A group of people with a common characteristic/interest
living together, in a village. Agriculture is the major occupation of rural people. The
homes in rural communities are separated by farms, woodlands and meadows. Farms
and ranches are found in rural community. Rural area is an open swath of land that
has few homes and not many people. Another names for rural area includes hinterland,
farming area. Rural community is an area which is under development and not
civilized, based on geographical conditions.

ADVANTAGES
 Rural areas focuses on more open space and less crowding.
 The air is cleaner because there is less traffic and fewer factories and other
facilities that emit pollution.
 Life in rural area is thought to be slower spaced, resulting in lower levels of
anxiety and greater sense of relaxation . Rural residents exhibit better mental
health.
 As compared to the city area , the land is available at cheaper rates.
 The rural area is conducive to good health of workers.

DISADVANTAGES
 Rural areas have got slow means of communication.
 Rural communities have very slow rate of change because of lack of education
and modern technology.
 Transportation facilities are not available in good condition and sufficient
quantities.
 There is absence of recreation facilities, good educational institutes, good and
sufficient medical facilities.
 Lack of employment opportunity and other essential facilities like electricity,
telecommunications.
 It is generally not easy to get skilled workers in rural areas.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental issues are any such issues created due to human
activities and cause harm to the environment. A variety of environmental problems
affect our entire world. Environmental issues affect the natural balance of the
environment. Some of the major environmental issues are as follows :

 POLLUTION
It is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These
harmful materials are called pollutants. Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash.
They can also be created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by
factories. Pollutants damage the quality of air, water, and land. The five major types
of pollution include:
1. WATER POLLUTION
2. SOIL/LAND POLLUTION
3. LIGHT POLLUTION
4. AIR POLLUTION
5. NOISE POLLUTION

 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth, it includes organisms,
species and populations. It includes the extinction of species(plant or animal)
worldwide, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat,
resulting in a loss of biological diversity. Habitat destruction is a major cause of
biodiversity loss. Habitat loss is caused by deforestation, overpopulation, pollution
and global warming.

 DEFORESTATION
It is the permanent removal of trees to make room for something
besides forest. This can include clearing the land for agriculture or gazing or using the
timber for fuel, construction or manufacturing. It has been negatively affecting natural
ecosystems, biodiversity and the climate. Deforestation destroys the habitat of many
animals, leading to their death.

 CLIMATE CHANGE
It includes both global warming driven by human emissions of
greenhouse gases, and the resulting large scale shifts in weather patterns. Climate
change has become more than obvious over the past decade, with nine years of the
decade making it to the list of hottest years the planet has ever witnessed. Some of the
most obvious signs of this include irregularities in weather, frequent storms, melting
glaciers, rising levels of sea etc.

 Caused by the release of chemical compounds. These compounds contains

gaseous chlorine/bromine from industry and other human activities.
 Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s
surface.
 UVB ( short wave ultraviolet B).
 These rays will usually burn the superficial layers of your skin.
 It is the gradual thinning of Earth’s atmosphere.
 OZONE DEPLETION

 NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural
processes of the earth. It includes floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, tsunamis, storms etc.
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:
 WASTE DISPOSAL
 OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
 ACID RAIN
 GLOBAL WARMING

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION IN COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT
Intervention is the act of inserting one thing between others, like a
person trying to help. Social work intervention is the practice of working in a variety
of ways with individuals and families in need to help them become more independent.
These interventions are all done with the goal of helping the individual become
independent of the need for assistance. Social work interventions may include
concrete services such as income support , mental health services, housing, medical
services, etc.

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER

Social workers support individuals and their families through
difficult times and ensure that vulnerable people, including children and adults, are
safeguard from harm. Their role is to help improve outcomes in people’s lives. Social
workers maintain professional relationships and act as guides and advocates. Direct
roles of social worker begin with practicing primary methods of social work. These
methods are participatory method with the individual, group and community. The role
of social worker is widened for the betterment of individual, group, and community.

THE ROLE INCLUDES:

Ø CASEWORKER
Ø NEED ANALYZER
Ø PROJECT MANAGER
Ø FACILITATOR
Ø COUNSELLOR
Ø ENABLER
Ø RESEARCHER
Ø MEDIATOR

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION IN ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION
Social work as a profession dedicated to support the most vulnerable
people that is those who disproportionately affected by environmental disasters.
Social work profession has prime importance in disaster management.

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER

Social worker can provide information for correct understanding of
different aspects of environment. Social worker can present facts before people to
enable them to take right decisions. Social worker can motivate people to adopt a
friendly behavior towards environment. Social worker can mobilize and organize
people to the conservation and protection of environment.
Ø COMMUNICATOR
Ø ENABLER
Ø ADVISOR
Ø EDUCATOR
Ø GUIDE
Ø COUNSELLOR
Ø ANIMATOR
Ø SOCIAL ACTIVIST

CONCLUSION
Community is a collection of people/group in a geographical area on
a permanent basis for a common purpose. Environmental issues are a matter of
concern these days. Social work profession have greater responsibility in community
development and environmental protection. Well qualified, practice oriented and
committed social workers can work for improving the socio-economic status and
quality of life of people in the community.
 Social Work with Children, Youth, Women, Elderly, Persons
with Disabilities

 Children & Youth

A child is a young person of either sex usually one below the

age of puberty.[Oxford Dictionary,2015]. • Childhood is the best period for physical,
mental and spiritual development. • Children constitute the supreme national asset for
the making of tomorrow. Children are the potential force of the nation and therefore
they should be developed in the right lines. • The welfare of children is primarily the
responsibility of parents. However not all families are able to commit to this
responsibilities with reasons ranging from financial incapability, conscious neglect of
child care to single parenting resulting from divorce. • Child welfare social workers
serve some of the most vulnerable children. Social workers specialize in building on
the strengths of families and helping them to provide a safe and nurturing
environment

CHILD WELFARE
• Child welfare is important for the child himself, for the family and for the society at
large. • The importance of child welfare service lies in the consideration that the
personality of a man is built up in the formative years, and the physical and mental
health of a nation is determined largely by the manner in which the child is shaped in
the early stages. • Child welfare is not only concerned with the care of maladjusted
and delinquents, but encompasses wide range of socio-economic and health activities
of public and private agencies which secure and protect the well being of all the
children in their physical , intellectual and emotional development.

CHILD WELFARE PROGRAMMES

 INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES[ICDS]
 NATIONAL NUTRITION MISSION
 RAJIV GANDHI NATIONAL CRECHE SCHEME qREPRODUCTIVE AND
CHILD HEALTH PROGRAMME
 PULSE RATIO IMMUNIZATION PROGRAMME
 SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
 KASTURBA GANDHI BALIKA VIDYALAYA
 MID – DAY MEAL SCHEME
 CHILD HELPLINE
 ELIMINATION OF CHILD LABOUR

PROBLEMS FACED BY CHILDREN

• Gender discrimination • Attacks on schools • Forced to flee their homes •
Disabilities • Child marriage • Child labour • Toxic stress • Danger on the way to
school

POLICY INITIATIVES
Ø THE NATIONAL POLICY FOR CHILDREN
The state shall provide adequate service towards children , during the
growing stages for their full physical, mental and social development.

Ø THE NATIONAL CHARTER FOR CHILDREN

It emphasizes children’s right to survival, health and nutrition,
standard of living, play and leisure, early childhood care, education, protection and
the right to be protected from economic exploitation and all forms of abuse.

Ø NATIONAL PLAN ACTION FOR CHILDREN 2005

It includes the activities for improving nutritional status for children,
reducing IMR and MMR, increase enrolment ratio and reducing drop out rates etc.

 SOCIAL WORK WITH YOUTH

YOUTH • Youth is best understood as a period of transition from the dependence of

childhood to adulthoods independence, that why as a category youth is more fluid
than other fixed age-group • Youth is the energetic group of society who always
wants positive change in their own family, community, society, state and overall
department of country. • They are the change agent of the society, who has the
capacity to change the society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUTH
They are the group who has ability to change the shape of the
country. They have positive motivation to do something good for country. The youth
always desire for development and expect more opportunity, facility and so on. The
youth are fearless and unstable; it encourages them to be dynamic and useful for
nation. Youth are risk takers. Youth’s ideology is different from that of the elder
generations; they are democratic. They want freedom from social evils which hinders
development.

PROBLEMS FACED BY YOUTH

§ UNEMPLOYMENT
§ POVERTY
§ POLITICAL PARTIES AND INFLUENTIAL PEOPLE
§ DRUG / ALCOHOL ABUSE
§ SINGLE PARENT HOUSEHOLDS
§ DIVORCED PARENTS
§ TEENAGE PREGNANCY

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER IN CHILD PROTECTION AND IN YOUTH

 WITH CHILDREN
• Social Work have a central role within the local authorities with a duty to promote,
support and safeguard the wellbeing of all children in need in their area, and, insofar
as is consistent with that duty, to promote the upbringing of children by their families
by providing a range and level of services. • Often social worker will need to make
well- informed judgements about the child's situation; balancing the child's needs to
safety and well- being with that of the needs of the family which may be in a
vulnerable situation itself. Implementing is at the core of the intervention programe.
• Social worker contributes:
Ø Promoting the safety, stability and development of children by providing
professional assessments and interventions that safeguard children at risk of abuse.
Ø Facilitating timely plans for children who cannot return safely to their families of
origin.
Ø Facilitating the wellbeing and stability of placement.
Ø Facilitating the collaboration of the wide variety of agencies concerned with child
protection.
Ø Providing ongoing support to children and their careers so as to safeguard
children’s right.
• Social workers help reduce the effects of trauma, contribute to child centered
planning and the increased stability of placements.

 WITH YOUTH
Social workers should work to promote the social, emotional, spiritual and
mental well- being of youth. Social worker should focus on generating opportunities
for youth development as well as opportunity to express themselves. Social worker
should conduct programs and activities to pressurize the authorized sector to provide
opportunity for youth to participate in all parts of government and decision-making
status. Social worker should not work on youth but they should work with youth.
Social worker should be able to connect youth with their communities and nation.
Social worker should build the self esteem of youth and should provide training on
leadership to develop and enhance their leadership.
To develop the youth or to motivate the youth on community development
and nation building social worker should use all methods of social work (Social Case
Work, Social Group work, Community organization method, social welfare method,
social Action method and social work research. v Social worker themselves might be
the role model for youth to make them think about the nation/community
development. No any sustainable development is possible if youth are not interested
or if youth do not take leadership. The social worker should conduct research and
survey to find-out the needs of youth and the necessities of youth for development and
then they should formulate programs which are really relevant with youth.
CONCLUSION
• Social workers make a valuable contributions in providing appropriate and targeted
services to children and youth when there are concerns about wellbeing, safety etc. •
Social workers help reduce the incidence of abuse and neglect, support families to
raise their children to their full potential. • A social worker should pressurize the
government to take responsibility of youth and make youth accountable and
responsible for country.

 WOMEN AND ELDERLY

INTRODUCTION
Social workers are found in every sector of community life,
including schools, hospitals, mental health clinics, senior centres ,prisons, and in
numerous public and private agencies. social workers help clients who face a
disability or a life threatening disease or a social problem, such as inadequate housing,
unemployment, or substance abuse. Social workers also assist families that have
serious domestic conflicts.
social workers also conduct research, advocate for
improved services, engage in systems design or are involved in planning or policy
development. Many social workers specialize in serving a particular population or
working in a specific setting.

 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH WOMEN

Women play a vital role in the development of the nation as
they contribute their level of human resources of a country. In this century the
economic wealth of the country not only depends on the men but also in the hands of
the women. To improve the role of women in the society the government mainly
concentrated on their education and increasing employment opportunities.

WOMEN IN INDIA IN ANCIENT AGE

Women, in the early ages suffered from the evils of society. Some
open-minded citizens like raja ram Mohan Roy, swami Vivekananda, Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, and others worked for the wellbeing of women. Thus, the
practices of sati, child marriage, and others were abolished. Mahatma also emphasized
on the abolition of child marriages. Women have been regarded as a symbol of
spirituality. Yet, they have been treated badly and unequally to men. Social evils such
as dowry, sati-system, child marriage, and female infanticide were widely prevalent
in the early ages. The spread of education and self-consciousness among women
has led to their progress over the period.

PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN

 Sexual harassment and Rape
 Lack of education
 Poverty
 Domestic violence
 Dowry system
 Honour killing
 Female foeticide
 Discrimination
 Human Trafficking
 Acid attacks

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

 Mahila E-haat
It is a direct online marketing platform launched by the Ministry of
Women and Child Development to support women entrepreneurs, Self Help Groups
(SHGs) and Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to showcase products made
and services rendered by them. This is a part of the 'Digital India' initiative. Women
can register themselves at www.mahilaehaat-rmk.gov.in and leverage technology
for showcasing their work to a broader market.

 Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao

This is a social campaign aimed at eradication of female foeticide and
raising awareness on welfare services intended for young Indian girls. The "Save the
Girl Child" movement was launched on 22 January 2015, it is a joint initiative run by
the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare and the Ministry of Human Resource Development.

 One Stop Centre Scheme

Popularly known as 'Sakhi,' it was implemented on 1st April 2015
with the 'Nirbhaya' fund. The One Stop Centres are established at various locations in
India for providing shelter, police desk, legal, medical and counselling services to
victims of violence under one roof integrated with a 24-hour Helpline. The toll-free
helpline number is 181.

 Working Women Hostels

The objective of the scheme is to promote the availability of safe
and conveniently located accommodation for working women, with daycare facility
for their children, This scheme comes under the ministry of women and child
development.

 The Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)

The Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women
(STEP) Scheme aims to provide skills that give employability to women and to
provide competencies and skill that enable women to become self-employed/
entrepreneurs.

 NariShakti Puruskars
The Nari Shakti Puruskars are national level awards recognizing
the efforts made by women and institutions in rendering distinguished services for the
cause of women, especially vulnerable and marginalized women. The awards are
presented by the President of India every year on 8 March, International Women's
Day at Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi.

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER IN WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

1. Broker
2. Advocate
3. Case Manager
4. Educator
5. Facilitator
6. Organizer
7. Mediator

WHAT SOCIAL WORKERS DO ?

 Social workers protect, assist and support their clients.
 An understanding of social systems, including how to analyze and study them,
evaluate needs within them, and work with individuals based on religious and
cultural upbringings
 Counseling families to find better solutions to their problems
 Placing abused children in new homes
 Finding housing and employment for homeless families
 Helping pregnant women, adoptive parents and foster children navigate the
adoption process
 Helping families make best use of the welfare system
 Backgrounds in field research, which enables them to evaluate and mitigate
issues within a population
 Expertise in psychopathology, which enables social workers to help individual
from mental, physical, and social perspectives
 An understanding of current landscape within their specialized fields of social
work, as well as major issues that need attention
 In addition to having a passion to help others, social workers are heavily involved
in advocating for causes and getting help for their clients. These are just a few of
the social worker’s duties that come along with the profession.

 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH ELDERLY

We know that populations are getting older overall. The

number of people aged 60 years or older will rise from 900 million to 2 billion
between 2015 and 2050 (moving from 12% to 22% of the total global population).
A longer life brings with it opportunities, not only for older
people and their families, but also for societies as a whole. Additional years provide
the chance to pursue new activities such as further education, a new career or
pursuing a long neglected passion. Older people also contribute in many ways to their
families and communities.

WHO defines healthy ageing as “the process of developing and maintaining the
functional ability that enables wellbeing in older age.” Functional ability is about
having the capabilities that enable all people to be and do what they have reason to
value.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD AGE

 Old age is a period of decline - decline comes partly from physical and partly
from psychological factors. There is change in body cells due to the aging process.
Unfavorable attitude towards one self and life in general can lead to decline or
become depressed and disorganized. Motivation plays a very important role in
decline.
 There are individual differences in the effects of aging. People age differently
because they have different hereditary endowment, different socio economic and
educational backgrounds and different patterns of living. The general rule is
physical aging precedes mental aging.
 Old age is judged by different criteria - age is judged in terms of physical
appearance and activities. One who has white hair is labeled as old. There are
many who try to cover up their aging symptoms to create illusion that they are not
yet old.
 Poor adjustment is characteristic of old age - Because of the unfavorable social
attitudes towards the elderly that are reflected in the way the social group treat
them, it is not surprising that many elderly people develop unfavourable
selfconcepts. These tend to be expressed in maladjusting behavior of different
degree of severity.

COMMON CHANGES IN APPEARANCE DURING OLD AGE

Head Region
1. The nose elongates
2. The mouth changes its shape as a result of tooth loss.
3. The eyes seem dull and lusterless and often have a waterly look.
4. A double or triple chin develops.
5. The cheeks become pendulous, wrinkled, and baggy.
6. The skin becomes wrinkled and dry, and dark spots, moles may appear.

Trunk Region
1. The shoulders stoop and thus seem smaller
2. The abdomen bulges
3. The hips seem broader than they did earlier.
4. The waistline broadens, giving the trunk a sack like appearance.
5. The woman's breasts become flabby and droop.

Limbs
1. The upper arm becomes flabby and heavy, while the lower arm seems to
shrink in diameter.
2. The legs become flabby and the veins prominent, especially around the
ankles.
3. The hands become skinny and the veins on the back of the hand are
prominent.
4. The feet become larger.
5. The nails of the hands and feet become thick and tough.

 Changes in Physiological functions include decline in the ability to see, hear,

marked changes in taste, sense of smell becomes less, and also that of sensitivity
to pain. Changes in skilled movements especially handwriting, slow in learning
new skills and quite often tend to become awkward and clumsy. Recall is affected.
Old people tend to have poor recent memories but better remote memories.

 Most senior citizens who live alone suffer due to lack of companionship –
sometimes exacerbated by lack of mobility due to ill health. Loneliness and
isolation are major concerns among elderly Indians above the age of 60. Isolation
can result in gradual depression and other mental disorders in the elderly.
COMMON PHYSICAL HAZARDS CHRONIC HEALTH CONDITIONS
According to the National Council On Aging, about 92 percent of
seniors have at least one chronic disease and 77 percent have at least two. Heart
disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes are among the most common health conditions
causing two-thirds of deaths each year.

COGNITIVE HEALTH
Cognitive health is focused on a person’s ability to think, learn and
remember. The most common cognitive health issue facing by the elderly is Dementia,
the loss of those cognitive functions. Approximately 47.5 million people worldwide
have dementia. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease with as
many as five million people over the age of 65 suffering from the disease. .

PHYSICAL INJURY aging causes bones to shrink and muscle to lose strength and
flexibility,

MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition in older adults over the age of 65 is often
underdiagnosed and can lead to other elderly health issues, such as a weakened
immune system and muscle weakness. The causes of malnutrition can stem from
other health problems (seniors suffering from dementia may forget to eat), depression,
alcoholism, dietary restrictions, reduced social contact and limited income.

SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS
Sensory impairments, such as vision and hearing, are extremely
common for older over the age of 70. one out of six older adults has a visual
impairment and one out of four has a hearing impairment. Luckily, both of these
issues are easily treatable by aids such as glasses or hearing aids.

GERONTOLOGY
Gerontology is the study of the aging process and the problems that
elderly individuals might encounter. Professionals in this field typically study and find
ways to treat physical, mental, emotional, and social problems. This field of
gerontology is very broad, and there are many sub-fields. Social
gerontology and bio-gerontology are two of the most common sub-fields of
gerontology. Social gerontology is the sub-field of gerontology that deals with the
social aspects of aging, and bio-gerontology is the sub-field of gerontology that deals
with the biological aspects of aging.Gerontologists include researchers and
practitioners in the fields of biology, nursing, medicine, criminology, social work,
physical and occupational therapy, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, economics,
political science, geography, pharmacy, public health, housing, and anthropology.

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN ELDERLY CARE

Geriatric social work help their clients manage psychological,
emotional and social challenges by providing counseling and therapy, advising
clients’ families about how to best support aging loved ones, serving as the bridge of
communication between clients and the rest of the care team, and ensuring that clients
receive the services they need
The role of social workers in elderly care making deep and
meaningful connections with clients and their families, changing problematic systems
at both the personal and community levels, and the knowledge that their work has a
direct positive impact on those in need.
 Psycho-social Assessments
A social worker will perform a psycho-social assessment to determine
the level of care required and to assess whether specific services, such as counseling
or psychiatric intervention, are needed. The purpose of a psycho-social assessment is
to evaluate the person’s biological, psychological and social needs. After an
assessment is completed, the social worker discusses her findings with an
interdisciplinary team, which usually consists of medical staff, occupational therapists,
physical therapists and other professionals, to collaborate on formulating a treatment
plan to address the needs.
 Counseling
Social workers also help to adjust to life. Adjusting to life in a
supportive care setting can be difficult and challenging for those used to living
independently. A social worker provides individual and group counseling as needed to
help her clients
overcome potential emotional, psychological and social obstacles to adjustment. If the
facility does not provide certain services, such as psychiatric care, the social worker
will refer her client to the appropriate resources and professionals.
 Advocacy
Social workers advocate for their clients to ensure that their
needs are met and that their rights are protected. Social workers who work in elderly
homes should stay up-to-date with legislative changes and policies that can affect
their clients. They are responsible for ensuring that they are protected from abuse and
neglect, and should report any abuse or neglect.
 Education
In addition to educating her clients and their families about their
rights and responsibilities, social workers also educate staff about the psychosocial
needs of residents and provide training on multicultural and diversity issues. Social
workers may conduct staff training seminars on these topics or discuss concerns as
they arise with individual staff members. Social workers also provide consultation to
the facility's administration to discuss relevant issues, such as the delivery of
psycho-social care, as needed.

 Other Tasks
Social workers in elderly homes might be responsible for
administrative tasks such as maintaining case files, writing case notes or reviewing
treatment plans, participating in staff meetings and seminars, and contributing to
quality assurance meetings.

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES FOR THE BENEFIT OF SENIOR CITIZEN IN

INDIA

 RASHTRIYA VAYOSHRI YOJNA

The scheme has been designed for the people below the poverty line, so if
someone wants to collect benefits under the scheme, they would have to show the
BPL card.
 PRADHAN MANTRI VAYA VANDANA YOJANA (PMVVY)
This policy's term is 10 years, and the minimum pension amount is Rs.
3000/- and the maximum pension amount is Rs. 10,000/-. The policy can also earn an
interest rate of 8% per annum. The pensioner can choose the frequency of the
payments. The policy has been designed for people above the age of 60 years.

 NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR THE HEALTH CARE OF THE

ELDERLY
The National Programme for the Health Care for the Elderly
(NPHCE) was launched in 2010, and it forms a preventive and promotive care
scenario for the elderly. The program was targeted at the senior citizens, and various
Community Health Centres (CHC) along with Primary Health Centres (PHC) and
Sub-centres (SC) were opened to provide free or highly subsidised services to the
senior citizens.

 Senior Citizens Welfare Fund

The Government of India (GOI) introduced a Senior Citizens
Welfare Scheme to offer financial assistance to the Below Poverty Line (BPL)
category senior citizens. Moreover, the scheme is administered by the Ministry of
Social Justice and Empowerment.

 INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OLD AGE PENSION SCHEME

This scheme is specially intended for senior citizens, who are
aged above 60 years and fall below the line of poverty as per the Guidelines stated by
the Government of India(GOI). It was launched by the Ministry of Rural
Development of India in 2007 and is also known as the National Old Age Pension
Scheme. The beneficiary will be entitled to a monthly pension under this scheme, and
as this scheme is a noncontributing scheme, the beneficiary is not required to
contribute any sum in order to get the pension.
CONCLUSION

Social workers provide motivation and self-esteem coaching to

give those who believe things will never improve new hope and confidence to move
forward and to continue trying. Social workers are key to connecting those in need
with organizations and resources that can help them. Social workers educate clients
and groups of clients on essential life skills that they may not have had access to.
Such efforts give these women, elderly and all others a fair chance to rise above and
to achieve great things.

 Social Work with Physically and Mentally Handicapped / Persons

with Disabilities

As defined by the World Health Organization Disability “is an

umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation
restrictions. Impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity
limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action;
while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in
involvement in life situations due to social reason.
According to The Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (2006 ) “Persons with disabilities include those who have long term
physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various
barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis
with others.”

The WHO estimated that more than six hundred million people
across the globe live with disabilities of various types due to chronic diseases, injuries,
violence, infectious diseases, malnutrition, and other causes related to poverty. People
with disabilities are subject to multiple deprivations with limited access to basic
services, including education, employment, rehabilitation facilities etc. Widespread
social stigma plays a major role in hindering their normal social and economic life.
 According to the Census 2001, there are 2.19 crore persons with
disabilities in India who constitute 2.13 percent of the total population. This includes
persons with visual, hearing, speech, locomotor and mental disabilities. By and large,
people with disability are further disabled through unequal treatment and denial of
basic rights by the society.

The Constitution of India ensures equality, freedom, justice and

dignity of all individuals and implicitly mandates an inclusive society for all including
persons with disabilities. In the recent years, there have been vast and positive
changes in the perception of the society towards persons with disabilities. It has been
realized that a majority of persons with disabilities can lead a better quality of life if
they have equal opportunities and effective access to rehabilitation measures.

Welfare Measures

 Constitutional Provisions

The Preamble to the Constitution of India & Part III of the

Constitution imposes an obligation on the part of the state, not to restrain the liberties
and rights guaranteed for the persons with disabilities under the same part. Article
41 declares that, the State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and
development make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and
to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement.

Article 46 lays down an obligation on the State to promote with

special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the
people, and protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

Article 249 of the Constitution empowers the Parliament to

legislate on any subject falling in any list in order to fulfill its international obligations
for people with disabilities.
 Legislative Measures

1. The Mental Health Act, 1987: This was an Act to consolidate

and amend the law relating to the treatment and care of mentally ill persons, to make
better provision with respect to their property and other affairs.

2. The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992: The Act was

created to provide for the constitution of the Rehabilitation Council of India for
regulating training of the Rehabilitation Professional and maintaining of a Central
Rehabilitation Register and for other matters related to these issues.

5. Persons with Disability (Equal Opportunities, Protection of

Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995, which provides for education, employment,
creation of barrier free environment, social security, etc. for persons with disability.

6. National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral

Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability Act, 1999 has provisions for legal
guardianship of the four categories and creation of enabling environment for as much
independent living as possible.

 Institutions

There are several national institutions under the Ministry of

Health & Family Welfare working in the field of rehabilitation, like National Institute
of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore; All India Institute of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mumbai; All India Institute of Speech and Hearing,
Mysore; Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi, etc. In addition, certain State
Government institutions also provide rehabilitation services. In addition, Institute for
the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi; National Institute of Visually Handicapped,
Dehradun; National Institute for
Orthopaedically Handicapped, Kolkata; National Institute for
Mentally Handicapped, Secunderabad; National Institute for Hearing Handicapped,
Mumbai; National Institute of Rehabilitation Training & Research, Cuttack; National
Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities, Chennai are the
other national institute working for the welfare of the persons with disabilities at the
regional level.

National Handicapped and Finance Development Corporation

(NHFDC) has been providing loans on concessional terms for undertaking
self-employment ventures by the persons with disabilities through State Channelizing
Agencies. Panchayati Raj Institutions at Village level, Intermediary level and District
level have also been entrusted with the welfare of persons with disabilities.

 Preventive measures

Since disability, in a large number of cases, is preventable, there

is strong emphasis on prevention of disabilities. Programme for prevention of diseases,
which result in disability and the creation of awareness regarding measures to be
taken for prevention of disabilities during the period of pregnancy and thereafter are
intensified expanded.

 Rehabilitative Measures

Rehabilitation measures emphasized looking at the needs of the persons with

disabilities and are undertaken through three distinct strategies: 1.Physical
rehabilitation strategies 2. Educational rehabilitation strategies and 3. Economic
rehabilitation strategies 4. Promotion of Barrier-free environment 5. Issue of
Disability Certificates 6. Promotion of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
7. Research

1. Physical rehabilitation strategies

Early detection of disability and intervention through drug or
non-drug therapies helps in minimization of impact of disability. Therefore, there is
emphasis on early detection and early intervention, and necessary facilities are created
towards this end.
 Government takes measures to disseminate information
regarding availability of such facilities to the people especially in rural areas.

Counseling & Medical Rehabilitation

Physical rehabilitation measures including counseling,
strengthening capacities of persons with disabilities and their families, physiotherapy,
occupational therapy, psychotherapy, surgical correction and intervention, vision
assessment and stimulation, speech therapy and special education are extended to
cover all the districts in the country by active involvement and participation of State
Governments, local level institutions, NGOs including associations of parents and
persons with disabilities. To expand coverage in rural and unserved areas, new
District Disability Rehabilitation Centres (DDRCs) have been set up with support
from the State Governments.

Provision of Assistive Devices

The Government of India has been assisting persons with
disabilities in procuring durable and scientifically manufactured appliances of ISI
standard that can promote their physical, social and psychological independence by
reducing the effect of disabilities.
Every year persons with disabilities are provided with devices
such as prostheses and orthoses, tricycles, wheel chair, surgical footwear and devices
for activities of daily living, learning equipments (Braille writing equipments,
Dictaphone, CD player/ tape recorder), low vision aids, special mobility aids like
canes for blind, hearing aids, educational kits, communication aids, assistive &
alerting devices and devices suitable for the persons with mental disabilities.

2. Educational Rehabilitation Strategies

Education is the most effective vehicle of social and economic
empowerment. In keeping with Section 26 of the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995,
free and compulsory education is provided to all children with disabilities up to the
age of 18 years. According to the Census, 2001, fifty-one percent persons with
disabilities are illiterate. There is a need for mainstreaming of the persons with
disabilities in the general education system through Inclusive education.
 Children with disabilities in the age group of 15-18 years are
provided free education under Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC)
Scheme. This Scheme implemented through the State Governments, provides hundred
percent financial assistance to the Voluntary Organizations for various facilities like
special teachers, books and stationery, uniform, transport, readers allowance for the
visually handicapped, hostel allowance, equipment cost, removal/ modification of
architectural instructional barriers.
Under SSA, learning aids and tools, mobility assistance, support
services etc. are being made available to students with disabilities. Open learning
system and open schools, alternative schooling, distance education, special schools,
home based education, vocational education are some of the educational initiatives for
children with disabilities.
Government of India is providing scholarships and easy access
to students with disabilities for pursuing studies at post school level. Facilities for
technical and vocational education are designed to inculcate and bolster skill
development suited to various types of productive activities

3. Economic Rehabilitation strategies

Economic rehabilitation of Persons with disabilities comprise of

both wage employment in organized sector and self-employment. Supporting
structures like vocational rehabilitation centres and vocational training centres have
been developed to ensure that disabled persons in both urban and rural areas have
increased opportunities for productive and gainful employment. Strategies for
economic empowerment of persons with disabilities would be the following.
Reservation Government jobs

The PWD Act, 1995 provides for 3% reservation in employment

in the establishments of Government of India and Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs)
against identified posts. The status of reservation for Government in various
Ministries / Departments against identified posts in Group A, B, C & D is 3.07%,
4.41%, 3.76% and 3.18% respectively.
Wage employment in Private sector
Considering rapid growth of employment opportunities in
service sector, persons with disabilities are encouraged to undertake skill training
suitable to the market requirement. Pro-active measures like incentives, awards, tax
exemptions etc. for the employers are taken to encourage the employment of persons
with disabilities in the private sector.

Self-employment
Considering slow pace of growth in employment opportunities in
the organized sector, self-employment programmes of persons with disabilities are
promoted. This is done through vocational education and management training.
Further, they are provided loans at softer terms from the NHFDC for their own
income generation activities.

4. Promotion of Barrier-free environment

Barrier-free environment enables people with disabilities to

move about safely and freely, and use the facilities within the built environment. The
goal of barrier free design is to provide an environment that supports the independent
functioning of individuals so that they can participate without assistance, in every day
activities. Therefore, buildings / places / transportation systems for public use are
made barrier free.

5. Issue of Disability Certificates

The Government of India has notified guidelines for evaluation

of the disabilities and procedure for certification. The Government initiates to ensure
that the persons with disabilities obtain the disability certificates without any
difficulty in the shortest possible time by adoption of simple, transparent and
client-friendly procedures.
6. Promotion of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

The National Policy recognizes the NGO sector as a very

important institutional mechanism to provide affordable services to complement the
endeavors of the Government. It has played a significant role in the provisions of
services for persons with disabilities. Some of the NGOs are also undertaking human
resource development and research activities. They also are involved in policy
formulation, planning, implementation, monitoring and has been seeking their advice
on various issues relating to persons with disabilities.

7. Research

For improving the quality of life of persons with disabilities,

researches are supported on their socio-economic and cultural context, cause of
disabilities, early childhood education methodologies, development of user-friendly
aids and appliances and all matters connected with disabilities which will significantly
alter the quality of their life and civil society's ability to respond to their concerns.

Indigenization of Social Work Education and Practice,

Collaboration and networking

Indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge that is unique to a

culture or society. The other name for it is: ‘local knowledge’. In this context,
indigenous teaching materials of social work mean the teaching material those are
created and developed in India by Indians in Indian social context.
There is a worldwide debate today about the education that is
imparted to the students of social work in the developing countries. This concern
stems from the belief that since most of the contents of the education were originally
borrowed from the western countries, it is not culturally, economically, socially,
politically suited to meet the needs of developing countries including India.
 In fact, many academicians are clamoring for the indigenization
of social work education. Their quest for the same is based on the idea that students
and practioners face cultural conflict while attempting to apply the foreign theoretical
models in their practice. The search for indigenization of social work education
is a modern phenomenon among the educators in developing countries, including
India. Indigenization is generally concerned with macro, community oriented
developmental issues. Indigenization of social work education critically involves the
effort to develop a locally recognized and accepted pedagogy of social work
education. Creating and developing indigenous teaching material is highly essential in
the process of making indigenous pedagogy and making social work education more
relevant to our society.

Though we have been largely depending on the western

materials for social work education and our nation has not produced the great
philosophers of social work, our educators, professionals have made significant
efforts through research, analysis and writings to produce resourceful materials for
social work education which can give new lights to understand social work practice in
Indian social context. Some of the noted scholars who greatly contributed to the
development of the indigenous literature in India are Kulkarni (1993), Majundar
(1994), Pathak (1997), A. Desai, M.S. Gore, G.R. Banerjee.

There are resources in numerous forms which can be used

as materials for gaining knowledge and teaching social work practice in India.

1. Books of social work

The Indian authors have consistently been putting their best
effort to write books on the burning issues like family and child welfare, youth
welfare, medical and psychiatric social work in India, welfare of the weaker sections,
tribal welfare, welfare of the physically and mentally challenged. All these issues
sprang from the ideas on dire needs of people in strong connection to Indian social
problems and Indian social situations. There have been numbers of books developed
by the Indian authors so far at different points of time since the inception of education
of professional social work in India.
 At the initial stage, a few books appeared in social work
education in India like “Social Work-Its Nature, Scope and Status” (1941) by J.M.
Kumarappa; “From Charity to Social Work” by Titmus; “Education for Social Work”
by C. Mansharaf. After the independence, the publication of books on professional
social work was slowed down. During the decade 1965-77 many books of social work
came up mainly dealing with
Origin and development of social work profession, employment
opportunities, human resources and professionalism. In 1965, the University Grants
Commission made its virgin effort by compiling a book named “Social Work
Education and Indian Universities” which highlighted the scarcity of social work
materials in India. The first “Encyclopedia of Social Work in India” was brought into
being by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare in the year 1968 under the
active guidance of Smt. Durgabai Deshmukh.

With the experience of rise and fall of the rate of publication the
literary development of professional social work in India stepped into the decade of
eighties. The decade of 1987-96 is marked with the rise of social work publication of
social work literature in India. The second edition of the “Encyclopedia of Social
Work in India” was published by the Ministry of Social Welfare in 1987 with more
than ten articles on social work profession in India. The social work literatures
developed in this period mainly focused on the practical needs of the society rather
than the education of the profession.

In view of the needs of the field situation, some books like:

Medical Social Work by Pathak, Social Welfare Work in Hospitals by G.R. Banerjee,
Promotion of Mental Health with Community Participation by C.M. Francis, Social
Case Work by Grace Mathew and R.K. Upadhyaya, Urbanization and Family Change
by M.S. Gore, Community Organization by H.Y. Siddiqui, Samudaik Sangathan by
A.N. Singh, Socially Handicapped Children by M.S. Bedi, School Social Work by
Anjali Gandhi, Community Development in India by B. Mukherjee, Community
Development by K.D. Gangrade, Social Movement: Old and New by Rajendra Singh,
Field Work in Social Work by R.R. Singh, Labour Welfare and Social Security by
Surendra Singh, Philophy and Methods of Social Work by P.D. Mishra, Social
Problems in India by Ram Ahuja, Social Welfare Administration by Dr. D.R.
Sachdeva, Social Work-An integrated Approach by Sanjay Bhattacharya etc. and
many other books in social work in English language were brought into the scene
during the yester years of the development of social work literature in the country.
Besides, many books were written and translated in Hindi to support the social work
education at the undergraduate and certificate level.

2. Journals
A journal in social work is a scholarly publication containing
articles written by researchers, professors and other experts of social work. Journals
serve as important materials for the professional teaching and learning. Unlike
newspapers and magazines, journals are intended for an academic or technical
audience, not general readers. As far as the professional journals of social work are
concerned, the Indian journal of Social Work is doing a tremendous job. It has been
publishing essential issues of social interest like labour welfare, rural development,
family and child welfare, medical and psychiatric social work, methodologies of
social work, correctional social work, social research etc. Another professional
journal of social work is National Journal of Social Work which was started to review,
reflect and improve the theory, practice, teaching and research bases of social work in
Indian context. In 1957, Delhi School of Social Work began the Publication of
“Studies in Social Work” which aims at promoting the study of social problems in
India and aid in the process of framing an effective system for the welfare
programmes and policies in the country. “Contemporary Social Work” published by
the Department of Social Work of Lucknow University is one of the well known
journals in India. Main aim of the journal is to review new developments in social
work theory and practice, impact assessment of development schemes, finding the
importance of social research projects and scientific comments on policies in response
to pressing problems in India. Towards the advancement social work intervention, the
College of Social Work, Nirmala Niketan brings out a proessional journal named
“Perspectives in Social Work” which contains papers related to social intervention,
social change, social research, social psychology and other current topics dealing with
effective social work practice.
 3. Reports of the welfare agencies:
Annual and periodical performance reports of the welfare
agencies contain important materials for social work education in India. They bear
important knowledge on planning; implementation strategies of social welfare
policies; fund raising; methods, tools and techniques of social work and factors of
success and failure etc. These materials are used for the education of social work in
India.

4. Creative writings:
The creative writings like novels, stories, biographies, articles,
folk literatures carry the message of peaceful and happy living. Like a face in the
mirror, they reflect the real picture of social problems, their factors, social values,
beliefs pattern of culture and standard of living in the society. They help us to advance
in right direction in our thought, panning and action. Sometimes, some good novels
and stories also become the source of inspiration for living and dying for good cause,
for the welfare of the society. For the learning purpose they are taken as case studies
and become the models for understanding similar situations in the society. Some well
known stories such as Boodhi kaki by Premchand, Roz by Agney, Pret Mukti by
Shilesh, can be used in teaching social work depicting the real life situations based on
contemporary social realities. The novels like Coolie by Mul Raj Anand which is very
popular for the portrayal of social realism and truthful account of problems of
members of the lower strata of the society, Revolution 2020 by Chetan Bhagat, The
God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy, Many Hungers by Babani Battacharya, The
Guide by R K Narayan, The White Tiger by Arvind Adiga, and Odiya novel Rebati
by Fokir Mohan Senapati are some of the socially significant novels that can be
referred for developing knowledge and attitude of students of social work.

5. Religious texts
Bhagawat Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other religious
scriptures of Hinduism, Bible (Old and New Testament) of Christianity, The Qur'an
of Islam, Guru Granth Sahib of Sikhism, The Pitakas of Budhism, Zendavesta of
Zorastrianism are the religious scriptures of Indian religions which contain knowledge
and wisdom for humanitarianism and human happiness. From time immemorial, they
have been guiding human action for human needs. The religious scriptures as also
mentioned in the previous chapters have been the sources of inspiration for social
work practice. They contain some of the fundamental guidelines for the practice of
social work. Therefore, very often they are quoted for the teaching of social work.

6. Recordings of Seminars and Conferences

A seminar may be defined as a gathering of people for the
purpose of discussing a stated topic. Such gatherings are usually interactive sessions
where the participants engage in discussions about the delineated topic. Numbers of
local, national and international seminars are held on various issues of social work
profession in different parts of the country and the recordings of the proceedings of
these seminars add to the knowledge of social work. A professional conference is a
meeting of professionals in a given subject or profession, dealing with organizational
matters, matters concerning the status of the profession, and scientific or technical
developments. It has broader goals, and usually a much broader participation by
professionals. They are normally sponsored by the professional society in the field,
and usually are organized on state, national and international levels.

7. Documentary Films
Numbers of documentary films are produced from the case
studies conducted on various issues of social interest like beggary, disability,
trafficking, murder, rape, exploitation, migration, untouchability. Tehy throw light on
the severity and magnitude of the problems in our society. These are rich source of
knowledge for the students of social work. Even some feature films bear important
ideas, morals, messages which can be used for social work education purpose.

8. Ph.D theses
Hundreds of students pursue Ph D degree in tens of institutes all
over India in social work. They are engaged in research on different topics of social
significance and open new vistas in various fields.
They discover new facts and verify the old ones and publish
their findings in the professional journals and preserve the unpublished parts in the
libraries for future reference. These research papers also go a long way to improve the
knowledge base of social work students.

9. Leaflets
Many social welfare agencies take up various issues of relevant
fields and publish them for public education and awareness purpose. IEC/BCC
materials are developed in the form of leaflets, pamphlets, and flipcharts etc which
contain important facts / information about different topics. These can be used in
teaching and learning of social work.

Levels of Social Work Education

Bachelor’s Degree (BSW/ BA in Social Work) It constitutes the
first degree stage for professional social workers. This stage is selfcontained and
terminal in itself and prepares workers with skills for field tasks, commensurate with
their level of training. Therefore this degree has to prepare the students for practice,
skills, knowledge and attitude necessary for joining in the profession.
According to the 2nd Review Committee’s guidelines, the
following points are emphasized in first degree of social work education in India:
Introduction to all the subjects of social work. Information
about the areas/fields of social work Observation visit, field placement and agency
placement are the mandatory components of the course. Making the students
familiar with different methods of social work. Psychological study which includes
personality study.
According to the 3rd Review Committee of UGC, BSW is the
first professional degree in which substantial portion of the basic courses should be
completed. The courses should particularly reflect the local needs that are central to
the practice of social work.
Speaking briefly, content included in the bachelor degree in
social work is seen as the preface to the whole knowledge of social work.
Master’s Degree (MSW/MA in Social Work) Master degree in
social work is the second degree, building on the base provided at the bachelor’s
degree level. It aims to inculcate field level professional competence and managerial
and supervisory skills in the prospective professionals. Therefore, attempts to prepare
practitioners for policy-making, planning and administrative functions, research,
training and supervisory functions requiring considerable knowledge from allied
disciplines which are felt to be essential for the practice of social work. Some of the
specific objectives of MSW course are:
i) To provide the students with the field level professional
competence ii) To prepare the professionals for policy formulation, planning and
administrative functions. iii) To impart rigorous training for conducting social
research iv) To provide rural exposure through Rural Camps v) To conduct pre-job
training through Block placement in different social welfare agencies. vi) Imparting
the knowledge and skills for the analysis of different problems in the society vii) To
provide special training on development project formulation and management.
Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) It is the 2nd highest degree of
social work education. It aims to enhance the ability of the professionals to evaluate
the state of knowledge for problem identification and problem solving in relevance to
the theory and practice of social work profession. It also attempts to meet the gaps in
the knowledge of social work and sharpens research skills and develops generalist
perspectives of social work knowledge.
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) The Doctoral degree is the highly
sought about degree by professionals to be placed at the apex positions such as
planner, policy maker, high level administrator, researcher, high level academician or
consultant. At the doctoral level of social work education it is aspired to enhance the
narrative education to the professionals, the capacity to analyze the prevailing social
phenomena and development of suitable strategies for intervention.
It is sincere expectation from the PhD holders that they must
possess that capacity to go beyond the immediate facts to their conceptual referents
and to the building of those concepts in to the theoretical framework which aid in the
policy development, planning and knowledge building. In addition, they must be the
harbingers of social change and be the potential innovators of new models of social
welfare programmes and interventions.
Objectives
The main aim of social work education is to enrich social work
professionals with knowledge on society and its problems and prospects; instill in
them the humanitarian values of dignity and human services; develop their attitude to
passionately involve in understanding of human needs and in responding them with
appropriate thought and action. Following are some of the most frequently determined
objectives of most of the educational institutes of social work all over the world:
To enable the students to apply critical thinking skills within
the context of professional social work practice. To help the students to use the
professional knowledge and skills for dealing with individual, group and community
problems. To mould their attitude and behaviour as required in the practice of
social work profession. To make them understand the value base of the
profession and its ethical standards and principles, and practice accordingly. To
train the students to practice without discrimination and with respect, knowledge, and
skills related to age, class, caste, culture, disability, ethnicity, family structure, gender,
marital status, race, religion, economic status and sexual orientation etc of the
clientele. To help them understand the forms and mechanisms of oppression and
discrimination and apply strategies of advocacy and social change that can advance
social and economic justice. To guide them to understand and interpret the history
of the social work profession and its contemporary structures and issues. To enable
them to analyze, formulate, and influence social policies. To train the students in
such a way that they will be able to conduct research, evaluate research studies, apply
research findings to practice, and evaluate their own practice interventions.
To impart in the student the knowledge about social work
agencies, their structure function, and limitations.

Implication of Social Work Education

Implication means the hidden meaning of something or

in-depth understanding attached to it, or we can say, the logic behind it. It is important
to know the logic of social work education as it has been focus of our study at this
point. Addressing the high rate of poverty, poor health indicators, and overall living
conditions in the Indian society and income barriers requires social workers who
possess the leadership skills and have the in-depth knowledge on Indian social
situation-problems and prospects and they know how to overcome the barriers to the
receipt of services by people in need. The question is how will social work
educational programs meet this leadership challenge?
The Association of Schools of Social Work in India provides
guidance for the building of educational programs based upon sensitivity to
“contextual” factors in the community and a stronger focus on field education. This
means that social work educational programs are charged with creating missions,
competencies, and curricula that are clearly differentiated from other programs by
their distinctive response to their social context. They have put their best effort to
develop social work education programs that are more focused on meeting local needs
in the society.
This necessitates a return to one of the pillars of social work
education that centered on working with the community as a participant,
understanding that the community is the basic unit and its people are the real experts,
and recognizing that the function of the social worker is dictated by the needs of the
community. A community model suggests that the starting point in the education of
social work students needs to be a focus on the development of a professional
generalist with a high skill level in micro, meso and macro level of social work
practice.
Typically, schools of social work prepare students to work for
either direct or indirect human service agencies. Almost 80% of all graduate and
post-graduate schools of social work in India have some type of advanced generalist
concentration in their education. While this concentration endorses coursework across
all levels of service delivery - individuals, families, groups, organizations and
communities. It is the opinion of the author of this paper that macro practice (with
generalist idea) receives little attention. This may be true because employment
opportunities demand greater micro skills with special orientations in diverse fields.
Thus, most graduates from schools of social work find
employment as direct service practitioners in child, youth and family services, child
protective services, mental health services, medical services, services for the weaker
section, school social work, aging services, and correctional services, advocacy
programmes, community support programs, and recreational services. To strengthen
this practice, it is necessary for the academia to develop partnerships with the grass
root level development organizations and community action groups that have
produced successful results in working with people in needs.
Thus, the implication of social work education in India can be
summarized that the social work pedagogy has been putting its best efforts to groom
social work professionals in special attention to the needs and aspirations of the
Indian society, in connection to the role of social work in the current social situation.

Methods of Teaching Social Work

The methodological perspective of teaching social work is a
developing one in India. Conscious efforts are continuously being made to develop
new and appropriate methods of teaching social work in response to the growing
needs due to changing social situations. From the analysis of the pedagogy of social
work it is found that basically there are 2 fundamental methods of teaching social
work, namely:

1. Classroom Teaching and

2. Field Work Practicum Training

I. Classroom Teaching
Classroom teaching is a foremost feature in teaching all the
disciplines including social work. The subject-matter of classroom teaching in social
work generally constitutes the knowledge on theories, principles, values, ethics and
skills of social work which are the pre-requisite and of paramount importance for the
trainees of social work before being exposed to their real work environment. It is the
responsibility of the classroom teacher to formulate the course structure, establish
high expectations for student accomplishment, maintain an open and interactive class
environment, and design strategies that encourage and facilitate learning by the social
work student. Classroom Learning must occur in three broad areas: I. knowledge, II.
Values, and III. Skills.
Knowledge
The knowledge component of social work is, in many ways, the
easiest to teach because there is, for the most part, an agreed upon terminology and
language that can be used to present, describe, and discuss concepts, theories, and
facts relevant to practice. Classroom teaching should prove helpful when introducing
students to basic practical knowledge. Moreover, it is possible to use conventional
exams to determine if the student has acquired the necessary conceptual
understanding.

Basic Values and Attitudes

The values associated with effective social work practice can be
discussed with students, but cannot be directly taught. At best, values and attitudes
can be “caught” by the student.
If the teacher makes the model of visible desired values in their own
behaviors, students may adapt their own values to imitate those of a respected teacher.
Thus, faculty must be prepared to discuss ethical dilemmas, relevant moral and
religious considerations, and the cultural and value conflicts that are typically a part of
practice.

Methods, skills and Techniques

The skills and techniques are also best taught through modeling and
demonstration by a teacher in the classroom. In addition, the student must have the
opportunity to practice these behaviors in a real or simulated situation. Simply reading
about or listening to a description of a desired practice behavior is hardly sufficient to
facilitate this learning by the student. Thus a classroom teacher must create a
teaching/learning process that allows and requires students to perform various social
work activities that utilize basic practice techniques.
In my opinion from teaching experiences to social work students in
Indian classroom situation, the following methods of classroom teaching of social
work can be instrumental.
1. Lecture Method
This method is the most commonly used mode by the teachers
especially of social sciences. This expects the students to quietly sit and listen to the
talk about the subject matter. In this situation, students are expected to take notes and
sometimes the teacher may write notes on the chalkboard. Often the lesson may end
up with few recapitulate questions. A teacher would have no option than to use the
lecture method when the topic is abstract. Topics like Man and his Beliefs, Cause of
suffering, Justice etc. can be explained through the lecture method. A lesson becomes
dull without combining this method with other methods and the use of teaching aids.

2. Discussion/ Seminar Method

This method refers to student-to-student talk with occasional
intervention by the teacher. The method involves the use of small group of students
where each group will have a leader who initiates the discussion of the issue or
subject matter. It should be noted that the students are more active than the teacher
when this method is used. But care should be taken to avoid the discussion being
dominated by some students. Every member of a small group should be given equal
opportunity or chances of making contributions to any discussion. Discussion method
can be used for the following topics in Social work: Problems of Modernization,
Problem of Survival, Family Problems, Poverty, Social development etc. The method
can be effective if it is deliberately planned and systematically used with the
guidelines of the teacher.

3. Simulation Method
Simulations are dynamic and lively ways of presenting ideas,
problems, issues and realities in our past and present society. Simulation means, to act
like or to resemble. Through this method, a situation will be created in which
activities are presented as if they are incidences of real-life such as: economic
operations, social movements, community organization, etc. Simulations are highly
motivating to students. They were first used in teaching war strategies. They provide
the students’ group with a common and shared experience that can make learning
more meaningful and effective. Topics that look too difficult or abstract e.g. ethics,
values, democracy, leadership, conflict, prejudice etc. can be understood through
simulation activities. Teachers must be aware that it takes much time and students
tend to be very noisy, disorderly and sometimes prove very difficult to control.
Students should therefore, be prepared and enlightened on how to conduct themselves
during simulation activities. This demands adequate preparation from the teacher and
the establishment of the value and relevance of the activities to the syllabus.

4. Inquiry Method
Inquiry or discovery method encourages divergent thinking,
allows students to find out information by themselves and it generates students’
enthusiasm at examining issues logically. The process of inquiry method involves
identification of a problem, analysis of this information in order to arrive at possible
solution and using the solution to generalize. Students can be required to find out the
reasons for poverty, unemployment, malnutrition, child labour, human trafficking etc
in the country. A very desirable aspect of the inquiry technique is its emphasis on the
use of higher levels of thinking.

5. Project Method
A project can be carried out by an individual student or by a
group of students. Project method involves doing concrete things and it is
self-motivated. Project method needs extremely careful planning by the teacher but
the aim is to get the students to co-ordinate his information in an intelligent manner.
Examples of areas in social work where projects can be executed include writing a
case study, making of resource maps, developing project proposal etc. The role of the
teacher is to guide and inspire the students which can help to clarify concepts in
Social work. At the classroom environment, project should not be difficult to
discourage the students and it should not take much time to complete.

6. Demonstrations
Demonstrations are the repetition of series of planned actions
designed to illustrate certain phenomena. Demonstrations can be presented by the
students or teachers. The use of demonstration is to make some information clear with
vivid illustrations. It can be used either as the starting point for a unit of instruction in
Social Work or to provide a convincing conclusion. There are many advantages of
demonstration, especially when there is shortage of learning equipments. Topics like
cultural patterns such as mode of dressing of a certain tribe, music, dancing etc. can
be effectively taught by demonstration. A good Social work teacher can by means of
carefully planned demonstrations, teach a larger number of students than he could by
any other method. It is economical in terms of teaching-hours and materials. Though
demonstration is a useful teaching device, it should not be indiscriminately used
ignoring other teaching techniques.

8. Problem - Solving Method

This method is vital for teaching the future professionals of
social work. It enables the students to identify a problem, try to understand the
problem and finally evaluate information in order to find solution to the problem that
has been identified. The method demands the use of scientific approach in the
teaching and learning processes. The method focuses the learner’s attention on
activities which may involve arrangement, classification, sorting out, prioritizing and
interacting with facts with the ultimate goal of finding a logical answer to a specific
problem. Problem-solving method should be student-centered. The teacher should
only make the problem relevant and appealing to the students’ experience. He should
also encourage the students to arrive at a deeper understanding of the information
available in the process of solving a problem.

9. Dramatization Method
It is one of the most effective methods of stimulating the
students in what they learn. It is way by which students express freely their
understanding of the life around them. The method allows for a great deal of
involvement of the students physically, emotionally and mentally. In a situation where
a lesson or topic is dry, dramatization could effectively help to sustain the students’
attention and interest. The teacher could engage students who are less active in
academic work. This opportunity would create a sense of belonging and sense of
responsibility in them. The drama to be staged must rely a good deal on the realistic
imagination of the students to make it effective and relevant. Dramatization provides
an avenue for respect of opinion of others, cooperative attitude, development of
desirable skills, confidence and self-esteem etc. Students can be led to dramatize the
function of a family, the role of social worker in social action and community
organization, honesty, leadership, client-case worker relationship etc. and many others
which are topics in the Social Work syllabus.

10. Home Assignment

This is not a method but a device which can be used to
engage the students outside the lesson period. In the light of students’ attitude to home
assignment, the teacher should give assignments that can be completed within a short
time. Such home assignment must be interesting and relevant to the subject matter.
Home assignment can be given in any topic in Social Work. It could be finding
answers to some questions or seeking information about a particular topic etc.
Social work is a practice based profession. How does one
teach practice competencies in a classroom setting? Indeed, many practice skills are
best learned in a practicum or field work setting. However, if students are to have
some practice basics before actually functioning in a real agency and serving real
clients, the classroom experience must prepare them with some fundamental
knowledge, values, techniques, and practice guidelines before they are assigned to
field placements. Certainly, there are many ways to teach practice competencies
within a classroom environment. The method selected by the educator must be one
that is effective in helping students achieve the learning objectives of the course, one
that fits well with the students’ characteristics and the teacher’s own abilities, and one
that can work within constraints imposed by time limitations and scheduling.

II. Field Work Practicum

Field work practicum is an integral and most important
part of social work education. It holds the maxim that “There is no better method than
learning by doing”. Field work practicum is of optimum importance in social work
education in the sense that it helps the students to enhance empirical knowledge in
social work, to polish the required skills, develops suitable attitude and transforms the
raw form of student into a competent social worker. Field work practicum in social
work is a medium through which student translates the theoretical knowledge taught
in the classroom into practice.
 Thus the field work practicum helps the student to get
acquainted with the real field situation and to gain experiences about the pain and
pleasure of the same.

Objectives of Field Work Practicum

Field work practicum aims at equipping the students to
deal with complex problems and personalities. The direct interaction with people
helps them to add to their knowledge of people, develop understanding of people’s
problems and bring emotional and intellectual power of judgment and stability in
action. This is the educational need of the students of social work profession. The
Review Committee on Social Work Education in India (1978) has evolved specific
objectives of field work training in social work education. The major objectives of
field work practicum in social work education are as under:

i) To develop professional skills through practical learning, apply acquired knowledge

for the study of relevant facts, analysis of the problems and selection of appropriate
means towards the solution of those problems.

ii) To develop the skills for solving the problems in work at the micro level
(individual, family and groups) and change at the macro level (community, social
system including social institutions and wide range processes).

iii) To provide concurrent opportunities for the integration of classroom learning, field
work practice and vice versa (feedback mechanism for both field work practice and
classroom learning)

iv) To develop the skills required for professional practice at a particular level of
training.

v) To objectively develop professional attitude involving impartiality and

nonjudgmental attitude.
vi) To develop professional values and commitments, such as respect for human
dignity and worth, right to participation and self-determination compatible with a
better society.

vii) To develop an awareness of self and one’s professional ideas

Although the clients are indirectly affected by the social

worker’s theoretical knowledge, they are most directly impacted by what the worker
actually does (e.g., what the worker says, how it is said, how the worker responds to
what the clients say and does, etc.). A Field work practicum does not intend just to
teach about practice. Rather, it teaches students to perform specific practice
activities-the techniques, procedures, and actions that can positively impact the
clients’ social functioning.

The field Work Practicum consists of several components to the support of the field
training of the future professionals of social work. Some of those components can be
discussed hereunder:

i) Community Placement: During the foundation coarse of bachelor and master

degrees of social work during the initial years, the students are placed in the urban
(slum) or rural (village) communities for at least for one academic year to have basic
understanding about the life of the people in the villages or slums. The students
during their community placement are expected to visit their scheduled community in
a regular basis and are instructed to undertake various activities of social interest of
the community to gain knowledge and experience about the social structure, cultural
patterns, economic aspects, education and so on. The activities generally undertaken
by the trainees of social work in the community include social research, problem
identification, community organization, awareness campaigns, Family visits,
Counseling etc. The students should report to their assigned faculty supervisor about
their field work on a regular basis and carry out the instruction of the same.
Sometimes, the faculty supervisor plans activities for the trainees and asks them to
present their activities in an inter-class seminar which is organized in order to assess
and enhance the practical skills of the training.
ii) Agency Placement: Agency Placement is another important component of field
work practicum in social work education. Some agencies where the social work
trainees are placed for their learning purpose are those where they are likely to work
after completion of their straining in social work. These agencies include the
Nongovernmental Organizations concerned with social welfare, corporate,
cooperatives, hospitals, counseling centers, foster homes, orphanages, Government
Organizations with development and welfare concerns etc. The students in after
the community placement are given for agency placement for another academic year.
During the agency placement they are expected to get a practical exposure to an
agency setting and gain knowledge and experience about vision, mission, structure,
function, principles, operational area, personnel policy, welfare administration,
implementation, weaknesses and strength of the agency. During Agency Placement,
the students closely involved in all the programme activities of the agencies and gain
knowledge and skills through the collaborative working efforts with the employees of
the agencies. The students in the agency setting must follow the instructions of the
personnel who is assigned to look after their work in the agency. Sometimes, they
may be asked to visit to the fields of the agency and can apply their knowledge which
they obtained from the previous community placement. The agency setting provides
them with new knowledge and enhances the knowledge and skills already gained.

iii) Individual Conference: It is another useful component of field work practicum in

social work education. The faculty supervisor avails himself for once in a week or as
scheduled to instruct the students. He meets the students personally in a specified
place and listens to the grievances and doubts which were felt by the trainees while
working in the community setting or agency setting. Comments on the activities
undertaken in the field or agency setting and on the report submitted by the students
are personally given to the students through individual conference. The faculty
supervisor also provides needful advice and instruction as required by the trainee
individually.

iv) Group Conference: Group conference is the event where the faculty supervisor
assesses the group performance of the trainees in the community or agency setting. He
plans, instructs and conducts the group presentations as scheduled in the previous
group conference. The trainees are asked to present different learning issues of
community/agency setting and are given comments on their performance in the group
in both kinds of setting as well as performance in presentation. It becomes useful for
the students providing the opportunity to know their strength and weakness in the
practical fields and work on that for improvement. The duty of the faculty supervisor
is to critically evaluate the knowledge, skills and attitude of the students, relate them
with the theoretical knowledge gained from classroom teaching and guiding them to
develop in required area of their learning.

v) Block Placement: At around the end of the course, a Block Placement for 1
month is arranged for each student in an agency of social work relevance. During the
Block Placement the student is expected to join the agency on a regular basis and
work with the agency to get post qualification experience in the work environment. It
has been found that many agencies pick up the students for job placement by
assessing hi/her ability during the block placement.

Collaboration and Networking in Social Work Profession

 Collaboration
Social workers practice in schools, hospitals, psychiatric
clinics, juvenile courts, prisons, police departments, and a range of other settings
(Abramson & Rosenthal, 1995; Gibelman, 1995). Current practice demands
collaboration between social workers and the professionals who dominate these
agencies. For effective collaboration, it is critical to know what constitutes and
influences collaboration.
Trends in Social Work Practice Relevant to
Interdisciplinary Collaboration & Trends in social problems and professional practice
make it virtually impossible to serve clients effectively without collaborating with
professionals from various disciplines. Teachers are less able to educate students
when larger numbers of them come to school hungry, abused, and unable to speak
English. Physicians and nurses are less able to meet the demands of managed care
without assistance from social workers, occupational and physical therapists, and
others to support patients in the least expensive setting. These problems are
compounded by the limitations of some disciplines, limited understanding of the roles
and expertise of other professionals, increased requirements for accountability and
documentation, and complex diagnoses and treatment methods.
Interdisciplinary Collaboration Definition Berg-Weger and Schneider
(1998) defined interdisciplinary collaboration as “an interpersonal process through
which members of different disciplines contribute to a common product or goal”
(p. 698). Interdisciplinary collaboration is an effective interpersonal process that
facilitates the achievement of goals that cannot be reached when individual
professionals act on their own (Bruner, 1991). This definition reflects the way
interdisciplinary collaboration is written about and increasingly referred to when
compared with other closely related interpersonal processes such as cooperation,
communication, coordination, and partnership (Bruner; Graham & Barter, 1999;
Kagan, 1992; Mailick & Ashley, 1981).

Components of Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Four theoretical frameworks in the development of the model, including a
multidisciplinary theory of collaboration, services integration—the program
development model discussed most frequently in conjunction with
collaboration—role theory, and ecological systems theory.
Through a review of the theoretical literature and the
social work practice literature, Identified components of interdisciplinary
collaboration that consistently appear. Although differences exist among disciplines,
this model is meant to be a generic depiction of the components of optimum
collaboration between social workers and other professionals. Inter-professional
processes among one or more professionals from different disciplines engaged in
work-related activities should represent five core components:
(1) interdependence,
(2) newly created professional activities,
(3) flexibility,
(4) collective ownership of goals, and
(5) reflection on process
 Interdependence
Refers to the occurrence of and reliance on interactions among
professionals whereby each is dependent on the other to accomplish his or her goals
and tasks. To function interdependently, professionals must have a clear
understanding of the distinction between their own and their collaborating
professionals’ roles and use them appropriately. Characteristics of interdependence
include formal and informal time spent together, oral and written communication
among professional colleagues, and respect for colleagues’ professional opinions and
input.

 Newly created professional activities

Refer to collaborative acts, programs, and structures that can
achieve more than could be achieved by the same professionals acting independently.
These activities maximize the expertise of each collaborator

 Flexibility
Extends beyond interdependence and refers to the deliberate
occurrence of role-blurring. Behavior that characterizes flexibility includes reaching
productive compromises in the face of disagreement and the alteration of role as
professionals respond creatively to what’s called for. Hospice social workers illustrate
flexibility when they use knowledge gained from working in teams with nurses and
physicians to answer patients’ simple questions about palliative medical care.

 Collective ownership of goals

Refers to shared responsibility in the entire process of
reaching goals, including joint design, definition, development, and achievement of
goals. This includes a commitment to client-centered care whereby professionals from
different disciplines and clients and their families are all active in the process of goal
attainment. To engage in collective ownership of goals, each professional must take
responsibility for his or her part in success and failure and support constructive
disagreement and deliberation among colleagues and clients.
 Reflection on process
Refers to collaborators’ attention to their process of working together.
This includes collaborators’ thinking and talking about their working relationship and
process and incorporating feedback to strengthen collaborative relationships and
effectiveness.

Influences on Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Inclusion of influences on interdisciplinary collaboration places the
model in context. After a model exists to describe collaboration, and if collaboration
is deemed an important component of practice, an understanding of what aids and
what presents barriers to collaboration is needed to increase its occurrence. Areas
noted as influences on interdisciplinary collaboration include professional role,
structural characteristics, personal characteristics, and a history of collaboration. The
presence of each supports interdisciplinary efforts, whereas their absence presents
barriers to its occurrence.

Professional Role.
A strong sense of professional role includes holding the values
and ethics of the social work profession; an allegiance to the agency setting; an
allegiance to the social work profession; respect for professional colleagues; an
ecological, holistic view of practice consistent with the social work profession; and a
perspective that is similar or complementary to collaborators’ perspectives.
Role theory informs an understanding of how socialization into a
professional role occurs and how a person is able to interact with others in his or her
work. Critical issues in understanding the influence of professional role on social
workers’ collaboration with others includes the effect of socialization, the settings,
and status and hierarchy. Each profession socializes its members differently with
regard to role, values, and practice (Abramson, 1990), and the differences among the
professions are compounded by the high value each places on autonomy, holding the
ability to be self-directed as an “ideal” of professionalism (Waugaman, 1994). This
sense of autonomy, professional identity, and skills develop through the process of
professional socialization. Understanding the socialization, and with it the role
expectations and heritage of a profession, are prerequisites for understanding a group
of professionals’ skills, attitudes, and abilities to collaborate with other disciplines
(Lee & Williams, 1994; Waugaman).
Sometimes, the diverse cultures, norms, and language of each
profession make the process of interdisciplinary collaboration resemble the bringing
together of inhabitants from foreign lands.
Social workers take on an endless number of roles on
interdisciplinary teams and in their dyadic interdisciplinary relationships. Several
studies note that successful teamwork may be hampered by allegiances that lean too
strongly toward a workers’ profession or department (Abramson, 1990; Hoch, 1965;
Kane, 1975, 1980) or too strongly toward the interdisciplinary team (Abramson, 1990;
Kane, 1980). A strong sense of professional role as prerequisite for interdisciplinary
collaboration involves an allegiance to both. Because interdisciplinary relationships
differ for a discipline and its status in the setting, a competent professional role that
can promote collaboration requires reciprocal respect regardless of the profession’s
status in the setting.

Structural Characteristics
Structural characteristics relevant to interdisciplinary
collaboration include a manageable caseload, an agency culture that supports
interdisciplinary collaboration, administrative support, professional autonomy, and the
time and space for collaboration to occur.

 Networking
Social work practice is about promoting social change, social
justice, social cohesion, and the empowerment of people. Professional social workers
employ various methods and techniques in their practice with the marginalized and
oppressed groups. The most popular choices of practice are case work, group work
and community work. In the changing social environment of globalization, it has
become increasingly challenging to practice social work as a one person job.
 Social workers necessarily need to develop networks and support
systems for effective practice. In the contemporary times, networking is being
considered an important method of social work practice because of its effectiveness in
tapping resources, gaining knowledge, influencing policies to advocate for rights and
social justice.

DEFINITION OF NETWORKS AND NETWORKING

Shared interest is the basis of all networking endeavors and is
about exchange of information, ideas and resources among individuals. Building
supportive networks is the cornerstone of networking exercise. Kirst-Ashman & Hull
(2006) define networks as a “number of individuals and organizations that are
interconnected to accomplish a goal that each feels is worthwhile.” These networks
need not be formal groups working together all the time. They can also be ad- hoc
arrangements with informal memberships to achieve a particular goal.
Gilchrist (2004) suggests that in networks the “existence and
vitality of linkage are determined by personal choices, circumstance or occasionally
sheer coincidence. Cooperation between members relies on persuasion and reciprocity
rather than coercion or contracts … the most important and useful aspect of a network
is its pattern of connections, which often reflects on underlying value basis, shared
interest or simply the geography of overlapping lives”.
Based on this understanding of networks with symbiotic
relationships, Folgheraiter (2004) defines networking as a “deliberate action by one or
several social workers which takes the form of a relationship- in practice, joint action-
with a network of people i.e. with other pre-existing or potential relationships.” This
action is aimed at rendering support to justice seekers and improving the quality and
capacity for action of both the expert and the network.

Thus, networking in social work practice has the following emphasis:

1. It involves building relationships with other professionals who share interests,
opportunities and aims to work together towards the achievement of these mutual
goals.
2. It is about creating useful linkages, alliances both within and among communities,
organizations, and societies, in order to mobilize resources and achieve social work
goals.
3. It demands building long-term symbiotic relationships with all the partners in the
network for mutual support, assistance, and engagements for shared goals.

IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING IN SOCIAL WORK

Social workers need to collaborate and cooperate with other
individuals and organizations for an effective social work practice. A network’s value
is judged by its capacity to mobilize individual and collective responses to adversity.
Networking is a strategy of empowerment at both the individual and collective level.
Social workers must also understand the importance of networks and networking both
for clients and their own effectiveness as helpers and change agents.
The following are the advantages of networking as a method of social work
practice:

1. Social capital: Network therapy and networking uses relationships as assets for
problem solving and restoration of social functioning. Relationships among people
enable day to day social functioning form part of social capital. Just like human
capital, social capital is an asset that provides individuals with social security,
emotional support and makes them feel protected. For example, in the event of
discord in marital relations of a couple, other members of the family and relatives
help the couple in distress. Such networks help individuals feel more confident of
their ability to weather a personal storm and help reduce stress. Networking helps to
bring together formal and informal carers and support systems for effective problem
solving and stress mitigation. Support groups under group work can provide
emotional security, forming an essential part of social capital for people.

2. Opens doors to variety of resources inside and outside the profession: First
and foremost, networks augment resources both formal and informal. Networking is
grounded in the notion that people who pool their resources have a greater ability to
advance their interests. It also encourages sharing of resources and offer opportunities
for increased communication which can lead to constructive thinking and new
solutions. For example, if an organization wants to press for a new legislation related
to rampant acid attacks on women then instead of carrying out new research, it can
use the studies done by any other organization already working with the victims of
acid attacks.

3. Widens support and encourages solidarity: Connections formed through

networking can be useful in broadening the research and knowledge base of social
campaigns and generating new resources and backing for their efforts. Networking
also prevents duplication of efforts and encourages collective and concerted efforts
for an issue. It helps to unite the local and global levels. This facilitates interaction
between people in different parts of the world and allows them to recognize both their
differences and their commonality. It is also a tool for organizations and individuals to
come together in solidarity and act as pressure groups for social justice goals at the
regional, national and international level.
Joint efforts are essential part of advocacy for social work goals
because cooperation is imperative for non- governmental organizations eager to
scale-up activities and enhance their impact. Even the social workers themselves
find company to share personal stress and gain guidance. Recently, International
Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) has granted a member status to India. This
was a long pending issue as only one organization from a country is granted
membership of IFSW.
In 2015, six organizations namely Indian Society of Professional
Social Workers, founded in 1970; The National Association of Professional Social
Workers, founded in 2014; The Karnataka Association of Professional Social
Workers, founded in 1977; Kerala Association of Professional Social Workers,
founded in 2013; Professional Social Workers Association, founded in 2004; and
Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers, founded in 1989, came together to
form one body, The Indian Network of Professional Social Work Association
(INPSWA) fetched India the membership status with IFSW.

4. Aids in social work practice efforts: Networking helps to speed up action

through a social system. It aids in organizing and mobilizing, empowering civil
society groups, and enabling poor and powerless individuals to have a stronger voice
in the processes of decision-making. For example, organization Kat-Katha is working
with the children of the sex workers in Delhi. One of the important strategies of
Kat-katha is to educate these children. Instead of building their own capacities for this,
it may also be useful for the organization to collaborate with other organizations
already working in the field of education like Ankur and/or Pratham to make
difference in the lives of these children.

5. Aid in confronting challenges: Another fundamental advantage of networking is

that they allow organizations to confront growing challenges without having to
enlarge their formal structure. Individual weakness can be overcome through
neworking with other organizations, for example, Shack/ Slum Dwellers International,
Street Net International (alliance of street vendors).

6. Human rights monitoring: It is important to see networking as an important part

of human rights monitoring under social work practice as it plays significant role in
assisting with consultation and accountability of government and non‐government
actors. It is by active sharing of information and cooperation among human rights
partners and local actors that human rights violations can be addressed. This role is of
utmost importance because of the shrinking welfare state in the contemporary times.
For example, International Dalit Solidarity network is an example of such human
rights monitoring through networks.

7. Research and Education: Networking plays an important role in the realm of

research, education, and scholarship. Partnerships and linkages among scholars and
institutions allow those in postgraduate and professional communities to share
existing knowledge about development. For example, the developmental professionals
working in the field are an important resource for the educational institutions to teach
about the contemporary realities of the profession in practice. Similarly, educational
institutions provide a pool of trained professionals to the organizations for work and
practice.
Also the research conducted by institutions may be very useful for
the organizations to understand the society, its concerns and contemporary challenges
with a research focus. For example, Beyond Copenhagen Collective is a coalition of
organizations and networks working on environmental and climate justice and
sustainable development.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE NETWORKING

Networking is a very planned and intensive process. It is very
important that the following essentials of networking are taken into consideration for
an effective networking:

1. Data base: Creation of data base of information and resources essential to all
partners in a network is important. Without this, there will be gaps in information
sharing and communication which would lead to ineffective networking.

2. Building sustainable relationship: It is important that the networking relationship

is symbiotic, guided by mutual goals and common interests because only these
prerequisites can ensure a sustainable network. Mutual goals support mutual
development of all the partners in the network. The mutual interdependence ensures
that the partners in the network are able to have long term partnerships with each
other.

3. Communication: Information sharing is the key to effective networking. If the

partners in the networking exercise do not share information of common interest
regularly then it might lead to mistrust among the networking partners. Also, without
the smooth flow of information, the partners in the network would not be able to share
resources effectively. Ineffective communication is the biggest hindrance to
networking as it fails the very purpose networks are formed for.

4. Shared confidentiality: Trust and confidentiality promote smooth communication

and alliance among all the partners in a network. Although the information shared
among the partners is open to the members of the network but the underlying
principle remains that the information shared should not be misused in any way and
should be strictly kept within the bounds of network.
 VOLUNTARISM V/S PROFESSIONALISM

 Voluntarism

• The German word for volunteer , when literally translated, means ‘honorary post’ •
A word that describes perfectly the fact that voluntarism is a value in itself •
Voluntarism is an important part of a civil society and allows us to fulfil needs which
would not be addressed otherwise. • In many cases the beneficiaries of volunteer
works are the most vulnerable groups within our societies: the poor, the sick, the
elderly. • This links up a basic motivation for voluntarism with the most important
principle of humanitarian assistance, which is humanity and humanitarian
conviction. • The volunteer receives public appreciation for what he or she is doing. •
This enhances his/her personal satisfaction too and may lead to more self-confidence •
It is devotion and dedication to serve the entire mankind • This may come out of their
desire to go to Heaven after death- it’s because of the faith in rebirth and desire in
attaining salvation through charity that involves people in voluntary action • They
generally do not expect any reward/ payment for the charity given or service rendered.

What Is The Difference Between Professionalism And Voluntarism in Social

Work?
Voluntary work could be extended to an individual too,
but when it addresses the needs of a community at large, it is referred to as voluntary
social work Professional work instead implies all that is done for a profit and for
admission of skill and core competency areas.

 Professionalism

• Paid, as opposed to unpaid or voluntary or amateur

• A member of a specific expert work community, as opposed to a non- professional
• Voluntary work could be extended to an individual too, but when it addresses the
needs of a community at large, it is referred to as 'voluntary social work
• professional and voluntary work, are different in the targets set
• The professional and voluntary workers are both driven by the incessant urge to
contribute positively to society.
• Both the spheres of influence encompass humanity at large.
• Both forms of social work include doing some sort of work that benefits the society.
• It could be anything from taking care of the elderly in old folks' homes, to work next
to underprivileged school children and their families
• Professional social work is done by those who do it for a living, and usually follow
the same 8-hour word day, or 40 hour work week calendar like other professionals in
other fields of work.
• Professional social workers are required to be trained and qualified for the work they
do surrounded by the community, such as teaching, etc.
• Professional social workers are paid, just approaching regular working people, for
the job they do.
• Voluntary social workers, on the other hand, usually work on a unpaid basis • They
do similar work, and as a whole the work benefits society, but they don't normally
treat the work as a 9 to 5 undertaking.
• Voluntary social workers are exactly what their title says: voluntary • They don't get
paid for the work they do
• They are also usually not required to be qualified to do the work which they are
assigned
Voluntary social work is an association of people or a
single person who is willing to work for the sake of other populace free of salary. He
is not going to ask for money for whatever he is doing. He is helping out other needy
inhabitants without taking any salary for it. They should not think that they should not
be loyal as they are not getting money for their work.

• Professional social work is to be done by organizations for money.

• They should cart money for whatever they are doing
• They should not think that they are not going to have income for their work.
• They should also be loyal to their work but they are also money base
• They should wait for hi-fi and attractive salaries.
 Professionalization & Managerialism

 Professionalisation
Over the years, numerous attempts have been made to develop a
theoretical framework to distinguish professions from non-professional occupations
and to identify the factors that influence their development. Two competing
approaches have emerged in the literature: the ‘attributes (or trait)’ approach and the
‘power (or control)’ approach (Hall, 1994; Macdonald, 1995). These approaches
differ not only in their definition of a ‘profession’, but also in their methods of
analysis and their explanations as to why some occupations have professionalised
while others have not, and why some have become more professionalised than others.
The attributes approach emphasises the function of professions in a modern social
structure. It explains their development and specific characteristics with reference to
functionalist assumptions regarding their contribution to society and the significance
of their unique characteristics in assuring their continued existence and furthering
their ability to attain their goals (Macdonald, 1995; Wenocur & Reisch, 1983).
‘Profession’ is a descriptive term comprising a list of identifying characteristics that
distinguish ‘professions’ from ‘occupations’ (Hall, 1994; Hugman, 1996; Popple,
1985). Thus, this approach operationalises the term by identifying critical attributes or
core traits. Ernest Greenwood (1957), the most prominent proponent of this approach
(Abbott, 1995; Hall, 1994), pointed out five critical attributes: (i) a systematic body of
knowledge; (ii) professional authority recognised by its clientele; (iii) community
sanction; (iv) a regulatory code of ethics; and (v) a professional culture sustained by
formal professional associations. Over the years scholars have added traits, among
them a distinguishing set of esoteric specialist skills, a long period of training and
socialisation within higher education, control over entrance into the training process,
commitment to service, autonomy of action, prestige and remuneration, and fiduciary
relations with clients (Abbott, 1995; Hugman, 1996; Wenocur & Reisch, 1983).
Freidson (1970b) defined professions as occupations that have a
dominant position of power in the division of labour in their area of practice and thus
have control over the content of their work. Johnson (1972) identified professions as
occupations that have achieved control over various aspects of their operations. These
include: the key components of their work; the choice and development of the
techniques employed; the selection, training and licensing of members; and autonomy
in defining the nature of services and who is entitled to receive them. In a similar vein,
Wenocur and Reisch (1983: 689) defined a profession as a ‘quasi-corporate entity or
enterprise whose members have obtained a substantial degree of control over the
production, distribution and consumption of a needed commodity’.
The ‘power’ approach has been central to the study of social work
in recent decades (Abbott, 1995; Hopps & Collins, 1995). In particular, it has been
used to explore the degree to which social work has achieved a monopoly over the
delivery of services (Giarchi & Lankshear, 1998; Johnson & Yanca, 2001; Popple,
1995). The present study employs a combination of the two approaches, combining
indicators drawn from both of these influential perspectives. These indicators are: (i)
public recognition of professional status; (ii) professional monopoly over specific
types of work; (iii) professional autonomy of action; (iv) possession of a distinctive
knowledge base; (v) professional education regulated by members of the profession;
(vi) an effective professional organisation; (vii) codified ethical standards; and (viii)
prestige and remuneration reflecting professional standing.
Despite the uneven success of the professionalisation project within
social work, this study of ten different countries indicates that across very diverse
settings the aspiration to professional status is strong and acts as a powerful
motivating force behind the development of professional organisations, professional
ethics, and professional knowledge.
The path of professional development in social work in any
given context appears to be shaped by the interaction between three complex,
subtle and sometimes very unstable variables:
(i) The level of internal professional power and the cohesiveness of social work in
working to achieve certain defined professional aims (an accepted code of ethics,
strong professional associations).
(ii) The external influence that the profession is able to bring to bear to achieve other
aims (state licensing and restriction of title, remuneration, state sanctions for breaches
of the code of ethics, control over education and entrance to the profession).
(iii) The political, economic and social context within which it is operating
(professional prestige, scope for asserting professional knowledge, and expertise at a
policy level).
These factors taken together influence social work’s progress as a
profession.

 Managerialism
Managerialism involves belief in the value of professional
managers and of the concepts and methods they use. Contemporary writers on
management such as Thomas Diefenbach associate managerialism with hierarchy. But
scholars have also linked managerialism to control, to accountability and
measurement, and to an ideologically determined belief in the importance of
tightly-managed organizations, as opposed to individuals or to groups that do not
resemble an organization. American management experts Robert R. Locke and J. C.
Spender see managerialism as an expression of a special
group – management – that entrenches itself ruthlessly and systemically in an
organization. It deprives owners of decision-making power and workers of their
ability to resist managerialism. In fact the rise of managerialism may in itself be a
response to people's resistance in society and more specifically to workers' opposition
against managerial regimes. Enteman (1993), Locke and Spender (2011) and Klikauer
(2013)
Managerialism combines management knowledge and
ideology to establish itself systemically in organisations and society while depriving
owners, employees (organisational-economical) and civil society (social-political) of
all decision-making powers. Managerialism justifies the application of managerial
techniques to all areas of society on the grounds of superior ideology, expert training,
and the exclusive possession of managerial knowledge necessary to efficiently run
corporations and societies."
As the simpler yet already highly organised management
of Henri Fayol (1841-1925) and Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) mutated
into managerialism, managerialism became a full-fledged ideology under the
following formula:
Management + Ideology + Expansion = Managerialism
 Two examples of the extension of management into the
non-management domain – the not for profit sphere of human existence – are public
schools and universities. In both cases, managerialism occurs when public
institutions are run “as if” these were for-profit organization even though they remain
government institutions funded through state taxes. In these cases, the term new
public management has been used. But the ideology of managerialism can even
extend into more distant institutions such as, for example, a college of physicians.

 Integration of Professional and Voluntary Social Work in India

Social work is not a new thing in India. It has always been done, as
it is still as an act of friendship in ordinary course of duty by the priest, teacher, the
doctors and the lawyers. May it be professional social work or voluntary social work,
the basic foundation is help or service as clearly explicit in the social work discourse.
They closely associated with each other.
The history of professional social work in India is all about the
voluntary efforts made by the voluntary workers in the fields of social welfare
services sicne ages till date. In ancient India, the nature of social service was that of
religious charity. The earlier reference to charity is found in the oldest Hindu religious
scripture Rig Veda (chapter-I, XIII, 2) which encourages charity by saying, “May the
one who gives shine most”. The Upanishads like Brihadaranyaka, Chhandagya and
Taitiriya, prescribed that every householder must practice charity. In Mahabharat it is
found that in an interaction Bhisma talked to Yudhistir describing the essence of
eternal religion, non-violence, truth, the conquest of anger and practice of charity.
Likewise, there were many social work activities performed in ancient India.
Lord Beveridge, while speaking about voluntary action said,
“Voluntary action is that action which is not directed or controlled by the state in the
light of right”. He calls it a private enterprise for social progress. Thus, it is a private
action for public good. It is undertaken by an individual or a group of individuals
(association) who are not governed by any external control but by own instinct or
desire. The source of voluntarianism in India may be identified as religious practices,
philanthropy, material aids, missionary zeal of religious organizations, commitment of
the government to public interest, the profit making urge or business, the welfare by
the socially superiors and the motive of self-help among fellowmen are all reflected in
the voluntarianism. The other factors of voluntary work may be to obtain the social
prestige, recognition and experiences for personal gain.
Voluntary social work in India is greatly influenced by the
religious obligation manifested in the rituals and practices like arranging food for the
beggars, priests and destitute; donating for social service in the name of deceased
parents or other relatives etc. in this process it is seen that throughout the 18th century
poverty was dealt by traditional means like individual philanthropy and religious
charity. In 19th century voluntary services were manifested in some broad areas such
as:
Area of religious and spiritual tenets (the roots of social reform)
Area of customary practices and ritualistic social reform Area of new problems
and unmet needs that demanded solution and results of urbanization In the 19th
century many voluntary organization emerged in the social scenario of India and
spearheaded different social reform movement to fight against the then prevailing
harmful practices like sati, untouchability, gender discrimination, child marriage,
dowry system etc which all badly influenced the living condition of the majority of
people. Some significant among those voluntary organizations were Brahma Samaj,
Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Mission,
Mahmmedan Literacy Society, The Bombay Widow Remarriage Association, Bengal
Hindu Widow Association, Indian National Social Conference and The Servants of
India Society and so on.
The emergence of new and critical problem with advent of
industrialization, modernization, urbanization put tremendous pressure on the entire
social fabric of India. The traditional way of helping and reform approach of solving
social problem seemed to be impossible. The traditional social workers were clueless
about talking new problems. Nevertheless many successful and unsuccessful efforts
were being made to bring about solution to those problems.
In the year 1936 establishment of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate
School of Social Work gave a new impetus to the development of social work in India.
By the last decade of 20th century professional social work practice was felt in the
length and breadth of the country. Now, professional education and practice of social
work has entered into almost all the areas of human problems in our society. But the
enduring spirit of voluntarism and voluntary action against the social evils in our
country cannot be overlooked. In spite of some tangible conflict between the two, the
professional social work and voluntary social work go hand in hand. By and large,
voluntary social work is generated in a religious and cultural organization appealing
people to help the helpless. In a country like ours, where religion and culture have so
strong grounds, voluntary social work plays a very important role in inspiring people
for social work on religious and cultural grounds.
Hence integration of voluntary social work and Professional social
work is the need of the hour. The integration of the two manifests we-feeling, sense of
collective responsibility and scientific outlook of the workers engaged in welfare
activities in the similar fields. The combination of professionalism and voluntarism is
a joint venture in India to tackle social problems and a tendency to move away from
traditional ways of social and religious reform and movements. It is a new explicit
that many trained social workers are entering into the voluntary social work
organizations and are able to contribute a lot to enlarge and reserve the nature and
functions of various voluntary organizations that deal with curative, rehabilitative,
correctional, preventive and developmental and empowerment service. Synergistic
work attitude among and between voluntary and professional social workers can go a
long way to lead the society towards liberation from social problems.

Professional Associations for social workers: International,

National and Regional

 Professional Organizations of Social Work in India

Social work as profession is of recent origin in India. The 1936

marks the watershed in the history of professional social work training in India.
Professional education for social work in India was first started with the founding of
the Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work in Bombay in the year 1936.
Gradually, it has achieved all the essential characteristics of professional social work
with the global standard.
 Social workers in India organized themselves in a number of
organizations- some local, some regional and still few are of national character. The
best known professional organization of this country is the Indian Conference of
Social Work (ICSW) which was established in the year 1947. However, it is not a
professional organization in the sense that we use the term. It is dominated by
voluntary social workers who are from other than social work background and who
have not received professional training, hence lack the knowledge professional values,
principles, objectives, methods and challenges of social work profession. It has been
found that none of its presidents has ever been a trained social worker. Many of its
members reject the use of the term trained or professional social workers, because this
according to them will create an unnecessary wall between professional and voluntary
social workers. Yet, in regard to Indian Conference of Social Work it must be
admitted that if today a separate organization of professional social workers exists,
Indian Conference of Social Work legitimately will take some credit for its parental
contribution towards the formulation of the same. It has provided a unique forum to
social workers from all parts of the country to assemble into conference. The various
successful and non-successful attempts to build a professional association of social
workers in India in the years 1951, 1954, 9156, 1961 were made at the time of the
annual session of Indian Conference of Social Work.
The first systematic attempt to form an association of professional
social workers was made in 1951. By 1954, a constitution had been adopted by the
members. In 1956, at the Jaipur session of the ICSW, an executive committee of the
Association of Alumni of Schools of Social Work in India (AASSWI) was elected
with a President, a Secretary and a Cashier(treasurer) all belonging to New Delhi and
other six members belonging to the metros of India. By 1957, the association had
enrolled 131 members, but slowly the association became virtually larger until 8th
October, 1961, when it was formally reconstituted and given the present status of
Indian Association of the Alumni of Schools of Social Work (IAASSW). The
IAASSW is the representative of professional organization of professional social
workers in India.
The main objectives of the association are:
1. To work and contribute towards the growth of profession of social work.
2. To interpret the profession of social work to the community and to stimulate fresh
thinking among the workers.
3. To participate in the promotion of the social policy.
4. To assist in the promotion of training of professional workers in different levels in
the country.
5. To maintain the dignity and honour and to approve the interest and standard of
social work profession and to promote cooperation among the members.
6. To promote advance social welfare services in the country.

The Indian Association of Alumni of Schools of Social Work

is a registered body. It has its own chapters and contact groups in the major cities of
the country. It is affiliated to the International Federation of Social Workers. By
August 1963, it had enrolled 218 members. During its career after registration, it has
prepared and circulated a Memorandum on Children’s Bill to the members of the
parliament and also has submitted a Memorandum on Minimum Standards of Social
Work Education to the Association of Schools of Social Work in India. It is
collaborating with the National Citizen’s Council during emergency. The alumni
association also is planning to publish a “Directory of Trained Social Workers in
India”. “Social Work Reform”, a quarterly is published by the association since 1963
from Delhi.This journal is found to strengthen the association and the profession it
represents.
The Indian Association of Schools of Social Work represents
a new organization. It meticulously works on A to Z odds. It does not always race
from its members. It becomes more active and more contributing from the
cooperation it discovers from its members. It is found that its functional position is
not so convincing indeed, nevertheless the present traits it has achieved are somewhat
satisfactory. Association of Medical and Psychiatric Social Work also is giving some
inputs to for the growth and development of social work profession India. It is out of
the sincere effort of these organizations in India that the profession is gradually
heading towards the professionalization of Social work in India.
(Detailed Notes)

 A Professional Association
A professional association (also called a professional body,
professional organization, or professional society) is usually a nonprofit organization
seeking to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that
profession and the public interest. The roles of professional associations may vary in
different countries and have been variously defined: “A group of people in a learned
occupation who are entrusted with maintaining control or oversight of the legitimate
practice of the occupation;” also a body acting “to safeguard the public interest;”
organizations which “represent the interest of the professional practitioners,” and so
“act to maintain their own privileged and powerful position as a controlling body.”

The professional body may have a number of functions. They may:

• Set and assess professional examinations

• Provide support for Continuing Professional Development through learning
opportunities and tools for recording and planning
• Publish professional journals or magazines
• Provide networks for professionals to meet and discuss their field of expertise
• Issue a Code of Conduct to guide professional behaviour
• Deal with complaints against professionals and implement disciplinary
procedures
• Be enabling fairer access to the professions, so that people from all backgrounds
can become professionals.
• Provide career support and opportunities for students, graduates and people
already working.

The mission of the professional societies is primarily

educational and informational. Their influence flows from their continuing and highly
visible functions: to publish professional journals, to develop professional
excellence,to raise public awareness, and to make awards. Through their work, they
help to define and set standards for their professional fields and to promote high
standards of quality through awards and other forms of recognition. An active
professional association is a need for any profession. Growth of a profession has
many dimensions.
At one level it aims at the development of profession. This
has many components like improving knowledge, practicing existing knowledge,
testing of methods and tools in new areas, sharing of knowledge among the
practitioners, training, documentation, networking etc. At the same time, a
professional association needs to take care of the job security and other job related
issues of its professionals and intervene whenever necessary. A profession association
grow only when the practitioners consider association it as a part of the profession
itself.

 Associations for Professional Social Workers

Like any other profession, Associations for professional social

workers exist in all the countries where social work training is happening and social
work being treated as a profession. Looking worldwide, the important association for
professional social workers are:

• International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW)

• National Association of Social Workers (American)
• Australian Association of Social Workers
• British Association of Social Workers
• Institute of Medical Social Workers (British)
• Canadian Association of Social Workers

The International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) is a

global organisation initiated in 1928 at the first International Conference of Social
Work, held in Paris in 1928. This landmark gathering, attended by over 2400
delegates from 42 countries, also resulted in the establishment of two partner
organizations, The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW)and
the International Council on Social Welfare (ICSW).
 IFSWstrive for social justice, human rights and social
development through the promotion of social work, best practice models and the
facilitation of international cooperation. IFSW supports its 116 country members by
providing a global voice for the profession. IFSW has been granted Special
Consultative Status by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United
Nations and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). In addition, IFSW is
working with the World Health Organization (WHO), the Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). It carryout the operation in
five regions viz.Africa, Asia & Pacific, Europe, Latin America and North America.Ms.
Ruth Stark is the present global president of IFSW and Rory Truell is the
Secretary-General. It’s a need for every Social Work associations to get attached to
IFSW.
The International Association of Schools of Social Work
(IASSW) is the worldwide organization of schools of social work and educators. The
IASSW in collaboration with IFSW has adopted a revised Global Definition of Social
Work, a Declaration of Ethical Principles for Social Work and Global Standards for
Education and Training of the Social Work Profession. In 2012, IFSW, ICSW and
IASSW have committed to the Global Agenda for Social Work and Social
Development, a statement of policy priorities and agenda for action globally and
locally. This document guides the work of the association’s representatives with the
United Nations in New York and Geneva.
National Association of Social Workers (NASW) has a
community of over 132,000 members. NASW has the mission of enhancing its
members’ professional growth and advancing sound social advocacy policies.

 Professional Social Workers Association in Kerala& India

In India, there are many associations for professional social
workers in different regions and states. However India was not a member of IFSW till
2015. In accordance with the IFSW constitution, only one member per country
representing social work nationally can join the Federation. When there is more than
one professional association or organisation in a country, they need to form an
agreement to work together and democratically share their IFSW membership and
single vote. Difficulties in the past for India’s admission into IFSW included that
there have been multiple social work associations separated by geographical
challenges and the absence of single association that represent the whole country.
However, in 2015 six Indian professional associations met to form a new India wide
organisation’s network that created a new level of national social work unity and
paved the way for admission into IFSW. India was successfully admitted into full
IFSW membership on the application from The India Network of Professional Social
Work Association (INPSWA).

 The INPSWA members are:

• Indian Society of Professional Social Workers, founded in 1970.

• The National Association of Professional Social Workers, founded in 2014.
• The Karnataka Association of Professional Social Workers,founded in 1977.
• Kerala Association of Professional Social Workers, founded 2013.
• Professional Social Workers Association, founded 2004.
• Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers founded, in 1989.

INPSWA has the provision for including more state wise

associations to get affiliated to IFSW, since IFSW accept only one association as its
member from a country.
Kerala Association of Professional Social Workers (KAPS) was
formed in the year 2012 and registered in 2013. Since then the association has been
involved in efforts for the development of the profession. It has district chapters in all
the 14 districts of Kerala. KAPS is governed by State office bearers (President,
General Secretary, Tresurer, Vice President and Joint Secretary). It has a governing
body comprse of 14 elected members from all 14 districts of Kerala State and few
nominated members. State Management committee consists of President, Secreatary
and Tresurer from all 14 districts. Along with programs for development of social
work profession, KAPS has initiated three major programs for bringing the
Social Work fraternity and students together: (i) Social Work Students Congress
(ii) Observation of World Social Work Day (iii) Kerala Social Work
Practitioners Congress.