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Lecture Slides

Chapter 4

Deflection and Stiffness

The McGraw-Hill Companies © 2012

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Chapter Outline

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Stiffness

Describes the resistance of a structure to deformation in
response to an applied load.
◦ The inverse of stiffness is called compliance.

Axially-Loaded Stiffness

◦ k = F/d ,

Torsionally-Loaded Stiffness

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Deflection Due to Bending

Curvature of beam subjected to bending moment M

From mathematics, curvature of plane curve

Slope of beam at any point x along the length

If the slope is very small, the denominator of Eq. (4-9)

approaches unity.

Combining Eqs. (4-8) and (4-9), for beams with small slopes,

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Deflection Due to Bending

Recall Eqs. (3-3) and (3-4)

Successively differentiating

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Deflection Due to Bending
Fig. 4–2

(4-10)

(4-11)

(4-12)

(4-13)

(4-14)
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Example 4-1

(4-12)

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Beam Deflection Methods

Some of the more common methods for solving the integration

problem for beam deflection
◦ Superposition
◦ Moment-area method
◦ Singularity functions
◦ Numerical integration

Other methods that use alternate approaches

◦ Castigliano energy method
◦ Finite element software

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Beam Deflection by Superposition

Superposition determines the effects of each load separately,

then adds the results.

Separate parts are solved using any method for simple load
cases.

Conditions to use Superposition Method

◦ Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it.
◦ A load does not create a condition that affects the result of
another load.
◦ The deformations are not large enough to appreciably alter the
geometric relations of the parts of the structural system.

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Example 4-3

Fig. 4–4

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Strain Energy

External work done on elastic member in deforming it is

transformed into strain energy, or potential energy.

Strain energy equals product of average force and deflection.

Strain energy density is equal to the area under stress-strain

curve.

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Some Common Strain Energy Formulas

For axial loading, applying k = AE/l from Eq. (4-4),

For torsional loading, applying k = GJ/l from Eq. (4-7),

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Some Common Strain Energy Formulas

For direct shear loading,

For bending loading,

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Some Common Strain Energy Formulas

For transverse shear loading,

where C is a modifier dependent on the cross sectional shape.

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Summary of Common Strain Energy Formulas

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Example 4-8

Fig. 4–9

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Castigliano’s Theorem

When forces act on elastic systems subject to small

displacements, the displacement corresponding to any force, in
the direction of the force, is equal to the partial derivative of the
total strain energy with respect to that force.

For rotational displacement, in radians,

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Example 4-9

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Utilizing a Fictitious Force

Castigliano’s method can be used to find a deflection at a point

even if there is no force applied at that point.

Apply a fictitious force Q at the point, and in the direction, of
the desired deflection.

Set up the equation for total strain energy including the energy
due to Q.

Take the derivative of the total strain energy with respect to Q.

Once the derivative is taken, Q is no longer needed and can be
set to zero.

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Example 4-9(b)
Using Castigliano’s method and utilizing a fictitious force, derive an
expression for the mid deflection of the cantilever beam shown.

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Finding Deflection Without Finding Energy

For cases requiring integration of strain energy equations, it is

more efficient to obtain the deflection directly without explicitly
finding the strain energy.

The partial derivative is moved inside the integral.

For example, for bending,

Derivative can be taken before integration, simplifying the math.

Especially helpful with fictitious force Q, since it can be set to
zero after the derivative is taken.

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Common Deflection Equations

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Example 4-10

Fig. 4–10

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Another Example
Using Castigliano’s method, find the horizontal displacement of joint B.

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Procedure 1 for Statically Indeterminate Problems

1. Choose the redundant reaction(s)

2. Write the equations of static equilibrium for the remaining
reactions in terms of the applied loads and the redundant
reaction(s).
3. Write the deflection equation(s) for the point(s) at the locations
of the redundant reaction(s) in terms of the applied loads and
redundant reaction(s).
4. Solve equilibrium equations and deflection equations
simultaneously to determine the reactions.

Note: Procedure 2 will not be covered in this class, but you may
want to take a look at it.

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Example 4-14

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Compression Members

Column – A member loaded in compression such that either its

length or eccentric loading causes it to experience more than
pure compression

Four categories of columns

◦ Long columns with central loading
◦ Short columns with central loading
◦ Long columns with eccentric loading
◦ Short columns with eccentric loading

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Euler Column Formula

Internal moment: M = ‒ P y

Substituting into d2y/dx2=M/EI,

Solving with boundary conditions

y = 0 at x = 0 and at x = l

P
L  n  n  1, 2,⋯
EI

The smallest critical load is

(Euler buckling load)

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Solution of the differential equation

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Long Columns with Central Loading

When P reaches critical load,
column becomes unstable and
bending develops rapidly.

Critical load depends on end

conditions (Euler column
formula)

More conservative values of

C are often used.

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Comparison with Test Results

Using I = Ak2, where A is the area and k is the radius of gyration,

Euler column formula can be expressed as
(4-44)
C=1

l/k : slenderness ratio,

Pcr/A : critical unit load

Test results indicate that a parabolic

curve can be used before point T, and
Euler curve can be used after point T.
Point T is usually defined such that Pcr/A = Sy/2, giving

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Condition for Use of Euler Equation

For long columns, where (l/k) > (l/k)1,

◦ use Euler equation

For intermediate-length columns, where (l/k) ≤ (l/k)1,
◦ use a parabolic curve between Sy and T

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Short Columns with Central Loading

General form of parabola

Parabola starts at Sy, so a = Sy

Parabola is tangent to Euler curve

at T, so

Also known as J.B. Johnson formula

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Example 4-17

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Columns with Eccentric Loading

For eccentrically loaded column

with eccentricity e,
M = -P(e+y)

Substituting into d2y/dx2=M/EI,

Solving with boundary conditions

y = 0 at x = 0 and at x = l

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Columns with Eccentric Loading

At midspan where x = l/2

The maximum compressive stress includes

axial and bending

Substituting Mmax, we get

Using Syc as the maximum value of sc, and solving for P/A, we
obtain the secant column formula

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Secant Column Formula

Secant Column Formula

ec/k2 is the eccentricity ratio

Design charts of secant column formula for various eccentricity
ratio can be prepared for a given material strength

Fig. 4–21

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Short Columns Under Eccentric Loading

If eccentricity exists, maximum stress is at B

with axial compression and bending.

Notice that it is not a function of length

Differs from secant equation in that it assumes

small effect of bending deflection

If bending deflection is limited to 1 percent of e,
then from Eq. (4-44), the limiting slenderness
ratio for short columns under eccentric loading is
Fig. 4–22

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Example 4-20

Fig. 4–23

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